TENSES (AT A GLANCE)

DEFINITION: - Actually a tense is a verb form which indicates a particular point in time or period of time
English has two tenses. The Present and the Past Tense, we can talk about future action with the help of the
Present Simple. The Present progressive or by using will or shall.
 ASPECTS: - Every tense has four aspects.
1. Simple
2. Progressive
3. Perfect
4. Perfect Progressive
 The Present Simple:-
 Singular sub-he/she/it/name.
 Rules Regarding ‘s/es’.
 If the verb ends in, ss, sh, ch, x, o z, add ‘es’ otherwise ‘s’.
Example: -
 Go + es = Goes
 Teach + es = Teaches
 Sing + s = Sings
 If the verb ends in ‘y’ add ‘s’ if vowel comes before ‘y’.
Example: -
 Play + s = Plays
 Buy + s = Buys
 Form: - {singular sub + V1 + e/es + ob}
 Alison sings a song.
 Form: - {plural sub + V1 + ob}
 They cook food.
 NEGATIVE: -
 {singular sub + does not + V1 + ob}
 {plural sub + do not + V1 + ob}
Example:-
 She never comes here.
 We never go to meet her father.
 Interrogative (Asking Question) Negative Yes/No type question starts with Do/Does. WH type question
starts with WH family.
 YES / NO TYPE QUESTION: -
 {Does + singular sub + V1 + ob}
 {Do + plural sub + V1 + ob}
Example: -
 Does your brother go to school?
 Do they run a race?
 WH type questions:- {WH + do/does + sub + V1 + sub?}
 When do you go to school?
 Where does she live?
 WHO: - Functions as a singular sub so it is not followed by do/does (Who + V1 + s/es + ob + ?)
Example: -
 Who teaches you?
 Who gives you this pen?
 Who disturbs your brother in school?
 {which + ob + do/does + s = V1}
 {whose + ob + do/does + s + V1}
Example: -
 Which novel does she read?
 Which book does your brother purchase from market?
 Whose does not know the name of Mahatma Gandhi?
 Why does she not go to school?
 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: - This tense is applied to indicate an action which is going on at the time
of speaking. Actually this tense is used for temporary action and near future.
 Form:- {He/She/It/Name + is + V1 + ing + ob}
 He is reading.
 {I + am + V1 + ing + ob}
 I am reading.
 {you/we/they + are + V1 + ing + ob}
 They are playing hockey.
 NEGATIVE: -
 {s + is/am/are + not V1 + ob}
Example: -
 She is not cooking food.
 I am not reading a novel now a days.
 They are not going to market.
 INTERROGATIVE/ WH FAMILY:-
 {Wh + (is/am + sub + V1 + ing + ob?}
 Is he writing an essay?
 Are you going to school?
 Where is she playing?
 Are they not coming from Agra?
 Stative verbs or non progressive verb are generally not used in present progressive tense as they indicate
fix activities.
 
Think, wonder, consider, ponder, understand, remember,
forget, feel, smell, taste, have, know, see, hear.
Example: -
 I think.
 I understand you.
 I feel that this table is hard.
 We have a car.
 For temporary action the above mention verbs can be used with ‘ing’.
Example: - I am having lunch is a temporary activities.
 PRESENT PERFECT: - This tense is applied to indicate an action which is finished just now.
 NOTE: - Do not use past time expression such as last week, in 2006 ten years ago etc. with this
tense.
 Form: - {He/she/It/Name + has + V3 + ob}
 Form: - {I/You/We/They + have + V3 + ob}
Example: -
 He has eaten food.
 They have composed a number of poems.
 NEVER SAY: - I have done my M.A. in 2006.
SAY: - I did my M.A. in 2006.
 NEGATIVE: -
 {S + has/have + not + V3 + ob}
Example: -
 She has not eaten food.
 They have not played hockey.
 INTERROGATIVE/ WH FAMILY: -
 {WH + (has/have + sub + V3 + ob)}
Example: -
 Has she eaten food?
 Have you played chess?
 Where has your brother gone?
 Has he not eaten food yet?
 BEEN TO: - to go somewhere and came back.
 Been is the third form of go here.
Example: -
 She has been to London.
 Have you ever been to America?
 N.B.: - Stative verbs are not used in present perfect progressive. So use them in Present Perfect.
Example: -
 I have known him for three years.
 We have loved each other since childhood.
 DON’ T SAY: - We have loved each other since childhood.
 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: - This time is applied to indicate an action, which starts in the
past and continuous while speaking or finished just now.
 Form: - {sing sub + has been + V1 + ing + ob + Since/for + Time}
 Form: - {plural sub + have been + V1 + ing + ob + Since/for + Time}
Example: -
 Mother has been cooking food for two hours.
 They have been singing since 2 O’ clock.
 USE OF SINCE /FOR: -
 Since is applied for point of time: -
Example: -
 Morning, Evening, Noon.
 Sunday, Monday, Tuesday.
 January, February.
 2003, 2007.
 2 O’ clock.
 Birth, Death, Childhood.
 FOR: - is applied for period of time.
Example: -
 For three days.
 For five years etc.
 NEGATIVE: - {S + has/have + not + been + V1 + ing + ob + Since/For + time}
Example: -
 She has not been watching T.V. for two hours.
 They have not been teaching here for five years.
 INTERROGATIVE/ WH FAMILY: -
 {WH +(has/have + sub + V1 + ing + ob + since/for + time?}
Example: -
 Has he been sitting here since 3 O’ clock?
 Who has been teaching you English for two years?
 How long have you been reading this novel?
 What has she been doing for a long time?
 Why has he not been learning French for several months?
 PAST INDEFINITE: -
 Structure: - {sub + V2 + ob)

Example: -
 He went to Meerut.
 I worked hard.
 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {sub + did + not + V1 + ob}
 He did not go to Meerut.
 {Sub + never + V2 + ob)
 I never saw him.
 I never told anything
 Interrogative: -
 Structure: - { Did + sub + V1 + ob}
 Did you go to school?
 Did you do your homework?
 WH FAMILY: -
 Structure: - {wh + did + sub + V1 + 0b}
 Why did you go to school?
 {who + V2 + sub + ob)
 Who taught you?
 PAST PERFECT: -
 Structure: - {I/ he/she/it/name + was + V1 + ing + ob}
 I was reading a book.
 Structure: - {you/we/they + were + V1 + ing + ob}
 They were going home.
 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure : - {sub + was/were + not + V1 + ing + ob}
 She was not eating food.
 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {was/ were + sub + V1 + ing + ob}
 Was she eating food?
 WH FAMILY: -
 Structure: - {wh + was/were + sub + V1 + ing + ob}
 Where were you going?
 When I went there, she was watching T.V.
 PAST PERFECT: -
Before
Part (A) Part (B)
 He had eaten food before you came.
 A{sub + had + V3 + ob) + before B(+ sub + V2 + ob}

 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure: -{sub + had + not + V3 + ob + before + sub + V2 + ob}
 He had not eaten food before you came.

 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {had + sub + V3 + ob + before + sub + V2 + ob?}
 Had he eaten food before you came?
 WH FAMILY: -
 Structure: - {wh +had + sub + V3 + ob + before + sub + V2 + ob}
 Where had he gone before you came?

After
Part (A) Part (B)
 Structure: - A {s + V2 + ob) + B (s + had +V3 + ob
 He ate food after you had come
 He did not eat food after you had come.
 FUTURE INDEFINITE: -
 Structure: - {s + will + V1 + ob}
 He will go to school.
 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {s + will + not +V1 + ob}
 He will not learn his lesson.
 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {will + s + V1 + ob}
 Will you eat food?
 WH FAMILY: -
 Structure: - {wh + will + s + V1 + ob}
 Where will you want to go?
 FUTURE PERFECT: -
 Structure: - {sub + will + be + V1 + ing + ob}
 He will be playing.
 He will be eating.
 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {sub + will + not +be + V1 + ing + ob}
 He will not be playing.
 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {will + sub+ be + V1 + ing + ob}
 Will they be going to Agra?
 WH FAMILY: -
 Structure: - {wh + will + sub + be + V1 + ing + ob}
 Where will he be going?
 FUTURE PERFECT: -
 Structure: - {sub + will + have + V3 + ob}
 He will have written a letter.
 They will have gone to market.
 NEGATIVE: -
  Structure: - {sub + will + not +have + V3 + ob}
 They will not have eaten food.
 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {will + sub + have + V3 + ob}
 Will he have done his homework?
 WH FAMILY: -
 Structure: - {wh + will + sub + have + V3 + ob}
 Where will they have gone?

Before
Part (A) Part (B)
 He will have written a letter before Ram comes.
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
 Since is not use with this tense.
 Since is replaced by ‘by the’
 Structure: - {Sub + will have + been + V1 + ing + ob + by the + for/since + time}.
Example: -
 He will have been playing by the morning.
 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {Sub + will + not + have +been + V1 + ing + ob + by the + for/since + time}.
Example: -
 He will not have been playing for two hours
 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {will + sub + have + been + V1 + ing + ob + by the + for/since + time}.
Example: -
 Will he have been reading by the morning?
 WH FAMILY: -
 Structure: - {wh + will + sub + have + been + V1 + ing + ob + by the + for/since + time}.
Example: - Where will they have been playing for two hours?
PASSIVE VOICES
Definition Passive Voice:- Verb form such as was given, were taken had been made, where the subject is the
person or the thing that is affected by the action.
 Rules Regarding Active Voice into Passive Voice.
 GENERAL RULES: -
 Change the subject into object.
 Change the object into subject.

As –
Subject Object
 I Me
We Us
You You
He Him
She Her
It It
They Them

Subject
Object
Subject

 Always use {V3) in Passive Voice after {H.V.).

 PRESENT INDEFINITE:-
Active Voice: - Subject Verb Object
Helena Sings a sweet song.
{object + is/am/are + V3 + by + S (Ob)}
Passive Voice: - A sweet song + is + sung + by + Helena
 Some More Example: -
Active Voice: - She cooks food.
Passive Voice: - Food is cooked by her.
Active Voice: - Anshu calls her mother.
Passive Voice: - Her mother is called by Anshu.
 Double Objects: -
Active Voice: - She gives me a book.
Passive Voice: - I am given a book by her.
Or
A book is given me by her.
Active Voice: - Lizy buys baby a doll.
Passive Voice: - Baby is bought a doll by Lizy.
Or
A doll is bought for baby by Lizy.
 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure:- {Ob + is/am/are + not + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - She does not play chess.
Passive Voice: - Chess is not played by her.
Active Voice: - He never composes poems.
Passive Voice: - Poems are never composed by him

 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure:- {is/am/are + ob + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Does she sing a song?
Passive Voice: - Is a song sung by her?
Active Voice: - Do you buy a car?
Passive Voice: - Is a car bought by you?
 WH FAMILY: -
 Structure: - {WH + is/am/are + Ob + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Which book do you read?
Passive Voice: - Which book is read by you?
Active Voice: - When does Alison cook food?
Passive Voice: - When is food cooked by Alison?
Active Voice: - Who sings a song?
{By whom + is/am/are + ob + V3}
Passive Voice: - By whom is a song sung?
PAST INDEFINITE:-
 Structure:- {ob + was/were + V3 + by + s(0b)}
Active Voice: - She composed a poem.
Passive Voice: - A poem was composed by her.
Active Voice: - Nidhi called him.
Passive Voice: - He was called by Nidhi.
 Double Object: -
Active Voice: - She gave me a novel.
Passive Voice: - I was given a novel by her.
Or
A novel was given me by her.
 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {ob + was/were + not + V3 + by + S (0b)}
Active Voice: - She did not cook food.
Passive Voice: - food was not cooked by her.
Active Voice: - Ram never called him.
Passive Voice: - He was never called by Ram.
 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {was/were + ob + V3 + by + S (0b)}
Active Voice: - Did he play chess?
Passive Voice: - Was chess played by him?
 WH FAMILY:-
 Structure: - {WH + was/were + ob + V3 + by + S (0b)}
Active Voice: - Which novel did she read?
Passive Voice: - Which novel was read by her?
Active Voice: - Who wrote the Ramayana?
{By whom + was/were + ob +V3}
Passive Voice: - By whom was the Ramayana written?
 FUTURE INDEFINITE/MODALS
Active Voice: - {S + Modal + V1 + Ob}
Passive Voice: - {Ob + Modal + be + V3 + by + S (0b)}
Active Voice: - She will cook food.
Passive Voice: - Food will be cooked by her.
Active Voice: - They can solve this question.
Passive Voice: - This question can be solved by them.
Active Voice: - Mother has to cook food.
Passive Voice: - Food has to be cooked by mother.
Active Voice: - I am to write a letter.
Passive Voice: - A letter is to be written by me.
Active Voice: - Deepak could do this work.
Passive Voice: - This work could be done by Deepak.
Active Voice: - I will buy a new car.
Passive Voice: - A new car will be bought by me.
 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {ob + Modal + not + be + V3 + by + S (0b)}
Active Voice: - She cannot play hockey.
Passive Voice: - Hockey cannot be played by her.
Active Voice: - She will never read this book.
Passive Voice: - This book will never be read by her.
 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {Modal + ob + be + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Will you cook food?
Passive Voice: - Will food be cooked by you?
 WH FAMILY: -
 Structure: - {WH + Modal + ob + be + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - When will she write a letter?
Passive Voice: - When will a letter be written by her?
Active Voice: - Who can solve this question?
{By whom + Modal + ob + be + V3}
Passive Voice: - By whom can this question be solved?
Active Voice: - Who will read this book?
Passive Voice: - By whom will this book be read?
PRESENT CONTINUOUS:-
 Structure: - {ob + is/am/are + being + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Ram is writing an application.
Passive Voice: - An application is being written by Ram.
Active Voice: - Mohan is composing a number of songs.
Passive Voice: - A number of songs are being composed by Mohan.
  NEGATIVE:-
 Structure:- {ob + is/am/are + not + being + V3 + by + S (ob)
Active Voice: - She is not cooking food.
Passive Voice: - Food is not being cooked by her.
Active Voice: - They are not buying a new car.
Passive Voice: - A new car is not being bought by them.
 INTERROGATIVE:-
 Structure: - {is/am/are + ob + being + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Is she cooking food?
Passive Voice: - Is food being cooked by her?
 WH FAMILY:-
 Structure: - {WH + is/am/are + ob + being + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Which book are you reading?
Passive Voice: - Which book is being read by you?
Active Voice: - Who is teaching you?
Passive Voice: - By whom are you being taught?
PAST CONTINUOUS: -
 Structure: - {ob + was/were + being + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - He was playing chess.
Passive Voice: - Chess was being played by him.
Active Voice: - I was watering the plant.
Passive Voice: - The plants were being watered by me.
 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {ob + was/were + not+ being + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - They were not ringing the bell.
Passive Voice: - The bell was not being rung by them.
Active Voice: - She was not knitting a sweater.
Passive Voice: - A sweater was not being knitted by her.
 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {was/were + ob + being + V3 + by + s (ob)}
Active Voice: - Was he composing a poem?
Passive Voice: - Was a poem being composed by him?
Active Voice: - Were you teaching him English?
Passive Voice: - Was he being taught English by You?
Or
Was English being taught being by him?
 WH FAMILY: -
 Structure: - {WH + was/were + ob + being + V3 + by + s (ob)}
Active Voice: - Who was playing chess?
Passive Voice: - By whom was chess being played?
 FUTURE CONTINUOUS:- There is no Passive Voice of future of future continuous.
  PRESENT PERFECT: -
 Structure: - {ob + has/have + been + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - He has killed a bird.
Passive Voice: - A bird has been killed by him.
Active Voice: - They have sung a sweet a song.
Passive Voice: - A sweet song has been sung by them.
Active Voice: - She has given me a pen.
Passive Voice: - I have been given a pen by her.
Or
A pen has been given me by her.
 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {ob + has/have/ + been + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Ram has not bought a car.
Passive Voice: - A car has not been bought by Ram.
Active Voice: - I have never seen him.
Passive Voice: - He has never seen by me.
 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {has/have + ob + been + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Has he written a book?
Passive Voice: - Has a book written by him?
 WH FAMILY:-
 Structure: - {WH + has/have + ob + been + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Who has taught you?
Passive Voice: - By whom have you been taught?
 PAST PERFECT: -
 Structure: - {Ob + had been + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - He had played hockey.
Passive Voice: - Hockey had been played by him.
Active Voice: - Mother had cooked food.
Passive Voice: - Food had been cooked by mother.
 NEGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {ob + had not + been + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - He had not played chess.
Passive Voice: - Chess had not been played by him.
Active Voice: - She had not written an essay.
Passive Voice: - An essay had not been written by him.
 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {had + ob + been + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Had he sung a sweet song?
Passive Voice: - Had a sweet song been sing by him?
 WH FAMILY: -
  Structure: - {WH + had + ob + been + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Who had solved that question?
Passive Voice: - By whom had that question been solved?
 FUTURE PERFECT:-
 Structure: - {ob + Modal + have + been V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - He will have written a book.
Passive Voice: - A book will have been written by him.
Active Voice: - She could have sung a sweet song.
Passive Voice: - A sweet song could have been sung by her.
 NEGATIVE:-
 Structure: - {ob + Modal + not + have been + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - He will not have written a letter.
Passive Voice: - A letter will not have been written by him.
Active Voice: - They could not have solved this sum.
Passive Voice: - This sum could not have been solved by them.
 INTERROGATIVE: -
 Structure: - {Modal + ob + have been + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Will you have eaten food?
Passive Voice: - Will food have been eaten by you?
 WH FAMILY: -
 Structure: - {WH + Modal + ob + have been + V3 + by + S (ob)}
Active Voice: - Who could have given you this book?
Passive Voice: - By whom could you have been given this book?
Or
By whom could this book have been given you?
PASSIVE VOICE OF IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
 IMPERATIVE SENTENCE:-
 INDICATES: -
1. Order
2. Advice
3. Request
 {From: - V1 + object}
 Open the window (Order).
 Please open the window (Request).
 Take this medicine (Advice).
 NOTE: - In imperative sentence sub ‘You’ is understood.
Active Voice: - Open the window.
{Let + ob + be + V3}
Passive Voice: - Let the window be opened.
Active Voice: - Bring a glass of water.
Passive Voice: - Let a glass of water be brought.
  REQUEST: -
 Please/kindly is replaced by you are requested to.
Example:-
Active Voice: - Please open the window.
Passive Voice: - You are requested to open the window
Active Voice: - Please bring a cup of tea.
Passive Voice: - You are requested to bring a cup of tea.
Active Voice: - Kindly sing a sweet song.
Passive Voice: - You are requested to sing a sweet song.
Active Voice: - Please do not open the box.
Passive Voice: - you are requested not to open the box.
Active Voice: - Go there.
Passive Voice: - You are ordered to go there.
 ADVICE:-
Active Voice: - Take this medicine.
{ob + should + be + V3}
Passive Voice: - This medicine should be taken.
Active Voice: - Love you country.
Passive Voice: - Your country should be loved.
 PASSIVE VOICE OF LET/ LET US: -
Active Voice: - Let me write a letter.
Passive Voice: - Let a letter be written by me.
Active Voice: - He let me go.
Passive Voice: - I was let to go.
Active Voice: - Let us play hockey.
{Let us: - it is suggested that we should + V1 + ob}
Passive Voice: - It is suggested that we should sing a sweet song.
 PASSIVE VOICE OF CAUSATIVE VERBS:-
Active Voice: - I made him laugh.
{ob + Hv + made + to + V1}
Passive Voice: - He was made to laugh.
Active Voice: - She makes the children weep.
Passive Voice: - The children are made to weep by her.
Active Voice: - He will make the horse run.
Passive Voice: - The horse will be made to run by him.
 Some special rules regarding Passive Voice: -
 Please read all the Examples and structures between the lines (Carefully).
 RULES – (1): -
 If noun, adjective, V1 + ing is given after (ob) in active statement.
 Put noun, adjective, V1 + ing after + V3.
 Read the following Examples.
Active Voice: - Ram made him captain.
Passive Voice: - He was made captain by Ram.
Active Voice: - Chirag painted the box green.
Passive Voice: - The box was painted green by Chirag.
Active Voice: - They found the storm approaching.
Passive Voice: - The storm was found approaching by them.
Active Voice: - Someone sees him cooking.
Passive Voice: - He is seen cooking.
 RULE – (2): -
Active Voice: - It is time to open the window.
{it is time/it was time + for + ob + to + be + V3}
Passive Voice: - It is time for the window to be opened.
Active Voice: - It is time to sing a sweet song.
Passive Voice: - It was time for a sweet song to be sung.
 RULE – (3): -
Active Voice: - There was no food to eat.
{………………….. to + be + V3}
Passive Voice: - There was no food to be eaten.
Active Voice: - We have no work to do.
Passive Voice: - We have no work to be done.
 RULE – (4): - (Dummy it)- Some sentences start with people think, people believe, they consider, the
understood, they thought etc. in these types of sentences (sub + V1)/ (sub + V2) is replaced by it is +
V3/it was + V3 respectively.
Example:-
Active Voice: - People believed that early man used to walk bare foot in the forest.
Passive Voice: - It was believed that early man used to walk bare foot in the forest.
Active Voice: - They think that the officers are corrupt.
Passive Voice: - It is thought that the officers are corrupt
Active Voice: - People understand that no one speaks during the time of private prayer.
Passive Voice: - It is understood that no one speaks during the time of private prayer.
 RULE – (5): - When preposition is given after verbs such as – look after, look into, keep the
preposition as it is.
Active Voice: - He looked after his parents.
Passive Voice: - His parents were looked after by him.
Active Voice: - You should look into this matter.
Passive Voice: - This matter should be looked into by you.
 RULE – (6): - Passive Voice of Infinitive Verb.
Active Voice: - You will have to do it.
{ob + to + be + V3)
Passive Voice: - It will have to be done.
 RULE – (7): - Which changing the infinitive to Passive Voice, the main verb is not changed.
Active Voice: - I expect to bring her round.
Passive Voice: - it is expected to bring her round.
 RULE – (8): - Passive Voice where by is not used.
 The following are the verbs that are not followed by ‘by’ rather take another preposition.
Verb Preposition
Known To
Contained In
Lined With
Covered With
Interested In
Pleased With
Satisfied With
Astonished At
Married To
Charged With
Vexed At
Alarmed At
Shocked At
 Now read the following Examples between the lines.
Active Voice: - I know Jane Austin.
Passive Voice: - Jane Austin is known to me
Active Voice: - My father’s death shocked me.
Passive Voice: - I was shocked at my father’s death.
Active Voice: - I cannot please you.
Passive Voice: - You cannot be pleased with me.
Active Voice: - He married Radha.
Passive Voice: - Radha was married with him.
Active Voice: - They lined the road.
Passive Voice: - The road was lined with them.
Active Voice: - The snow covered the houses.
Passive Voice: - The houses were covered with snow.
PASSIVE VOICE OF COMPOUND SENTENCES
Active Voice: - They looted the house and took away the things.
Passive Voice: - The house was looted and the things were taken away.
Active Voice: - Mohan wrote a letter and posted it.
Passive Voice: - A letter was written and posted.
Or
A letter was written and it was posted.
PASSIVE VOICE OF SMELL, TASTE, FEEL
 Actually some verbs posses a passive meaning but they retain the active form they are changed into
passive by changing their adjective component.
Active Voice: - Sugar tastes sweet.
Passive Voice: - Sugar is sweet when it is tasted.
Active Voice: - This fabric feels good.
Passive Voice: - This fabric is good when it is felt.
Active Voice: - Roses smell sweet.
Passive Voice: - Roses are sweet when they are smelt.
 Some difficult solved Examples of Passive Voice and Vice – Versa.
Active Voice: - I know you and him.
Passive Voice: - You and he are known to me.
Active Voice: - Someone has paid the electrician.
Passive Voice: - The electrician has been paid.
Active Voice: - A letter is written.
Passive Voice: - Someone has written a letter.
Active Voice: - Our task had been completed before sunset.
Passive Voice: - We had completed our task before sunset.
Active Voice: - The boy laughed at the beggar.
Passive Voice: - The beggar was laughed at by the boy.
Active Voice: - The government has launched a massive tribal welfare programme in Jharkhand.
Passive Voice: - A massive tribal welfare programme has been launched by the Government in Jharkhand.
Active Voice: - They drew a circle in the morning.
Passive Voice: - A circle was drawn by them in the morning.
Active Voice: - It is impossible to do this.
Passive Voice: - This cannot be done.
Active Voice: - One must take care of all living species on earth.
Passive Voice: - All living species on earth must be taken care of by us.
Active Voice: - Has anybody answered your question?
Passive Voice: - Has your question been answered?
Active Voice: - A lion does not eat grass, however hungry he may be.
Passive Voice: - Grass is not eaten by a lion, however hungry he may be.
Active Voice: - Surely the lost child must have been found by now.
Passive Voice: - Surely someone must have found the lost child by now.
Active Voice: - The Greeks expected to win the international trophy.
Passive Voice: - It was expected by the Greeks that they would win the international trophy.
Active Voice: - They have sent for a doctor.
Passive Voice: - A doctor has been sent for by them.
Active Voice: - He wants to eat food.
Passive Voice: - He wants food to be eaten.
Active Voice: - One must keeps one’s promise.
Passive Voice: - Promise should be kept.
Or
Promise must be kept.
Active Voice: - Helena was writing a letter to her mother.
Passive Voice: - A letter was being written to her mother by Helena.
 EXERCISE FOR PRACTICE: -
Change the following sentences into Passive Voice.
1. You must look into this matter.
2. I know him.
3. Someone gave her a bulldog.
4. We made Neha monitor.
5. Darjeeling grows tea.
6. I want to learn English.
7. Who taught you sentences?
8. Do you play hockey?
9. Someone reads to the old lady every evening.
10. She promised him a book.
11. People will show the visitors the new buildings.
12. It is time they brought the cows in.
13. They told me to go away.
14. Nobody has answered by question.
15. His friends gave him a cake for his birthday.
16. Anshu has split tea all over the table cloth.
17. An unseen hand opens the window.
18. She asked the student a very difficult question.
19. The teacher will read you another chapter next time.
20. A huge wave overturned the little boat.
21. Kindly solve this question.
22. I was learning phonetics and Phonology.
23. Dr. Chandan Mohan taught me Linguistics.
24. When will you return my book?
25. The doctor advised me not to smoke.

NARRATION
DEFINITION: - The art of reporting the words of a speaker is termed as narration or reported speech.

(‘V’)
“ “ “ “

Reporting Speech Reported Speech

(V) Reporting Verb
Example: - Ram said to me? “He was reading.
Ram said to me - Reporting speech.
Said - Reporting Verb
He was reading - Reported speech
 Rules regarding Indirect speech: -
 Remove inverted commas.
 Use conjunction.
 RULE-1: - If the reporting verb in the present or future tense, there will be change into the tense of
reported speech.
Example: -
 Heera says, “She is cooking food.”
He says that she is cooking food.
 Mohan says to me, “They can go home.”
Mohan tells me that they can go home.

Says - Says
Says to - Tells
Say - Say
Say to - Tell
Said to - Told
Example: -
Direct Speech: - He has said, “Deepak was reading a novel.”
Indirect Speech: - He has said that Deepak was reading a novel.
Direct Speech: - She will say, “They have gone out.”
Indirect Speech: - He will say that they have gone out.
Direct Speech: - Ravi says to me, “Meera was reading.”
Indirect Speech: - Ram tells me that Meera was reading.
 Rule – 2: - if the reporting verb is in the past, these tense will be the following changes into the tense of
reported speech
 

Present Indefinite Past Indefinite

Example: -
Direct Speech: - He said to me, “Deepak goes to school.”
Indirect Speech: - He told me that Deepak went to school.”


Present Continuous Past Continuous

Example: -
Direct Speech: - She said to Mohan, “Rohan is reading.”
Indirect Speech: - She told Mohan that Rohan was reading.


Present Perfect Past Perfect

Example: -
Direct Speech: - Neha said, “He has composed a poem.”
Indirect Speech: - Neha said that he had composed a poem.

Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

Example: -
Direct Speech: - She said to me, “Mother has been cooking food since morning.”
Indirect Speech: - She told me that Mother had been cooking food since morning.


Past Indefinite Past perfect

Direct Speech: - He said to me, “She wrote a letter.”

Indirect Speech: - He told me that she had written a letter.


Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

Direct Speech: - She said to me, “She was reading a novel.”
Indirect Speech: - She told me that she had been reading a novel.


Past Perfect/Past Perfect Continuous No Change

Example: -
Direct Speech: - He said, “She had gone.”
Indirect Speech: - He said that she had gone.
Direct Speech: - Ram said to me, “They had been reading.”
Indirect Speech: - Ram told me that they had been reading.
 Change In Reported Speech: -
Nominative Possessive Objective Reflexive
Pronouns Pronouns/Adjective Pronouns Pronouns
I My/Mine Me Myself
We Our Us Ourselves
You Your/Yours You Yourself,
Yourselves
She Her/Hers Her Herself
They Their/Theirs Them Themselves

Direct Changes into Indirect

Today “ “ That day

Tomorrow “ “ The next day
Yesterday “ “ The previous day
Last night “ “ The previous night
Next week “ “ The following week
Tonight “ “ That night
This “ “ That
These “ “ Those
Here “ “ There
Now “ “ Then
Ago “ “ Before
Thus “ “ So
Hence, hereby “ “ Thence, thereby
Hither “ “ Thither
Last week “ “ The previous week
Will/shall “ “ Would
May “ “ Might
Can “ “ Could
Just “ “ then
Come “ “ Go

 NOTE: - Could, might, should, would will remain unchanged.

 Pronoun Change: -

S O N
1 2 3

 First person is changed according to the subject of Reporting Speech keeping in view – (Case –Gender).
 1st Person: -
Direct Speech: - Ram Said, “I am reading.”
Indirect Speech: - Ram said that he was reading.

 2nd Person; -

Direct Speech: - He said to me, “You can do this work.”

Indirect Speech: - He told me that I could do that work.

 3rd Person: - No change in the third person.

 Interrogative/ Yes/No type narration.

 Rule -1: -

Change said/ said to - Asked

Enquired

Wanted to know

Interrogative

 Conjunction: - If or Whether.

 Make the reported speech Assertive (Simple/Negative)

Direct Speech: - Ram said to me, “Are you reading.”

Indirect Speech: - Ram asked me if I was reading.

Direct Speech: - She said, “Does she cook food.”

Indirect Speech: - She asked if she cooked food.

INTERROGATIVE
 Yes/No Type WH Type

Starts With H.V Starts With WH Family

 WH family narration: - No conjunction is used WH family.

Direct Speech: - He said to me, “Where does your brother.”

Indirect Speech: - He asked me where my brother lived.

Direct Speech: - He said to Ram, “When will you return my book.”

Indirect Speech: - He asked Ram when he would return my book.

Direct Speech: - She said to me, “What is he reading.”

Indirect Speech: - She asked me what he was reading.

 EXCLAMATORY NARRATION: - Indicates sudden feeling of heart.

Alas! - Sorrow

Hurrah! - Joy

What/How! – Surprise

Bravo!

 Said/Said to Change in Exclaimed with joy or Exclaimed with surprise/wonder/sorrow.

 Applauded – ob – saying.

 Conjunction: - That

 Remove Exclamatory Words.

Verb + Adjective

Great + Noun

Direct Speech: - He said, “Alas! I have forgotten my way.

Indirect Speech: - He exclaimed with sorrow that he had forgotten his way.

Direct Speech: - The Captain said, “I have won the match.”

Indirect Speech: - The Captain exclaimed with joy that he had won the match.

Direct Speech: - The boy said, “What a beautiful the building is!
Indirect Speech: - The boy exclaimed with wonder that the building was very beautiful.

Direct Speech: - She said, “How fool she is!

Indirect Speech: - She exclaimed with surprise that she was big fool great.

Direct Speech: - The captain said, “Bravo! You have done well.”
Indirect Speech: - The captain applauded him saying that he had done well.

 OPTATIVE NARRATION: -

Wish

Bless

Curse

 Conjunction use - That

Direct Speech: - She said to me, “May you live long!”

Said/said to change in Blessed/Wished/Cursed.

Indirect Speech: - She blessed me that I might live long.

Direct Speech: - The beggar said to him, “May you ruin.

Indirect Speech: - The beggar cursed him that he might ruin.

Direct Speech: - She said to me, “Good Mroning.”

Indirect Speech: - She wished me good morning.

 Imperative Narration

Order

Request {V1 + Ob}

Advice

 Order – Open the window.

 Request- Please open the window.

  Advice - Take this medicine.

 Said /said to change into - Ordered

Requested, Forbade

Advised, Urged

Asked

 Conjunction: - To

 No change is imperative Part

 Do not is changed into ‘Not to’.

Direct Speech: - He said to his Peon, “Go out”.

Indirect Speech: - Ram asked his peon to go out.

Direct Speech: - He said to me, “Do not smoke.”

Indirect Speech: - He advised not to smoke.

 Note: - Forbade don’t follow ‘Not’.

 LET US: -

Said/said to Proposed/suggested

 Conjunction: - That

 Let us: - We should/ they should.

Direct Speech: - She said to me, “Let us play.”

Indirect Speech: - She suggested me that we should play.

Direct Speech: - Mohan said, “Let us go home.”

Indirect Speech: - Mohan suggested that we should go home.

Exercise: -

 Based on Narration: -

1. Rattan says, “She has composed a poem.”

2. Mohan says to me, “Gargi was reading.’

3. Sohan will say, “They have gone to Kanpur.”

4. Ravi says to Meera, “Harish can solve all the questions.”

5. Mayank has said, ‘Hari has been reading for two days.”

6. He will says to me, “Nidhi was waiting for her friend.”

7. Gopal says to his teacher, “No one is going to Meerut.”

8. The teacher says to the students, “I will teach you maths.”

9. Rakhi said, “He goes to Agra today.”

10. Pooja said to me, “I can solve this question.”

11. Ram said to her mother, “She was not going to school.”

12. Heera said to Rajini, “I have done my work.”

13. He said to me, “She went to Delhi yesterday.”

14. Honey said to Deepak, “You will not return my book tomorrow.”

15. Gopal said, “Krishna could go there.”

16. Ravi said, “He should be there.”

17. Chitra said, “Ravi might enter college next year.”

18. The boys said, “The old man would sit and dream.”

19. Gopal says to Meera, “English is not easy to learn.”

20. The teacher said to the students, “Honesty is the best policy.”

21. She said to me, “I am reading a letter now.”

22. Ramesh said, “I saw the Taj two years ago.”

23. “I will do it tomorrow” he promised.

24. The hermit said, “Virtue is its own reward.”

25. The wise said, “fire and water do not agree.”

26. The teacher said to the boys, “Are you ill?”

27. Ramesh said to Mukesh, “Are you reading this novel?”

28. Heera said to me, “Can you bring me a glass of water?”

 29. He said to me, “Will you help me today?”

30. Radha said Mohan, “Did you go there yesterday?”

31. Hamid said to Hanif, ‘Do you want to read Hindi?”

32. Father said to his son, “Had you not reached there before sunset?”

33. He said, “Do you really come from China?”

34. The Judge said, “Have you anything to say?”

35. The teacher said, “What is your name?”

36. Jaya said to Ramesh, “Where do you live?”

37. Mira said to Sheela, “Why did you not go there?”

38. She said to them, “What do you want?”

39. He said to me, “What have I done to deserve for this post?”

40. The stranger said, “Where does she live?”

41. She said to me, “Please open the door.”

42. Ram said to me, “Do not go out.”

43. She said to Mohan, “Bring a glass of water.”

44. Ram said to his peon, “Post these letters.”

45. Rekha said to Mohan, “Let us watch this film tonight.”

46. He said to me, “let us sing a sweet song?”

47. He said to his son, “Let me go out.”

48. Pankaj said to his friend, “Wait here till I return from market.”

49. The teacher said to the monitor, “Let the boys complete their essay.”

50. The captain said, “Let us begin the game.”

MODALS
DEFINITION: - Modals are those helping verbs that express the mode of action denoted by the main verb.
 Family of the Modals: - following are the members of the family of the modals, shall, will, should,
would, can, could, may, might, must, ought to, used to, need, dare.
 Some interesting facts about the Modals: - Modals are used to express action like ability, power,
permission, request, possibility, willingness, etc.
SHOULD
 SHOULD: - is the past tense (past form) of shall, but in many cases, it is used in the present context in
the following ways:-
 To express the future in the past tense: -
 I told him that I should go to Mumbai the next day.
 He said that you should report for duty on Monday.
 To express Duty or Obligation: -
 We should respect our elders.
 You should always speak the truth.
 We should help the poor.
 To express Advice or Suggestion: -
 You should work hard to pass the examination.
 You should go out for a morning walk daily.
 Government should set up new industries.
 She should not go out bare foot.
 To express Request: -
 I should like to say that he is not to blame.
 We should like to say that they have not done this mischief.
 To Express Surprise: -
 It is really sad that he should lose in the first round.
 It is very surprising that they should lose the match.
 To express Supposition or Improbable action: -
 Should they work hard, they will past.
 Should you go to the market, bring a picture-book for me.
 With lest in order to express Purpose: -
 I worked hard lest I should fail.
 Walk fast lest you should miss the train.
 Take light diet lest you should fail.
 To make Conditional Sentences: -
 Should it rain, we shall not go out.
 Should you speak the truth, I shall pardon you.

WOULD
 WOULD: - is the past tense of will and it is used in the following ways: -
 As the Future Tense of Past in Indirect Speech: -
 He said that he would not take tea.
 He told me that he would go to Nagpur on Monday.
 To express Past Habit: -
 She would go out for a walk daily.
 Gandhiji would spin every morning.
 He would sit and talk all day.
 To express Determination: -
 I would stand by him in any trouble.
 He would do it whether you like it or not.
 He would go out for a walk regularly.
 To express Suggestion: -
 Would you take care of your health?
 Would you study regularly?
 To express Polite request: -
 Would you please give me your book?
 Would you take a cup of tea?
 Would you please give me your bicycle?
 To express Wish or Desire: -
 Would that I were a king!
 Would that I were rich!
 Would that I were a child again!
 I wish you would go away!
 To express Preference: -
 I would prefer death to dishonor.
 He would rather starve than beg.
 I would rather fail than copy in the examination.
 To express Condition:-
 Had you worked hard, you would have passed.
 If he had walked fast, he would have caught the train.
 If I were rich, I would buy a car.

CAN
 CAN: - means to be able to or know how to. It is used to express strength – may it be physical, mental or
of the official authority, of wealth etc. it is used as follow: -
 To express Ability: -
 He can speak English fluently.
 I can solve this question easily.
 The Headmaster can remit the fine.
 To express Possibility: -
 The Principal can also fine him.
 Anyone can read this letter.
 Children can be spoiled.
 To express Permission: -
 You can go for a picnic now.
 You can go home after doing your work.
 You cannot leave the office without my permission.
 In the form of Phrase: -
 I cannot help laughing.
 The child cannot help weeping.
 To express Disposition: -
 She can tell a lie at any time.
 We cannot believe them because they can cheat us.

COULD
 COULD: - is the past tense of can and is used in the indirect form as follows:-
 Past Tense of Power: -
 I asked him if the Headmaster could give me admission.
 He asked me if I could help him.
 I asked him if he could play football.
 Past Tense of Ability: -
 I could solve the whole paper in one hour.
 She could not climb the tree.
 He could sing and speak well.
 The patient tried to walk, but he could not.
 Polite Request: -
 Could you spare some time for me?
 Could you lend me your book?
 Could you please post this letter?
 Past Tense of Possibility: -
 You could have caught the train if you had run fast.
 If he had taken the medicines regularly, he could have recovered earlier.
 If I had spare money, I could buy that beautiful watch.
 Feeling of Impatience: -
 What could I do now?
 How could it happen?
 As Phrase in Past Time: -
 The child couldn’t help weeping.
 The Headmaster couldn’t help giving him admission.
 MAY
 MAY: - is used in the following sense: -
 To express Permission: -
 May I come in, sir?
Yes, you may.
 May I use this pen?
Yes, you may.
 You may go there.
 Possibility: -
 It may rain today.
 You may get a prize.
 She may be at home.
 The road may be blocked.
 Purpose: -
 We eat so that we may live.
 He works hard so that he may pass.
 I go out for a morning walk so that I may be healthy.
 Wish or Prayer: -
 May you live long!
 May God bless you with a son!
 May her soul rest in peace!

MIGHT
 MIGHT: - Past tense or past form of may.

 The Past Tense of May: -

 The teacher said that he might go home.
 I asked him if I might see his watch.
 Purpose: -
 He ran fast so that he might catch the train.
 He played well so that he might win the match.
 She wore new clothes so that she might look beautiful.
 Remote Possibility: -
 He has not worked hard, but he might pass.
 She is working hard, she might win a scholarship.
 Sarla has not attended my birthday party, but she might send a gift.
 Possibility: -
 The teacher said that I might win a scholarship.
 The doctor said that the patient might recover soon.
 Permission: -
 The teacher said that we might go for the picnic.
 The captain said that we might play the match.
 Future Condition: -
 If he gets money, he might go to England.
 If she works hard, she might top the class.
 If they play well, they might defeat the opposite team.
 Good Wishes in the past: -
 The teacher wished that I might live long.
 We wished that India might win the match.

MUST
 MUST: - is used to express the following: -
 Necessity: -
 You must help your friend in the hour of need.
 You must run fast to catch the train.
 You must work hard to get good marks.
 We must save something for our future.
 Obligation: -
 Soldiers must obey their commanders.
 Parents must look after their children.
 Determination: -
 I must leave for Chandigarh today.
 I must try my luck.
 I must finish this work today.
 Compulsion: -
 We must follow the rules of the road.
 You must not hurt others’ feelings.
 Certainty or Belief: -
 He must have lost his temper.
 She must have broken my slate.
 He must be the Principal of the school.
 Emphatic Advice: -
 You must learn your lessons regularly.
 They must serve their old parents.
 You must give up smoking.
 Possibility: -
 He must have received my letter by now.
 The teacher must have finished his course by this time.
 Expectation: -
 There must be a mistake somewhere.
 The must be something wrong in her mind.
 Prohibition: -
 You must not leave the class without my permission.
 You must not touch my books.
 You must not leave home without taking breakfast.
 OUGHT TO: -
 Moral Duty or Obligation in Present Tense: -
 You ought to obey your teachers.
 We ought to respect our elders.
 You ought to serve you r country.
 Moral Duty or Obligation in Past Tense: -
 You ought to have worked hard.
 You ought to have run fast.
 You ought to have done this.
 Advice: -
 You ought to consult a good doctor.
 You ought to read a good story book.
 We ought to walk fast as we are getting late.
 Strong Probability: -
 He is very hard-working; he ought to win a scholarship.
 He is a very good race; he ought to win a championship.
 The film ought to be a great success.
 Sita ought to win.

USED TO
 Used to: - is used to express some past habit. It is used in the following types of sentences: -
 Gandhiji used to spin for an hour daily.
 When I was young, I used to work for twelve hours.
 He used to pay us a visit every now and then.
 Negative Sentences: -
 She used not to tell lies.
 He used not to smoke; but now he is a chain smoker.
 There used not to be so much traffic.
 Interrogative Sentences: -
 Used he to drink when he was young?
 Used she to work hard when she was a student?
 Used you to go there?
  Other usages of ‘used to’ : -
 She is used to talking tea.{She is in the habit of taking tea}
 I am used to simple life.
 He got used to rising early.
 We are not used to telling lies.

DARE
 DARE: - is used both as the Principal Verb and as Defective Verb; -
 DARE AS A LAXICON VERB: -
 As a principal verb, dare means to challenge, to face, to oppose.
 It is used with all the tenses and is followed by two in affirmative sentences.
Example; -
 He dares to face his enemy.
 He dared to face his enemy.
 Some of the older boys had dared him to do it.
 DARE AS A DEFECTIVE VERB: -
 As a defective verb, dare means to venture.
 As a defective verb, it is used only in the negative and interrogative sentences.
 In this form, it does not take to.
Example: -
 He dare not face his enemy.
 He dared not face his enemy.
 He did not dare say what he thought.

NEED
 NEED : - is used as the principal verb and also as defective verb: -
 When it is used as principal verb, it means to stand in need of.
Example: -
 I need his help.
 He does not need my help.
 Does he need your help?
 I needed his help.
 NEED AS A DEFECTIVE VERB: -
 Need as a defective verb is used in the negative and interrogative sentences: -
(1) In negative and interrogative sentences, need is used to express weakness, necessity or obligation.
(2) In this form, it can be used only in the present tense.
Examples: -
 I need not go there.
 You need not worry.
  He need not go.
 She needs to lie down because she is tired.
 Need he go there?
 Need I say more?
 Need you go home so soon?
 Need I return you the book?
 SHALL AND WILL: - Mistakes are generally committed in the use of shall and will. Wrong use of shall
and will can change the meaning of the sentence altogether. Please see the following table carefully.

Modal First person Second/third person

You, your, he, she, it Rama,
I, we, our mine, etc.
etc.
Threat/Definite
Shall Simple futurity things/promise/command/
determination
Threat/Promise/intention/
Will Simple futurity
Determination

From the above table, it becomes clear that: -

 Shall with first person is used simply to express simple future tense. But it is possible only in the case of
assertive sentences: -
 I Shall buy a car.
 When shall we see you again
 I shall go.
 I shall be thirty next birthday.
 Shall can also be used with second/third person (you, your, he , she it, Rama, etc.)
 If the sentence conveys the sense of a threat: -
 You shall be punished if you do not change your habits.
 You shall be fired if you do not mend your ways.
 If the sentence conveys the sense of a promise: -
 He shall be given a reward for his ability.
 You shall have a holiday tomorrow.
 If the sentence conveys the sense of a an order: -
 You shall have to take action against him.
 Candidates shall remain in their seats until all the papers have been collected.
 If the sentence conveys the sense of a certainty or determination: -
 If you secure first position, you shall be given a new watch.
 You shall do what I command.
 Will in an assertive sentence, expresses simple future tense with second and third persons.
 If the sentence conveys the sense of a threat: -
  I will punish you if you do not speak the truth.
 I will kill you.
 If the sentence conveys the sense of a promise; -
 I will surely help her.
 I will try to do better the next time.
 If the sentence conveys the sense of a promise:-
 I will surely help her.
 I will try to do better the next time.
 If the sentence conveys the sense of a determination: -
 I will never tell a lie.
 I will succeed or die in the attempt.
 If the sentence gives the sense of a intention:-
 I will go to Bangalore tomorrow.
 I will not steal.
Exercise for Revision
 He should not hurry, there is plenty of time.
 The case is serious; you should consult a good doctor.
 When I was young, I had worked for twelve hours.
 Should you care for a glass of milk?
 You should not go to college today. The teachers are on strike.
 I went to him so that I should warn him of the coming danger.
 We eat so that we should live.
 One must serve one’s country.
 You may not go there personally, just send someone.
 Can I borrow your pen?
 He ran fast so that he could catch the bus.
 My boy, you must not have spoken this.
 I cannot accept your challenger, you are too strong.
 A doctor should do everything possible to save a patient.
 Had he worked hard, he might have passed.
 With the help of a dictionary, you may learn new words easily.
 I was afraid that if I asked him again he could refuse it.
 He was working hard so that he should get good marks.
 When would you accompany me to Kolkata?
 He played with me when he was a boy.
 I am sorry, I will not be able to reach there in time.
 You shall know the result tomorrow.
 I will forgive him if he will tell me the truth.
 If you do not work hard, you will fail.
  I will be drowned and nobody shall save me.
 If you do not change your habits, you will be dismissed from service.
 Unless you speak the truth, I shall not pardon you.
 We will see the Taj during the coming holidays.
 I will be thankful to you for your kindness.
 Shall he appear in the examination this year?

ARTICLES
INTRODUCTION: - In fact like quantifiers, articles belong to the wider class of determiners. There are two
articles in English.

 Indefinite articles:- A/An

 Definite articles:- The

Indefinite Articles ‘A/An’:- Actually A/An is applied before singular countable noun. We can think of A/An
not as two words but as to forms of one word. This is because fixed pronunciation rules determine our choice
between them.

We use A/An with singular countable Noun to indicate that something is not common ground, to
announce that we are introducing something new, something unexpected that our readers is unaware of.

 A/An is also applied with the sense of every in expressions of time and quantity
 Rules regarding A/An

 ‘A’ is applied before constant sound.

Example

A table, a chair, a car, a university, a European, a

ecology, a one rupee note, a bit of, in a hurry, make a
start, have a drink a job etc.

Example

 Forty times an hour.

 Twenty rupees a kilo.
 Five Hundred rupee a meter. Etc
 A/An is used before a singular

Countable noun when it is indicted for the first time

Example
  A tiger is an animal.
 A lion can kill a man.

 A/An is also used before a singular countable noun which stand for the whole species

Example

 An elephant never forgets.

 A coconut tree is tall.

 A/An is used with noun complements and with the name of professions.

Example

 He is a generous leaders
 Miss Helena is a doctor
 Anshu is an actor
 Chirag is a professor
 USAGE NOTE:- the followings are the nouns that come under

Scenery, Machinery, information, bread, soap, chalk

advice, furniture, ink, blood, etc.
 The category of uncountable Nouns.

Exercise:-

Fill in the blanks with ‘a/an’ wherever necessary.

1. What …………….. unfortunate accident.

2. Hamlet is ………………….. interesting play of William Shakespeare.
3. One of my friends is ………………… teacher of English.
4. ………………. Apple a day keeps the doctor away.
5. She advised me to sell these apples twenty five rupees………………. Kilo.
6. His father is ………………. M. Phil in English.
7. He looks as stupid as…………… owl.
8. Everybody knows that copper is ……………. Useful metal.
9. English is …………….. easy language.
10. Man is ………….. social animal.
11. She is …………… open minded girl.
12. Mr. Jainth is ………… M.P.
13. ………………. Ink is used to write on paper.
14. She gave me………….. advice.
15. Sheela is the girl who gave me ……………. Information regarding this.
 16. He has two oxen and ………. Cow.
17. Chirag is …………….. untidy boy.
18. Mr. Horotio is …………..European.
19. He is doing ………….. job now a days.
20. She gave beggar ……………… bread.

DEFINITE ARTICLE- ‘THE’

INTRODUCTION:- Actually the definite article the signals a specific or particular, place or thing. Nouns can
be made specific in several ways.

 Now read the following sentences carefully.

 I bought a new car last month after I got the car home; one of its tyres went flat.

The noun has been identified in sentence (A) when the noun is first mentioned first, it is unspecified so the
article a may be used, when it is mentioned a second time the article ‘The’ is used.

 Now let us discuss the rules of Definite Articles ‘The’.

 ‘The’ is applied before the nouns which are unique (only one).

Example

The Moon, the Earth, the Sun, the South Pole, the
Jupiter.

 ‘The’ is applied before a noun which has already been mentioned.

 I saw a girl yesterday in the market’.
 ‘The’ girl I saw in the market yesterday is deaf and dumb’.
 ‘The’ is applied before the name of mountain ranges.

Example

The Alps, the Himalayas, the Vindayas, etc.

 ‘The’ is used before the names of river, groups of Island and Seas.

Example

 The Thames is in England.

 The Yamuna, the Gangas’, the Satluz, etc.
 The Hebrides are off, the West Coast of Scotland.
  ‘The’ is used before a proper noun only when it is qualified by an adjective or adjective phrase or
clause.

Example

 I refer to the Queen Elizabeth of the Shakespearean age, not to the present Queen Elizabeth.

 ‘The’ can be used before noun when we make comparison.

Example

 Kalidas was the Shakespeare of India.

 Kashmir is the Switzerland of India.
 ‘The’ is used adverbially with comparative adjective in such phrases.

Example

 The more we get, the more we want.

 The sooner, the better.
 The higher you go, the cooler you feel.

 ‘The’ is used before a singular noun used to represent a whole class.

Example

 The camel can store water.

 The ant is industrious.
 ‘The’ is also used before the name of trains.
 The Satabdi Express
 The Garibrath
 The Rajdhani Exorress
 The Kalka Express
 ‘The’ is used before Historical buildings.
 The Tajmahal
 The Red Fort
 The Quitbminar
 ‘The’ is used before superlative degree.
 She is the most intelligent student of my class.
 ‘The’ is used before the name of musical instrument.
 The table, the Guitar, the Harmonium, the Sitar.
 ‘The’ is used before the cardinal number.
 The First, the Second, the Third, the Fourth, etc.
 ‘The’ is used before the name of political groups.
  The S.P.
 The B.J.P.
 The P.P.P. (Pakistan People’s Party)
 The Peace Party etc.
 When we talk about a single person who posses two post the article ‘the’ will be used once at the initial
position.

Example

 The principal and the class teacher is not coming today.

 Note:- Here the principal and class teacher is the same person.
 If we talk about two persons the article the will be used twice.
 The principal and the class teacher were absented themselves from the school yesterday.
 Note:- Here we are talking about two different persons.
 When a person posses the qualities of someone, ‘the’ is used.
 The mother in her.
 The Judge in him.
 The father in him.

ZERO ARTICLES

By Zero article we mean no article is required, there are several situations when we do not use any
article.

 Do not use a/an before uncountable noun.

 An ink, a water, a milk, a soap, a chalk, etc.
 ‘The’ is not used before the name of language
 English, French, German, etc.
 If the is used before the name of these languages that end in N/CH/SH. They indicate the people of that
country.

Example

English - Language

The English - English people

The French - French People

 English is the language of the English.

 ‘The’ is not used before school, bed, church, temple, hospital, market and prison if they are used for
their primary purposes.

Example
  He goes to school (to study)
 He goes to ‘the’ school (means he goes to school for other purposes)
 He went to ‘the’ prison to meet one of his friends.
 No article is applied before the names of relations
 Father, aunt, uncle, mother, cook, and nurse.

Example

 Nurse has not treated the patient yet.

 Father has been to Mathura
 No article is placed before nouns that denote a unique position.

Example

 We elected him a captain (Wrong)

 We elected him captain (Right)
 She was elected president of U.N.O.

 No article is used with certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb followed by its object.

Example

 To catch fire, to take breach, to set foot, to give battle.

 No article is used before the names of the parts of the mountains ranges.
 No article is used before the name of Nations/ States.
 But remember the followings.
 The Punjab, the Congo, the Sudan, the Netherlands, the U.K., the USSR, etc.
 No article is placed before material nouns.

Example

 Silk and cotton are used to make sarees.

 Iron and coal are found in England.

 No article is used before superlative degree if it is preceded by possessive case.

Example

 He is my best friend.
 What is your strongest point?

 ‘The’ is not used before the name of religious books if their writer’s names are added to them.

Example
  Balmiki’s Ramayana.
 Don’t say Balmiki’s the Ramayana.

Exercise 1.2

Fill in the blanks with suitable article wherever necessary.

1. They discussed…………….latest news.

2. …………life brings many strange events.
3. ………..the food is necessary for survival.
4. This is ……………urgent matter.
5. This is………….dog I told you about.
6. ………….. Cauvery is a sacred river.
7. …………..earth revolves round………sun.
8. What ………….unfortunate accident.
9. Delhi is …………..capital of India.
10. …………...kindness you show to others will be shown to you.
11. She went to …………hospital to visit her relatives.
12. …………..mount Everest is the highest peak of ……….. Himalayas.
13. …………..extended Example is often called…………….illuspation.
14. All of …………dogs in ……….neighbourhood started to bark when ………..lights went out.
15. Let’s go to ………..grocery store. I need ………….. loaf of bread.
16. She gave beggar …………soap to wash his hands.
17. ………….people who do not eat meat are generally healthy.
18. He is one of …………..bravest soldiers in my regiment.
19. Pass me ……….English book on the table.
20. He gave …………good advice.
21. Superman is ………….Example of a fictional hero.
22. We had ………….bad weather last week.
23. John is going to build…………garage next week.
24. ………….anecdote is …………..type of illustration.
25. I need ………….new car.
26. My neighbor …………photographer, let’s ask him for …………advice about colour film.
27. …………travel agent would give you ………….information about ……….. hotels.
28. ………….Mr. Smith is ………..old customer and………. Honest man.
29. She is …………university student.
30. I saw him making ………….noise in the class room.
31. Did you see ………….Taj Mahal last night.
32. He was punished for stealing ………..bread.
33. ..............youngest boy has just started going to ………..school.
34. He is one of my …………best friends.
35. Do you go to ………….. prison to visit him?
 36. I am on night duty. When you go to ………..bed I go to ………..work.
37. On ………Sundays my father stays in ……………bed till 10 O’clock, reading ………….Sunday
papers.
38. Like many women she loves………… tea.
39. There was ………..knock on……… door, I opened it and found ………..small dark man ………….blue
overcoat………….woolen cap.
40. I found ………….mother in the coz her behavior was very captivating.
41. We shook ………….hands with ………….host.
42. You will strain ………..eyes if you read in ……….bad light.
43. His father has been ………….good singer.
44. I found them making ………….noise in the classroom.
45. …………Mount Everest is the highest peak of …………. Himalayas.
46. I saw him travelling ……….train last week.
47. He was …………very tall man with dark hair and …………small beard.
48. She pulled him by ………….sleeve.
49. ………..few books that you gave me last night were good enough to entertain even an ordinary reader.
50. You are requested to write ………….application …………principal of your school.

NOUNS
DEFINITION: - Noun is the name of a person, place or thing; in fact we use nouns to express a range of
additional meaning.

1. Person - Ram, Mohan, Sohan, Sarvesh, etc.

2. Place - Agra, Mathura, Bulandshar, etc.
3. Thing - Pen, Chair, Fan, Book, etc.
 Type of Noun:- Noun can be categorized into five parts.
1. Proper Noun - Ram, Chirag, Sachin, Agra, Mathura,
Meerut, etc.
2. Common Noun - Boy, Dog, City, Girl, Man, Woman, etc.
3. Collective Noun - Team, Crowd, Committee, mob, etc.
4. Abstract Noun - Honest, Beauty, kindness, etc.
5. Material Noun - Iron, Gold, Silver, Milk, Water, Copper,
Etc.
GENDERS:-
There are four genders in English.
1. Masculine gender:- Indicates male sex.
Example
 Boy, Dog, Man, Ox
2. Feminine gender:- Indicates female sex.

Example
  Girl, woman, bitch, hen, goat.
3. Neuter gender:- Neither male nor female

Example

 Table, pen, book

 Wild animals
 Baby (whose sex is not known)

4. Common Gender:- Indicates either male or female sex.

Example

 Actor, doctor, teacher, poet, student, leader, etc.

 Some nouns are personified

{Considered as living being}

Personified nouns too have their category either male or female.

 Male Category:- (used for hard sense)
Example

 Sun, time, death, summer, winter.

 Death has part his icy hands on her rosy lips.
 Female Category:- Moon, ship, pity, mercy, name of country, etc.

Example

 The moon has hidden her face into the clouds.

 Countable and uncountable nouns
 Countable Nouns:- Nouns can be counted termed as countable noun

Example

 Book, man, cat, pen, etc.

 Uncountable Nouns:- Nouns cannot be counted termed as uncountable Noun

Example-

 Water, food, milk, grass, rice, etc.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS.

 Rules regarding plural nouns.

 If the noun ends in CH, SS, SH, X, O, Z and ES otherwise S.
Example

Book + s = Books

Table + s = Tables

Class + s = Classes

Box + es = Boxes

Church + es = Churches

Wish + es = Wishes

 If the noun ends in ‘Y’

Boy + s = Boys

Toy + s = Toys

Fly = Flies

 Remember – Photo = Photos

 If the noun ends in f/fe

Replaced f/fe into ‘V’ and then add – (es)

Example

Knife = knives

Leaf = leaves

Wife = wives

Life = lives

 Remember Roof = Roofs

 Now read the following nouns

Singular Noun Plural Noun

Foot feet

Tooth teeth

Goose geese

Mouse mice
 Ox oxen/oxes

Man men

Child children

 Some nouns have their different meaning in plural form

Singular Noun Plural Noun

Alphabet Alphabets - languages

Water Waters (Seas)

Wood Woods (forest)

Iron Irons (fetters)

Gold Golds (ornaments)

Copper Coppers (things made of copper)

 Possessive form:-
 We add (‘s), with living being

Example

Ram’s father

Mohan’s sister

Deepak’s friend, etc.

 If noun ends in ‘s’ or ‘ss’ or similar noun add (‘) only

Example

 Boys’, hostel, don’t say boy’s Hostel.

 Girl’s college

 We add (of) for non living

 The leg of table
 The roof of the room
 Now read the following expressesion.

Possession: Jackie’s disk

Family relationship the other girl’s twin

 Parts of body the patient’s leg

Places Asia’s decision

Attribution John’s decision

The parents’ fault

 Rules regarding NOUNS.

 Some nuns are always singular

Scenery, Machinery, Information, Luggage, Advice,

Furniture, Meat, Heat, Light, Sound, News, Physics,
Mathematics, Hair, Innings.

 Wrong:- I love the sceneries of Kashmir.

 Right:- I love the scenery of Kashmir.
 Wrong:- Her hairs are grey.
 Right:- Her hair is grey.
 Some nouns are always plural.
 Cattle, gentry, peasantry, vermin, poultry, clergy, police.

Example

 Wrong:- Cattle is grazing in the field.

 Right:- Cattle are grazing in the field.
 Some Nouns remain some in singular and plural.
 {Fish, cod, bream, swine, sheep, deer}

Example

 Wrong:- I saw many deers in the park.

 Right:- I saw many deer in the park.

Now read the following Examples.

 She has a sheep.

 Mohan has twenty sheep.
 She has seen a number swine recently.
 Nouns in pair are always considered plural.

Jeans, Trousers, Pliers, Scissors, Tongs, Spectacles,

Goggles, Glasses Shorts, Binoculars, Dividends,
Tweezers, Clippers, Shears, Pincers, etc.
Example

 Wrong:- Where is your Jeans?

Right:- Where are your Jeans?
 Wrong:- I bought a scissors.
Right:- I bought a pair of scissors.
 The number of + plural Noun + Sing Verb

Example

 The number of crimes is increasing day by day.

 A number of + plural noun + Plural verb

Example

 A number of students are increasing day by day.

 One of + plural noun + singular verb

Example

 One of my best friends is coming to meet me today.

 Some plural nouns are mainly used with possessive determiner

Activities, Feelings, Movements, Terms, Troubles,

Attentions, Travels, Wants, etc.
Examples

 I do not like your activities.

 Her wants are increasing day by day.
 Now read the following plural nouns that refer to clothes and other things that people wear.

Braces, Jeans, panties, Specs, Trunks, Briefs, Pants,

Spectacles, Underpants, Knickers, Sunglasses, Dungarees,
Leggings, Slacks, Trousers.

 In case of compound noun. The man word will be changed into plural form.

Example

Singular Noun Plural Noun

Father-in-law Fathers-in-law

Brother-in-law Brothers-in-law

But
 But servant Men Servant

 EXERCISE FOR REVISION: -

 Though my means is small, I help my younger brother with money.

 I must help him. After all, we are brothers of the same profession.

 He does everything for conscience’s sake.

 Has the agendum for tomorrow’s meeting been drawn up?

 Custom on exports and imports is collected at the airport.

 The old lady who was crushed to death by a speeding truck was walking in the centre of the road.

 My uncle’s friend’s son is a doctor.

 Good night! How do you do/

 One of these men’s sons was killed in the recent police firing.

 The juries consist of ten members.

 The jury was divided on its opinion.

 My father is in the teaching line.

 Women’s clothes are generally more expensive than men.

 All his family members are loves of dance and music.

 His hat was blown off by a strong air.

 I may spend these summer vacations with one of my friends in Mumbai.

 If the cattles enter the field, please drive them out.

 My cousin sister is a lecturer in Dayal Singh College.

 Joseph was granted freeship by the principal.

 The magistrate has passed order for his release.

 There is no place for you on this bench.

 Mr. Bhatia, our English teacher, takes great pains in his work.

 The police has arrested the thief.

 The wages of sin are death.

 The weather of Delhi does not suit me.

 Credit this sum in my name.

 We should always be true to our words.

 I have learnt these poetries by memory.

 Such phenomena has never been seen before.

 Some of the guests were sitting on the ground of the room.

 Twenty males and thirty females were selected by the omission.

 What is your date of birth?

 I met him in the hospital and enquired about his state of health.

 The scientists have not been able to tell the reason of an earthquake.

 He does not know even alphabets of English.

 No summon has yet been issued from the Court.

 One of my friend will be honoured with the Vishishta Seva Medal on the Republic Day.

 The students who live in the boarding cannot hope to get rich food.

 No one uses blotting these days.

 I finished the three fourth of the work in a record period of four days.

 His service has been terminated.

 This minar is built of bricks and stones.

 Entry to the cinema is by tickets.

 In the absence of a positive witness, the murder case could not be established against him.

 He put his sign to the letter.

 Ram did many mischiefs.

 Mankind are to be valued.

 I want to know what is the content of the letter.

  She purchased a car for fifty thousands rupees.

 She has lost a hundred-rupees note.

PRONOUNS
DEFINITION: - A pronoun is a word which is used at the place of noun.

Example

 Ram goes to school, Ram is a good boy.

Above sentence can be written as:-

 Ram goes to school. He is a good boy.

 Thus we can say that he/say/it, I, you, we, they, etc all are pronouns.
 Kinds of Pronouns.

1. Personal pronouns
2. Reflexive pronouns
3. Relative pronouns
4. Interrogative pronouns
5. Indefinite pronouns
6. Demonstrative pronouns
7. Distributive pronouns
8. Exclamatory pronouns

1. Personal pronouns:- The pronouns which stand for the names of persons, are, called Personal
Pronouns.

Example

I, you, we, they, he, she, it etc.

2. Reflexive Pronouns:- Reflexive pronouns are formed by adding ‘self’’ (in singular) and ‘selves’ (in
plural). For Example,
 He himself posted the letter.
 Sita sang herself.
 They can do it themselves.
 We availed ourselves of the chance.
 In these sentences, the words himself, herself, themselves, ourselves are reflexive pronouns.
 3. Relative Pronouns:- A pronouns which joins two sentences and refers to the noun going before it, is
called a Relative Pronoun. For Example,
 The boy who is plying is my brother.
 This is the boy whom I gave the book.
 The book which is lying on the table is mine.
 In these sentence, the words, who whom which, are relative pronouns.
4. Interrogative Pronouns:- The pronouns which are used for asking questions are called Interrogative
Pronoun. For Example,
 Who writes a letter?
 What is your name?
 Which is your pen?
 In these sentences, the words, who, what, which are Interrogative Pronouns.
5. Indefinite Pronouns:- Pronouns which do not refer to a particular person or thing are called
Indefinite Pronouns. For Example,
 Someone is coming.
 Nothing is happening.
 None can do it.
 In these sentences, the words, someone, nothing, none are Indefinite Pronouns.
6. Demonstrative Pronouns:- the pronouns which point out a person or thing are called Demonstrative
Pronouns. For Example,
 This is my book.
 That is her house.
 These are wooden chairs.
 Those are my cows.
 In these sentences, the words, this, that these, those are Demonstrative Pronouns.
7. Distributive Pronouns:- the pronouns which refer to an individual out of a group or class are called
Distributive Pronouns. For Example,
 Each of you should do it.
 Either of you has stolen my book.
 Neither of them has solved the sum.
 In these sentences, the pronouns, each, either, neither, refer to an individual out of a group of persons.
Such words are called Distributive Pronouns.
8. Exclamatory Pronouns:- An exclamatory pronouns is a pronoun used as an exclamation. For
Example,
 What a strange dog it is?
 How beautiful the moon is
 Rules regarding Pronouns.
Pronouns have three persons.
First Person : I/We
Second Person : You
 Third Person : He/She/It/They

 Now Read the Following Table: -

Subjective Case Objective Care Possessive care
I Me My
We Our Us
You Your You
He His Him
She Her Her
It Its It
They Their Them

 RULE (1):-
Let is always followed objective case.
{Let + Objective Case + V1}
Example
 Let him read.
Wrong: Let you and I go home.
Right: Let you and me go home
 RULE (2):-
Preposition is also followed by objective case.
Example
 She went to Agra with her mother.
 This matter should be between you and me.
 RULE (3):-
{Each Other, One Another}
Each other:- is used for two persons.
Example:- Ram and Mohan love each other.
One another:- is used for more than two persons.
Example: Ram, Mohan and Chirag help one another.
 RULE (4):-
Rules regarding relative pronouns, who, which and that are called relative pronoun.
 Who is used for living being?
Example:- I met a man who was blind.

 Which is used for non living thing.

Example:- This is the pen which Ram gave me yesterday.
 That can be used for both living and non living.
Example:
 The novel that she is reading is very good.
 The girl who/that comes here is my classmate.
  Note:- When the pronoun which is applied for the purpose of selection it can refer to the both a person
and a thing.
Example:-
 The master did not know which of the servants has broken his glass.
 Which of the books does Alison want?
 An apostrophe mark { ‘ } is not place after yours, its and theirs.
Wrong : Yours’
Right : Yours
Note:- In case of, some, any, all and superlative degree.
Only that should be used at the place of who/which.
Example:-
 All that glitters is not gold.
 She is one of the most beautiful girls that I like.

Who
 Noun/Pronoun Which
That

{Antecedent}

 Rules regarding antecedent.

 Verb is applied according to antecedent.
Example:-
 I who am your teacher can solve this sum.
 You, who are a good man should not do it.
 Rule (5):-
When ‘One’ is used as pronoun, its possessive form {one’s}.
Example:- One must do one’s duty.
 The possessive form of (everybody, somebody, anybody, everyone, someone, etc.) is (his).
Example:- Everybody was doing his duty, properly.
 Some verbs take reflexive pronouns.
Pride, absent, avail, resign, enjoy.
Example:-
 She prides herself on her beauty.
 He wants to village and he enjoyed himself there very much.

The pronouns:- Ours, mine, yours, hers and theirs
are not used before noun

Example:-
 This is my book and that is yours.
  We cannot say: - This is my book and that is yours book.
 Neither/None/Either.
 Neither is used for two persons in negative sense.
 None is used for more than two persons.
 Either is used for two persons in positive sense.
Example:- Either of the two boys was playing in the field.
 {Each + singular noun + and + each + singular noun + singular verb.}
And pronoun will be used according to the second noun.
Example:-
 Each boy and each girl has done her home work.
 Each girl and each boy has done his homework.
 When a pronoun comes after like and unlike it takes an objective case.
Example:-
Wrong :- A man like I will not compose this type of poem in future.
Right :- A man like me will not compose this type of poem in future
 When we use the pronouns of second person and first person as subjects. The pronoun will be used be
used {our}.
Example:-
Wrong:- You and I must do your work.
Right :- You and I must do our work.
 {some/any/none/nothing/the only}
 When there are two antecedents, a man and an animal or two things before the relative pronoun, use
‘that’ at the place of which or who.
Example;-
Wrong:- The woman and her cat who was going to Agra by train was injured in an accident.
Right :- The woman and her cat that was going to Agra by train was injured in an accident.
 Exercise for Revision
Correct, if necessary, each of the following sentences: -
 There is no quarrel between you and I.
 He came sooner than them.
 I, who is Rama’s friend can help he.
 Leave anything what you do not like.
 We could not see none of them again.
 Rama, Hari and Gopal cheated each other.
 None of these two children has stolen your pen.
 Shiam and myself decorated the college hall.
 We put our books on the shelf while they put their on the table.
 My friend whom his father sent to an engineering college, could not get a degree.
 The army suffered difficulty in her march.
 These present are for you and myself.
 Everyone likes to have one’s way.
 The man which is honest is trusted.
 Read such books which you like.
 He took his younger brother with himself.
 The man who they thought to be a gentleman is rogue.
 Shankar is one of the greatest philosophers that has ever lived.
 The prize was given to the girl whom they said stood first.
 My father does not like me going to movies everyday.
 She was more beautiful than either of her three sisters.
 The more you read, the more you will like this book
 Between you and I, he is a rogue.
 Zia can sing better than me.
 This is the only one of his comments that deserve our attention.
 Neither of the three candidates are fit for the post.
 Both did not go.
 You and he should not waste his money.
 My watch is better than that of yours.
 I who is your father should be respected.
 Too much of love is one of those which spoils the child.
 They invited my friend and I to tea.
 Mohan made your mention.
 I hate him talking too much.
 It was being a cloudy day, we stayed indoors.
 We went to Batkal Lake and enjoyed myself.
 None of we accepted his invitation.
 That is the first time that I have seen you.
 I, him and you must help that poor man.
 He stole a dog and sold the dog for Rs. 50/-
 Santosh being a poor man, cannot buy costly clothes.
 Whom did you say was digging the ground?
 I shall take your leave now.
 Is this book your’s or mine?
 This is the man whose all sons are mad.
 One ought to do his duty.
 Everyone should love one’s country.
 Every of the boys has taken his share.
 My coat is longer than you.
 Sangeeta and myself went to the Sohan Complex.

ADJECTIVES
DEFINITION:- Adjectives are words used to describe things or people. They are the same before singular and
plural nouns. Most adjectives can be used after a verb and before a noun.
Example:-
 Alison is rich. {used after the verb}
 She had a good book. {used before noun)
 NOTE:- When an adjective is used before noun, called attributively used and when it is used after
the linking verb is called predicatively use.
 {Adjective + Noun = Attributively use}
 {Linking verb + Adjective = Predicatively use}
 The following adjectives are used only Predicatively.

A paid, asleep, ready, unable, alike, aware, glad,

sorry, alone, ill, etc.

Example:- I am glad to meet you.

 Kinds of Adjectives.
 Adjectives of quality or Descriptive Adjectives:-
Example:-
 It is a tall claim.
 It is a powerful shot.
 It is a potent drug.
These adjectives tell us about the nature of the things represented by the noun.
 Adjectives of quantity:-
Example:-
 Allow me some time.
 Half truth is dangerous.
 They have the whole day before them.
Adjectives of quantity tell how much of a thing is spoken of.
 Numeral adjectives:-
They tell how many.
 He has two cars.
 He is the first pilot to fly over the Atlantic.
 David bought some apples.
The adjectives in sentences 1 & 2 are definite numerals. They are of two kinds.
 Cardinal showing how many – two.
 Cardinal indicating the order – first.
Some is known as indefinite numeral.
 Some words like any, some and all can be used both as indefinite Numeral and as Adjectives of Quantity.
Indefinite Numeral Adjective of Quantity
 Some boys are dull. I want some water.
  All his friends are well off. All hope was wrecked.
 Have you any cigarettes? Have you any rice?
The numerals indicate the number.
The adjectives of Quantity indicate amount.
Numeral adjectives qualify common nouns.
Adjectives of Quantity qualify material or abstract nouns.
 Distributive adjectives:-
 Each boy recited the verse.
 Every citizen has a vote.
 You can adopt either method.
 Neither of them was Right.
 Each, every, either, neither are Distributive Adjectives. They refer to each one of a number.
 Demonstrative adjectives:-
 This boy is dull.
 That lamp is Right.
 Did you interrogate these men?
 This, that these and those are Demonstrative Adjectives. This and that point out which person or thing is
meant. These and those also point out which persons or things are meant.
 Interrogative Adjectives:-
 What crime has he committed?
 Which season of the year is it?
 What and which are interrogative.
They put questions.
 Emphasizing Adjectives:-
 Saw it with my own eyes.
 This is the very house I want.
 ‘Own’, and ‘very’ lag greater emphasis on the noun.
 Exclamatory Adjectives:-
 What an ideal.
 What nonsense you talk!
 Pronominal Adjectives:-
 This is his book.
 That is my pen.
 His and my are possessive pronouns.
Here they play the role of adjectives.
 Rules regarding correct usages of Adjectives.
 Some/any:-
 Some:- is used with positive statement.
Example:-
 I have some pens.
  Rekha has some Victorian novels.
 Some can also be used with interrogative statement if it presents polite offer to somebody for something.
Example:- Would you like to eat something?
 Any:- is applied with negative and interrogative statement.
Example:-
 Do you have any pen?
 I do not have any pen.
 Further/Farther:-
 Further: - is applied for news/information.
Example:- Do you have any further information regarding this matter.
 Farther:- Farther is applied for distance.
Example:- My home is farther from 10 Km here.

{Few} {A Few} {The Few}
{Little} {A Little} {The Little}

Almost nothing Some But all

Used in negative sense used in positive Sense not much
Used in positive Sense
 Few, a few and the few are applied with plural countable noun.
Example:-
1. She has few books.
2. I have a few pens.
3. She has the few pens that you gave her last night to write with.
Wrong:- Helena has few books so you can take two of them.
Right :- Helena has a few books so you can take two of them.
 Little, a little and the little are applied with singular uncountable noun.
Example:-
1. She has little milk so she is unable to prepare tea.
2. He was very thirsty so he wanted a little water to drink.
3. The little water that was in the bucket was every ----------
 Less:- is peculiar words therefore it can be used as a comparative and a positive.
Example:- (1). We have less money than he.
 In the above statement we learn that less has been used as a comparative
degree.
Example:- (2). We have less number of students in our institute.
 Here less has been used with.
 Many/many a/ a great many
 Many + Plural Noun + Plural Verb
Example:- Many persons were killed.
  Many a + Singular Noun + Singular Verb
Example:- Many a person was killed
 A great many + Plural Noun + Plural Verb
Example:- A great many persons were killed.
 Former/latter/first/last
 Former/latter:- Former and latter are applied when we discuss two items/things.

(A) (B)

(Former) (Latter)
Example:- There are two boys standing in the class Ram and Mohan. The former belongs to my locality and
the latter comes from Haryana.
 First/Last:- When we discuss a series of three or more items, we use first last.
Example:-
A E I O U

(The First vowel) (The Last Vowel)

 Later/Latter:
 Later:- We use later when we talk about time.
Example:- I will read Pygmalion sooner or later.
 Latter:- Latter is applied when we talk about the second one of a group of two.
Example:- Alison has two children Tom and Cliff. I have the latter very much.
 Rules regarding Degrees of Comparison.
 Adjectives have three degrees, i.e. positive degree, comparative degree and superlative degree
 Positive Degree Comparative Degree Sup. Degree
Good Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
Hot Hotter Hottest
Big Bigger Biggest
Beautiful More Beautiful Most Beautiful
Handsome More Handsome Most Handsome
Intelligent More Intelligent Most Intelligent
 Note:- Syllable- vowel sound in a word is called syllable.
 Monosyllabic objective have one vowel sound so add ‘er/r’ to make them comparative and ‘est/st’ to
make them superlative.
 Positive Degree Comparative Degree Sup. Degree
Big Bigger Biggest
Hot Hotter Hottest
  If adjectives are Polly syllabic add more to make comparative degree and most to make superlative
degree.
 Positive Degree Comparative Degree Sup. Degree
Beautiful More Beautiful Most Beautiful
 Correct usages of degrees of comparison.
 Rule-1:- Never use double comparative or superlative degree.
Example:-
Wrong:- He is more wiser than Ram.
Right :- He is wiser than Ram.
 CLARIFICATION: – wiser is comparative degree itself so more is not required before it.
Wrong:- He is the most wisest student of my class.
Right :- he is the wisest student of my class.
 Rule:- Adjectives end in the most do not have comparative degree form.
1. Eastern - Easternmost
2. End - Endmost
3. Head - Headmost
4. Left - Leftmost
5. Middle - Middlemost
6. Northern - Northernmost
7. Rear - Rearmost
8. Right - Rightmost
9. Top - Topmost
10. Utter - Uttermost
 Only Similar objects, persons and places can be compared. Thus we can say that we compare a person a
person with a person, a thing with a thing and so on. We cannot compare a person with a place.
 Latin Comparative:- the following adjectives are of Latin origin they end in ‘or’, as
 Anterior, inferior junior, senior prior and posterior etc. are followed by ‘to’ not by than.
Example:-
Wrong:- He is Junior than I.
Right :- He is junior to me.
 Note:- Use objective case after to
 Comparative degree is used to compare two persons or tings of same class.
Example;-
Wrong :- My pen is better than you.
Right :- My pen is better than your pen.
Or
My pen is better than yours.
Wrong: - The climate of Agra is hotter than Srinagar.
Right : - The climate of Agra is hotter than that of Srinagar.
Or
The climate of Agra is hotter than the climate of Srinagar.
  When we compare two qualities of person ‘er’ degree is not used.
Example: -
Wrong: - He is wiser than honest.
Right : - He is more wise than honest.
{More + Positive degree}
 Prefer is followed by ‘to’.
Example: -
Wrong: - I prefer milk than tea.
Right: - I prefer milk to tea.
 When two adjectives qualify a single person, same degree of comparison will be applied.
Example: -
Wrong: - He is the most intelligent and honest student of my class.
Right: - he is the most intelligent and the most honest student of my class.
 Due to/ Owing to:-
 Due to: - (Caused by) is associated with parts of the verb to be as an adjectival complement.
Example: - His illness was due to his overeating.
 Owing to: - (Because of) is a prepositional phrase governing nouns and nominal’s; it is used at the
beginning of an utterance.
 No less than/ No fewer than:-
 No less than: - is used for uncountable noun.
 No fewer than: - is applied before plural countable noun.
Example: -
Wrong: - No less than ten persons were killed in that accident.
Right: - No fewer than ten persons were killed in that accident.
 No comparison is implied if the {times} is written.
Wrong: - My book is three times cheaper than yours.
Right: - My book is three times as cheap as yours.
 BUT WE CAN SAY:-
 This book is five rupees cheaper than yours.
 Some adjectives are non gradable. Do not use more or most before them.
Unique, perfect, full, excellent, pregnant, empty,
complete.

Wrong: - He is a more unique person.

Right: - He is a unique person.
Wrong: - She seems to be the most perfect actor for this film.
Right: - She seems to be the perfect actor for this film.
Wrong: - He has produced the most excellent film of his career.
Right: - He has produced the excellent film of his career.
 If two objects of the same class are compared by using any, it is necessary to supply ‘other’ after any
because the object mentioned itself belongs to that category.
Wrong: - He is more honest than any man I have met.
Right: - He is more honest than any other man I have met.
Wrong: - Calcutta is bigger than any Indian City.
Right: - Calcutta is bigger than any other Indian City.
EXERCISE FOR REVISION
Correct the mistakes, if any, in the following sentences: -
 Rajesh is my older brother.
 This pen is more preferable to yours.
 Give me a more harder example.
 Akbar was ablest and wisest Mughal King.
 This book is more cheaper from that.
 Which was the best general, Brutus or Cassius?
 The climate of Sandila is better than Agra.
 Madan is the eldest boy in the section.
 My father is older to my mother.
 This washing powder is much superior to that.
 Which is your brothers is elder, Majid or Rashid?
 This problem is the easiest of the two.
 The question is easier of the three.
 Which is better of the two?
 He was the laziest of all other workmen.
 Television has proved much harmful than useful.
 No less than five students were drowned
 Mr. Amarnath is the most ablest man of the town.
 There are not much books in the library.
 Less books are needed for the library.
 Indira Gandhi was the first politician of her time.
 Napoleon was greater than any politician of his time.
 As a sleeping partner he has invested a little amount of money.
 He had only the few rupees left.
 Amritsar is further from Delhi than Ambala.
 This is the most perfect system.
 The climate of Shimla is as good as Kashmir.
 He is only a peon and gets a less salary.
 Lal got cent per cent marks in English.
 No other man of the town is more wiser than Mr. Sethi.
 He gave a few coins he had in his pocket to the beggar.
 The teacher will give the student a verbal test.
 He got only passing marks in English.
  This watch is superior than that.
 Mohan is wiser than honest
 I do not like this kinds of jokes.
 My father has been sick for a very long time.
 Please open your book at twenty page.
 Both the brothers have not passed.
 Death is more preferable than dishonor.
 Both did not speak.
 This article was published in the last issue of the Hindustan Times.
 Many a demonstrators were arrested for shouting objectionable slogans.
 The porter told me that he would not accept fewer than ten rupees.
 Khushwant Singh’s command over English is the most excellent.
 Even his next relations did not come to his help in his predicament.
 Little knowledge of shoe-making proved very useful to me.
 There is no fewer than two litres of milk in the jug.
 He is happy because he has the few cares.
 She gave the beggar little flour she had.

ADVERB
DEFINITION: - An adverb is a word which is used to Modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb. For
Example: -
 He walked slowly.
 It is too hot outside.
 He played well.
 In these sentences, the words slowly, too well are Adverbs.
 THERE ARE SIX KINDS OF ADVERBS: -
(1) ADVERB OF TIME: - The adverbs which show when the action took place are called Adverbs of
Time. For Example: -
 Please help me now.
 He has just gone out.
 He prays to God daily.
 In these sentences, the words now, just, daily are Adverbs of Time.
(2) ADVERBS OF PLACE: - The adverbs which show where the action took place are called Adverbs of
place. For Example: -
 He is playing outside the house.
 Ram was standing there.
 Sita moved backward.
 In these sentences, the words outside, there, backward are Adverbs of Place.
(3) ADVERBS OF MANNER: - The adverbs which show how an action is performed are called Adverbs of
Manner. For Example: -
  He sang a song well.
 He worked hard.
 In these sentences, the words well, hard are Adverbs of Manner
(4) ADVERBS OF INTENSITY: - The adverbs which modify an adjective or an adverb are called Adverbs
of Intensity. For Example: -
 He ran very fast.
 It is too cold outside.
 Ram played extremely well.
 In these sentences, the words very, too, extremely are Adverbs of Intensity.
(5) INTERROGATIVE ADVERB: - The adverbs which are used for asking questions are called
Interrogative Adverbs. For Example: -
 Where do you live?
 When did he come here?
 Why did he go there?
 How did she play?
 In these sentences, the words where, when, why, how are Interrogative Adverbs.
(6) RELATIVE ADVERB: - A Relative Adverb joins clauses and modified the verb in the preceding
clause. For Example: -
 I know where he lives?
 Tell me when Ram came.
 I do not know why he wept?
 In these sentences, the words where, when, why are Relative Adverbs
 Another Example: -
 He runs fast.
Here the adverb fast modifies the verb runs.
 She is very beautiful woman.
Here the adverbs very modifies adjective (beautiful).
 He runs very fast.
Here the adverb very modifies another adverb fast.
 You seem to be smoking rather heavily these days.
Note: -

Fast is both an adjective and an adverb fastly is

neither an adjective nor an adverb.

 RULES REGARDING ADVERB: -

 JUST: - Just is applied immediately before the main verb or between two auxiliary verbs. Example: -
 I just saw him.
 Alison has just arrived.
 She has just been looking for her son.
  Too: - Beyond the person limit. Too is used in negative sense.
 She is too weak to walk.
 Too preceded by only has a positive sense.
 I am only too glad to meet my friends.
 Too much/ Much too: -
 Too much is used before a noun.
 She takes too much sugar in tea.
 Much too: - is applied before an adjective.
 It is much too painful.
TOO MUCH + NOUN
MUCH TOO + ADJECTIVE
ONLY TOO + MUCH

 ‘Too’ gives the sense of also when used at the end of statement. Example:
 Have you been to the party too?
 Very: - in a high degree or extremely.
 Very is used with adjectives. It gives positive sense.
 Thus we use too when we mean negative sense.
 We use very when we mean positive.
Example: -
Wrong:- I am too glad to meet you.
Right : - I am very glad to meet you.
 NOTE: - Very is not used with objectives and adverbs that already have an extreme meaning. Example:
 You played really brilliantly.
 I am completely exhausted.
 She was absolutely furious.
 Too/Enough: -
 ‘Too’ comes before adjectives.
 Enough (sufficient) comes after an adjective.
Example: -
 He is too ill to need a doctor.
MEANS: - He is so ill that it is useless to send for a doctor.
 He is ill enough to need a doctor.
MEANS: - He is so ill that we must send for a doctor.
 Negative of enough is equivalent of two negative clauses. Example: -
 He was not rich enough to marry her.
MEANS: - He was not rich so he did not marry her.
 EVEN: - We use even to indicate that something unexpected or surprising, or that it reaches an
unexpected or surprising degree or extreme. Example:-
 Everyone is lying to me – even you.
 Even the doorman smiled as the left.
  Very/Much:-
 Very is used before {V1 + ing}.
Example:- This book is very interesting.
 Much is used before {V3} and comparative degree.
Example:-
1. I was much criticized by my friends.
2. She is feeling much better now.
NOTE: - The following words are followed by ‘very’.

Pleased, Surprised, Delighted,

Grieved, Pained, Annoyed,

Very +
Experienced, Contented,

Worried, Interested.

Example: - I am very pleased to see you here.

 Very is also used to modify much.
Example: - Thank you very much for this favour.
 YET/STILL: -
 YET: - Means upto the moment of speaking. It is mainly used in negative or negative- interrogative
sentences.
Example: -
 She has not eaten food yet.
 Why have you not written an essay yet?
 STILL: - Suggests that some activity or situation continues from the past into the present.
Example:-
 It is still raining outside.
 I am still learning English.
 ELSE: - is not followed by than, it is followed by but.
Wrong: - I met none else than your father.
Right : - I met none else but your father.
 HOME: - is used as an adverb of place in that case neither a preposition nor a possessive adjective
should be used before it.
Wrong: - I am going to home.
Right : - I am going home.
Wrong: - I am going my home.
Right : - I am going home.
  TIME: - Showing words such as morning, evening, night, month and year have such qualifying words
as this, that, next, last, all, etc. in that case no preposition is used before them. Example: -
 He comes last evening.
 He worked all day.
 She is coming this evening.
 FAIRLY/RATHER: -
 Fairly (adverb): - means in a fair manner, beautifully, handsomely, conveniently etc.
 If fact fairly is used in good sense. Example: -
 Tea is fairly hot. {it means one can drink}.
 Within a trading turn they long abide. {Full fairly situate on a haven’s side (Dryden).
 Rather: - means fairly or ‘to some degree’ used when we are expressing slight criticism. Or we can say
rather is used in bad sense. Example: -
 Tea is rather hot. (one cannot drink)
 DON’T SAY: -
Fairly dull, fairly ugly, fairly bad, fairly slow,
fairly cunning,
Rather intelligent, rather beautiful, rather
good, rather honest, rather quick.

Wrong: - She is rather beautiful.

Right : - she is fairly beautiful.
 Late/ Lately: -
 Late: - as an adverb means late in time. Example: -
 He comes late everyday.
 Lately: - means recently. Example: -
 He has lately started a new business.
 I have lately seen her wearing a blue saree.
 NOTE: - Never use any preposition before adverb.
 HARDLY, BARELY, SCARCELY: - they are almost negative in meaning. So do not use any negative
words with them.
Wrong: - He does not have hardly any money.
Right : - He has hardly any money.
 NOTE: - for detailed usage of hardly/ scarcely, when, no sooner- than etc. Read conjunctions.
 Adverbs of frequency (Such as): -
Usually, normally, always, ever, often,
sometimes, frequency, rarely, seldom, never
etc. are placed either before the verb or
between the auxiliary and the main verb.
Example: -
Wrong: - Often I go to meet him.
Right : - I often go to meet him.
Wrong: - Never she will come to meet me.
Right : - She will never come to meet me.
 QUITE: - Means completeness, but it is often used Wrongly at the place of very.
Wrong: - Are you very sure about that woman.
Right : - Are you quite sure about that woman.
 Please/kindly should not be used simultaneously. Example: -
 Please open the window.
Or
Kindly open the window
 DON’T SAY: - Please, kindly open the window.
 If/Supposing cannot be used simultaneously. Example: -
 If you come to me I will help you.
Or
Supposing you come to me I will help you.
 DON’T SAY: - If, supposing you come to me I will help you.
 ‘Never’ use adverb after the following verbs (such as- seem, appear, look, smell, remain.). Actually
these verbs take adjective only.
Wrong: - This Mango tastes sweetly.
Right : - This Mango tastes sweet.
 Frankly speaking, fortunately and if God willing are used at the beginning of a sentence. Example: -
 If God willing I will compose a number of poems this year.
 Until/Unless/Till are negative words so do not used not/no/never, before after them.
Wrong: - Unless she does not come to me, I will not help her in this case.
Right: - Unless she comes to me, I will not help her in this case.
 Since: - (Adverb) from a time in the past until a later past time or until now. Example: -
 He left home two weeks ago and we haven’t heard from him since.
 ‘Already’ means something that has happened prior to the time mentioned or thought of. Example: -
 I have already completed my home work.
 EXERCISE FOR REVISION
 Correct the following sentences: -
 Dirty water is quite unwholesome.
 She was very surprised to hear the news of her failure
 The air is very hotter today than yesterday.
 The sea is much story today.
 Altogether you are mistaken.
 Today I am busy rather.
 He comes here seldom.
 Now he is far good.
 Mahesh is rather a lazy boy.
 He spoke enough loud to her heard.
 They did not find it nowhere.
 You explained clearly you views.
 I forbade him not to smoke.
 The sun is very hotter today than yesterday.
 He is too weak that he cannot succeed.
 Your brother is rather a lazy student.
 I am too glad to meet you.
 Your pay is enough good for your work.
 The shop has fallen two days since.
 I am not very interested in the story.
 The Ganga is holy considered by the Hindus.
 He did it firstly.
 More they get, more they want.
 You speak too loud.
 The child is very young to read.
 Action sometimes speak loudly than the words.
 I want to know as to why he hit the dog.
 Call me anything else than a food.
 He behaved cowardly before the principal.
 Please kindly help me in my work.
 She ran vey fastly.
 I care a straw for you.
 I am only free in the morning.
 Mohan is a very wise man, certainly.
 I never remember having met him before.
 We entirely draw our intellectual and cultural heritage form the Mediterranean’s.
 Alexander Pope was a much learned man.
 Last night, my father returned latelty.
 The old man lived miserly.
 Kamlesh is somewhat intelligent for his age.
 You only are responsible for my misfortunes.
 I am quite sorry to hear of your losses.
 He is named as Chander Mohan.
 He seldom or ever tells a lie.
 Mr. Rajiv Gandhi was respected greatly.
 I shall present the book just now.
 The patient is comparatively better today.
 He was fortunately not hurt.
 He carefully does his work.
  We overpowered the culprit at length.

QUESTION TAG
DEFINITION: - in fact Question Tag is a very common device in conversation. It is used at the end of a
statement in order to turn it into a question or check that the statement is correct.
Example: - You go to school, don’t you?
 Formation of question Tag.
 {Positive Statement + Negative Tag}
 {Negative Statement + Positive Tag}
 The subject of Tag is always a pronoun. Now read the following statements with their tags.
 He goes to school, doesn’t he?
 They play hockey, don’t they?
 Alison comes to meet me, doesn’t she?
 I am reading a book, aren’t I?
 I am not reading a novel, am I?
 NOTE: - The question tag of ‘I am’ is ‘aren’t I?’
 He composed a song, didn’t he?
 They did not go to office, did they?
 He has written a novel, hasn’t he?
 He used to smoke, didn’t he?
 Mother will read the Ramayana, won’t she?
 You will not call him, will you?
 I did not use to play hockey, did I?
 You never used to smoke, did you?
 You would rather go, wouldn’t you?
 Imperative statements are converted into more polite request by adding a positive future tag. Example: -
 Stop that noise, will you?
 Bring a cup of tea, will you?
 Let’s go for a walk, shall we?
 The pronouns, everybody, somebody, none, anybody, etc. take plural tags. Example: -
 Everybody is ready, aren’t they?
 None comes to meet me, did they?
 Anybody hardy teaches here, do they?

 NOTE: - Hardly/scarcely/none/rarely are negative words so they take positive tags.

 Thus we can say that question tags are generally used, when the speaker wants the listeners to agree with
or confirm something. A rising information on the question tag implies tag the speaker is uncertain.
Moreover the falling information (pitch variation is called into nation) implies that he or she is more
certain.
 Exercise for revision
 Add question tag to the following: -
1. It’s very hot today, ………….. .
2. You like him, …………… .
3. Kishore will come, …………. .
4. We must hurry, ………….. .
5. He will never give up, ………….. .
6. Your father is a doctor, ………….. .
7. You have tea for breakfast, ………….. .
8. I didn’t hurt you, ………….. .
9. You aren’t going out, ………… .
10. They have sold the house, …………. .
11. It isn’t ready yet, …………… .
12. Gopal hasn’t go home soon, ……………. .
13. They will go home soon, …………. .
14. He didn’t paint it himself, …………… .
15. I needn’t get up early tomorrow, ………………. .

PREPOSITION
DEFINITION: - A preposition is a word used to show in what relation one thing stands to another thing.
Preposition means ‘Place in front’. Example:-
 The book is on the table.
 We are opposed to dowry system.
 He is over the hill.
 In sentence (1) ‘on’ shows the relationship between the book and the table. In sentence (2) ‘to’ indicates
the relationship between the quality of opposition and dowry system. In sentence (3) the preposition
‘over’ points out relationship between ‘He’ and ‘the Hill’.
 Complex or Phrase Preposition: - A number of phrases are called ‘Complex’ prepositions some of them
are given below.
 ADVERB & PREPOSITION: -
Example: - along with, apart from, away from.
 Verb Adjective Conjunction – Preposition.
Example: - By means of, on account of, in view of, in spite of.
 Object of a Preposition: - Generally the object of a preposition is a noun.
Example: -
 We are opposed to capital punishment.
 We got into the aeroplane.
 It may be a pronoun.
 Collect the books from her.
 I spoke to him over the phone.
 This medicine is not for you
 Sometimes it is an adverb.
Example: -
 They waited for you until now.
 He would be gone by then.
 It is sometimes an adverbial phrase.
Example: -
 I bought a motorcycle for under half its value.
 It was sold for over a thousand pounds.
 At times it is a verb: -
Example: -
b) An infinitive.
 He was about to leave.
c) A gerund.
 You can have it for the asking.
 Sometimes it is a clause: -
Example: -
 His mood depends upon what he has eaten.
 Pay heed to what I tell.
 Preposition of Time.
 AT: - is used when the exact time is specified.
 It is used with names of festivals.
Example: -
 We shall meet at four O’ clock.
 All the members of the family meet at Christmas.
 She bought a saree at Dipawali.
 IN: - is generally used with the future tense. It indicates the period within which an action will take
place. It is also used with the season, years and parts of the day and months.
Example: -
 He should be here in a few minutes.
 He would come back in winter.
 He went out early in the morning.
 India got its freedom in 1947.
 BY: - It shows the time before which an action will be finished. So it is used with the future tense.
Example: -
 The dinner should be over by 10 O’ clock.
 I hope to finish doing it by next week.
 FOR: - It shows the duration of time. It is often used with perfect tense.
Example: -
 It has rained for three hours.
 He had to lead a Spartan life for five years.
  SINCE: - It indicates a point of time in the past when the action began. The action continues even at the
moment when the statement is made.
Example: -
 I have been living here since 1980.
 People have been waiting for the King since 5 O’clock.
 ON: - It is used with reference to time. It does not indicate the exact time like ‘at’. It is usually used with
days and dates.
Example: -
 I was away on the day the storm hit our part of the country.
 His tenure of office expires on the 31st of March.
 Under, Underneath, Below, Beneath, Over and Above: -
 Under, Underneath, Beneath have the same meaning but,
 UNDER:- is a preposition that denotes position.
Example: -
 Kick it under the carpet.
 The thief buried the jewels under the ground.
 BENEATH: - is often used figuratively.
Example: -
 She does not like mixing with people beneath her.
 It is beneath his dignity to accept the position.
 UNDERNEATH: - is used as an adverb.
 He found nothing underneath.
 OVER AND ABOVE: - are interchangeable but
 Above: - means only higher than.
 One could see the mountain towering above him.
 Over: - means vertically above.
 She put the cover over the type writer.
 Below: - means lower than, ‘Under’ means vertically below.
 They could see the sea below them.
 I have a nasty cut under the chin.
 Under, beneath, over and above, can also be used figuratively.
Example:-
 He is under the necessity of taking up a job.
 He is beneath my notice.
 He is above suspicion.
 You have no authority over me.
 BETWEEN AND AMONG: -
 Between: - is used with reference to two persons or things.
 Between ourselves I don’t like it.
 There is nothing to choose between the two.
 Any two of a larger number.
 He walked between the two rows of plants.
 Among: - is used when more than two people or things are referred to.
 She divided five sweets among her children.
 ‘At’ and ‘In’ when used with reference to place.
 At: - is used to denote the exact point.
 There is a ruined castle at the top of the hill.
 I met him at the station.
 IN: - suggests the idea of within a larger area and is hence used with larger towns, valley and countries.
 Do not park your car in the middle of the road.
 In Spain people love bull-fights.
 Preposition of Direction: -
 FOR: - is used when the verb denotes the beginning of a movement.
 He left for Madras.
 The last bus for Chennai leaves at 11 P.M.
 Against: - means pressure or contact.
 The pole is leaning against the wall.
 I shall fight against this order to the end.
 At: - is generally used with certain verbs.
 Aim at
 Point at
 Laugh at
 Stare at
 Look at
 Throw at
 Towards: - suggests the direction and ‘to’ the destination.
 He is rushing towards his ruin.
 Let us invite them all to dinner.
 From: - suggests the point of departure.
 He has been eliminated from the tournament.
 This is quite different from what I expected.
 OF: - is used in expression like die of, made of, ask of expect of, meaning of.
 He died of tuberculosis.
 This is made of fiber-glass.
 I would ask of you that you never do it again.
 It is not expected of him.
 OFF: - has two meanings (a) from the surface of, (b) down from.
 Take your hands off the table.
 He fell off his bicycle.
 OUT OF: - means from the interior.
  Take those pads out of the drawer.
 ‘In’, with and of are used while describing people and their dress.
 In is used with everything (Clothes, Jewellery) actually worn on the body.
 Look at the policemen in uniform.
 That gentleman in navy blue suit.
 WITH: - is used with anything which is carried.
 A gardener with a spade.
 That man with a brief-case.
 WITH: - is used while referring to physical features and peculiarities and diseases.
 That boy with a club foot.
 That old man with a flowing beard.
 OF: - is used when permanent qualities of character and age are referred to.
 A man of three score and ten.
 He is man of great achievement.
 ‘At’ is found in the following combination of words.

At war, at peace, at dinner at breakfast, at table, at length, at

last, at will, at a loss, at work, at play, at best, at worst, at least,
at first, at this, at that, at a profit, at a loss, at any rate, at a
time, at the same time, at times, at sight, at first sight, at short
notice, at a moment’s notice, at home, at church, at sea, at
school, at a pinch, at all events at present, at once, at all costs,
at hand, at ease, at rest, at heart.

 By: - is generally found in the following combination of words.

By land, by sea, by air, by ship, by plane, by car, by bus, by

heart, by chance, by design, by mistake, by accident, by good
fortune, by no means, by all means, by degrees, by surprise, by
the way, by far.

 In: - is generally found in the following combination of words.

In a hurry, in public, in private, in time, in difficulties, in

danger, in fun, in play, in common, in need, in ink, in pencil,
in pieces, in all, in any case, in fact, in particular, in a sense, in
tears, in brief, in short, in other words, in love, in itself, in a
way, in that way, in some way, in turn, in trouble, in hand, in
all likelihood, in all probability, in work, in hand, in the long
run, in due course, in the end.
 On: - is most often found in the following combination of words.

On duty, on guard, on fire, on a visit, on leave, on a journey,

on one’s way, on foot, on horseback, on sale, on fire, on
business, on holiday, on vacation, on the other hand, on the
contrary, on the whole, on account, on purpose, on second
thoughts.

 OUT OF: -

Out of hearing, out of sight, out of work, out of order, out of

breath, out of control, out of use, out of danger, out of reach,
out of kindness, out of date, out of the question, out of stock,
out of turn, out of doors.

 TIME: -

One at time, at a time, in time, at time, at one time, before his

time, at that time, behind the time, once upon a time, by that
time, for a time, on time, for the time being, at the same time.

 Fill in the blanks with suitable Preposition.

1. He was standing too close……… the fire.
2. He is not good ………….. games.
3. He is ahead………… our times.
4. He was found fit………. The work.
5. He is busy………….. his accounts.
6. He is proficient………….. speaking English.
7. He is keen …………. Wining the first prize.
8. You better acquaint yourself……….. the latest developments in your field.
9. It resulted ………..choas.
10. It is far ………….. being true.
11. I tried to appeal ………….. his good sense.
12. He is too weak ………… walk.
13. I do not object ………… your smoking.
14. He does not contribute …………. this view.
15. He arrives ………. Time.
16. Do not depend…………. him for anything.
17. Don’t tread ………… the grass.
18. He was accused ………….. murder.
 19. He is always conscious …………….his family background.
20. You will have to protect it ………… weather.
21. You cannot exclude him………… the party.
22. He was warned……… taking that drug.
23. I don’t agree………… you as far as this matter is concerned.
24. This book is intended …………. advanced students.
25. What are you driving………….?
EXERCISE FOR REVISION
 Correct the following sentences: -
 He jumped in the river from the bridge.
 He was found guilty for murder.
 You did not invite him for the dinner.
 I prefer coffee than tea.
 Air is necessary for life.
 I wanred him from the danger.
 I agree with you proposal.
 I agree to you.
 The old man died from Cholera.
 Are you sure at your success?
 He is ill from fever.
 Yesterday the teacher beat me by a stick.
 It is seven from my watch.
 We laughed on him.
 He learnt much from experience.
 The postman knocked on the door.
 I have been ill from Tuesday last.
 Death is preferable from dishonor.
 He did not comply with my request.
 I have applied to this post.
 I was appointed for this post.
 You must abide with the rules.
 You must abide with rules.
 He was proud on his work.
 He killed two birds by one shot.
 The examination will begin from Monday.
 I went there in train and came back by foot.
 He sat besides me.
 Beside his children some students were also there.
 I have been waiting for you from two hours.
 It is two in my watch.
  Let us discuss about the matter. Now-a-days I am short in money.
 The Himalayas lie in the north of India.
 Beside cows he keeps horses.
 Please see me behind this period.
 I asked him where did he go.
 The ring is made from gold.
 Butter is made of milk.
 We shall be thankful of you.
 He is known with me.
 Yesterday you agreed to us.
 I am afraid from snakes.
 I have a special aptitude with English Grammar.
 You take delight for hunting.
 My request of leave was granted.
 She was certain in her success.
 Your brother is eligible of this post.
 You must not depend at him.
 He is slow in accounts.
 Caesar was not moved with Cinna’s request.

CONJUNCTION
DEFINITION: - A conjunction is a word which joins sentences, words, nouns, pronouns and clauses.
Example: - Ram and Mohan go to school.
 Kinds of conjunction: - There are two type of conjunction,
1. Coordinate conjunctions.
2. Sub-ordinate conjunctions.
 Coordinate Conjunction:- Coordinate conjunctions are applied to join two or more clauses of equal
rank. Sub-ordinate conjunctions are classified into four categories.
 Cumulative
 Adversative
 Illative
 Alternative
 Cumulative Conjunction: - These conjunctions are used to join simple statements. These conjunctions are: -
 And
As Well As
Not Only - But also
Both - and.
Example: -
 Shakespeare was a poet and playwright.
 You as well as I are reading a book.
 He is not only my friend but also my teacher.
She is both a poet and a dancer.
 Adversative conjunctions: - These conjunctions are used join paradoxical statement.
 Yet/but/still
Where as.
Example: -
 He is rich yet/but/still he is not happy.
 He was rich where as his father was poor.
 Illative: - Shows inference.
 So/therefore: -
Example: -
 He was ill so he did not go to office.
Or
He was ill therefore he did not go to office.
 Alternative conjunctions: - These conjunctions are used when choice is given.
Or, otherwise/else
Either – or,
Neither – nor.

Example: -
 Come in or go out.
 Run fast otherwise you will miss the train.
 Either Ram or his friends have done their home work.
 Neither Ram nor his father went to Agra to see the Taj Mahal.
 Sub-ordinate conjunctions: - Subordinate conjunctions are the words which are applied to join
subordinate clauses with principal clauses. Actually subordinate to form complex sentences.
 Now let us discuss sub-ordinate conjunctions.

That/who/which/than/if/whether
What/when/where/why
As if/such as/ lest – should/
While/hardly – when/scarcely – when/
No sooner – than.
Although – yet.

 That: -
Example: - Ram says that he will go to market to buy some toys for his
Daughter.
 Who: - is used persons.
Example: - I saw a man who was blind.
 Which: - is used for non-living things.
Example:- This is the pen which you gave me two days ago.
 If/whether: -
Example: - She wanted to know if I was reading a novel the previous day in my study chamber.
Or
She wanted to know whether I was reading a novel the previous day in my chamber.
 What: - (Reason).
Example: - I know the reason why she was angry.
 Such As: - is used to indicate someone or something of a specific sort.
Example: - Citrus fruits such as orange are rich in vitamin ‘C’.
 As If: - is used to indicate the sense of false impression.
Example: - She walks as if she were an actor.
 Lest: - is followed by should. It is used to indicate the outcome or the consequences for not paying need
to the caution.
Example: - Make haste lest you should miss the train.
Work hard lest you should fail.
 While: - if tells…
 Time duration.
 At the same time.
 Where as.
Example; - Make haste while the sun shines.
While she was in London some thieves broke into her house.
 Hardly When

Scarcely When
Example: - Hardly had I reached the station when it began to rain.
Or
Scarcely had I reached the station when it began to rain.
 No sooner - than.
Example: -No sooner did he reach the station than it began to rain.
Or
No sooner had he reached the station than it began to rain.
 Although/though Yet. (is used to indicate two contradictory qualities.
Example: - Though/Although he worked hard yet he could not get good
marks.
 Than: - is used with comparative degree.
Example: - The climate of Agra is hotter than that of Srinagar.
 Note: - {Hardly/scarcely + had + S + V3 + ob + when +
sub+ V2 + ob}
 Note: - {No sooner + did + s + V1 + ob + than + sub + V2 +
Ob}
Or
 {No sooner + had + s + V3 + ob + than + sub + V2 + ob}
 Exercise for Revision
Correct the following sentences: -
1. They have left the town last year.
2. Walk slowly lest you may not fall.
3. He is laid down with fever.
4. Do not laugh on the old man.
5. Who did go with you to the movie?
6. You need not to worry.
7. Kindly tell me where can I meet him?
8. I have been knowing her since her childhood.
9. He looks never sad.
10. He is waiting for you since morning.
11. Gomati is small river.
12. He is the member of a union.
13. No sooner I reached the station, the train left.
14. One likes to look at moon and not at sun.
15. I like my friend’s dog who is a good man.
16. Beware of thieves, lest they steal from your house.
17. He has no time for reading newspaper, and no desire neither.
18. If I go to Kashmir, I will avail the opportunity to buy a fine shawl.
19. He, I and you are friends.
20. None but fools has ever believed it.
21. The Committee have issued its report.
22. The Committee is divided on one minor point.
23. The bridge is too dangerous.
24. This house comprises of four rooms.
25. Yours is a more better proposal.
26. Yours is a more better proposal.
27. The little boy is afraid from the dog.
28. Doing something is better from doing nothing.
29. If you will try, you will succeed.
30. If it will rain, the ground will be wet.
31. If you will not obey your parents, they will beat you.
32. Whose are these cattles?
33. Whose cattles are these?
34. You did not give me a ten-rupees note.
35. Her great fear was that she may fail.
36. We should try to help the poors.
37. The poor beggar has dead.
38. God helps those who helps themselves.
 39. It is quarter to five.
40. None will help you but I.
41. As you sow as shall you reap.
42. Be quick lest you might miss the bus.
43. Mongia could not play so he was ill.
44. I do not like such boys who do not respect their elders.
45. I collected as many specimens which I could find.
46. We have never had such a time like the present.
47. Tears such that angels weep burst forth.
48. Who am I which I should object?
49. I am the person which is to blame.
50. He who eats till he is sick must fast till he is well.
{SOME IMPORTANT RULES AT A GLANCE}
 Collective Nouns: - Jury, committee, government, team, orchestra, class, and mob take singular verb
when used as a single unit. Example: -
 The jury has changed its decision without any reason.
 The Government is planning a number of new policies for the upliftment of the poor.
 Collective nouns take plural verb when divided. Example: -
 The committee were divided according to their decision.
 Doubt is followed by ‘If’.

Wrong: - I doubt that he will come.

Right : - I doubt if he will come.

 Cheque is followed by ‘for’.

Wrong: - He gave me a cheque of Rs. 2000/-
Right : - He gave me a cheque for Rs. 2000/-
 Cousin is not followed by brother or sister.
Wrong: - She is my cousin sister.
Right : - She is my cousin.
 It is wrong to say: - English teacher.
 Say: - My friend is a teacher of English.
 Blunder is not followed by mistake.
Wrong: - You did a blunder mistake.
Right : - You did blunder.
 As if is used when we mean the sense of pretension, ‘As if’ was is not used with if.
Wrong: - She walks as if she was an actor.
Right : - She walks as if she were an actor.
 {Present Perfect + since + Past Indefinite}
 Three years have rolled by since I saw her wearing a mild smiled on her rosy lips.
  Good night is never followed by How are You.
Wrong: - Good night Alison, how are you.
Right : - Good evening Alison how are you.
 It is wrong to say family member say members of the family.
Wrong: - Cliff and Jimmy Porter are my family members.
Right : - Cliff and Jimmy Porter are the members of my family.
 ‘It is time’/’it is high time’ is followed by past indefinite.
Example: -
 It is high time we went home.
 The number of + Plural noun + singular verb
 The number of students is increasing day by day.
 A number of + Plural noun + plural verb
 A number of students are increasing day by day.
 According to is not followed by me/us coz according to means ‘in the opinion’ of other.
Wrong: - According to me he is a good boy.
Right : - In my view/opinion he is a good boy.
 The third form of Broadcast and Telecast is Broadcast and Telecast respectively.
Wrong: - This programme will be telecasted tomorrow.
Right : - this programme will be telecast tomorrow

As well as
With
Sub + Together with + Sub ……….. + Verb
No less than will be applied according
In addition to to first Subject.
Not
Example: -

Wrong: - You as well as I am reading book.

Right: - You as well as I are reading book.

Wrong: - Mr. Cliff with his wife and friends have been to Canada several times.
Right : - Mr. Cliff with his wife and friends has been to Canada several times.
 Never use since with Future Perfect Continuous Tense.
Wrong: - He will have been teaching here since 2009.
Right: - He will have been teaching here by the 2009.
 Don’t say: - write with blue ink/blank ink.
  Say: - Write in blue ink.
Or
Write in black ink.
 Also remember: - In the name of God, in blood.
 It is wrong to say: - I bought a Television for my kids.
 Say: - I bought a Television set for my kids yesterday.
 {sub + is/am/are + used to + V1 + ing + ob}
Example: - She is used to taking tea.
Means she is in the habit of taking tea.
 Don’t say: - Despite of working hard she could not get good marks.
 Say : - Despite working hard she could not get good marks.
 Explanation: of is not used after ‘Despite’.
Despite of – (Wrong)

 Despite

 Do not use infinitive ( to + V1) and gerund (V1 + ing) together.

Wrong: - To smoking is injurious to health.
Right : - Smoking is injurious to health.
Or
To smoke is injurious to health.
SUB –VERB AGREEMENT
DEFINITION: - Achieving subject verb agreement involves choosing the verb form for the subject.

In general, the choice depends on person, number and tense.

 Singular subject takes singular verb.

V1 Always Plural.

V1 + s/es Always singular.

Example: -

 She goes to school.

 I go to school.

 He/she/it/Name - Singular subject.

 I, you, we, they - Plural subject.

 Intervening words between subject and verb: - Often the subject of a sentence is followed by on
adjective phrase or clause that contains a noun. Be careful to make your verb agree with the subject not
with a noun that follows the subject. Example: -

 One of those video game machines appears everywhere I go.

 A collection of glass animals was artfully arranged on the table.

 RULE -3: - When a sentence has two or more subjects joined by and the verb usually takes the plural
form. Example; -

 The sun and the wind cause skin burn.

 Alison and Jimmy do not help each other.

 When each or every precedes subjects joined by and the verb is singular. Example: -

 Each governor and each attorney general was assigned a limousine.

 When the subjects joined by and refer to a single person, thing or idea, the verb is singular. Example: -

 Red beans and rice is a popular dish.

 In case of Neither – Nor, Either – Or, the verb is used according to the subject that comes after Nor,
Or. Example: -

 Neither the boxwood nor the roses have survived the ice storm.

 Neither the roses nor the boxwood has survived the ice storm.

 Singular verbs are required with most indefinite pronouns such as, Everyone, everybody, anyone, one,
no one, each, either, neither, none, soon, Example: -

 Everyone in the group reads music

 Neither of the vehicles has new tyres.

 Each of the articles was published in 2009.

 All, any, most, none and some. Example: -

 Most of the residents are elderly.

 Most of the confusion was over.

 Some of the pages were missing.

 Some of the laughter was dying.

  When the relative pronoun is preceded by the only one of ….. + the Sing Verb. Example: -

 He is the only one of the students who always studies hard.

 My chief entertainment was the old movies on television.

 The old movie son television was my chief entertainment

FORMATION OF POSSESSIVE CASE

DEFINITION: - When the noun is singular, the possessive case is formed by adding {‘s} to the noun. As:

 The boy’s book.

 The king’s crown.

 When the noun is plural and ends in ‘S’ the possessive case is formed by adding only an apostrophe.
Example: -
 Boy’s school.
 Girl’s school.
 When the noun is plural but does not end in “S” the possessive sign is formed by adding {‘S}.
 When a noun or a title consists of several words, the possessive sign is attached to the last word only.
Example: -

 The king of Bhutan’s visit.

 When two nouns are in apposition, the possessive sign is put to the latter only. Example; -

 That is Tagore the poet’s house.

 Also when two nouns are closely connected, the possessive is put to the latter. Example: -

 Karim and Salim’s bakery.

 William and Mary’s reign.

 Each of two or more connected nouns implying separate possession must take separate possessive’s.
Example: -

 Raja Rao’s and R.K. Narayan’s novels.

 Goldsmith’s and Cowper’s poems.

 Use of the Possessive Case: -

 The possessive case is now used chiefly with the name of living things. Example: -
  The lion’s mane.

 The possessive is used with name of personified nouns. Example: -

 India’s heroes.

 Nature’s law.

 At death’s door.

 Noun in Apposition: -

 Read the following sentences.

 Ram, our captain fifty runs.

Apposition means – Placing near.

 A noun is apposition is in the same as the noun which it explains. Example: -

 Kabir, the great reformer, was a weaver.

 Exercise for revision: -

DIRECTION: - After each blank below two verb-forms are given in brackets. Choose the correct form
and fill in the blank.

1. Each of these shirts ……………. (has, have) a wide collar.

2. Mr. Ram has two children. Both …………(is, are) boys.

3. Few of the boys ………… (know, knows) Hindi well.

4. We have invited ten guests for the dinner. All ………….(is, are) expected to come.

5. ……………(do, does) either of his sons have a job?

6. He made a lot of money is his business. But now all …………..(is, are) gone.

7. I have got two pens, but neither ………….(writes, write) well.

8. A few of the boys………….(want, wants) to have a swim in the lake.

9. ……………(is, are) there any among you without his textbooks?

10. ………….(is, are) one of your books missing?

11. There………….(was, were) not many in the audience.

12. I want some food……….(is, are) there any left?

13. Let’s have a late dinner. No one …………(want, wants) to eat now.

14. “Are there any reasons for your not wanting to marry now?” “Oh yes, there …………(is, are) several.”

15. Most of the trees in our garden …………(is, are) fruit-bearing ones.

16. Everyone ………….(is, are)asking for a pass to the film festival.

17. Most of the milk………….(has, have) been drunk by the cat.

18. ‘Every one of your reasons for not marrying …………(sound, sounds) funny.”

19. None of the books in the library…………(is are) missing.

20. ……………(do, does) anyone want to ask a question?

21. None of his poetry ………… (Deserve, deserves) to be published.

22. Someone …………..(has, have) walked away with my umbrella.

23. Most of the boys …………..(come, comes) in their own cars.

24. “…………….(has, have) everybody taken down the new words?”

25. Some of the old man’s obstinacy…………(is, are) seen in his sons too.

26. Every worker …………..(was, were) taken back when the strike was over.

27. Many an attempt ………….(was, were) made to climb the Everest before Tenzing and Hillary
succeeded.

28. Each child ……………(gets, get) a glass of milk every morning at the school.

29. Every shop and every restaurant ………….(was, were) closed on the day of the bandh.

30. Each son and each daughter……………..(get, gets) an equal share of the old man’s property.

ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION

1. A number of people listening to a lecture - audience

2. One who is present everywhere - omnipresent

3. One who is all powerful - omnipotent

4. One who knows everything - omniscient

5. A collection of poems - anthology

6. A collection of flowers - bouquet

7. That which cannot be seen through - opaque

8. A lover of mankind - philanthropist

9. A hate of mankind - misanthrope

10. A lover of others - altruist

11. A person who does not believe in God - atheist

12. One who cuts in stones - sculptor

13. One who deals in flower - forist

14. A person incharge of a museum - curator

15. One who compiles a dictionary - lexicographer

16. Government by one person - autocracy

17. Murder of oneself - suicide

18. Murder of man - homicide

19. Murder of brother - fratricide

20. One who dies for a noble cause - martyr

21. One new to anything, inexperienced - novice or tyro

22. The first speech delivered by a person - maiden speech

23. One who lives on flesh - carnivorous

24. One who feeds on human flesh - cannibal

25. Persons living at the same time - contemporaries

26. A person who is unable to pay his debts - insolvent/bankrupt

27. A sound that cannot be heard - inaudible

28. A person who cannot be easily approached - inaccessible

29. Government by religious principles - theocracy

30. Violating or profaning religious thing/place - sacrilege

31. Incapable of being corrected - incorrigible

32. Incapable of being repaired - irreparable

33. Incapable of being read - illegible

34. The art of cultivating and managing gardens- horticulture

35. The study of coins - numismatics

36. The art of elegant speech or writing - rhetoric

37. One who is free from all mistakes and failure- infallible

38. One who does not take any intoxicating drink- teetotaler

39. That cannot be erased - indelible

40. One who has lost parents - orphan

41. Fit to drink - potable

42. A medicine for producing sleep - narcotic

43. To cut off a part of a person’s body which is infected- amputate

44. An examination of dead body - post-mortem

45. A home of orphans - orphanage

46. A home for lunatics - lunatic asylum

47. A home for old persons - infirmary

48. Causing death - fatal

49. One who believes in fate - fatalist

50. That which can be seen through - transparent

51. A place for ammunition and weapons - arsenal

52. A place for luggage at railway station - cloak room

53. A place for grains - granary

54. A place for bees - hive

55. A place for dogs - kennel

56. A place for horses - stable

57. A place for clothes - wardrobe

58. A place where money is made - mint

59. A place where government records are kept - archives

60. A place for the sick to recover health - sanatorium

61. An exact copy of handwriting, printing etc. - facsimile

62. A poem of lamentation - elegy

63. Murder of an infant - infanticide

64. A place where dead bodies are kept for identification - Morgue

65. A place where dead bodies are kept for post mortem - Mortuary

66. One who does something for the sake of money- mercenary

67. Lasting one day - ephemeral

68. Travelling under another name than one’s own- incognito

69. Easily broken - fragile

70. A strong desire to return home, home sickness - nostalgia

71. Able to adept oneself readily to many situation- versatile

72. The practice of marrying one at a time - monogamy

73. The practice of having two wives or two husband at a time- bigamy

74. The practice of marrying more than one wife at a time- polygamy

75. The practice of marrying more than one husband at a time- polyandry

76. A hater of womankind - misogynist

77. A lover of womankind - philogynist

78. A lover and collector of books - bibliophile

79. A decision made by voting - plebiscite

80. a person who is womanish in his habits - effeminate

81. one who amuses oneself by love making - philanderer

82. one who has a long experience by any occupation - veteran

 83. a man who does a thing for pleasure and not as a profession- amateur

84. one who talks continuously - loquacious

85. one who is out to destroy all government, law and order – anarchist

86. one who does not care for art and literature - philistine

87. Government by the rich - plutocracy

88. Government by the nobles - aristocracy

89. Government by the officials - bureaucracy

90. An imaginary name assumed by an author for disguise- pseudonym

91. Animals which live in water - aquatic

92. Animals which live both on land and sea - amphibian

93. Animals which give milk - mammals

94. Animals which live in flocks - gregarious

95. A person who walk in sleep - somnambulist

96. A person who talks in sleep - somnilloquist

97. Incapable of being avoided - inevitable

98. Incapable of being practiced - impracticable

99. Allowance paid to wife on legal separation - alimony

100. Fit to be eaten - edible

101. A remedy for all diseases - panacea

102. One who can use either hand with ease - ambidexterity

103. One who hates marriage - misogamist

104. Centre of attraction - cynosure

105. Murder of king or queen - regicide

106. A critical judge of any art and craft - connoisseur

107. One who speaks many languages - polyglot

108. Repetition of speech or writing word for word- verbatim

109. One who too strong to be overcome - invincible

110. Murder of father - patricide

111. Murder of mother - matricide

112. One who collects stamps - philatelist

113. One who is skilled in foreign language - linguist

114. One extremely fond of one’s wife - uxorious

115. A nation that is in a war-like mood - belligerent

116. A thing kept in memory of an event - souvenir

117. The last work( literary) of a writer - swan song

118. An imaginary land with perfect social order - utopia

119. Liable to catch fire easily - inflammable

120. The animals of a certain region - flora

121. Practice of talking too much about oneself - egotism

122. A game that results neither in victory nor in defeat - drawn

123. One who teaches dancing - choreographer

124. One who cuts precious stones - lapidist

125. One who draws maps - cartographer

126. One who supervise in the examination hall - invigilator

127. One who goes on foot - pedestrian

128. A period of interval between two reigns or governments- interregnum

129. A person who writer beautiful handwriting - calligraphist

130. A person having same name as another - namesake

131. Holding office without any remuneration - honorary

132. One who eats everything - omnivorous

133. One who lives on herbs - herbivorous

134. A fault that may be forgiven - venial

135. The act of speaking disrespectfully about sacred things- blasphemy

136. Voluntary giving up of throne in favour of someone- abdication

137. That can be carried easily - portable

138. Murder of wife - uroxicide

139. Murder of race - genocide

140. Murder of sister - sororicide

141. One who acts against religion - heretic

142. One who is habitual drunkard - sot, toper

143. The study of ancient writing - paleography

144. A person who is bad in spelling - cacographist

145. A person appointed by two parties to solve a dispute- arbitrator

146. Member of a band of robbers - brigand

147. A person who is made to bear the blame due to others- scapegoat

148. A person who brings goods illegally into the country- smuggler

149. Cutting for stone in the bladder - lithotomy

150. One who specializes in the study of birds - ornithologist

ANTONYMS
1. Abhor - like, love
2. Ability - inability
1. Above - below
2. Absence - presence
3. Absurd - reasonable
4. Accept - refuse, deny
5. Acceptance - rejection
6. Accurate - inaccurate
7. Acquit - convict
8. Active - inactive
9. Barren - fertile
10. Barbaric - civil
11. Begin - end
 12. Benefit - loss
13. Beneficial - injurious
14. Blame - praise
15. Bold - timid
16. Broad - narrow
17. Boon - curse
18. Better - worse
19. Caution - reckless
20. Cheerful - gloomy
21. Clean - dirty
22. Complicated - simple
23. Conceal - reveal
24. Conclude - begin
25. Conquer - surrender
26. Courageous - timid
27. Creation - destruction
28. Cruel - kind
29. Danger - safety
30. Debtor - creditor
31. Deep - shallow
32. Deficit - surplus
33. Demand - supply
34. Deny - accept
35. Diligent - idle
36. Diminish - increase
37. Disclose - close
38. Dull - bright
39. Economical - extravagant
40. Entrance - exit
41. Eligible - ineligible
42. Early - late
43. Endless - finite
44. Expedite - delay
45. Enthusiasm - indifference
46. Empty - full
47. Extend - limit
48. Exterior - interior
49. Facility - difficulty
50. Fade - bloom
51. Faithful - unfaithful
52. Falsehood - truthfulness
 53. Famous - notorious
54. Fiery - snowy
55. Final - initial
56. Gain - loss
57. Genuine - spurious
58. Glorious - disgraceful
59. Grateful - ungrateful
60. Hasten - impede, retard, hinder, delay
61. Hesitate - decide, resolve, settle, determine
62. Horrible - agreeable, pleasant, delightful, charming.
63. Humble - vain, proud, self-assertive, immodest.
64. Impartial - partial, biased, unjust, unfair,
65. Impede - expedite, hasten, quicken, urge
66. Innocent - wicked, guilty, criminal, culpable
67. Irritate - calm appease, soothe, pacify
68. Jolly - gloomy dismal, unhappy, sad
69. Just - unjust, unfair, partial biased, prejudiced.
70. Kind - cruel, hard, callous, harsh
71. Kill - create, produce, originate
72. Lasting - transient, transitory, evanescent
73. Liberty - captivity, bondage, submission, slavery
74. Loyalty - disloyalty, perfidy, treachery
75. Majestic - insignificant, paltry, abject
76. Malice - goodwill, benevolence, humanity
77. Miserable - joyous, happy, cheerful, blissful
78. Muscular - feeble, weak, frail, infirm
79. Narrow - wide, spacious, broad, extensive
80. Neat - untidy, disorderly, slovenly, unkempt
81. Notorious - reputable, famous, noted
82. Obedient - obstinate, disobedient, stubborn, recalcitrant
83. Obstinate - docile, complaint, yielding, amenable
84. Odd - ordinary, normal, commonplace
85. Oppose - aid, assist, encourage, support.
86. Order - disorder, confusion, chaos, anarchy
87. Pacify - irritate, exasperate, provoke, annoy
88. Passionate - dispassionate, fair, calm
89. Pathetic - pitiless, cruel
90. Peculiar - natural ordinary, usual, normal
91. Persuade - deter, discourage, dissuade, restrain
92. Plenty - scanty, deficiency, dearth, lack
93. Precious - cheap, useless, inferior
 94. Prevent - help, assist, aid, abet
95. Profuse - scanty, insufficient, meager, limited
96. Prolong - curtail, diminish, decrease, shorten
97. Queer - ordinary, common, usual, normal
98. Puzzle - solution, explanation, elucidation
99. Punctual - late, tardy, slack, unpunctual
100. Rambling - methodical, regular, orderly
101. Rash - careful, discreet, cautious, wary
102. Real - fanciful, imaginary, illusive, assumed
103. Religious - irreligious, profane, atheist, impious
104. Remove - restore, replace, supersede
105. Resent - like, love, fancy, esteem
106. Respect - humiliate, disrespect, disregard
107. Retain - relinquish, renounce, forsake, give up
108. Reverence - despise, scorn, disdain, contempt
109. Reward - penalty, punishment, fine, retribution
110. Rival - friend, chum, intimate, ally
111. Rough - even, smooth, polished, sleek
112. Sacred - profane, irreligious, irreverent, impious
113. Sad - cheerful, happy, joyous, mirthful
114. Scatter - hoard, amass, store, accumulate
115. Scold - compliment, praise, commend, applaud
116. Scorn - revere, respect, esteem, venerate
117. Selfish - generous, liberal, lavish, charitable, unselfish
118. Shocking - pleasant, charming, delightful
119. Similar - different, dissimilar, diverse, differing
120. Slander - praise, laud, extol, applaud
121. Smooth - uneven, rough, wrinkled
122. Stimulate - discourage, deter, dissuade, hinder
123. Sublime - ordinary, common, absurd, ludicrous
124. Suppress - encourage, excite, provoke, incite, agitate
125. Suspicious - unsuspicious, trustful, honest, straightforward
126. Systematic - irregular, casual, occasional
127. Talkative - taciturn, reserved, silent, mute
128. Tame - wild, savage, ferocious, untamed
129. Tasteless - tasteful, savoury, delicious, appetizing
130. Tear - repair, mend, rectify, restore
131. Tie - unfasten, loosen, disconnect, unbind
132. Torture - allay, relief, ease, comfort
133. Tragic - comic, farcical, propitious, amusing
134. Treacherous - faithful, loyal reliable, devoted
135. True - false, untrue, wrong, incorrect
136. Tune - disharmony, discord, dissonance
137. Typical - unusual, singular, peculiar abnormal
138. Trembling - steady, firm, stable, still
139. Teacher - student, pupil, disciple, learner
140. Untidy - neat, tidy, immaculate, smart
141. Utility - worthless, useless
142. Urgent - unnecessary, petty, insignificant
143. Vain - fruitful, effective, useful
144. Versatile - static, unskillful, invariable
145. Violent - quiet, placid, peaceful, calm
146. Wakeful - lethargic, asleep, inactive
147. Yield - resist, withhold, restrain, oppose
148. Zenith - base, nadir, bottom

SYNONYMS
1. Abandon - relinquish, give up, abdicate, forsake, quit
2. Abduct - kidnap, running away
3. Abhor - hat, loathe, detest, dislike, despise
4. Abide - dwell, wait, live, stay, inhabit
5. Absurd - funny, impossible, stupid, senseless
6. Advantage - profit, gain, benefit, utility, help
7. Aggression - attack, invasion, assault, onslaught
8. Alarm - danger, terror, fright, fear, panic, dread
9. Ascent - elevation, rise, lift
10. Apology - excuse, regret, pardon, plea
11. Banish - expel, exile, dismiss, debar
12. Battle - war, fight, encounter, conflict, combat
13. Beautiful - handsome, pretty, charming, lovely, good looking
14. Belief - faith, trust, confidence
15. Brief - short, concise, terse, condensed, compact
16. Build - make, construct, erect, raise
17. Candid - frank, outspoken, blunt, straight forward
18. Capture - seize, apprehend, arrest, trap, grasp, snare
19. Champion - supporter, defender, protector
20. Chaste - clean pure, undefiled, virtuous
21. Commend - praise, admire, applaud, approve
22. Conceal - hide, veil, shroud, disguise, cover
23. Continuity - cohesion, connectedness, tenaciousness
24. Connect - attach, annex, tag, clip, contact
25. Constitute - compose, form, make construct, organize, build
26. Copy - reproduction, replica, facsimile, tracing,
27. Curial - judicial, inquisitional
28. Dandy - coxcomb, fop
29. Dangerous - dreadful, fearsome, awesome
30. Deceit - fraud, bluff, guile, knavery
31. Damn - curse, swear, scold, denounce
32. Defiant - daring, provocative, bellicose, bold
33. Deity - omnipotence, providence, God
34. Delicacy - smoothness, softness, lightness, elegance
35. Demise - death, decease, eternal rest, expiry
36. Devil - fiend, demon, satan
37. Devoid - lacking, exempt from, immune from, empty
38. Disclose - reveal, expose, unveil, unfold
39. Disfigure - deform, cripple, maim, deface
40. Disjoin - disunite, dissociate, divorce, part, sever
41. Dislike - repugnance, detestation, loathing
42. Distant - remote, far-away, asunder
43. Divine - holy, sanctified, sacred, celestial
44. Earnest - serious, solemn, impressive
45. Eccentricity - oddity, anomaly, peculiarity, exception
46. Ecclesiastical - ecclesiastic, churchly, theocratic,
47. Effulgence - arrogance, haughtiness, shamelessness
48. Enchant - fascinate, bewitch, captivate, enrapture
49. Elevation - eminence, loftiness, sublimity, height
50. Ending - final, terminal, last, ultimate, extreme
51. Endorse - approve, pass, ordain, ratify, agree
52. Enormous - immense, vast, colossal, monumental
53. Enrage - upset, discompose, ruffle, irritate
54. Equilibrium - equipoise, balance, steadiness, poise
55. Erotic - aphrodisiac, erotogenic, amatory
56. Excellent - overwhelming, splendid, extremely good
57. Existence - life, being, presence
58. Extempore - at once, on the spur of the moment, impromptu
59. Ethnic - racial, tribal, national, clannish
60. Fame - reputation, glory, renown
61. Fat - stout, plump, obese, chubby, fleshy
62. Fatigue - weariness, tiredness exhaust
63. Feeble - frail, languid, faint, weak
64. Fervent - passionate, intense, earnest, impassioned
65. Fickle - changeable, wavering, irresolute, unsteady
 66. First - initial, foremost, starting, chief, primary
67. Flatterer - sycophant, adulator, hanger-on
68. Forgiving - placable, condemning, unresentful
69. Foreigner - alien, strange, outlandish, expatriate
70. Frigid - cold, unfeeling
71. Fructify - generate, impregnate, multiply
72. Gabble - jabber, chatter, prattle, twaddle
73. Generalize - broaden, widen, universalize
74. Generous - liberal, bountiful, magnanimous
75. Given - bestowed, gifted, gratuitous, gratis
76. Gluttony - greediness, rapacity, insatiability, voracity
77. Grave - serious, sober, solemn, sedate, staid, demure, stern
78. Grasp - hold, seize, snatch, grip, grab
79. Harass - trouble, afflict, inflict
80. Heathen - amoralist, materialist, worldling, rude, barbarous
81. Hoodwink - dupe, puzzle, deceive, lead astray
82. Humbled - degraded, withered, tarnished
83. Hymn - religious, lyric, psalm, anthem, paean
84. Hypocrite - pretender, fake, disloyal
85. Imitate - ape, copy, mimic, echo, mirror, reflect
86. Inaptitude - unfitness, inappropriateness, incompetence
87. Indict - impeach, arraign, denounce, chare, accuse
88. Inimical - unfriendly, opposed, unsympathetic, belligerent
89. Innocent - blameless, sinless, guiltless
90. Integrity - honesty, sincerity, probity, truthfulness
91. Intolerable - insufferable, unendurable, unbearable
92. Jolly - merry, jubilant, lively, festive, gay
93. Kinship - relationship, alliance, ties of blood
94. Knowledge - information, enlightenment, learning, attainments
95. Lax - loose, slack, disorganized
96. Middle class - bourgeois
97. Miscarry - abort, fail, fizzle out
98. Mixture - mingling, blending, combination
99. Native - indigenous, original, inbred, real, primitive,
100. Necessary - needful, indispensable, expedient, requisite
101. Obstruct - impede, hinder, retard, clog
102. Occultist - mystic, transcendentalist, esoteric
103. Ornamental - decorative, fancy, glamorous, picturesque
104. Patience - forbearance, endurance, tolerance, sufferance
105. Plenitude - fullness, plenty, abundance
106. Referral - allusion, mention, citation
107. Relinquish - retire, abandon, surrender
108. Rumour - hearsay, sandal, gossip
109. Repulsive - ugly, repelling disgusting, offensive
110. Solemn - traditional, devotional pious
111. Sorcery - witchery, spell, magic
112. Superficial - external, shallow, slight, outward
113. Spontaneous - instinctive, unrestricted, natural
114. Superiority - sublimity, transcendence, loftiness
115. Suitable - appropriate, eligible, relevant, befitting
116. Suppress - check, impede, restrain, bridle
117. Tasteful - gracious, dignified, elegant
118. Temperament - temper, humour, disposition
119. Terminate - conclude, close, determinate, finish
120. Thankless - rewardless, ungrateful
121. Tough - tenacious, strong, firm, stiff, fibrous
122. Tragedy - calamity, disaster, catastrophe, affliction
123. Tremble - shiver, quake, quiver, shudder, vibrate
124. True - exact, accurate, faithful, authentic, veracious
125. Trustworthy - reliable, dependable, trusty, faithful, loyal
126. Tyrant - oppressor, despot, persecutor, autocrat
127. Unbeaten - unsubdued, unvanquished, invincible
128. Unborn - uncreated, unmade, unconceived
129. Unconcerned - apathetic, indifferent, cool, disinterested
130. Unfair - unjust, wrongful, dishonest, partial
131. Unfortunate - ill-fated, unlucky, untimely, doomed
132. Unravel - untangle, comb out, unweave, uncoil,
133. Urge - spur, incite, prompt, impel, goad
134. Vain - trivial, useless, empty, hollow
135. Variegated - diversified, many-coloured, embroidered
136. Vibrate - quiver, oscillate, swing, sway, shiver, shake
137. Vindicator - defender, avenger, justifier
138. Vivid - clear, apparent, bright
139. Volunteer - proffer, tender, propose, willing
140. Vulgar - indecent, unrefined
141. Warmth - fervor, ardor, affection
142. Warlike - militaristic, bellicose, aggressive
143. Wealth - riches, abundance, fortune, plenty
144. Wooing - courting, solicitation, flirting
145. Worship - honour, revere, venerate
146. Yield - capitulate, succumb, relent, defer
147. Yoke - link, couple, sting
148. Zenith - summit, acme, pinnacle, culmination
149. Zero - naught, nil, nothing, cipher
150. Value - appreciate, usefulness, worth

IDIOMS AND PHRASES

 A bed of roses - comfortable and easy work.
 A black sheep - a mean fellow.
 A bolt from the blue - a sudden sad event.
 A bone of contention - cause of dispute.
 A bottleneck - hindrance.
 A dark horse - a man of extraordinary.
 A fair weather friend - companion of good times.
 A feather in one’s cap - distinction.
 A golden mean - middle course between two extremes.
 A fool’s paradise - utopia.
 A good deal of - large amount.
 A herculean task - daring deed.
 A hornet’s nest - cause of trouble.
 A horse laugh - a coarse, unmeaning laugh.
 A lame excuse - unsatisfactory, explanation.
 Apple of one’s eye - very dear.
 At sixes and seven - scattered.
 At time - of his own time.
 Bad blood - enmity.
 Bag and baggage - with belongings.
 Bear the brunt - be the main victim.
 Bet about the bush - approach a subject without coming to the point.
 Bed of roses - an easy task.
 Beggar description - unexplainable.
 Beside the mark - irrelevant.
 Birds of a same feather- having same nature.
 Block head - fool.
 Blow hot and cold - be favourable and unfavourbale at the s
same time.
 Call a spade a spade - to speak plainly.
 Call in question - put objection, to object.
 Carry the day - be victorious.
 Caste pearls before swine- to give what is precious to those
Who are unable to understand its value.
 Chicken hearted - timid.
 Child’s play - easy work.
 Cut and dried - inflexible.
 Die in harness - to die doing one’s duty.
 End in smoke - to come to nothing.
 Ever and anon - occasionally.
 Fair and square - honest.
 Fall short - decrease.
 Far and near - everywhere.
 Feel the pulse of - know the opinion.
 Fight sky of - avoid.
 Flesh and blood - body.
 Follow suit - do the same thing.
 For good - forever.
 Get into hot rather - be in trouble.
 Get rid of - be free.
 Get the better of - be more effective.
 Go between - an intermediary.
 Go scot-free - go unpunished.
 Go to the dogs - be ruined.
 Go to rack and ruin - be in a miserable condition.
 Grease the palm - bribe.
 Hand and glove with - to be intimated
 Hard and fast - definite.
 Hard nut to crack - to solve the difficult problem.
 High and low - people of all ranks.
 Hold good - remain in force.
 In a fix - confused.
 Ina nutshell - in brief.
 In black and white - in writing.
 In cold blood - brutally.
 In full swing - very active.
 In quest of - in search of.
 In the throes of - in the struggle.
 In vain - without success.
 In vogue - in fashion.
 Ins and outs - full details.
 Iron will - firm determination.
 Keep body and soul together- to pass days.
 Kill two birds with a shot- to do two work at a time.
 Keep company with - to associate.
 Kith and kin - blood relations.
 Leave in the lurch. - leave in difficulty.
 To talk shop - to talk nonsense.
 To turn a deaf ear - to disregard.
 To gain ground - to become more general.
 To have finger in the pie- to do something in an affair.
 My hands are full - I am busy.
 To give someone a piece- to scold.
 To kick up a row - to make great noise and fuss.
 To bury the hatchet - to make peace.
 To set the Thames on fire- to do some remarkable or
surprising thing.
 High and dry - isolated, stranded.
 To be at the end of one’s tether- to have no resources left.
 Odds and ends - various articles.
 A hot line - direct telephone line between heads of
States.
 To shoot a line - to exaggerate about one’s success.
 To feather one’s nest - to provide money even dishonestly.
 To black-ball - prevent from doing something.
 A blue book - a government report.
 To paint the town red - to celebrate noisily in public unpleasant.
 A red letter day - an important day.
 To work like a dog - to work very hard.
 To foot the bill - to make payment.
 Cut no ice - to make no effect.
 Under a cloud - to be in bad book.
 Once and for all - forever.
 Oily tongue - one who flatters.
 Hole and corner policy- improper policy.
 Far and wide - all around.
 Brown study - in reverie.
 Moot point - controversial point.
 Bring home - emphasise.
 Rank and file - common man.
 Talk through one’s hat- talk nonsense.
 To lead one by the nose- to cause to follow blindly.
 To get away with - to escape.
 All agog - in a state of excitement.
 One’s cup of tea - what one likes and can do well.
 In a flutter - in a state of nervous excitement.
 A close shave - a lucky escape.
 Blow hot and cold - to be inconsistent.
 To have the floor - to make a speech.
 To snap one’s fingers - to become contemptuous of.
 To stand to one’s guns- to preserve when hardships press.
 To take people by storm- to captivate them unexpectedly.
 To spill the beans - to reveal secret information.
 A lady’s man - a lover of women’s company.
 To draw a bead upon - to take aim at.
 Foam in the mouth - to be in extreme hatred.
 A baker’s dozen - thirteen.
 To oil the knocker - to tip of the office-boy.
 To cool one’s heels - to be kept waiting for some time.
 To clinch the issue - decide.
 To turn the corner - pass the crisis.
 Shop- lifter - a thief in the guise of a customer.
 to chew the cuds - to muse on.
 To keep the pot boiling- keep the controversy alive.
 To cut both ends - to argue in support of both sides of the
sides of the issue.
 Midas touch - ability to succeed in all projects.
 Lynch law - law of mobs.
 A man of the world - an experienced man, often with a
Cosmopolitan background
 Free and easy - casual, unworried, unconcerned.
 Meek and mild - gentle and quiet.
 Null and void - invalid, without legal effect.
 Rough and ready - not exact, only approximate.
 Short and sweet - brisk, without delay.
 Cloak and danger - like spy.
 Hammer and sickle - the emblem of socialism.
 Backstairs gossip - gossip among servants.
 Forty winks - short sleep.
 French leave - absence without permission.
 A hot potato - an issue that is awkward or embarrassing
to deal with.
 a soft spot - a liking or fondness for something
or someone.
 Soft soap - flattery.
 The bill of fare - the menu.

 A drug on the market - goods on the market for which there is no

Hope.
 A storm in the tea-cup- a lot of excitement and discussion
about a trivial matter.