Question ID 3d658a5a

Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context

ID: 3d658a5a
Some foraging models predict that the distance bees travel when foraging will decline as floral density increases, but
biologists Shalene Jha and Claire Kremen showed that bees’ behavior is inconsistent with this prediction if flowers in dense
patches are ______: bees will forage beyond patches of low species richness to acquire multiple resource types.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. depleted

B. homogeneous

C. immature

D. dispersed

ID: 3d658a5a Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale
Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of Jha and Kremen’s finding about
bees’ foraging behavior. In this context, “homogeneous” means uniform or of the same kind. The text indicates that some
models predict that the distance that bees travel when they’re foraging declines as the density of flowers increases. The text
goes on to say, however, that Jha and Kremen identified a circumstance in which bees don’t behave this way. Specifically, if
bees encounter “patches of low species richness”—that is, patches in which the flowers are largely from the same species—
they’ll travel beyond those patches to get varied food resources. This context thus suggests that bees don’t behave as some
models predict if the dense patches of flowers the bees encounter are homogeneous.

Choice A is incorrect because the text indicates that Jha and Kremen found that bees will behave differently than some
models predict if the bees encounter flower patches that are not rich in species, not if the flowers are “depleted,” or emptied
or reduced in quality or quantity. Although it could be true that bees are likely to leave depleted patches in search of more
resources, the text doesn’t indicate that Jha and Kremen investigated that possibility. Choice C is incorrect because there’s
no information in the text suggesting that bees will not behave as some models predict if flowers in patches are “immature,”
or not fully developed. Instead, the text indicates that Jha and Kremen found that bees will behave contrary to some models’
predictions if the flower patches are not rich in species. Choice D is incorrect because the text indicates that bees’ behavior
will be inconsistent with the predictions of some models if the flower patches that the bees encounter are of low species
richness, not if the flowers are in patches that are “dispersed,” or widely scattered. Although the text does describe bees as
leaving patches that are not rich in species to forage elsewhere, there’s no suggestion that Jha and Kremen found that the
distance between dense flower patches affects whether the bees behave as some models predict.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e4f312c5
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context

ID: e4f312c5
While most animals are incapable of passing somatic mutations—genetic alterations that arise in an organism’s
nonreproductive cells—on to their offspring, elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) presents an intriguing ______: in a 2022 study,
researchers found that elkhorn coral produced offspring that inherited somatic mutations from a parent.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. hypothesis

B. affinity

C. anomaly

D. corroboration

ID: e4f312c5 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale
Choice C is the best answer. An "anomaly" is something that deviates from norms or expectations. In this case, the elkhorn
coral is an anomaly because it can pass on somatic mutations, whereas most other animals can’t.

Choice A is incorrect. A "hypothesis" is "a theory about something," but no theories are provided about elkhorn coral in this
text, just facts. Choice B is incorrect. "Affinity" represents "an inclination or liking toward something." As genetic mutations
tend to occur without any conscious effort, you can’t really have an inclination toward passing on somatic mutations. Choice
D is incorrect. "Corroboration" means "evidence to support or prove something." Because elkhorn coral do the opposite of
what most animals do, they do not provide corroboration of the theory that somatic mutations can’t be passed onto
offspring. Rather, they show the opposite.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID fce80a36
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context

ID: fce80a36
In 2008 a complete set of ancient pessoi (glass game pieces) was uncovered from beneath a paving stone in modern-day
Israel. Due to their small size, pessoi were easily misplaced, making a whole set a rare find. This has led some experts to
suggest that the set may have been buried intentionally; however, without clear evidence, archaeologists are left to ______
what happened.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. speculate about

B. dismiss

C. expand on

D. catalog

ID: fce80a36 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale
Choice A is the best answer. "Speculate" means "to form a theory or guess without any clear evidence." This makes sense
because, due to the lack of "clear evidence," the archaeologists can only guess how the pessoi set might have come to be
there.

Choice B is incorrect. "Dismiss" can mean "send away" or "treat as unworthy of consideration." The text implies that the
archaeologists are trying to figure out the truth—they wouldn’t "dismiss" what really happened. Choice C is incorrect. "Expand
on" means "give more details about," but there aren’t any details to give. Without any "clear evidence," the archaeologists can’t
give any more details. Choice D is incorrect. "Catalog" means "carefully record" or "make a list of." However, there’s no "clear
evidence," so there’s no real information to "catalog."

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID 8b46bb51
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context

ID: 8b46bb51
A journalist and well-respected art critic of nineteenth-century Britain, Lady Elizabeth Rigby Eastlake did not hesitate to
publish reviews that went against popular opinion. One of her most divisive works was an essay questioning the idea of
photography as an emerging medium for fine art: in the essay, Eastlake ______ that the value of photographs was
informational rather than creative.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. exposed

B. asserted

C. discovered

D. doubted

ID: 8b46bb51 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale
Choice B is the best answer. "Asserted" means "stated confidently." Eastlake "did not hesitate to publish reviews going
against popular opinion," so we can assume that she was confident in sharing her opinions.

Choice A is incorrect. "Exposed" means "made visible by uncovering" and, when talking about ideas, tends to be used in
relation to uncovering the truth. Eastlake was sharing an opinion, not uncovering a truth. Choice C is incorrect. "Discovered"
means "found," but Eastlake was writing an opinion essay. She was writing her own opinion, not "discovering" a new universal
truth. Choice D is incorrect. "Doubted" means "didn’t believe in." We’re told that Eastlake "questioned" the idea that
photography could be fine art. Placing "doubted" in the blank would actually suggest that Eastlake argued that photos were
valuable for creativity and not for information, which is the opposite of what we were told she believes.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID e8c26398
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context

ID: e8c26398
To develop a method for measuring snow depth with laser beams, NASA physicist Yongxiang Hu relied on ______; identifying
broad similarities between two seemingly different phenomena, Hu used information about how ants move inside colonies
to calculate how the particles of light that make up laser beams travel through snow.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. a collaboration

B. an accessory

C. a contradiction

D. an analogy

ID: e8c26398 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale
Choice D is the best answer. The text after the semicolon tells us that Hu "identif[ied] broad similarities between two
seemingly different phenomena," comparing ants with light particles. Since an analogy seeks similarities between seemingly
unrelated phenomena, this fits the context perfectly.

Choice A is incorrect. "A collaboration" refers to "an act of working with others," but what comes after the semicolon doesn’t
describe collaboration with other researchers. Instead, it shows a comparison between two different (but ultimately similar)
scientific phenomena. Choice B is incorrect. "An accessory" can refer to "something added to increase attractiveness or
usefulness." No accessories are described in this text. Choice C is incorrect. "A contradiction" means "a set of ideas or things
that are opposed to or inconsistent with each other." The text describes how Hu used the similarity between ant and light
particle movement to develop his method, so a word that refers to difference would not make sense here.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID f52cc78c
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text

Connections

ID: f52cc78c
Text 1
Polar bears sustain themselves primarily by hunting seals on the Arctic sea ice, but rising ocean temperatures are causing
the ice to diminish, raising concerns about polar bear population declines as these large predators’ seal-hunting habitats
continue to shrink. A 2020 study examining polar bear populations across the Arctic concluded that populations affected by
sea-ice loss are at great risk of extinction by the end of the twenty-first century.
Text 2
Monitoring carried out by researchers from the Norwegian Polar Institute shows that the polar bear population on the Arctic
archipelago of Svalbard remains stable and well nourished despite rapidly declining sea ice in recent years. The researchers
attribute this population’s resilience in part to a shift in feeding strategies: in addition to hunting seals, the Svalbard polar
bears have begun relying on a diet of reindeer meat and birds’ eggs.

Based on the texts, how would the researchers in Text 2 most likely respond to the conclusion presented in the underlined
portion of Text 1?

A. By noting that it neglects the possibility of some polar bear populations adapting to changes in their environment

By suggesting that it is likely incorrect about the rates at which warming ocean temperatures have caused sea ice to melt
B. in the Arctic

C. By asserting that it overlooks polar bear populations that have not yet been affected by loss of seal-hunting habitats

D. By arguing that it fails to account for polar bears’ reliance on a single seal-hunting strategy

ID: f52cc78c Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale
Choice A is the best answer. Text 2 describes how the Svalbard polar bears have adapted to the loss of sea ice by
diversifying their diet and feeding on reindeer and seabird eggs, resulting in a “stable and well nourished” population despite
environmental challenges. This counters the underlined claim that polar bears facing a loss of sea ice are at “great risk of
extinction” by the end of the century.

Choice B is incorrect. Text 2 does not challenge the fact that sea ice is rapidly declining in the Arctic due to warming ocean
temperatures. In fact, it states that the Svalbard polar bears have faced “rapidly declining sea ice in recent years.” Choice C is
incorrect. The claim in Text 1 is specific to polar bear populations affected by the loss of seal hunting habitats, so unaffected
populations are irrelevant to the claim. Also, Text 2 doesn’t mention any polar bear populations that haven’t yet been affected
by loss of seal hunting habitats. It focuses on a population that has been affected by sea-ice loss but has managed to
survive and thrive nevertheless. Choice D is incorrect. Text 2 doesn’t imply that polar bears rely on a single seal-hunting
strategy. In fact, the researcher in Text 2 would say that Text 1 fails to account for polar bears’ ability to develop other
hunting strategies and food sources.
Question Difficulty: Medium
Question ID de2c2f57
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text

Connections

ID: de2c2f57
Text 1
The fossil record suggests that mammoths went extinct around 11 thousand years (kyr) ago. In a 2021 study of
environmental DNA (eDNA)—genetic material shed into the environment by organisms—in the Arctic, Yucheng Wang and
colleagues found mammoth eDNA in sedimentary layers formed millennia later, around 4 kyr ago. To account for this
discrepancy, Joshua H. Miller and Carl Simpson proposed that arctic temperatures could preserve a mammoth carcass on
the surface, allowing it to leach DNA into the environment, for several thousand years.
Text 2
Wang and colleagues concede that eDNA contains DNA from both living organisms and carcasses, but for DNA to leach
from remains over several millennia requires that the remains be perpetually on the surface. Scavengers and weathering in
the Arctic, however, are likely to break down surface remains well before a thousand years have passed.

Which choice best describes how Text 1 and Text 2 relate to each other?

Text 1 discusses two approaches to studying mammoth extinction without advocating for either, whereas Text 2
A. advocates for one approach over the other.

Text 1 presents findings by Wang and colleagues and gives another research team’s attempt to explain those findings,
B. whereas Text 2 provides additional detail that calls that explanation into question.

Text 1 describes Wang and colleagues’ study and a critique of their methodology, whereas Text 2 offers additional details
C. showing that methodology to be sound.

Text 1 argues that new research has undermined the standard view of when mammoths went extinct, whereas Text 2
D. suggests a way to reconcile the standard view with that new research.

ID: de2c2f57 Answer

Correct Answer: B
Rationale
Choice B is the best answer. Text 1 introduces Wang and colleagues’ study and its surprising results, and then mentions
Miller and Simpson’s hypothesis as a possible way to explain them. Text 2, however, challenges Miller and Simpson’s
hypothesis by pointing out the difficulties of preserving mammoth carcasses on the surface for thousands of years:
“scavengers and weathering” are the additional details that complicate the Miller/Simpson hypothesis.

Choice A is incorrect. Neither text compares two different approaches for studying mammoth extinction. Text 1 describes
one study and one hypothesis pertaining to it. Text 2 critiques that hypothesis. Choice C is incorrect. Text 1 does not
describe a critique of Wang and colleagues’ methodology, but rather an interpretation of their results by Miller and Simpson.
Text 2 does not offer additional details showing that methodology to be sound, but rather casts doubt on the Miller/Simpson
explanation. Choice D is incorrect. Both components mentioned here (the new “undermining” research and the theory for
reconciling this discovery) are contained in Text 1. Text 2 then shows how the attempt to reconcile the standard view and
new research is flawed, and still fails to explain the discrepancy.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 27d9bb69
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text

Connections

ID: 27d9bb69
Text 1
Many studies in psychology have shown that people seek out information even when they know in advance that they have no
immediate use for it and that they won’t directly benefit from it. Such findings support the consensus view among
researchers of curiosity: namely, that curiosity is not instrumental but instead represents a drive to acquire information for its
own sake.
Text 2
While acknowledging that acquiring information is a powerful motivator, Rachit Dubey and colleagues ran an experiment to
test whether emphasizing the usefulness of scientific information could increase curiosity about it. They found that when
research involving rats and fruit flies was presented as having medical applications for humans, participants expressed
greater interest in learning about it than when the research was not presented as useful.

Based on the texts, how would Dubey and colleagues (Text 2) most likely respond to the consensus view discussed in Text
1?

A. By suggesting that curiosity may not be exclusively motivated by the desire to merely acquire information

By conceding that people may seek out information that serves no immediate purpose only because they think they can
B. use it later

C. By pointing out that it is challenging to determine when information-seeking serves no goal beyond acquiring information

D. By disputing the idea that curiosity can help explain apparently purposeless information-seeking behaviors

ID: 27d9bb69 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale
Choice A is the best answer. The researchers in Text 2 recognize that acquiring information is a powerful motivator, but
showed that this motivation can still be affected by other factors, like whether or not the information is expected to be useful
or not. This suggests that other desires may play a part in driving people to acquire information.

Choice B is incorrect. The consensus view in Text 1 is that people acquire information regardless of whether they think they
can use it later. Dubey and colleagues acknowledge this fact (so they don’t claim people seek out information “only” because
it might be useful later). Choice C is incorrect. This choice misreads the results of Dubey and colleagues’ study in Text 2.
Neither text discusses the difficulty of determining the motivation for information-seeking. Choice D is incorrect. This choice
contradicts Text 2, which starts with Dubey and colleagues “acknowledging that acquiring information is a powerful
motivator” (i.e., agreeing that curiosity explains the seeking of apparently purposeless information). The research in Text 2
simply suggests that more than just curiosity can motivate information-seeking behavior when the information has a
purpose.
Question Difficulty: Medium
Question ID 17bf10de
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text

Connections

ID: 17bf10de
Text 1
Despite its beautiful prose, The Guns of August, Barbara Tuchman’s 1962 analysis of the start of World War I, has certain
weaknesses as a work of history. It fails to address events in Eastern Europe just before the outbreak of hostilities, thereby
giving the impression that Germany was the war’s principal instigator. Had Tuchman consulted secondary works available to
her by scholars such as Luigi Albertini, she would not have neglected the influence of events in Eastern Europe on Germany’s
actions.
Text 2
Barbara Tuchman’s The Guns of August is an engrossing if dated introduction to World War I. Tuchman’s analysis of primary
documents is laudable, but her main thesis that European powers committed themselves to a catastrophic outcome by
refusing to deviate from military plans developed prior to the conflict is implausibly reductive.

Which choice best describes a difference in how the authors of Text 1 and Text 2 view Barbara Tuchman’s The Guns of
August?

The author of Text 1 argues that Tuchman should have relied more on the work of other historians, while the author of
A. Text 2 implies that Tuchman’s most interesting claims result from her original research.

The author of Text 1 believes that the scope of Tuchman’s research led her to an incorrect interpretation, while the author
B. of Text 2 believes that Tuchman’s central argument is overly simplistic.

The author of Text 1 asserts that the writing style of The Guns of August makes it worthwhile to read despite any
perceived deficiency in Tuchman’s research, while the author of Text 2 focuses exclusively on the weakness of Tuchman’s
C. interpretation of events.

The author of Text 1 claims that Tuchman would agree that World War I was largely due to events in Eastern Europe,
while the author of Text 2 maintains that Tuchman would say that Eastern European leaders were not committed to
D. military plans in the same way that other leaders were.

ID: 17bf10de Answer

Correct Answer: B
Rationale
Choice B is the best answer. Both texts are critical of The Guns of August, but for different reasons: the author of Text 1
argues that Tuchman missed an important factor leading up to the war because she didn’t consult secondary sources, and
the author of Text 2 argues that Tuchman’s main thesis is "reductive," which is a close synonym for "overly simplistic."

Choice A is incorrect. This doesn’t accurately describe the difference. This choice’s summary of Text 1 is accurate, but Text 2
never says that Tuchman’s most interesting claims result from her original research. Choice C is incorrect. This doesn’t
accurately describe the difference. Text 1 never says that The Guns of August is worthwhile to read despite its research
weaknesses. Text 2 does call out a weakness of Tuchman’s interpretation of events, but it also praises her analysis of
primary sources. Choice D is incorrect. This doesn’t accurately describe the difference. Text 1 actually says that Tuchman
"fails to address" the influence of events in Eastern Europe, while Text 2 says that Tuchman’s thesis was that European
powers (not Eastern European leaders) were committed to military plans.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 12d81fc1
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text

Connections

ID: 12d81fc1
Text 1
Because literacy in Nahuatl script, the writing system of the Aztec Empire, was lost after Spain invaded central Mexico in the
1500s, it is unclear exactly how meaning was encoded in the script’s symbols. Although many scholars had assumed that
the symbols signified entire words, linguist Alfonso Lacadena theorized in 2008 that they signified units of language smaller
than words: individual syllables.
Text 2
The growing consensus among scholars of Nahuatl script is that many of its symbols could signify either words or syllables,
depending on syntax and content at any given site within a text. For example, the symbol signifying the word huipil (blouse)
in some contexts could signify the syllable “pil” in others, as in the place name “Chipiltepec.” Thus, for the Aztecs, reading
required a determination of how such symbols functioned each time they appeared in a text.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely characterize Lacadena’s theory, as described in Text 1?

A. By praising the theory for recognizing that the script’s symbols could represent entire words

B. By arguing that the theory is overly influenced by the work of earlier scholars

C. By approving of the theory’s emphasis on how the script changed over time

D. By cautioning that the theory overlooks certain important aspects of how the script functioned

ID: 12d81fc1 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale
Choice D is the best answer. Lacadena’s theory is that Nahuatl script symbols signified syllables, but the consensus
described in Text 2 is that they can signify either symbols or full words, depending on the context. So the author of Text 2
would likely consider Lacadena’s theory too simplistic: it’s missing the importance of the context in determining the meaning
of a symbol.

Choice A is incorrect. This conflicts with Text 1’s description of Lacadena’s theory. Lacadena’s theory is that Nahuatl script
symbols signified syllables. Choice B is incorrect. This conflicts with Text 1’s description of Lacadena’s theory. Text 1 states
that Lacadena’s theory differed from what earlier scholars believed. Choice C is incorrect. We can’t infer that this is how the
author of Text 2 would characterize Lacadena’s theory. Neither text mentions how or even if the script changed over time.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID 9b01bcf4
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and
Purpose

ID: 9b01bcf4
The 1967 release of Harold Cruse’s book The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual isolated him from almost all other scholars and
activists of the American Civil Rights Movement—though many of those thinkers disagreed with each other, he nonetheless
found ways to disagree with them all. He thought that activists who believed that Black people such as himself should
culturally assimilate were naïve. But he also sharply criticized Black nationalists such as Marcus Garvey who wanted to
establish independent, self-contained Black economies and societies, even though Cruse himself identified as a Black
nationalist.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A. It describes a direction that Cruse felt the Civil Rights Movement ought to take.

B. It indicates that Cruse’s reputation as a persistent antagonist of other scholars is undeserved.

C. It describes a controversy that Cruse’s work caused within the Black nationalist movement.

D. It helps explain Cruse’s position with respect to the community of civil rights thinkers.

ID: 9b01bcf4 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale
Choice D is the best answer. The text as a whole claims that Cruse disagreed with virtually all other Civil Rights scholars and
activists. The underlined sentence describes one way that Cruse both did and didn’t fit in with those thinkers: he criticized
Black nationalists, even though he identified as one.

Choice A is incorrect. The underlined sentence doesn’t do this. It describes Cruse’s criticisms—it never mentions what Cruse
did want the movement to do instead. Choice B is incorrect. This conflicts with the text, which argues that Cruse did disagree
with almost all other scholars of the Civil Rights Movement. Choice C is incorrect. This is a step too far. The text never says
that Cruse’s work caused controversy within the Black nationalist movement.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f6352bd3
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and
Purpose

ID: f6352bd3
Many archaeologists assume that large-scale engineering projects in ancient societies required an elite class to plan and
direct the necessary labor. However, recent discoveries, such as the excavation of an ancient canal near the Gulf Coast of
Alabama, have complicated this picture. Using radiocarbon dating, a team of researchers concluded that the 1.39-kilometer-
long canal was most likely constructed between 576 and 650 CE by an Indigenous society that was relatively free of social
classes.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It describes a common view among archaeologists, then discusses a recent finding that challenges that view.

B. It outlines a method used in some archaeological fieldwork, then explains why an alternative method is superior to it.

It presents contradictory conclusions drawn by archaeologists, then evaluates a study that has apparently resolved that
C. contradiction.

D. It identifies a gap in scientific research, then presents a strategy used by some archaeologists to remedy that gap.

ID: f6352bd3 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale
Choice A is the best answer. The text starts by introducing a common view among archaeologists about the need for an elite
class to direct large-scale engineering projects. Then, it discusses the discovery of a large canal most likely built by a society
without an elite class, which challenges the first view.

Choice B is incorrect. Although the text discusses carbon dating as an archaeological method, it doesn’t compare it to any
other alternative methods. Choice C is incorrect. The study doesn’t resolve any contradictions—rather, it introduces a
contradiction to the one view presented at the beginning of the text. Choice D is incorrect. The text never identifies any gaps
in scientific research.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID b4d29611
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and
Purpose

ID: b4d29611
Michelene Pesantubbee, a historian and citizen of the Choctaw Nation, has identified a dilemma inherent to research on the
status of women in her tribe during the 1600s and 1700s: the primary sources from that era, travel narratives and other
accounts by male European colonizers, underestimate the degree of power conferred on Choctaw women by their traditional
roles in political, civic, and ceremonial life. Pesantubbee argues that the Choctaw oral tradition and findings from
archaeological sites in the tribe’s homeland supplement the written record by providing crucial insights into those roles.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

It details the shortcomings of certain historical sources, then argues that research should avoid those sources
A. altogether.

It describes a problem that arises in research on a particular topic, then sketches a historian’s approach to addressing
B. that problem.

C. It lists the advantages of a particular research method, then acknowledges a historian’s criticism of that method.

It characterizes a particular topic as especially challenging to research, then suggests a related topic for historians to
D. pursue instead.

ID: b4d29611 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale
Choice B is the best answer. The text begins by stating a problem with research on the status of Choctaw women in the
1600s and 1700s: written primary sources underestimate the power they had in their traditional roles. Then it presents one
historian’s solution: looking to oral tradition and archeological findings for more insight into these roles.

Choice A is incorrect. This isn’t the overall structure. The text never says that research should avoid written primary sources,
just that research should also use oral tradition and archeological sites as sources. Choice C is incorrect. This isn’t the
overall structure. The text never mentions the advantages of using written primary sources. Choice D is incorrect. This isn’t
the overall structure. The text never says that the status of Choctaw women during the 1600s and 1700s is too challenging
to research. And it doesn’t mention any other topics to research instead.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID 8bc66f89
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and
Purpose

ID: 8bc66f89
Part of the Atacama Desert in Peru has surprisingly rich plant life despite receiving almost no rainfall. Moisture from winter
fog sustains plants once they’re growing, but the soil’s tough crust makes it hard for seeds to germinate in the first place.
Local birds that dig nests in the ground seem to be of help: they churn the soil, exposing buried seeds to moisture and
nutrients. Indeed, in 2016 Cristina Rengifo Faiffer found that mounds of soil dug up by birds were far more fertile and
supported more seedlings than soil in undisturbed areas.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?

A. It elaborates on the idea that the top layer of Atacama Desert soil forms a tough crust.

B. It describes the process by which seeds are deposited into Atacama Desert soil.

C. It identifies the reason particular bird species dig nests in Atacama Desert soil.

D. It explains how certain birds promote seed germination in Atacama Desert soil.

ID: 8bc66f89 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale
Choice D is the best answer because it most accurately describes how the underlined portion functions in the text as a
whole. The first two sentences establish a natural phenomenon: there is a richness of plant life found in the Atacama Desert
despite the hard soil that makes it challenging for seeds to germinate. The next sentence, which contains the underlined
portion, offers a potential explanation for the phenomenon: local birds dig ground nests exposing seeds to moisture and
materials in the soil necessary for germination. The last sentence summarizes a study that compared the fertileness of
mounds of dirt dug up by birds to mounds that were undisturbed to support the explanation in the underlined portion. Thus,
the underlined portion mainly functions to explain how certain birds promote seed germination in the Atacama Desert soil.

Choice A is incorrect because the underlined portion doesn’t address the topic of the soil’s tough crust or its formation.
Instead, the text elaborates on the idea that local birds that build ground nests may help seeds germinate in the hard
soil. Choice B is incorrect because the underlined portion describes how some birds may support seed germination in
Atacama Desert soil but doesn’t describe how the seeds are deposited into the soil before germination begins. Choice C is
incorrect because neither the underlined portion nor the text as a whole identifies a reason that a particular bird species may
choose to dig ground nests in the Atacama Desert soil.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID db3ad406
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Expression of Ideas Rhetorical

Synthesis

ID: db3ad406
While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:
Stars form in a galaxy when gravity causes a massive cloud of dust and gas to collapse.
A galaxy in a phase of rapid star formation is called a starburst galaxy.
Quenching is a process in which a galaxy loses star-forming gas.
A galaxy that no longer forms stars is called a quenched galaxy.
A quenched galaxy has entered the poststarburst phase.

The student wants to explain what a quenched galaxy is. Which choice most effectively uses relevant information from the
notes to accomplish this goal?

A. Before quenching, a starburst galaxy will form stars at a rapid rate.

B. When it becomes quenched, a starburst galaxy enters the poststarburst phase.

C. Having entered the poststarburst phase, a quenched galaxy is one that no longer forms stars.

D. A starburst galaxy will lose star-forming gas and eventually become quenched.

ID: db3ad406 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale
Choice C is the best answer. This choice defines a quenched galaxy as “one that no longer forms stars.”

Choice A is incorrect. This choice only describes what happens before quenching. Choice B is incorrect. This choice only
describes what happens after quenching. Choice D is incorrect. This choice only describes what causes quenching.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 34e1124f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Expression of Ideas Rhetorical

Synthesis

ID: 34e1124f
While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:
In geology, an Aeolian landform is one that has been created by the wind.
In Greek mythology, Aeolus is the keeper of the winds.
Aeolian landforms are created when the wind erodes, transports, or deposits material.
A mushroom rock is a rock formation in which the top is wider than the base.
A mushroom rock can be formed when the wind erodes the base and the top at different rates.

The student wants to provide an explanation and an example of Aeolian landforms. Which choice most effectively uses
relevant information from the notes to accomplish this goal?

A. Aeolian landforms are created by different wind-based processes; for example, some are created by wind erosion.

Aeolian landforms—landforms created by the wind—include the mushroom rock, a rock formation in which the wind
B. erodes the base of the rock faster than the top.

Erosion, transportation, and deposition are three examples of how the wind can create Aeolian landforms and mushroom
C. rocks.

A mushroom rock is a rock formation that owes its shape to the wind, a natural force associated with Aeolus in Greek
D. mythology.

ID: 34e1124f Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale
Choice B is the best answer. The sentence provides an explanation and an example of Aeolian landforms, explaining that
they are landforms created by wind and offering the mushroom rock as an example.

Choice A is incorrect. The sentence explains that Aeolian landforms are created by wind but does not provide an example of
any specific Aeolian landforms. Rather, the example it provides is of a wind-based process. Choice C is incorrect. While the
sentence provides a partial explanation of Aeolian landforms, noting that they are created by the wind, it does not effectively
provide an example. The sentence seems to indicate that mushroom rocks, rather than being an example of Aeolian
landforms, are distinct from them. Choice D is incorrect. While the sentence provides an explanation of a mushroom rock,
which is a specific example of an Aeolian landform, it doesn’t provide an explanation of Aeolian landforms in general.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID 622a351d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Expression of Ideas Rhetorical

Synthesis

ID: 622a351d
While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:
In 1978, Sámi activists staged protests to block the construction of a dam on the Alta River in Norway.
The dam would disrupt Sámi fishing and reindeer herding.
The dam was ultimately built, but the Alta conflict had a lasting impact.
It brought international attention to the issue of Sámi rights.
It led to a set of 2005 legal protections establishing Sámi rights to lands, waters, and resources.

The student wants to make and support a generalization about the Alta conflict. Which choice most effectively uses relevant
information from the notes to accomplish this goal?

During the Alta conflict, Sámi activists staged protests to block the construction of a dam on the Alta River in Norway
A. that would disrupt local fishing and reindeer herding.

B. Although the dam that the Sámi activists had protested was ultimately built, the Alta conflict had a lasting impact.

Sámi rights to lands, waters, and resources received international attention and legal protections as a result of the Alta
C. conflict.

The Alta conflict had a lasting impact, resulting in international attention and legal protections for Sámi rights to lands,
D. waters, and resources.

ID: 622a351d Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale
Choice D is the best answer. It makes a generalization—the conflict had a lasting impact—and then supports it with evidence
—the attention and protections were results of the conflict.

Choice A is incorrect. This choice doesn’t make a generalization about the conflict. It describes a specific event from the
conflict. Choice B is incorrect. This choice makes a generalization about the Alta conflict, but doesn’t support it. Choice C is
incorrect. This choice makes a statement about the aftermath of the conflict, but doesn’t support it. The statement is also a
little too specific to be a generalization.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 5222ffab
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Expression of Ideas Rhetorical

Synthesis

ID: 5222ffab
While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:
Neuroscientists Krishnan Padmanabhan and Zhen Chen sought to better understand the workings of the brain’s
olfactory system.
They devised a study using mathematical models.
They found that certain fibers allow the brain to toggle from one method of processing smells to another.
In one method, cells in the piriform cortex (where the perception of odor forms) capture olfactory information at a
given moment.
In the other, the cells track changes in olfactory information over time.

The student wants to summarize the study’s findings. Which choice most effectively uses relevant information from the
notes to accomplish this goal?

To arrive at these findings, which describe dual methods of processing smells in the piriform cortex, Padmanabhan and
A. Chen devised a study using mathematical models.

Padmanabhan and Chen showed that olfactory information is captured by cells in the piriform cortex, where the
B. perception of odor forms.

Using mathematical models, Padmanabhan and Chen devised a study to better understand the workings of the brain’s
C. olfactory system.

According to Padmanabhan and Chen, the brain can toggle between capturing olfactory information at a given moment
D. and tracking changes in that information over time.

ID: 5222ffab Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale
Choice D is the best answer. The sentence effectively summarizes the study’s findings, explaining what Padmanabhan and
Chen found: that the brain can toggle between one method of processing smells (capturing information at a given moment)
and another (tracking changes in information over time).

Choice A is incorrect. While the sentence mentions findings, it mainly focuses on Padmanabhan and Chen’s methodology. It
doesn’t effectively summarize the study’s findings. Choice B is incorrect. The sentence notes a fact about the olfactory
system—that the perception of odor forms in the piriform cortex—but doesn’t summarize the findings of Padmanabhan and
Chen’s study. Choice C is incorrect. The sentence presents the goal of Padmanabhan and Chen’s study; it doesn’t summarize
the study’s findings.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 5b8b69a2
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Expression of Ideas Rhetorical

Synthesis

ID: 5b8b69a2
While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:
Archaeologist Jon Erlandson and colleagues argue that humans first arrived in the Americas by sea.
They propose that humans traveled between Pacific Ocean islands and coastlines from northeast Asia to the
Americas.
Many of these islands and coastal zones were later submerged as glaciers melted and sea levels rose.
The researchers think that “a coastal route, including kelp forests and estuaries, would have provided a rich mix of
marine, estuarine, riverine, and terrestrial resources” such as seaweeds, fish, and birds.
This proposed scenario is known as the kelp highway hypothesis.

The student wants to summarize the kelp highway hypothesis. Which choice most effectively uses relevant information from
the notes to accomplish this goal?

Pacific Ocean islands and coastlines likely contained “a rich mix of marine, estuarine, riverine, and terrestrial resources”
A. such as seaweeds, fish, and birds, according to researchers.

One argument about how humans first arrived in the Americas is the kelp highway hypothesis proposed by Jon Erlandson
B. and colleagues.

Humans may have first arrived in the Americas by sea, traveling between Pacific Ocean islands and coastlines and
C. subsisting on a variety of resources.

D. As glaciers melted and sea levels rose, many Pacific Ocean islands and coastal zones were submerged.

ID: 5b8b69a2 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale
Choice C is the best answer. This choice summarizes the main idea of the kelp highway hypothesis, providing a high-level
overview of how the hypothesis explains human migration to the Americas.

Choice A is incorrect. This choice describes one aspect of the proposed scenario but doesn’t discuss human migration,
which is the main focus of the kelp highway hypothesis. Choice B is incorrect. This choice introduces the kelp highway
hypothesis but doesn’t explain what it entails. Choice D is incorrect. This choice describes one element of the proposed
scenario but doesn’t discuss human migration, which is the main focus of the kelp highway hypothesis.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 109d5bbb
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries

Conventions

ID: 109d5bbb
With some 16,000 in attendance, the Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and ______ or FESTAC ‘77, as the event
was more commonly known—became the largest pan-African event on record. FESTAC drew people from around the world
to Lagos, Nigeria, for a monthlong celebration of Black and African art, scholarship, and activism.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. Culture:

B. Culture—

C. Culture,

D. Culture

ID: 109d5bbb Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale
Choice B is the best answer. The text uses a dash to introduce a nonessential element that explains the acronym FESTAC.
The dash matches the dash that comes after “known,” ending the descriptive aside.

Choice A is incorrect. A colon can only come after an independent clause, which isn’t the case here. Choice C is incorrect.
While punctuation is required to set off “or FESTAC…known” from the rest of the sentence, nonessential elements must be
separated from the sentence with matching punctuation. Since a dash appears on the other side of the element, we can’t use
a comma here. Choice D is incorrect. The descriptive aside “or FESTAC…known” is a nonessential element that must be
separated with punctuation from the rest of the sentence. This choice fails to add the necessary punctuation before the
nonessential element.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 6d4b2e1e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries

Conventions

ID: 6d4b2e1e
The 1977 play And the Soul Shall Dance depicts two Japanese American farming families in Depression-era Southern
California. Critics have noted the way pioneering ______ compares the experiences of issei (Japanese nationals who
emigrated to America) and nisei (their American-born children).

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. playwright, Wakako Yamauchi,

B. playwright, Wakako Yamauchi

C. playwright Wakako Yamauchi,

D. playwright Wakako Yamauchi

ID: 6d4b2e1e Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale
Choice D is the best answer. The convention being tested is the use of punctuation between titles and proper nouns. No
punctuation is needed to set off the proper noun "Wakako Yamauchi" from the title that describes Yamauchi, "pioneering
playwright." Because "Wakako Yamauchi" is essential information identifying the "pioneering playwright," no punctuation is
necessary.

Choice A is incorrect because no punctuation is needed before or after the proper noun "Wakako Yamauchi." Setting the
playwright’s name off with commas suggests that it could be removed without affecting the coherence of the sentence,
which isn’t the case. Choice B is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the title "pioneering playwright" and
the proper noun "Wakako Yamauchi." Choice C is incorrect because no punctuation is needed between the proper noun
"Wakako Yamauchi" and the verb "compares."

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a14eef71
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure,

Conventions and Sense

ID: a14eef71
In 2015, a team led by materials scientists Anirudha Sumant and Diana Berman succeeded in reducing the coefficient of
friction (COF) between two surfaces to the lowest possible level—superlubricity. A nearly frictionless (and, as its name
suggests, extremely slippery) state, ______

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. when their COF drops below 0.01, two surfaces reach superlubricity.

B. two surfaces, when their COF drops below 0.01, reach superlubricity.

C. reaching superlubricity occurs when two surfaces’ COF drops below 0.01.

D. superlubricity is reached when two surfaces’ COF drops below 0.01.

ID: a14eef71 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale
Choice D is the best answer. The subject of the modifier “a nearly frictionless state” is “superlubricity.” Subject-modifier
placement requires a modifier and its subject to be next to one another, so “superlubricity” must be the first word in the
missing clause.

Choice A is incorrect. This choice creates a subject-modifier placement error. The subject of the modifier “a nearly
frictionless state” is “superlubricity.” Subject-modifier placement requires a modifier and its subject to be next to one another,
so “superlubricity” must be the first word in the missing clause. Choice B is incorrect. This choice creates a subject-modifier
placement error. The subject of the modifier “a nearly frictionless state” is “superlubricity.” Subject-modifier placement
requires a modifier and its subject to be next to one another, so “superlubricity” must be the first word in the missing clause.
Choice C is incorrect. This choice creates a subject-modifier placement error. The subject of the modifier “a nearly
frictionless state” is “superlubricity.” Subject-modifier placement requires a modifier and its subject to be next to one another,
so “superlubricity” must be the first word in the missing clause.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID c101fc44
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries

Conventions

ID: c101fc44
How do scientists determine what foods were eaten by extinct hominins such as Neanderthals? In the past, researchers
were limited to studying the marks found on the fossilized teeth of skeletons, but in 2017 a team led by Laura Weyrich of the
Australian Centre for Ancient DNA tried something ______ the DNA found in Neanderthals’ fossilized dental plaque.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. new: sequencing

B. new; sequencing

C. new, sequencing:

D. new. Sequencing

ID: c101fc44 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale
Choice A is the best answer. “A team…tried something new” is an independent clause leading to an explanation of what the
new thing was. A colon can only be used at the end of an independent clause, and typically introduces further explanation
that expands upon the first clause, which makes a colon the perfect choice here.

Choice B is incorrect. This choice results in a punctuation error. “Sequencing…dental plaque” can’t stand on its own as a
sentence, and so it can’t be linked to the independent clause “a team…tried something new” with a semicolon. Only two
independent clauses can be connected in this way. Choice C is incorrect. This choice results in a punctuation error. If
“sequencing” is included in the first clause, it can no longer stand on its own as a complete idea. Since a colon can only
come at the end of an independent clause, using one in this way creates an error. Choice D is incorrect. This choice results in
a sentence fragment. “Sequencing…dental plaque” can’t stand on its own as a sentence.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID d46ac7e7
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure,

Conventions and Sense

ID: d46ac7e7
A second-generation Japanese American, Wataru Misaka ______ in World War II (1941-45) and won two amateur national
basketball championships at the University of Utah when he joined the New York Knicks for the 1947-48 season, becoming
the first non-white basketball player in the US’s top professional league.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. already served

B. was already serving

C. already serves

D. had already served

ID: d46ac7e7 Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale
Choice D is the best answer. Misaka served in World War II before he joined the New York Knicks in 1947. To show that a
past occurrence took place before another past occurrence, we need to use “had” + the past tense form of the verb. This is
called the past perfect tense.

Choice A is incorrect. Misaka served in World War II before he joined the Knicks. Both events are in the past, but his service
in World War II happened earlier, so we need a verb that makes it clear that his service (and the two national championships)
had ended by the time he joined the Knicks. Choice B is incorrect. “Was already serving” forms the continuous past tense,
which we use when we’re showing a past action that was ongoing. Misaka served in World War II before he joined the
Knicks. Both events are in the past, but they’re not happening at the same time, so we shouldn’t use the continuous past
tense here. Choice C is incorrect. Misaka served in World War II in the past, so we shouldn’t use the present tense “serves.”

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID fdb16e20
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries

Conventions

ID: fdb16e20
Quantum particles of light—photons—provide an unhackable means of transmitting encryption keys over networks, as
attempts to observe particles in quantum states will invariably alter the particles ______ dismantle any information they
transmit.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. and in the process,

B. and, in the process,

C. and in the process—

D. and, in the process

ID: fdb16e20 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale
Choice B is the best answer. This choice uses paired punctuation in the form of two commas to set off the nonessential
phrase "in the process."

Choice A is incorrect. The phrase "in the process" is a nonessential element and needs to be set off with paired punctuation.
We need a comma after "and" to match the one after "process." Choice C is incorrect. The phrase "in the process" is a
nonessential element and needs to be set off with paired punctuation, so we would need a dash after "and" to match the one
following "process." Choice D is incorrect. The phrase "in the process" is a nonessential element and needs to be set off with
paired punctuation. We would need a comma after "process" to match the one following "and."

Question Difficulty: Hard