Babeș-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca

Cluj Center for Indian Studies

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Romanian Journal of Indian Studies

No. 6 2022

Editor-in-Chief:
Mihaela Gligor

Presa Universitară Clujeană / Cluj University Press

2022
 EDITOR-IN-CHIEF:
Mihaela GLIGOR, Cluj Center for Indian Studies, Babeș-Bolyai University /
The Romanian Academy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD:

Florin DELEANU, International College for Postgraduate Buddhist Studies,
Tokyo, Japan
Uma DASGUPTA, Honorary Professor, University of Calcutta, India
Giovanni VERARDI, Università L’Orientale of Naples, Italy
T.N. MADAN, Honorary Professor, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Gavin FLOOD, Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies, University of Oxford, U.K.
Radha CHAKRAVARTY, Ambedkar University Delhi, India
Halina MARLEWICZ, Institute of Oriental Studies, Jagiellonian University,
Krakow, Poland
Atashee CHATTERJEE SINHA, Jadavpur University, Calcutta, India
Imre BANGHA, Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford, U.K.
Dhruv RAINA, Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies (ZHCES),
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

SCIENTIFIC BOARD:
Horia Corneliu CICORTAȘ, University of Trento, Italy
Bhikkhunī DHAMMADINNĀ, Dharma Drum Institute of Liberal Arts, Taiwan
Melanie BARBATO, University of Münster, Germany & Oxford Centre for
Hindu Studies, U.K.
Amelia BONEA, St Anne’s College, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
Om Prakash DWIVEDI, Bennett University, Greater Noida, India
Julieta ROTARU, The Centre for Baltic and East European Studies,
Södertörn University, Stockholm, Sweden
Dezső SZENKOVICS, Sapientia University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Pratyay NATH, Ashoka University, New Delhi, India
Ioan DURA, Ovidius University, Constanța, Romania

EDITORIAL BOARD:
Maria-Daniela POMOHACI, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Germany
Diana BURLACU, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Ovidiu Cristian NEDU, Paul Păltănea History Museum, Galați / Bucharest
University, Romania
Bogdan NEAGOTA, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Hilda-Hedvig VARGA, Bucharest University, Romania
Romanian Journal of Indian Studies
No. 6 2022

Editor-in-Chief:
Mihaela Gligor

With the generous support of

3
Romanian Journal of Indian Studies is abstracted and indexed in C.E.E.O.L.
(Central and Eastern European Online Library GmbH).
https://www.ceeol.com/search/journal-detail?id=1944

On the cover: Kritaniyas © Sanjay Gopal Sarkar

Used with permission.

ISSN: 2601 – 064X

ISSN-L 2601 – 064X

Gligor, Mihaela (Ed.)

© 2022, R.J.I.S. & authors

PRESA UNIVERSITARĂ CLUJEANĂ BABEȘ-BOLYAI UNIVERSITY

Director: Codruţa Săcelean Cluj Center for Indian Studies
51, Hasdeu Street Romanian Journal of Indian Studies
400371, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Correspondence/Submissions:
Tel./Fax: +40 264 597 401 mihaela.gligor@ubbcluj.ro
editura@ubbcluj.ro
http://www.editura.ubbcluj.ro/
 CONTENTS

Mihaela GLIGOR,
Argument ......................................................................................................... 7

EVENT

Gayatri CHAKRAVORTY SPIVAK and Maitreyi CHANDRA,

On Women’s Education in India.
Sisters in Conversation ………....................................................................... 9
STUDIES

Hilda-Hedvig VARGA,
Alcoves of Indian Knowledge in
Theofil Simenschy’s Works ............................................................................ 33
Ioana Cătălina PAVEL,
Local Cosmopolitans:
A Study of Barkas neighborhood in Hyderabad ............................................ 43
Praveen VERMA,
Two Circuits for Labour:
Different Labour at Different Sites ................................................................ 59

Debika BANERJI and Anandita PAN,

Kolkata’s Foodscape:
the Evolution of ‘the Calcutta palate’ ............................................................ 75

B.N. HEBBAR,
Madhva and Calvin. A Comparative Study of the Views
of Two Medieval Theologians of Hinduism and Christianity ....................... 109

Ștefan POPA,
The Third Assembly of the World Council of Churches in New Delhi,
in 1961, in the Asian Religious Context
of the Second Half of the Twentieth Century ................................................ 123

5
REVIEWS
Mihaela GLIGOR,
Amartya Sen, Home in the World. A Memoir,
Allen Lane, an Imprint of Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2021, 464 pp.,
ISBN: 978-1-846-14486-8........................................................................ 149
Eleonora Olivia BĂLĂNESCU,
Uma Das Gupta, A History of Sriniketan.
Rabindranath Tagore’s Pioneering Work in Rural Reconstruction,
New Delhi, Niyogi Books, 2022, 234 pp.,
ISBN: 978-93-91125-44-8 …................................................................... 157
Marian SUCIU,
Malini Bhattacharya and Abhijit Sen (Eds.),
Talking of Power. Early Writings of Bengali Women,
New Delhi, Sage Publications India, 2021, 181 pp.,
ISBN: 978-93-81345-81-8 ….................................................................. 163

6
 Kolkata’s Foodscape:
the Evolution of ‘the Calcutta palate’

Debika BANERJI,
The Bhawanipur Education Society College, Kolkata
Anandita PAN,
IISER, Bhopal, India

Abstract: Kolkata’s cultural landscape can be defined by the existing

foodscape. The heritage restaurants existing in the city are an amalgamation
of the cultural diffusion between the different communities that reside in the
city. In this paper, primarily, three food zones have been recognized, each
specializing in a particular type of cuisine. The paper seeks to understand
the development of the cuisines in relation to these food zones, how
different communities have slowly exchanged ideas which have led to the
creation of a new type of fusion cuisine, modified in accordance to suit local
tastes and preferences. This acculturation process is constantly occurring
and is reflected in the present day foodscape of the city.

Keywords: foodscape, palate, cultural diffusion, fusion food, Calcutta palate.

Introduction
“I live to eat or do I eat to live? [...] But when you are in Calcutta, it is the
second question that will come and tease you at every street corner, on
every pavement, at every turn. Calcuttans rarely agree on anything, but
when it comes to food, every Calcuttan will always be proud to be known
as belonging to the foodie city of India.” (R. Ray 2014, 280-285)

75
 The question that always plagues anybody living in the city is the
whole mechanism of buying, cooking and consumption of food because
strictly speaking, the citizens are finicky as to what they eat. A whole
set of energy goes behind the running of the kitchen, often a hub of
activity. Food is not just required for survival, it is an emotion. It keeps
occurring in popular literature as well as many important scenes of
films. Food is an association with a multitude of emotions. Food can be
a used as an indicator of health as well as associated with the
psychological well-being of an individual. (Low and Ho, 2018) Food is
related with memories, food can be nostalgia, buying food can be a
great exercise, and preparation an art, the fine tuning of ingredients and
blending can create a masterpiece. (Bhattacharya, 2014)
In recent times food has become an expression of the global, with
the people of the city embracing into the idea of eateries and restaurants
more whole heartedly. However, the culture of ‘eating out’, (though not
very popular in the past) can be traced back to the few select eating
places in the city, specializing in experimental or exotic food. So the
evolution of the eating habits of the citizens of Calcutta can be
attributed to not only the old recipe books as well as the hotels and
restaurants making certain types of dishes accessible to the people.
These restaurants are a way to understanding culture interaction,
hybridity, diffusion and change.1
Food regions (places or streets selling / specializing in a particular
type of cuisine) in a city are an effect of the historical evolution of the
city. The city’s foodscape is usually a result of the migration trends.
The migrants of various ethnicities settle in bringing with them their

1
How food and memory are interlinked, especially what is authentic cuisine and what
is the additional hybrid is discussed in Osella, C. 2008. “Food, Memory, Community:
Kerela as both ‘Indian Ocean’ Zone and as Agricultural Homeland,” Journal of South
Asian Studies, 29, pp. 170-198.

76
culture and eating habits. (Wild, 2018) New ingredients and new dishes
give color to the gastronomical aspect imbibed slowly in the culinary
practices of the area. Hence, food history is often synonymous to the
cultural history as food can act as the lens through which the city is
tinted. (Wild, 2018) This study tries to establish the presence of the
different food regions of Kolkata as a result of cultural diffusion.
However it has been limited to ‘eating out’ or restaurants, shops and
cafes, focussing on those which are older than 50 years or more as they
reflect more on the city’s past personal eating habits emerging from
food preparation and cooking methods at individual houses have been
left out from the analysis.
Calcutta’s foodscape is not a simple assemblage, as it has emerged
from interaction between the different ethnicities who have slowly
adapted to the local climate, customs and practices. The land is fertile
and the main type of staple grain favoured by the Bengali locals has
been rice. (Sen, 2015) However in Calcutta, the anglicised city with a
large European influence we see the emergence of many flavours and
cuisines which have now become signature dishes of the city. Calcutta
has welcomed and intergrated the Portugese Bandel Cheese, considered
to be a predecessor of the ‘cottage cheese’ of ‘channa’ popularly used
in Bengali sweets, the Armenian dolma is a household name in Bengali
houses and so are the Southeast Asian malai curry and the Chinese
chowmein. (DasGupta, 1995) Calcutta is emerging out of its colonial
shackles post-independence and becoming a more global city in terms
of newer restaurants and cafes. The evolution of its palate can never be
seen as a complete process but rather it is still evolving.

77
 The development of the ‘Calcutta Palate’ through time
The Kolkata cityscape has interesting and immense ethnic diversities.
If one delves into the history of the city, one can see how the colonial
city, from the days of initiation to its establishment as a supreme force,
has seen waves of in-migration of the different groups. Even before
British colonialism took its root, Calcutta has been a trading centre with
local businessmen settling down in and around the vicinity of the present
day city of Kolkata. Calcutta’s legacy as an urban center was established
as a British trading centre bringing together of three small villages
bought by the East India Company. (Firminger, 1906) However, it was
the Dutch who arrived first in 1663 followed by the British in the coming
year. With time other European traders of French and Portuguese origin
arrived. (Firminger, 1906) Since then Kolkata, at that time known as
Calcutta, became the epicentre that attracted people from different
regions of the country as well as the villages in the periphery. People
from the countryside started descending into the city in the 18th and 19th
centuries. (Ghose, 1960)
The city, based on the various historical neighbourhoods, can be
broadly divided into three larger units which show a dominance of a
particular ethnic group reflected in the amalgamation of typical housing
styles, neighbourhoods and economic activities. Thus Old Kolkata, or
Calcutta, can be broadly divided into three zones: White town or the
British Kolkata, Black Town or the Native Town and Transition Zone
where the migrants lived; the popular yet shady Grey Town or the Grey
zone. (Mansfield, 2012) The terminology is not popular because of the
coloured references, but was popularized by the British to practice a
demarcation between the rulers and their subjects. The Grey Town is a
popular term used mainly by heritage enthusiasts and those who

78
conduct heritage walks in the city2 (Calcutta Walks, a walking tour
agency based in Kolkata). This is basically an old part of the city which
is occupied by the migrant communities who came for trading
purposes. An example of a description found in ‘Thacker’s Guide to
Calcutta’ by Firminger where he quotes from A. K. Ray’s Census of
India, 1901, Vol. VIII, pt. 1 p. 89:
“With the growth on a heterogeneous population came the necessity of
allotting particular areas to particular races. Thus shortly after the English
came the Portuguese who were the only people who kept fowl, the rest of
the inhabitants being Hindus to whom fowls are forbidden, were allotted a
quarter which came to be designated as Murgihutta (Murgi in Bengali or
Hindi means chicken or fowl), and the Armenians a tola or division which
was named Armani-tola.” (Firminger, 1906)

The Grey town area, part of which is the Old China Town of
Calcutta was known as the ‘Tiretta Bazar Street’ where there were
‘Apin Chinaman’s Opium Shop’, ‘Auchin Chinaman’s Opium Shop’,
Chinese Huts, Chinese Temples and so on. (Calcutta Directory 1874)
Keya Dasgupta describes this grey zone as
“the intermediate zone between the two, what was popularly known as the
‘grey’ town, inhabited by a wide range of people, primarily immigrants –
the Portuguese, Greeks, Armenians, followed by the Chinese and
Eurasians.” (Dasgupta, 2009)

These spatial divisions of the city are seen to roughly coincide with
the food regions of the city.
Calcutta, an amalgamation of multitude cultural forces can be
explained best with examples beyond the colonial forces with food

2
www.calcuttawalks.com/the-grey-town-of-kolkata-is-somewhere-between-black-and-
white-towns/ Last accessed: September 1, 2022.

79
cultures. So a rough charter of the food map and its evolution can be
traced in the following way:3

(1) The Mughlai-Dhakai food’s origin can be traced back to the Mughal
influence that was prevalent over all parts of Bengal in the 18th and the
19th century. Murshidabaad ( a town in Northern part of West Bengal,
which was the capital of undivided Bengal, Bihar and Orissa provinces
during the 18th century in the Mughal Empire) played an important role
not only on the administrative and economic growth of the region but also
in the flourishing Mughlai cuisine which has an influence in determining
the city’s palate. The ingredients and methods of cooking Muslim food
have largely been dependent on local conditions and availability of local
vegetables. The Muslim gharana (family) of cooking is dominant in the
Chitpur area of Calcutta.
(2) The middle of the 19th century has seen the advent of the British into
Bengal. Europeans have embarked on the city back in the early 17th
century with the Armenians and Portuguese establishing themselves for
trading purposes followed by Baghdadi Jews, Chinese and Parsis
(Dasgupta, 2009). The city of Calcutta was established and the European
traders started mingling with the Hindu and Muslim locals. This led to the
diffusion of culture which can be best reflected in the Anglo-Indian and
continental cuisine of Kolkata, food made palatable for the Europeans
with local flavors, cooking techniques or vice-versa (Achaya, 2012).
(3) Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, the tenth and last Nawab of Awadh (1882-
1887) was exiled and deported to Kolkata in the year 1856 and his advent
made the Awadhi (Lucknow, a city in Northern India in the State of Uttar
Pradesh, formerly the capital of Awadh) style dishes more famous than the

3
Cuisine, Department of Tourism, Government of West Bengal. In this description the
chronology of food practices have not been adhered to as there is no definite time line
for cultural practices: the boundaries are always blurred.
http://bengalcuisine.in/history. Last accessed: September 1, 2022.

80
 Mughlai style cooking. This was a benchmark to the city’s culinary
developments - a shift as well as amalgamation of two styles of Islamic food.
(4) A lot of Europeans and Asians from different countries migrated to
India out of which the Chinese people left a serious mark on the
development of the foodscape of Kolkata. To this day the city dwellers
love the Indianised style of Hakka Chinese food which is a fine example
of cultural diffusion and a landmark growth of the food habits of the city.

It is also interesting to note that the native people of the region, i.e.
the Bengalis, were open to experimentation and acculturation as was
evident in the numerous recipe books and cook books that came to be
published in the late 19th and early 20th century, (R. Ray, 2014) which
were trying to establish the regional and cultural aspects of what the
people of Bengal ate. The food hybridity has developed from the
regional context, keeping in mind what can be defined as Bengali
cuisine. In this regard there is a great debate as to establish the food
habits of the Bengalis which has been done with the help of the
Europeans.
Sengupta (2010) points out in his paper tracing out the development
of the culinary history of Bengali food and points to a British surgeon
practising in Madras, named Curtis, who recalls that native food
“consists for the most part of boiled rice, and fruits, highly seasoned
with hot aromatics, along with meat items and sauces, but with a small
proportion of animal matter.” The Bengal diet was too rich in
carbohydrates and scanty in protein. It is only in the late 19th century,
that a quest to establish ‘Bengali food’ was sought through cookbooks
to guide the women in sharpening their culinary skills. It is here that a
glimpse of hybridity comes into play, as the Bengali cuisine was an
amalgamation of different tastes and cooking skills.

81
 The Foodscape of Kolkata: a spatial understanding
The food zones of Kolkata, when delineated on a map, show a very
interesting clustering. (Map 1) To arrive at such zones, restaurants and
eating houses which are atleast 50 years old have been delineated on
the map of the city. A total of 96 restaurants have been marked on the
map. A zone demarcating its immediate influence on the nearby region
has been generated on the map, with each restaurant creating these
overlaps. These food regions can be hence broadly named as (1)
European Style, (2) Indian Style, and (3) Chinese Style. The ‘style’
here strictly does not adhere to traditional recipes or cooking techniques
but has an affinity or resemblance which is close to the places from
where the particular cuisine may have evolved. Within these broad
categories, finer classifications have been made in order of the
restaurant / hotel / shop’s prominent food sold. Certain restaurant
owners or managers (2 restaurants from each cluster) have been
interviewed for the unique stories about their restaurant and how
particular recipes have evolved. The shops were chosen based on
popularity as well the willingness of the owners to strike a
conversation. These recipes have been gathered to get a general
understanding of the food palate of customers and the interesting stories
revolving around food cultures.

Establishing the Calcutta Palate: where cultural forces merge

Food’s ability to incorporate different flavours while retaining
originality is visible in the way recipes retained some masalas (a
mixture of ground spices used in Indian cooking) and different items
were fused together to make fusion food. Our interview with the
manager of ‘Nizam’s’, the inventors of Kati Kebab rolls (skewer-
roasted grilled meat wrapped in an Indian flatbread) whose popularity
has not waned till date, revealed that since its establishment in 1923,

82
‘Nizam’s’ (a popular eatery, named after Sk. Nizamuddin who
popularized the outlet after he took it over from Isaar Alam)4 has
introduced “32 types of rolls.” He further mentioned that
“At that time when the British would come they would eat kebabs and
paratha which would turn their fingers greasy. So the paratha was wrapped
into a roll inside paper. Later the roll was garnished with onion and green
chilly and served. This was how the roll was discovered.” (Appendix 1
and 1.1)

Moreover, as the manager mentioned, these rolls are made with

their signature secret kebab masala; and kebabs hail from mughlai
origins. What this interview highlights is the execution of a clever
business idea while retaining originality, where eating habits and
flavours have transcended boundaries in creation of something new.
The wrapped roll inside a paper, a custom that persists today across
many parts in India has become a signature for the dish. But at the same
time, they retained the mughlai flavour. The roll, therefore, is an
example of how hybridity is executed. Considering their
forthcomingness in attracting and retaining British customers,
‘Nizam’s’ can be seen as being eager to cater and accommodate a
larger audience in its food culture. This eagerness, however, does not
come at the cost of completely foregoing the food item’s roots.
Didur Rannar Boi, one of the oldest and most celebrated recipe
books in Bengali, is another significant example of hybridity. It
provides a succinct history of Bengali food wherein it mentions that,
“the Bengali chefs who went to England along with their Bengali
masters, successfully amazed the whole British crowd with their food.”
(Translation ours) Therefore, the recipe book mentions “it is very

4
Interview with manager of Nizam’s, Mr. Deependu Roy, by authors on 27.11.2019.

83
important to note in detail the recipe of Bengali food items.” These can
be seen as acts of hybridity wherein, instead of subservience, the master
tongue is manipulated to be adjusted for other tastes.5
This act is also visible in places like ‘Mocambo’ (established in
1940) where Indian and Mughlai cuisine have found place next to Italian
cuisine (Appendix 2). A very interesting observation can be made if we
look at the menu card from another popular restaurant in Kolkata,
‘Flury’s’ which is famous for its English breakfast. The addition of
chopped chillies and onions to ‘beans on toast’ is a perfect example of
how accultured the food map has become (Appendix 3). The Indianness
in many of cases is preserved with the addition of clarified butter (ghee)
to make cutlets and steaks. This is a common occurrence in eateries like
‘Allen’s kitchen’ (established in 1920) near Sovabazar in North Kolkata.
(Appendix 4) In this case, experimental food which has been a major
character of Kolkata’s foodscape is notable.

Food zones / food hubs

Based on the map, (Fig. 1) a brief discussion on the food zones of
Calcutta as cultural hubs has been developed.
(1) European/Anglo-Indian cuisine Food Cluster Zone:
This cluster roughly coincides with the White Town of Kolkata
which was popular as the British dominated part of the city. The streets
around this region have a prominence of the colonial legacy: palatial
European mansions housing legendary hotels, shops, markets and even

5
However it must be argued that the Bengali recipe books are not only about
acculturated food. As already discussed by (Sengupta, 2010) we find such instances in
most celebrated recipe books like ‘Aamish and Niramish’ by Pragyasundari Devi where
the cuisine is established drawing from the larger understanding of religion and climate
existing in the region which Pragyasundari claims to be scientific and good for health.
Some recipes however are peppered inside her large volume which draws from Arabic
or western influence.

84
offices. The most popular and vibrant part of the city was the Park
Street, which takes us to a nostalgic era. (Guha, 2015) Bars and Bakery
serving some of the finest European and Anglo-Indian fare is still
sought after by the Kolkata residents as well as tourists. (Singh, 2015)
The most notable mentions are the Bakeries of New Market and Park
Street: ‘Nahoum and Sons’, and the ‘Flury’s Bakery’ respectively. Rich
puddings, creamy pastries, Lime Tarts, Bacon and Eggs for a typical
English breakfast take one back to the days of the British Raj.
Legendary Bars are an integral essence of this region. Park Street,
Central Avenue, BBD Bag are famous for joints serving alcohol and
fusion foods. The ‘Olympia Pub’ is one of the oldest in the city. Some
are famous for their live Bands (which have proved to be platforms for
the rising musicians) are relicts of a cultural ingrowth of the Anglo-
Indian culture into the mainstream Indian society.
Anglo-Indian influence has been dominant in this cluster as this
part of the city was where the British resided in. (K. S. Chan, 2011, S.
C. Chan, 2018) This new type of cuisine popularised as the Anglo-
Indian ‘oriental’ cuisine, which was a melting pot of the Indian spices
like masala, cloves with the European style of cooking such as baking
and soups. In Mrs Grace Johnson’s cookbook, Anglo-Indian and
Oriental Cookery, published in 1890 she introduces her readers to
something more than ‘Currie and rice’ where she establishes that
“Oriental dishes are as varied as French or Italian, and are prepared
with equal delicacy.” Her book talks about not only ‘kebobs’ (grilled
meat of Turkish origin) but there are recipes on different types of
‘curries’ and “chutneys” (sauces) as well as “cutlets” and mentions the
use of “ghee” (clarified butter) in her recipes. (Johnson, 1890)
Although the Anglo-Indian fare can still be savoured in certain homes
where recipes are handed down, some of the best restaurants, such as

85
‘Firpos’, to savour this cuisine have been shut down. Still many newer
restaurants in South Calcutta are reintroducing many of these dishes in
their menus.
(2) Native Town cuisine Food Cluster Zone:
This cluster can be traced down with the ‘Native’ town or the Black
Town of the city. As one travels to North Kolkata, interspersed with
narrow alleyways and palatial mansions of the rich businessmen of
yesteryears, one may come across various shops, popularly known as
‘cabins’ (local eateries with partitions to maintain privacy for the
women eating out with their families) (Ray, 2015) that serve various
Anglo-Indian fusion dishes. (Guha, 2015) Some of the origins of these
delicacies are interesting in nature as they can be categorised into
fusion food having a more affinity to suit the Bengali palate. Cutlets
and pudding are two such examples. The British steak and cutlet, which
come directly from the British menu, have found favour with the local
Bengalis, descending, transforming itself and becoming a new type of
food amalgamation that was experimental to the taste buds of the city
dwellers (R. Ray, 2014).
An interview with the owner of ‘Dilkhusha Cabin’ who tried to
share some interesting information on some of the food that is available
in their restaurant which is over 100 years old. He tells us the story
behind ‘Kabiraji Cutlet’ (cutlet covered with egg chiffonade) a very
famous delicacy available in Dilkhusa.
“The word was ‘Chicken Coverage Cutlet’ not ‘Kobiraji’. Somebody
came and asked us to make a chicken covered cutlet which was different.
So then the chicken cutlet was covered with egg, and a new food item was
discovered.”6

6
Interview with Mr. Utpal Basu, owner of ‘Dilkhusha Cabin’ by authors, 10.12.2019.

86
 Next come the wide range of sweets – a plethora in which the
Bengalis have not stopped experimenting. Rosogolla (ball-shaped
dumplings of chhena argued by food historians to have been derived
from the Portuguese means of making cheese), Mohonbhog (Semolina
Pudding), Misti doi (fermented sweet yogurt) are some of the exquisite
sweets that are synonymous with Kolkata.
The Mughlai (or Moghlai) cuisine can be traced back to the
Mughals who occupied Bengal since 1717. This cuisine was primarily
Dhakai (famous in the city of ‘Dhaka’) in nature, but with time there
was a shift from beef to mutton and lamb, possibly having to cater to
regional tastes. The Mughlai cooks (literal translation from Mughals)
who were left behind, started serving their dishes, adhering to the taste
of the general people of Kolkata and Moghlai food shot to fame and
found its way to reach the Bengalis via cookbooks and the cabin
restaurants. This meat-heavy diet, best described as ‘camp-food’
brought in new methods of cooking and the kebab, kalia, quorma
became a household name in Calcutta (DasGupta, 1995).
The Awadhi legacy of the city can be traced back to the exiled
Nawab of Awadh, Wajid Ali Shah. With him came his cooks and the
legacy of Awadhi cooking in Kolkata. Before the Nawab, muslim
‘bawarchis’ (chef) and ‘khansamahs’ (a house-steward or native
servant, being in charge of the kitchen and the food supplies) were
commonly employed by the British to work in their kitchen as the
Hindus found touching beef a sin. The curry entered the British kitchen,
and the Indians developed a taste for European fare. The amalgamation
and exchange of food has led to a unique kind of Kolkata food that is
different. This genre also saw a transformation with time. The kebabs
were experimented upon and a unique kebab (grilled meat), the Sutli
kebab (Sutli: string; soft grilled meat that needed to be tied around the

87
skewer with a string), was discovered. The biryani (mixed rice dish of
rice and meat and curries popular in the Indian subcontinent) was
modified and the ‘Calcutta Biryani’ emerged with its own versatile
taste because of the presence of the potato which was added for
experimentation (claimed by Manzilat Fatima, descendants of the
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah’s family).7
(3) Chinese Food Cluster Zone:
The Chinese food in Kolkata has very interesting origin as well as
spread. The Chinese community migrated to Kolkata in three phases
(early 19th century, early 20th century and the post-1945 period),
basically from two major provinces of Canton and Hakka, (along with
smaller streams of migration from other regions as well) slowly setting
up their roots, intermarrying and then most of them settling in Kolkata
permanently. Chinese restaurants and eating joints have existed in
Kolkata since the 20th century (Liang, 2007). The ‘Nanking Restaurant’
in the Bowbazar area was known to be frequented by the British. There
are a lot of Chinese restaurants which adhere to the traditional Chinese
methods of cooking,8 ingredient and taste (S. C. Chan, 2018). However
we find an alternative Chinese cuisine that is a fusion of Indian spices
and Chinese sauces to amalgamate into what is popularly now known
as the ‘Calcutta Chinese cuisine’. Owners of a small restaurant ‘D’Ley’
in Old China Town in Teriti bazar area (established in the 1970s) tried

7
“The only difference between the Kolkata biriyani and the Awadhi biriyani is that the
latter has allo (potato). When Wajid Ali came to Kolkata, he did not have enough funds
to feed his entourage in an elaborate way…. So after a few years in Kolkata, potato was
introduced in the biriyani”. Interview with Manzilat Fatima by Srishti Dasgupta
published as ‘Here’s how Wajid Ali Shah made the Kolkata biriyani’ in Times of India
on 11th May, 2017.
8
There are differences in cooking methods in the different Chinese regions. In Kolkata,
the Hakka Chinese community who were initially into the tannery business started their
alternative business in food, setting up the Chinese restaurants.

88
to explain how they serve certain authentic items for lunch. They said
that the Kolkata Chinese food is very spicy unlike the authentic Chinese
food which is bland. Authentic (Hakka) Chinese food is not available in
most of the shops. Different types of sauces are added during the
cooking process in case of Kolkata Chinese food.
To demonstrate this they gave the example of certain types of food
which have been modified to fit the Kolkatan palate. Yam Wonton
(soup made with seasoned chicken broth and filled wontons. Wontons
are tortellini folded around spiced meat mixture), is the authentic Hakka
Chinese dish which has been modified into the Wanton soup (there is a
change even in the spelling). Ham choi / Wok choi fish ball soup (fish
bones and meat boiled in chicken stock) and steamed chicken are
varieties of authentic Chinese food which are bland and use of sauce is
minimal. Chilly Chicken (light battered crispy chicken chunks tossed in
spicy chilly and soya sauce), which has a thick saucy gravy has been
invented in Kolkata in order to suit the Indian palate, where spices and
hot sauces became a favourite.9 The popularity of the ‘Calcutta
Chinese’ is world renowned, with newer restaurants coming up in
different parts of Kolkata. The New China Town in Tangra is an
amalgamation of Chinese restaurants and forms a chain of high end
Chinese food corridor.10
The family who owns the ‘D’Ley’ restaurant was initially a bit
reluctant to speak and did not disclose their names.11 Moreover, they

9
Interview with the owners of ‘D’Ley’ restaurant (refused to disclose names), by
authors, 10.12.2019.
10
Goenka, S. (2016), Chinatown, Kolkata: The Disintegration of an ethnic enclave
https://theculturetrip.com/asia/india/articles/chinatown-kolkata-the-disintegration-of-
an-ethnic-enclave/ Last accessed: September 1, 2022.
11
The younger generations of the Chinese family seemed hesitant to converse about the
food being served and said that the real owner, their father would be better conversant
with the food types being served. The father had recently passed away.

89
have been born and brought up in Kolkata where the modified food has
become their staple diet. Hence the ability to differentiate between what
is authentic and what is modified was marginal. The questions raised
surprised them and they kept pondering about what was authentic and
what was not. The interviewers tasted Ham choi and rice, which was a
kind of a spicy curry with lots of chicken and some sort of vegetable.
When questioned about the dish, they claimed that the vegetable was
exported, but it looked a lot like bottle gourd leaves which is commonly
eaten by the Bengali community in Calcutta. The little girl
(granddaughter of the owner) offered the interviewer a kind of a
sweetened ginger which they claimed was eaten for good luck and after
the birth of a child. When questioned about the name of the item, she
seemed baffled and was unsure. The generations of Chinese who have
been even born in the city are the products of acculturation are a perfect
example of how food cultures have amalgamated.

Fig. 1: Foodmap of Kolkata

Source: authors

90
 The popularity of Chinese and Mughlai cuisine has led to the
emergence of fast food joints in many parts of the city which are an
integral part of the current foodscape of the city.
Table 1 shows the years when certain well known restaurants and
food joints were established in Kolkata. In the 19th century, the Indian
food cluster seems to have been established with the 20th century
leading to a well-established food map emerging in other parts of the
city. This was the century when ‘eating-out’ exotic delicacies became
more and more popular for the residents of the city. The exotic food
which was not possible to be cooked at home became available in these
food joints/restaurants.

Year Restaurant /Shop Type of cuisine

served
1826 Bhim Chandra Nag Bengali sweets
1844 Girish Chandra Dey Bengali sweets
1857 Golbari Bengali
1868 Jadav Chandra Das Bengali sweets
1875 Chacha’s Hotel Indian/fusion
1876 Indian Coffee House Café/Indian/fusion
1885 Sen Mahasay Bengali sweets
1885 Balaram Mullick Bengali sweets
1890 Basanta Cabin Indian fusion
1902 Nahoum Bakery
1905 Royal Mughlai/ Awadhi
1906 Chung Wah Chinese
1918 Favourite Cabin Indian fusion
1918 Paramount Indian fusion
1918 Dilkhusha Cabin Indian fusion
1919 Balwant Singh’s Dhaba North Indian

91
 1920 Mitra Cafe Indian fusion
1920 Allen’s Kitchen Indian fusion
1922 Niranjan Agar Indian fusion
1925 Anadi Cabin Indian fusion
1927 Flury’s Bakery and Cafe
1936 Trinca’s Bar and European
1948 Ralli’s North Indian
1948 Sabir Mughlai/ Awadhi
Table 1: Some famous restaurants of Kolkata on a timeline
Source: Compiled by authors

Intersections and acculturation: an exchange of food cultures

Acculturation is characteristic in each food cluster as each food
region has developed its own cooking styles that have given rise to
some very interesting fusion food which can be claimed as the city’s
very own. Anglo-Indian fare itself is a hybridization and deviation from
authentic British food, suited to the climate and availability of spices
and vegetables in India. Similarly the Indian Chinese evolved to suit the
taste buds of the region, when with time it became a household food.
Similarly, North Kolkata has traditional ‘cabins’ serving Anglo-Indian
food, most suited to the Bengali tastes along with the modified varieties
of Mughlai and Awadhi food. Though the fusion process has been a
common occurrence in each cluster, each cluster has a dominance of
what type of cuisine was changed. For example, traditional bakeries are
absent in the Indian food cluster, because the dominant ethnic groups
living in those regions had their own traditional variety of desserts
namely mishti or sweetmeats. So cakes did not find a huge popularity.
Similarly, an absence of mishti shops in the European cluster is very
evident of the choices offered to the type of cultural exchange. Close
linkages to the dominant ethnic group which lived in a particular area

92
has an influence to what food would be expected where you went in
Kolkata. The Food Map (Fig. 1) shows overlaps of food zones, which
are zones of accessing more than one fusion cuisine. For example,
Dharmatalla can be seen as a central point where the roll, the cakes and
the chowmein restaurants and shops are to be easily found.
The peripheries of the grey town have developed flavours that
transgress boundaries by negotiating with the cultural differences of the
migrants. Such intermingling is visible on the peripheries of BBD Bag-
Dalhousie region, New Market – Dharmatalla region, Ganesh Chandra
Avenue-Central interface and the Park Street – Park Circus interface.
This is strictly adhering to the map as the interfaces have blurred out
with time. The city has expanded beyond its former limits and so has
the food culture. A multitude of newer experimental cuisines are a part
of the current scenario and are spread beyond their former limits.

Moving beyond: The food map of the present day

These are some of the later food hubs that are seen in and around
Kolkata. With increased urbanisation, the city has grown in the South.
Such a food cluster is seen in the Hazra-Bhowanipore region and
another small cluster in the Kidderpore region. The Hazra region has
seen the development of some Bengali eateries which specialise in
sweets or fries. Some Tibetan and Chinese shops as well as restaurants
selling Punjabi and Gujarati cuisines are found here. The Kidderpore
region is in close proximity to the Metiabruz region, birth place of the
Kolkata-Awadhi connection. One of the oldest shops of Kolkata selling
Awadhi biryani is ‘India Resturant.’ This region also houses some
traditional shops selling sweets and fries, prepared in authentic Bengali
style. Post 2000s the food scenario has changed with new restaurants

93
and cafes becoming a frequent phenomenon in the city.12 Fusion food
remains a favourite in the city and gives a tough competition to some of
the old renowned restaurants in the city. The city and its food culture
would always keep expanding and moving beyond its boundaries,
incorporating new flavours and tastes with time.

The Old Eateries today: a glimpse

The changes in the food culture, with the emergence of newer
varieties have led to the closure of many heritage eateries. Though the
popularity has not completely waned, the attitude towards food has
changed. The owner of ‘Dilkhusha Cabin’, a 100 year old ‘cabin’
restaurant speaks with nostalgia about the how their shop was in the past:
“We had partitions that has now been transformed into general [booths /
dining tables]. Those who would come to savour the food (the old
customers), they cannot eat in peace (because of the new customers).
Some boys and girls take the food to kill the time without any kind of
appreciation of the food. They eat like birds, just imagine, not even
savouring the food for which the place has earned its name. They cannot
understand if the curry or the food has a different taste (comparing it with
previous meals here). I have nothing to say about them (the youngsters).
But till date a lot of old customers come who can point out if there has
been any change in the taste of the food. Because of these customers we
are still in business for so many years. For this reason we want to preserve
the old, the nostalgic.”

The food here has also seen some changes, adhering to changing
tastes and times.

12
South Calcutta, especially around Golpark, Hindustan Park, Deshapriya Park has
witnessed the growth of new restaurants and cafes which have a-la-carte menus
(‘Marbellas’, ‘Hinduthan Park’, ‘Santa’s Fantasea’ to name a few) and fusion food
which is a witness to the widening of the palate and choices.

94
 “The old food items are there for the last 100 years. However there has
been a change. Chicken Fowl cutlet was removed because the customers
thought that fowl is associated with the football game and had no idea that
it can be a food item. A very large pound of chicken meat is called fowl,
when the meat piece is more than 750-800 gms.”

The owner of ‘Dilkhusha Cabin’ is worried about the future of the

traditional food and these decade old shops which are linked to the
city’s history of eating out.
“Previously a lot of teachers from Presidency, Scottish Church College
would come but many a times they have left because of the behaviour of
the young people who visit the shop. So there has been a change in the
clientele, a lot of old patrons do not feel like coming because of the way
the younger crowds’ behave. So holding on to the old nostalgia we are still
carrying on. However the beauty of eating chops and cutlets is dead now,
the younger generations do not appreciate it anymore. After a few more
years these things will not be eaten anymore. Now chicken momo,
strawberry (flavoured food), pasta (Italian starchy dumpling) etc is being
asked, we tell them we do not have such items. You will not get such good
food at such a reasonable rate in any fancy shop.”

The waning popularity of traditional fare is felt in Kolkata’s

traditional foodscape. It is felt as popularity of some food joints and
some food items reduce. But in recent years, there is a growing interest
in the traditional food joints of the city.13

13
Food walks by a number of Travel and Tourism agencies has led to a spike in the
interest. A number of youngsters have taken interest in the heritage and history of the
city. Food blogs and you tube channels have contributed to the growing interest of the
city dwellers as well as tourists.

95
 Kolkata – A culinary melt pot
The cultural map of the city has been ascertained with the help of
the food map. Culture and food are synonymous, but what is most
interesting for Kolkata is the cultural fusion that is profusely seen here.
Food can be seen as a cultural product, “as hybrid, as tying together
influences from many traditions, as existing not so much in a specific
place and time as between different places at once” (Smith, 2006).
Kolkata has given space to multitude of cultures by accepting their food
habits which is prevalent in the present food patterns of the city. The
food map gives a glimpse of how the food culture of the city has
evolved and how the legacies of the city’s growth are felt in its ever
encompassing food cultures and flavours. Cultural diffusion process is
best reflected in Kolkata and similar studies like this one through food
trails and walks can be an interesting research project for future work.

Note: Throughout the work, Calcutta and Kolkata has been used
synonymously, which is the name of the city. Calcutta was renamed as Kolkata
in the year 2001, to reflect the Bengali pronunciation of the name. However
both the names are popularly used in writing and speaking. The menu cards
have been photographed / scanned in the restaurants and they have given
permission to be printed.

Acknowledgements:
We would like to thank our numerous colleagues and friends who inspired
us to delve deep into the culinary diversity of the city and explore different
food joints from a spatial context. Our special gratitude to the owners and
managers of the heritage restaurants who willingly shared with us their
experiences and experiments in food.

96
Appendix 1: Menu card of Nizam’s, New Market,
showing the story behind the shop

97
Appendix 1.1: Menu card of Nizam’s, New Market,
showing the food items available

99
Appendix 2: Menu card of Mocambo

101
Appendix 3: Menu card of Flurys

103
Appendix 4: Menu card of Allen’s Kitchen

105
 About the Authors:
Dr. Debika Banerji is a researcher and lecturer in Geography, at The
Bhawanipur Education Society College, Kolkata. She completed her Doctoral
degree on river landscapes but is also interested in studying the cultural
landscapes of cities. Her research interests revolve around Cultural Geography,
Oral History, as well as Landscape Studies.
Contact: debika.banerji@gmail.com

Dr. Anandita Pan is an Assistant Professor in the Department of

Humanities and Social Sciences at The Indian Institute of Science Education
and Research (IISER) Bhopal, India. Her areas of interest include Gender
studies, Feminist Theory and Cultural studies.
Contact: anandita@iiserb.ac.in

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