By SHABBIR A BASHIR

Contents
POPULATION ...................................................................................................................................................7
 World Distribution of Population ...................................................................................................... 7
 Ecumene And Non-Ecumene............................................................................................................. 8
 World Distribution Of Population ................................................................................................... 10
 Factors Affecting Population Distribution ....................................................................................... 11
 Density Of Population ..................................................................................................................... 12
 Physiologic Density of Population ................................................................................................... 12
 World Population Growth ............................................................................................................... 12
 A Model For Population Evolution .................................................................................................. 14
DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES ..........................................................................................................................16
 Age Structure................................................................................................................................... 16
 Demographic Terms & Concepts..................................................................................................... 17
 General Fertility Rate (GFR)............................................................................................................. 17
 Total Fertility Rate (TFR) .................................................................................................................. 18
 Factors Affecting Fertility ................................................................................................................ 19
 Mortality Measures ......................................................................................................................... 20
 Mortality Rate/Death Rate (MR/DR) ............................................................................................... 20
 Maternal Mortality Rate.................................................................................................................. 23
 Global Ageing Population ................................................................................................................ 24
 Consequences of Ageing Population ............................................................................................... 25
 Literacy ............................................................................................................................................ 25
CONCEPT OF OVER, OPTIMUM, UNDER POPULATION .....................................................................................26
 Optimum Population ....................................................................................................................... 26
 Factors of Optimum Population ...................................................................................................... 26
 Under Population ............................................................................................................................ 26
 Reasons For Under Population........................................................................................................ 26
 Over Population .............................................................................................................................. 26
 Indicators of Over Population ......................................................................................................... 26
 Types of Over Population ................................................................................................................ 27

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POPULATION THEORIES .................................................................................................................................28
 1. Malthusian Theory ...................................................................................................................... 28
Criticism Of Malthusian Theory ................................................................................................................ 28
 2. Marxian Theory ........................................................................................................................... 29
Criticism Of Marxian Theory..................................................................................................................... 30
 3. Demographic Transition Theory .................................................................................................. 30
Other Theories.......................................................................................................................................... 31
 Social Theories................................................................................................................................. 32
POPULATION PROBLEMS AND POLICIES .........................................................................................................33
 Population Problems ....................................................................................................................... 33
 Population Policies .......................................................................................................................... 34
 Policies Encouraging Population Growth. ....................................................................................... 37
INDIAN DEMOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................................40
 Density Of Population ..................................................................................................................... 40
 India’s Demographic Transition ...................................................................................................... 40
 Sex Ratio .......................................................................................................................................... 41
 Literacy ............................................................................................................................................ 42
SOCIAL WELL BEING .......................................................................................................................................45
SOCIAL CAPITAL .............................................................................................................................................46
MIGRATION...................................................................................................................................................47
 Causes of Migration ........................................................................................................................ 47
 Consequences of Migration ............................................................................................................ 48
 Theories of Migration ...................................................................................................................... 49
 Reasons of Migration ...................................................................................................................... 51
 Consequences of Migration ............................................................................................................ 52
 Challenges Related To Migration .................................................................................................... 53
 Internal Migration In India .............................................................................................................. 53
CULTURAL REGIONS.......................................................................................................................................55
 Concept Of Cultural Regions ........................................................................................................... 55
LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AND LINGUISTIC REGIONS OF INDIA ............................................................................57
 Language As A Determinant of Cultural Region .............................................................................. 57
 Religion As A Determinant of Cultural Region ................................................................................ 60
 Growth And Composition of Various Religions ............................................................................... 60

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TRIBES OF INDIA ............................................................................................................................................65
 Major Tribes In India ....................................................................................................................... 66
 Gond ...................................................................................................................................... 67
 Santhal ................................................................................................................................... 67
 Bhil ......................................................................................................................................... 67
 Sahariya ................................................................................................................................. 67
 Konds ..................................................................................................................................... 68
 Sentinelese ............................................................................................................................ 68
 Irula ........................................................................................................................................ 68
 Angami ................................................................................................................................... 69
 Khasi ...................................................................................................................................... 69
 Reang ..................................................................................................................................... 69
 Gaddi ..................................................................................................................................... 69
 Bakrawal ................................................................................................................................ 69
 Tribal Problems ............................................................................................................................... 70
 Geography & Tribal Backwardness ................................................................................................. 70
INDIA’S RACIAL COMPOSITION & DIVERSITY ..................................................................................................73
GEOGRAPHY OPTIONAL SYLLABUS FOR UPSC .................................................................................................75

Pg.3
 Population Geography
References:
Topics Paper PYQs Practice Questions
Ch & Books
Q1) Provide an account of world
population transition in the Q1) What factors are
context of fertility decline & socio responsible for
Chapter 3:
Growth and - economic development.2020; population
Human
distribution of Paper 1 15marks distribution in the
Geography by
world population Q2) Explain the relationship between world in
Majid Hussain
net reproductive rate (NRR) and contemporary
true replacement level of scenario?
population 2019; 10 marks
Q1) Compare & Contrast the
Malthusian & neo - Malthusian
perspective in the context of
population growth, resource use &
environmental impact.2020;
20marks
Q2) The process of demographic Q1) Both Malthusian
Chapter 3: transition is not uniform in India. and Marxist theories
Population Human Examine this statement in the are relevant in
Paper 1
theories Geography by context of demographic transition discussions on
Majid Hussain theory .2010; 15marks" demography of India.
Q3) Assess the challenges for countries discuss.
with the largest shares of aged
populations.2019;15 marks
Q4) There are considerable
demographic similarities between
West European nations &
Japan.Explain.2017; 15 marks
Q1) The process of demographic
Q1) Population
transition is not uniform in India.
Chapter 11: growth rate in India
Growth, Examine this statement in the
India, a declining rapidly.
distribution and context of demographic transition
Paper 2 Comprehensive How can we explain
density of theory .2010; 15marks
Geography: the Rapid growth of
population Q2) Discus the factors influencing the
Khullar urban centers in
distribution of sex ratio in India.
India?
2016; 10 marks
Q1) Describe the regional patterns of
Demographic life expectancy in the world & Q1) Reproductive
attributes: Chapter 11: bring out the challenges faced by health in gender
sex-ratio, age India, a developing countries due to equality are essential
structure, literacy Paper 1 Comprehensive increasing life expectancy.2016; 20 for achieving
rate, work-force, Geography: marks sustainable
dependency Khullar Q2) Explain the present status of age - development. critical
ratio, longevity; structure & availability of analysis.
workforce in India.2019; 15 marks

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 Q3) Analyse the changing nature of
workforce composition vis a vis
rural - urban divide in India.2020;
20 marks
Q4) What kind of skill promotion
programmes have been initiated
for job deficient regions in India?
Explain. 2020; 15 marks
Q1) What is the
Chapter 11:
concept of geriatric
India, a
Population and challenges
Comprehensive
problems and Paper 1 related to managing
Geography:
policies the aging population
Khullar
in the context of
India?
Q1) Examine the causes & Q1) What are the
consequences of forced migration recent migration
of population in the present patterns globally?
Causes and
context. 2017; 15 marks How does the
consequences of Paper 1
Q2) What do you mean by ""climate migration patterns
migration;
migrants""? Suggest appropriate impact the economic
Chapter 4
policies & programmes for their development of a
(Page 186):
resettlement. 2019; 15 marks region?
Human
Q3) Distinguish between mobility &
Geography by
migration. What are the causes &
Majid Hussain
Causes and consequences of rural to urban
Chapter 12: Q1) Give an analytical
consequences of migration in india?2020; 10
India, a overview of recent
migration; marks"
Comprehensive interstate migration
migration (inter- Q4) Analyze the role of interstate
Geography: in India. also analyse
regional, intra- Paper 2 migration in regional disparity in
Khullar" how far these
regional and India.2019; 20 marks
migrations have
international) Q5) Discuss the socio- economic
affected the women
and associated problems associated with the left
in Indian society.
problems; behind families of international
migrants from India.2018; 15
marks
Historical
Perspective of Chapter 2, 5:
Indian Society; Human
Q1) Cultural regions
Racial, linguistic, Geography by
are not only arbitrary
and ethnic Majid Hussain Q1) Point out the ethnic disparities in
but also the reasons
diversities; Paper 2 Chapter 11: N-E India: 2016;15 marks
of conflicts. Do you
religious India, a
agree with this idea?
minorities; Comprehensive
Comment.
Cultural region, Geography:
India's linguistic Khullar
diversity

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 Q1) Critically assess the vanishing
ethnic plurality of India.2018; 15
Chapter 2, 5: marks
Human Q2) Linguistic Diversity is an asset as
Q1) Tribal population
Geography by well as a challenge in India. Explain
can't be considered
Major tribes, Majid Hussain the statement focusing on the
to be autochthonous
tribal areas, and Paper 2 Chapter 11: distribution of languages and the
in the present
their problems; India, a major steps taken to address the
location and track.
Comprehensive related issues. 2017; 15 marks
Discuss.
Geography: Q3) Religious minorities are largely
Khullar concentrated in the border states
of India. Discuss its causes and7c9
consequences. 2017; 15 marks
Q1) Demographic
Chapter 3: Q1) Write an essay on gender equity & dividend if not
World population
Human equality in India in the context of potentially reaped
problems and Paper 1
Geography by balanced human can turn into a major
policies
Majid Hussain development.2020; 15 marks demographic
disaster. comment
Q1) Define the quality of life & explain
its parameters with adequate
examples.2017; 15 marks
Q2) Explain the concept of social
capital in relation to India. 2017;
15 marks
Q1) Citing examples from Asia &
Q1) What is social
Europe, comment upon the
Social well-being Chapter 3: well being?
contexts within which pronatalist
and quality of Human Comment on its role
Paper 1 population policies are advanced.
life; Population as Geography by in sustainable
What could be the implications of
social capital. Majid Hussain development for
these policies on women's
India.
workforce participation? 2018; 15
marks
Q2) Comment upon the contributions
of D.M. Smith in outlining
"welfare" as a key focus in the
geographies of social well-
being.2020; 15 marks

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 POPULATION
Population is defined as all nationals present in, or temporarily absent from a country, and aliens
permanently settled in a country. This indicator shows the number of people that usually live in an area
total population
Include Exclude
1. National armed forces stationed abroad 1. Foreign armed forces stationed in the country.
2. Merchant seamen at sea 2. Foreign diplomatic personnel located in the
3. Diplomatic personnel located abroad. country.
4. Civilians alien resident in the country. 3. Civilians alien temporarily in the country.
Population projections are a common demographic tool. They provide a basis for other statistical
projections, helping governments in their decision making. This indicator is measured in terms of annual
growth rate and in thousands of people.
Growth rates are the annual changer in population resulting from births, deaths and net migration
during the year.

World Distribution of Population

Primary concentration Secondary concentration Tertiary concentration
These are the areas of high These are the areas with They are population clusters
population density moderate population density 1. High basin of Mexico
1. South Asia 1. California 2. Nile valley (strings)
2. Europe 2. Eastern Brazil
3. North-eastern 3. South-eastern Australia
North American

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Ecumene and Non-ecumene
The word ECUMENE is used to signify the inhabited portion of the earth’s surface, thus distinguishing it
from the remainder which was uninhabited.
The term NON-ECUMENE is used to refer to the uninhabited, intermittently inhabited or very sparsely
inhabited areas of the earth’s surface.
1. The delimitation of ecumene and non-ecumene is by no means easy.
2. Areas of high population density merge gradually into low density areas.
3. In the view of past expansion of ecumene, together with contemporary population pressures, it
might be concluded that those areas which remain sparsely populated at the present time
contain:
o Few resources or
o Present the most serious obstacles to settlement
The concept of ecumene and non-ecumene may be well illustrated by reference to CANADA-
1. Second largest nation in the world
2. Containing population of 37 million (as per labour force statistics: population and vital statistics -
2018)
3. Canadian population is concentrated within 150 km of the border with the USA.
4. While vast areas of north and west of the country remain largely uninhabited.
5. There is presence of fourfold division of the ecumene according to the intensity of settlement
and type of economy.

5.No. Yeor 2020 Year 2030

Country Population Percentage Country Population Percentage
in Million of Total in Million of Total
1. China 1,439.3 18.46 India 1,503.6 17.59
2. India 1,380.0 17.70 China 1,464.3 17 13
3. USA 331.0 4.25 USA 349.6 4.09
4. Indonesia 273.5 3.51 Indonesia 299 .2 3.50
5. Pakistan 220.9 2.83 Nigeria 263.0 3.08
6. Brazil 2 12.6 2.73 Pakistan 263.0 3.08
7. Nigeria 206.1 2.64 Brazil 223.9 2.62
8. Bangladesh 164.7 2.11 Bangladesh 179.0 2.09
9. Russia 145.9 1.87 Ethiopia 144 .9 1.70
10. Mexico 128.9 1.65 Russia 143.3 1.68
11. Japan 126.5 1.62 Mexico 140.9 1.65
12. Ethiopia 115.0 1.48 Philippines 123.7 1.45
13. Philippines 109.6 1.41 Egypt 120.8 1.41
14. Egypt 102.3 1.31 Japan 120.8 1.41
15. Viet Nam 97.3 1.25 DRC 120.0 1.40
16. DRC 89.6 1.15 Vietnam 104.2 1.22
World 7,794.8 100.00 World 8, 548.5 100.00

Source: UNO, 2020,World Population Prospects 2019, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, New York.

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Pg.9
World distribution of Population
The distribution is extremely uneven with marked contrasts between vast areas of scanty population
and highly crowed areas elsewhere.
Total World Population = 7.8 billion persons
World: Size and Growth of population (World Population in 2020 = 7.8 Billion)
World
1950 1975 2000 2020 2025* 2030* 2050* 2075* 2100*
Regions

World 2536.43 4079.48 6143.49 7794.8 8184.44 8548.49 9735.03 10577.29 10875.39

Africa 227.79 414.67 810.98 1340.6 1543.32 1688.32 2489.28 3498.76 4280.13

Asia 1404.91 2401.17 3741.26 4641.05 4855.36 4974.09 5290.26 5142.76 4719.91

Europe 549.33 676.9 725.56 747.64 745.04 741.3 710.49 657.28 629.56

Latin America
and The 168.82 322.78 521.84 653.09 687.09 706.25 762.43 749.88 679.99
Caribbean
Northern
172.6 242.6 312.43 368.87 382.01 390.6 425.2 461.33 490.89
America

Oceania 12.98 21.71 31.43 42.68 45.86 47.92 57.38 67.28 74.92

Source: UNO, 2020, world Population Prospects 2019, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, New York.

Pg.10
Factors affecting Population distribution
The unevenness in the distribution of world population may be attributed to the following factors:
1. Availability of arable land and water.
2. Age of civilization.
3. Accessibility of places.
4. Restrictions of national boundaries.
1. Arable Land
There is a close relationship between the arable land and the concentration of population. The plain
areas having fertile soils and suitable climate (temperature and rainfall for the cultivation of crops are
the regions of high density of population.
In the great plains of India and the eastern plains of China, there are high densities of population. Same
is the case with some parts of Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Syr and Amu valleys, where irrigation allows
farming in what are climatically deserts.
2. Age of civilization.
The longer a place is continuously used by farmers, the dense and large is the population. For example,
the eastern China plains and the Indo-Gangetic plains have long history of intensive agriculture and they
have high densities of population. Contrary to this, the plains of Mississippi in USA, Pampas of
Argentina, Down grasslands of Australia and New Zealand and Velds of South Africa, though equally
productive, the cultivation was started only after the 17th century. Consequently, these areas are
relatively sparsely populated.
3. Accessibility
In the agriculturally less productive but industrially advanced societies, the people are dependent on
secondary and tertiary sectors and most of the industries have been located at places which are easily
accessible. Accessible places are those which are easily connected by transportation to many other
places. The factor of accessibility is most important in an economy based on manufacturing and trading.
The economic advantages of locations like Kolkata, Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Karachi, Rotterdam,
London, Chicago, Paris, Rome, Beijing, Shanghai, Alexandria, Djakarta, Aden, Lagos, Singapore, Lahore,
Dhaka and Tokyo create employment opportunities that attract large populations. These centres of
dense population grow by both natural demographic increase and producing the markets that generate
even more economic opportunities for additional population. Consequently, these agglomerations
where people have been engaged in industrial activities for several generations (e.g. Western Europe)
tend to be densely populated."
4. Restrictions of National Boundaries
Political restriction to international migration of pattern of world population. Although major migrations
have altered the pattern of the world’s population in the past, such movements have been drastically
curtailed in recent decades. Most governments restrict immigration, and several countries control
emigration as well.

Pg.11
Density of Population
• Density is a measure of geographic facts (for example, people) per unit area. (Density of
population refers to average number of people living per square kilometer/mile. In a country, it
is measured by dividing the total population by total geographical area.
• The average density of population of the world is about 60 persons per sq km, while the
physiologic density is 559 persons per sq km of arable land.
• The highest density of population is in Bangladesh being 1,265 persons, while the highest
physiologic density is in Egypt (3,672) per sq km of arable land.
• In India arithmetic and physiological density is 464 and 882 person per sq km respectively.
Physiologic Density of Population
A superior index of population density relates to the total population of a country to the area of arable
(agricultural) land it contains. In other words it is the number of people per unit area of arable land. The
physiologic density is expressed as follows:
Total Population of the Country
Physiologic Density =
Total Arable Land of the Country
Asia has the highest agricultural density of population being 932 persons per sq km followed by Africa
557, South America 422, Europe 274, and North America 188 persons per sq km of agricultural land.
The lowest physiologic density of population in 2020 was in Oceania being only 133 persons per sq
arable land.
Continent Wise Physiologic Density of Population (2020)
Total Population in Arable Land in Arable Land in Physiologic
Continent
Thousand Thousand Hectare Percentage of Total Density
World 7,794,799 13,949.79 100. 00 559

Africa 1,340,598 2,407.23 17.26 557

Asia 4,641,055 4,981.34 35.71 932

Europe 747,363 2,728.16 19.56 274

Latin America and The
653,962 1,548.35 11.1 422
Caribbean
Northern America 368,870 1,964.26 14.08 188

Oceania 42,678 320.45 2. 30 133

Source: Based on FAO, 2018, FAOSTAT Database, Land Use. http://www. fao.org/faostat/en/#data/RL

World Population Growth

1. Growth rate is function of:
• Death rate
• Birth rate
• Migration

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2. Growth of population can also be
expressed in terms of time taken
to double the population.
3. Population growth across world
is different and uneven.
I. Major Growth (around 14-
1500s): due to scientific
developments, agricultural
revolution.
II. Major Growth (around
1700s): due to industrial
revolution, which resulted
in urban development and
better life conditions.
4. World attained:
• 1st billion – 1800
• 2nd billion – 1930
• 3rd billion – 1975
• It may attain, 8th billion – 2025
Growth of World Population
Year Population in Million No. of years to add one billion people
10000 BP 5
1AD 200
1000 AD 300
1750 800
1850 1,000 (1 billion)
1930 2,000 (2 billion) 80
1962 3,000 (3 billion) 32
1975 4,000 (4 billion) 13
1987 5,000 (S5 billion) 12
1999 6,000 (6 billion) 10
2011 7,000 (7 billion) 13
2025 8,000 (8 billion) 14
2050 9,000 (9 billion) 25
2100 10,000 (10 billion) 130

Doubling period time of world population

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 Period Population Time in which population doubles
10000 BP 5 Million
1650 AD 500 Million 1500 Years
1850 AD 1,000 Million (1 Billion) 200 Years
1930 AD 2,000 Million (2 Billion) 80 Years
1975 AD 4,000 Million (4 Billion) 45 Years
2025 AD 8,000 Million (8 Billion) 43 Years
2050 AD 9,000 Million 25 Years
2100 AD 10,000 Million (10 Billion) 130

A Model for Population Evolution

The simplest model involves stages of population growth.
1. Primitive Demographic Regime
o Death rate and fertility rate - High
o Population growth – Slow
o Countries – countries with law levels of economic development, low expectation of life,
lack of birth and death control
o Example – some parts of Africa and South East Asia

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2. Expanding or youthful demographic regime
o Mortality Rate – sharp decline
o Birth Rate – high
o Population growth – Rapid
o Example – Burma, Kenya, Pakistan, Iran
3. Late expanding demographic regime
o Mortality Rate – low (app. 10%)
o Birth Rate – medium (app. 20%)
o Population Growth – less rapid, modest growth rate
o Example – Europe, Canada, Australia
4. Low fluctuating or mature demographic regime
o Death Rate – low (app. 10%)
o Birth Rate – low (app. 12%)
o Population Growth – low
o Example – UK, Belgium, Denmark

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 Demographic Attributes
Age structure
The age structure of a population is the number of males & females in each age group. It is an
expression of the processes of fertility, mortality & migration. It records the demography & socio-
economic history of a population over a period of about a century.
The 3 groups in which population is divided are as follow:
o Children = 0-14 or 0-19 years
o Adult = 15-59 or 15-64 or 20-59 or 20-64 years
o Aged = 60 & over or 64 and over
A more detailed picture of age structure may be obtained by the construction of an “AGE-PYRAMID”.
Each age group of a population is represented by a horizontal bar, the length of which is proportional to
the percentages of males and females in that age group.
Males are arranged to the left & females are averaged to the right of vertical axis, which is divided into
single years or intervals of five years.
The form of pyramid tells about the evolution of population like-
o Stationary Population – tapering pyramid
o Progressive population – rapidly tapering pyramid
o Regressive population – narrow based pyramid

Progressive Population Stationary Population

Regressive Population Intermediate Population

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Demographic Terms & Concepts
Fertility
• At the global levels, all changes in population can be understood by reference to mainly two
factors- Fertility & Mortality.
o Fertility:
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
SIMPLEST + COMMON MEASURE = CRUDE BIRTH RATE = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚−𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 × 1000

• During the last few decades (1960-2016) the crude birth rate is declining steadily.
• Crude birth rate is a very useful statistics, but it may be somewhat misleading because birth
rates are related to total population & not to the subset of the population that is able to
conceive & reproduce.
• To reflect the underlying fertility patterns more accurately, more sophisticated methods are
used. i.e.
o General Fertility rate
o Total fertility rate
• Both relate birth as directly as possible to that segment of the population responsible for them,
excluding those unable to conceive namely males, & those unlikely to conceive, namely very
young girls & women over the age 50.
General Fertility Rate (GFR)
It refers to the actual number of live births per 1000 women in fecund age range (those years in which a
woman has the ability to conceives, typically defined as age 15-49 (sometimes 15-44)). It is calculated as:
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
GFR = ×1000
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 15−49 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

Pg.17
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
It is the average number of children a woman will have, assuming she has children at the prevailing age-
specific rates, as she passes through the fecund years. This is an age specific measure of fertility that is
useful because childbearing during the fecund years varies considerably with age.
The TFR between 2.1 & 2.5 is considered REPLACEMENT LEVEL FERTILITY, i.e. it maintains a stable
population.

Pg.18
 Fig.: TFR across World
Highest and Lowest Fertility Rates of the World, 2020
Highest Total Lowest Total
S.No. Country S.No. Country
Fertility Rate Fertility Rate
1. Niger 6.95 1. South Korea 1.11
2. Somalia 6.12 2. Taiwan 1.15
3. DRC 5.96 3. Singapore 1.21
4. Mali 5.92 4. Moldova 1.26
5. Chad 5.80 5. Bosnia and Herzegovina 1. 27
6. Angola 5.55 6. Portugal 1. 29
7. Burundi 5.45 7. Greece 1. 30
8. Nigeria 5.42 8. Spain 1. 33
9. Gambia 5.25 9. Japan 1. 39
9. Burkina Faso 5.23 10. Mauritius
Source: UNO,2020,World Population Prospects 2019, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, New York.

Factors Affecting Fertility

1. Biological Factors: Fecundity generally begins at the age of about 15 for females, reaches a
maximum in the late 20s, & terminates in the late forties.
Reproductive behavior is also affected by nutritional standard as the population under fed
having ill health is very likely to have impaired fertility.

Pg.19
2. Economic Factors: As per experts of demography, there is an inverse relationship between
industrialization, higher standard of living & fertility rate of population.
In the traditional extended family, children are valuable, both as reproductive agents & as a
source of security for parents in old age.
But modern societies emphasize small families & individual independence in economic terms as
they have more social security in the old age especially in the developed countries.
3. Cultural factors: like marriage, religious factors, contraceptives, attitude & government
population policies etc.
MORTALITY MEASURES
number of deaths in one year
• Simplest: Crude Death Rate (CDR) = ×1000
mid−year total population
• The CDR for the world in 2016 was 8.
• Measures of CDR have typically ranged from a minimum of 5 to a maximum of 50.

Figure: World: Crude Death Rate per 1,000 People

Mortality Rate/Death Rate (MR/DR)
• The impact of a particular CBR or TFR on the total of a population is related to the mortality or
death rate.
• Mortality rate or Death rate is a measure of the number of deaths in a particular population,
scaled to the size of that population, per unit of time.

Pg.20
 Lowest Death Rates of the Select Countries of the World, 2020
Crude Death Crude Death
S.No. Country Rate per 1,000 of S.No. Country Rate per 1,000 of
population population
1. Qatar 1.19 8. Turkey 5.40
United Arab
2. 1.45 9. Bangladesh 5.55
Emirates
3. Bahrain 2.38 10. Brazil 6.42

4. Oman 2.44 11. Afghanistan 6.52

5. Kuwait 2.67 12. Australia 6.60

6. Mayotte 2.67 13. Sri Lanka 6.62

7. Maldives 2.84 14. Pakistan 6.98

Source: UNO,2020,World Population Prospects 2019, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, New York.

Highest Death Rates of the Select Countries of the World, 2020

Crude Death Crude Death
S.No. Country Rate per 1,000 of S.No. Country Rate per 1,000 of
population population
1. Bulgaria 15.38 8. Russia 12.72

2. Ukraine 15.19 9. Nigeria 11.86

3. Latvia 14.60 10. UK 9.38

4. Lesotho 14.33 11. France 9.27

5. Lithuania 13.56 12. USA 8.68

6. Serbia 13.17 13. India 7.24

7. Croatia 13.13 14. China 7.12

Source: UNO,2020,World Population Prospects 2019, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, New York.
• Another useful statistic that reflects mortality is LIFE EXPECTANCY (LE), the average numbers to
be lived from birth.
• Highest Life Expectancy: Japan ~81 years & Hongkong
• Lowest: Sierra Leone, Central African Republic, Chad Nigeria ~52 years.

Pg.21
• Global Life Expectancy (LE) average = 71.5 years

The CDR, however, doesn’t take into account the fact that the probability of dying is closely related to
age.
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
Infant Mortality Rate: ×1000
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

Pg.22
Factors: 1. Physical health of the mother
2. Malnutrition of the babies
3. Poor Sanitation
Maternal Mortality Rate
WHO definition: Death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy
irrespective of the duration & site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the
pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes.

Pg.23
SDG Target 3.1 is to reduce global maternal deaths to less than 70 per 100000 live births & all countries
less than 140/100000 live births is the minimum target.
Global Ageing Population
The process by which older individuals come to make up a proportionally larger share of the total
population: POPULATION AGEING.

Percentage old population (65 1900 2016 2050 (estimated) India Italy
year +) < 1% > 8% 20% 6% 22%

Pg.24
Consequences of ageing population
• More stress on retirement, pension & related social benefits, necessitating radical changes in
social security programmes.
• There will be increase in the degenerative diseases associated with ageing such as cancer, heart
problems & arthritis.
• There will be shortage of work force available to support elderly population.
LITERACY
• Defined differently in different countries. It reflects the socio-economic & cultural setup of a
nation ethnic group or community.
• Important for eradication of poverty, cultivating peaceful & friendly international relations.

• As per definition - Literacy rate = percentage of people aged 15 & above

• Who can both read and write with understanding a short-simple statement about their everyday life.

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝×100

Effective Literacy Rate = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

Pg.25
 CONCEPT OF OVER, OPTIMUM, UNDER POPULATION
Optimum Population
Optimum population has been defined as the size of the population enabling maximum per capita
output and the highest possible living standards under given economic and technological condition.
Factors of Optimum population
• The highest lifestyle + sustainable development
• Full utilization of resources
• Productivity cannot be increased further with present level of technology. If population
increases further, then the lifestyle of the people will suffer.
Under Population
Under population exists when a population is too small to fully utilize its available resources or where
available resources could support a larger population with no reduction in living standards.
Example- Canadian prairies, Parts of Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Russia etc.
Reasons for under population
• Low birth rate
• High death rate of the population
Example- Central African region
• Technology is not available or developed to utilize the resources. Example- Amazon basin
Over Population
Over population exists where there is an excess of population over utilized or potential resources. It
may result from increase in population or decline in resources, or overpopulation occurs when resource
development fails to keep pace with population growth.
Over population strikes hardest at those occupying the lowest level in society.
Example- The landless, the small farmers, the unskilled and semi-skilled workers.
Indicators of over Population
• Widespread hunger in the population
• Rapid increase of rural population
• Malnutrition in population
• Skewed distribution of land
• High agricultural dependence
• Lack of social development
• Low income of population
• Non-resilience of the agriculture sector
• Conflicts due to food, water, home, land shortage.

Pg.26
Type of over population
1. Absolute over population
When the maximum productivity also cannot feed their population i.e. No way left other than to
reduce population
2. Relative overpopulation
When present resources cannot fulfill the present needs, but resource productivity can be
increased to fulfill needs.

Why there is a need to reduce population?

By 2050 world population will be ~9.7 billion and more than 80% developing countries will have-
• Poor HDI indicator
• Low per capita income
• High infant mortality rate
• High birth rate
• Education
• High crime rate

Population Population Life Expectance Per capita

HDI Ranking
(Cr) density (/km2) (yrs) income ($)
India 138 416 69 2000 129
USA 33 35 79 62,000 15
Japan 12 336 85 39,000 19
China 143 148 78 10,000 85

India
• Poor HDI ranking
• 2.4% land: 18% population of world
• Per year 10 cr. Employment needed
• Huge population density – Resource crunch
Way forward
• Kerala population control policy model (Focus or health and education)
• Take benefit of demographic divided (Focus skill and health)
• Restrictive Child Policy

Pg.27
 POPULATION THEORIES

1. MALTHUSIAN THEORY
Robert Malthus Thomas, the English economist and demographer, is well known for his theory of
population growth. He published ‘An Essay on Principles of Population’ in 1798.
Malthus principles states that:
• Population is necessarily limited by the means of subsistence.
• Population invariably increases where the means of subsistence increased, unless prevented by
some very powerful and obvious checks.
• These checks, and the checks which repress the superior power of population and keeps its
effects on level with the means of subsistence are all resolvable into moral restraint, vice and
misery.
Malthus believed that two of the characteristics essential to the sustenance of life.
• The need for food
• The passion between the sexes.
The widening gap between population and subsistence will increase a man’s tendency to press upon the
means of subsistence. As a result society will divided in two group (a) Rich (haves) and
(b) poor (have nots).
Malthus defends the capitalistic set-up of society. On the ground that if capital was to be distributed
among poor, it will not be available for investment on the mode of production. Thus, the rich will
continue to grow richer and poor constituting the labour class.
He believed that change in society and social institution, would mitigate the positive checks for a short
while.
Malthus positive checks included wars, disease, poverty and especially lack of food. His preventive
checks included principally moral restraint or the postponement of marriage. Malthus saw the tension
between population and resources as a major cause of misery of much of the humanity.
He stressed the negative correlation between one’s social rank or position in life and number of children
and, in order to induce in the lower classes the self-control and social responsibility, which he saw in the
middle classes, Malthus asserted that the poor should be better paid and educated.
Criticism of Malthusian Theory
1. The basic assumption of Malthus on passion between the sexes has been questioned on the
ground that the desire to have children cannot be mixed up with passion and desire for sex. The
desire for sex is a biological instinct, whereas the desire for children is a social instinct.
2. The validity of his two sets of ratios has also been questioned by his critics. Population has rarely
grown in geometrical progression and means of production have rarely multiplied in arithmetic
progression.
3. Malthus overemphasized the positive checks and did not visualize the role of preventive checks
like contraceptive and family planning.

Pg.28
4. Moreover natural calamities have occurred in the developed countries. Ex- Australia (floods),
Iceland (volcanoes), Japan (Tsunami & earthquakes), USA (Hurricanes & Blizzards). Hence, no
causal relationship between positive checks and over population.
5. Malthus has been severely criticized for ignoring the changing technology and the consequent
transformation in socio-economic set-up of a society.
6. Malthus also failed to realize even the biological limitation that a population cannot grow
beyond certain limit.
In spite of all these criticism, Malthusian principle of population has been successful in highlighting the
urgency to maintain a balanced relationship between population and means of subsistence.
Another main contribution of Malthus was to bring the study of population in the fold of social sciences.
Malthus theory has been supported by the theory of ‘Limits to growth’ advocated by club of Rome.
2. MARXIAN THEORY
• Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a creative political thinker.
• Marxian theory of population is based on as a reaction to the capitalistic mode of production
and governance.
• According to Marx, poverty and misery were not natural inevitabilities but unpleasant gift of
capitalism. He had a considered opinion that poverty and misery are the outcome of
unemployment and under-employment arising out of inabilities of the capitalistic social order to
provide jobs to all, regardless of the speed at which the population increased.
• Marx was not in agreement with Malthus who postulated that population tends to increased
faster than the means of subsistence, thus absorbing all economic gains, unless controlled by
what he termed preventive and positive checks.
• Marx places the workers (masses) at the centre of the main historic processes on which depend
the growth of population and the course of history.
• According to Marx there could be no one universal law (Natural law) for population growth. The
growth pattern of population change with the change in modes of production.
His idea was:
Fuedal Modelite Industrial Communism
Tribal
&Agrarian capitalism capitalism

Marx interprets poverty and population relationship in

a different way and does not hold poor themselves as
responsible for their poverty, (unlike Malthus), for
Marx the solution is political organization of poor to
over throw capitalism.
Marx views the population as an asset and worked
towards population getting ownership rights on modes
of production. He doesn’t blame poor for their poverty.
Marx is therefore more human than Malthus. Marx is
also optimistic that population will not collapse.

Pg.29
Criticism of Marxian Theory
1. The unprecedented growth of population in the world is not due to the lower wages,
unemployment and underemployment but mainly owing to the extension in the medical
facilities and health care services which substantially reduced the death rates without arresting
the birth rates.
2. The increase in the population does not automatically lead to decline in real wages as has been
argued by Marx. There are numerous social, political, economic factors which determine the
wage level and employment in a society.
3. The faith and religion of the population has, however, not been taken into consideration by
Marx in his postulates. There are numerous affluent ethnic and religious groups both in
developed and developing countries in which the rate of birth is significantly high.
4. Marx overemphasized and considered private property as the main cause of all evils. The social
norms, education level, technological advancement and attitude towards family all are vital
determinant of population growth. Thus private property may not be blamed as the sole factor
of population increase.
5. Marx theory of population growth may be relevant to the capitalistic societies and in all
probability would not operate in feudalistic, socialistic and primitive hunting and food gathering
societies.
6. The physical environment (terrain, climate, soil, fertility etc) as a determinant of birth and death
rates has been given adequate weightage by Marx in the growth of population. There are
scholars like spencer who believed that man capacity as the forces for evolution are quite
beyond his control.
7. There are demographer like Dumont who believed in the prevalence of social capillarity where
the need for the smaller family would be generated by the desire for better economic status.
3. DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY:
• The theory was given by Notestein, Thompson, Stolnitz
• This theory is more based on empirical data and analysis and is more based on study of
demographic history of Europe, so it is considered to be more modern and scientific.
• On the basis of Europe’s history the countries were classified into 3 groups.
o Countries which had
high growth rate which
had high birth rate and
declining death rate.
o Countries with low
growth rate they were
stabilized because of
low birth rate and low
death rate.
o Countries with low
growth rate but future
potential of high
growth rate.

Pg.30
Above the three countries were visualized as three stages in demographic transition through time the
transition can be plotted with the three stages.
The theory is a descriptive model, it traces the changes in birth and death rate but does not explain
cause of transition, often said that this theory is not analytical. But there are social explanation that why
the transition takes place.
Population momentum on population inertia. It drags the death rate down but birth rate does not fall
suddenly and this gap in death rate and birth rate expansion.
But eventually after some time the birth rate also starts falling.
The transition is a consequence of social changes like-urbanization, nuclear family, better quality of life,
better employment etc.
OTHER THEORIES
1. Boserup Theory
• Boserup has tried to refuse some of the aspect of Malthusian theory.
• According to Boserup,
o Population size is actually resource for agriculture and more food production.
o According to Boserup, the positive checks of food scarcity is incorrect.
• According to prof. Boserup, “whenever there is a population pressure, population does
not go down. It rather leads to various technical and other changes which results in
agriculture growth and increase in food supply.
2. Thomas Sadler’s Theory
1
• Population growth ∝
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
• Positive checks will not work
• Biological idea (more people will grow more)
• Sadler was very optimistic and he tried to establish link between population and food
supply. He was of the view that if the fertility rate of population increases people will be
able to produce food according to their needs and the food supply and population will
get adjusted to each other.
3. Thomas Double Day’s Theory
1
• Population growth ∝
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
• Nutrition increase: Limiting biological reproduction ability
• Example of natural and biological theory (opposite to Malthus)
• Doubleday mentioned two states of food supply.
o The plethoric state having good food supply where the fertility is low.
o The Deplethoric state, in which due to food shortage we find diminution of proper
nourishment where the fertility is high.

Pg.31
 • Doubleday also observes that high fertility has been found in those persons who are
vegetarians or who eat more rice or whose staple diet is rich, whereas fertility will be low
in non-vegetarian person.
SOCIAL THEORIES
1. J.S. Mill
• According to Mill fear of failure will stop people to increase their family. Fear of failure or
slipping back into poverty incentivizes families to adopt for smaller sizes, adopt from
these two things J.S. Mill said
o Import Food
o Export people
• J.S. Mill dismissed the idea of positive checks and food shortage as inhabitable
consequences,
• There are two options to deal with food shortage
o Import food – food trade, food distribution
o Export people as an outmigration which has been a reality for European
population.
• According to J.S. Mill women plays very important role in controlling population, this idea
had been echoed in 1994 (CAIRO Summit), Egypt (ICPD)
2. Arsene Dumont
• Ideas for aspiration to grow will stop families to increase population.
• Theory called as theory of social capillary.
• According to him the aspiration for career and social growth will limit family size children
are seen as liabilities that inhabit career progression.

Pg.32
 Population Problems and Policies
POPULATION PROBLEMS
• The growing pressure of population on resource base, especially on arable land, has created
many socio-economic, cultural ecological and environmental problems. The population problems
vary in space and time and differ from region to region.
• Countries like- Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, South Asia-India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, South East Asia-loos,
Cambodia, East Timor, Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia suffers from poverty.
• Globally ~800 million i.e. 10% live below International Poverty Line (1.9 $/person/day) approx.
half of world’s poor are in Africa and sub-Saharan Africa and approx. one third in South Asia.
• According to UNDP HDP report 2018-19 around 1.3 billion people have multidimensional
poverty, about 80% of this population are in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
• The 1990s globalization has been responsible for bringing people out of poverty particularly
impact has been not uniform across region and sectors.
• Globalization by passed agriculture sector and did not benefit the local semiskilled and unskilled
population. Hence the bulk of world’s poor are farmers, rural population, and those with limited
education and with no education.
• Poverty in terms of demographic profile is higher for 4 groups.
o Rural population
o Tribal population- 50% of multidimensional poverty
o Lower Caste
o Muslim - 30% of multidimensional poverty

Problems of developing or less developed

Problems of developed countries
countries
1. Problem related to agriculture
• Farmer’s poverty
1. Problems of aging population
• Land holding
• Water Issues
2. Problems related to low growth rate and
2. Poverty and unemployment
shortage in working labour force.
3. Problems related to urbanization
3. Problems related to high growth rates and • Pollution
future potential for high growth. • Convection
• Social Life- Nuclear families
4. Problems demographic composition
• Sex ratio
4. Problems related to immigration & potential
• Dependency problems: Children,
conflict
Aging population
• Low literacy

Pg.33
5. Problems of out migration
• Rural depopulation
6. Poor Standard of living and malnutrition
7. Orthodoxy

POPULATION POLICIES
The size of population, its structure, composition and growth rates as well as migration pattern in a
country are closely influenced by the population policy of the respective government. Each country has
its own population policy.
These policy ranges from encouragement for high fertility to varying degree of discouragement.
Some of the developed countries, such as Canada, USA, UK, Australia, New Zealand, Japan and
Singapore follow the policy of slow growth also known as policy of Pronatalism. In these countries
population growth rates are below one percent.
Contrary to this some of the Afro-Asian and Latin America countries follows the policy of reducing the
size of population, while in Germany, Russia, Romania, Italy, Austria, France etc. where the growth rate
is around or below 0.1% the governments are adopting the policies of population increase.
Population Policies Objective
• To reduce the population growth rate not necessarily to zero.
• To stabilize the population by achieving a zero population growth rate.
• To achieve a negative growth rate with a view to reduce the size of population.
Policies Discouraging Population Growth
• The developing countries are mostly following the policy to restrict the growth of population.
• Economic incentives for small families in the Republic of South Korea and the Philippines;
financial rewards for sterilization in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka; the
preferential treatment for mothers of small family in government hospitals in Singapore; free
abortion facilities on demand in Tunisia, Cuba, China, India, Indonesia and Singapore; legalization
of abortion on medical grounds in most of less developed countries are some of the examples of
policies aimed at discouraging the rapid growth of population.
• In most of the developing countries, the techniques for promoting family planning and birth
control vary from supplying contraceptives and information in some nations to much more direct
involvement in others. Invariably, the promotion involves the communication of new ideas.
• In most of the less developed countries, the governments have come out with a variety of
policies for mortality control, fertility control, family and individual well-being.
• It is widely believed that the rate of natural increase can be reduced only if all these measures
are combined and the standard of living improves.
• Most of the developing countries have fixed the time-bound targets of reducing the rate of
natural increase by 2020 AD. For example, Kenya has a target of 2.8 percent, Mauritius 1.1
percent, Egypt 1.5 percent, Tunisia 1.4 percent, China 0.5 percent and Sri Lanka 1 percent.

Pg.34
• In some countries, the government's efforts to reduce the birth rate have moved beyond
voluntary family planning to various forms of coercion. In Singapore, for example, where space is
extremely limited, there have been heavy financial penalties for parents who have had more
than two children. Parents have been fined to the equivalent of $100 for the third child, with the
size of fine being doubled, tripled and quadruplet for the fourth, fifth and sixth child. On the
other hand, parents who have been sterilized after the birth of the second child have been
rewarded with guaranteed education and employment for their children. As a result of this
policy, in combination with a rapid economic development, the total fertility rate in Singapore
fell from 4.9 in 1961 to just 1 per cent in 2016. In fact, because the country's fertility rate is well
below the replacement level, the Singapore government is now encouraging the better educated
women to have more children.
• In India, a voluntary family planning policy has been adopted right from the beginning of 1951,
but a tough sterilization policy adopted in 1976-77 under the administration of Indira Gandhi
could not bring the desired results. The rigid policy was resisted by the masses. Because India
has a democratic form of government and public feelings can be expressed through elections,
objections to the tough policy became evident after it was implemented. Most of the political
analysts believe that
the incumbent
party (Congress) Figure: China’s One-Child Family Model
lost the 1977
election mainly
because of the
widespread belief,
particularly on the
part of Muslim,
Catholic and ethnic
minorities, that
people were being
sterilized against
their will.
Subsequently,
Indian government
returned to less
coercive methods
of encouraging
family planning. The
new methods
include placing
health experts in all villages with more than 1,000 people, publicizing the merits of small
families, and offering financial rewards to parents who accept sterilization after having two
children. Many Indian couples, especially those who are educated from the middle income
group, have planned families. The family planning organization provides a variety of
contraceptives and other services to them. During the last four decades, there have been some

Pg.35
dramatic decreases in birth rate in different parts of India, but fertility rates differ from region to
region, occupation to occupation and from one income group to another. For the country the
rate of population increase is still over 1.76 per cent. If this rate continues and China's rate
continues to fall, India could become the most populous country in the world by the middle of
the 21st century.

Pg.36
 Figure: China: Population Pyramids
Policies Encouraging Population Growth.
Population growth in developed countries generally is slow and in some regions of France, Germany,
Luxembourg, Denmark, Russia, Austria, Finland, Poland, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden,
Portugal, Spain and UK, it is even showing a negative growth rate.
Usually, the richer the country, the slower the population growth. It has also been established that
"development is the best contraceptive".
Looking at the declining growth rate of population, some of the European countries have also started
taking positive steps to increase their population. France, for example, grants substantial payments and
services to parents to help in child rearing. Eastern Europe is much more active in encouraging growth.
Three children per family has become the adopted goal of several Eastern Bloc countries of Europe that
fear for national survival if the present trend continues. Parental subsidies, housing priorities and
generous maternity leaves at full salaries are among the inducements for multiple child families.
Interestingly enough, in Romania, contraceptives are banned and abortions permitted only on doctor's
orders in the hope that birth rates can be increased. In general, despite some short-term successes,
people of East and West Europe have ignored both blandishment and restrictions. The consequences
will only gradually emerge over the next several decades.
• In Soviet Union, in 1950s and 1960s, the birth rate decreased significantly. The low birth rate
resulted in the reduced number of youth entering the labour force and the armed forces. This
shortage in labour created many socio-economic problems. Consequently, a policy was adopted
to encourage large-sized families.
• In Russia, especially the European Russia, where the rate of natural increase of population in
2016 was -0.5 per cent, the government is trying to create a favourable atmosphere for high

Pg.37
 birth rate through incentives and publicity. The Mother Lenin Award was introduced in Soviet
Union as early as 1970s. This award carrying a handsome cash, a house, a car and a certificate to
be given to a mother who gave birth to twelve children.
• In Germany, where the birth rate has fallen as low as the death rate, the government has taken
stronger measures to encourage larger families. For example, following the birth of a second
child, mothers are allowed one year's leave from work at 80 per cent of their salaries. Low
interest loans for homes are available at the time of marriage and when each child is born.
• In the USA, where the birth rate is about 1 per cent which is higher to that of most of the
countries of Europe, and where a tax allowance is given for each child, there is concern over the
implications of a population with a stationary size. Low birth rates combined with low death
rates have resulted in an increase in the proportion of elderly people. At present, over 15 per
cent of the US population is over 65 years of age, compared to only 8 per cent in 1950.
• In Canada, a government family planning programme was launched in 1969. Under this policy,
prohibitions on the distribution of contraceptives were withdrawn and abortion was made more
liberal.
• In the UK, it was in 1974 that contraceptives and abortions received official recognition. In most
of the Catholic countries, birth control measures have remained illegal, though late marriage,
illegal abortions, rhythm methods, etc. have helped these countries in keeping their growth
rates low.
• In France, Belgium and the Netherlands, until recently, dissemination of family planning
materials and information was laws. France legalized contraceptives in 1960s. The birth control
devices are still illegal in Ireland, Spain and Portugal.
• Italy has however legalized the pill for medical purposes. It was in 1975 that new laws authorized
the government to promote family planning in Italy.
• Australia and New Zealand have considered themselves as the underpopulated countries. The
policies of these governments have been pro-natalist and pro-immigration. A policy to have zero
growth rate of population has been adopted by these countries.
• Japan, Singapore, China and South Korea are the only countries in Asia which have been
successful in reducing their birth rates the level of developed countries, largely by legalizing
abortion.
• The population policy of Japan, adopted in 1950, strongly discouraged a family with more than
two children.
• In some of the African countries, namely, Congo, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Cameroon, Gabon,
Gambia, Mali, Guinea, Togo and Guinea-Bissau, the governments have adopted the policies to
increase population. This policy in these developing countries is based on the belief that
continued population growth is the key to economic development.
• In the opinion of the formulators of this policy, a youthful population is necessary to develop the
countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. Some African countries do not advocate birth control
because poor living conditions adversely affect both infant mortality and fertility. In many areas,
fecundity (fertility) is low because of poor nutrition or disease and is considered to be a greater
problem than high fertility.

Pg.38
• Most of the Latin American countries being Catholics in their faith have been very reluctant to
accept population growth measures. At present, many Latin American countries are propagating
family planning mainly on health and welfare grounds and as a means of reducing illegal
abortions. Chile, Columbia, Caribbeans and Central American countries have now adopted
clearly anti-natalist policy. Brazil and Argentina still have policies encouraging high population
growth.
• Thailand, Sri Lanka, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Vietnam, Pakistan, Iran, Nepal and
Bangladesh have also well-designed population policies to reduce birth rates. Countries of the
South-West Asia and the newly created Central Asian republics (Kazakhstan, Kirgizstan,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) are encouraging the population growth. Afghanistan,
Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria have also gone for family planning. Israel continues to favor
rapid growth of population. Saudi Arabia has outlawed the import of contraceptives.

Pg.39
 INDIAN DEMOGRAPHY
• As per census 2011 – India’s population is 1.3
billion (1.35 billion - OECD data) - 17.6% share of
world population
• 1921: The year of great divide
• At this point the mortality started to decline
leading to acceleration in the rate of population
growth during next three decades (1921-51).
• After independence, the rate of population growth
accelerated considerably because of development
and extension of public health services.
Density of Population
• It implies average number of people living per sq
km. & it is measured by dividing its total population
by total area.
• Maximum % growth of Population: 2011
o Uttar Pradesh ~16%
o Maharashtra, Bihar ~9%
• Minimum % growth of population: 2011
o Dadra & Nagar Haveli: 750%
India’s Demographic Transition
STAGES:

Pg.40
• 1st Stage: Population stagnant due to epidemics, high infant mortality rate, lack of workers for
agriculture, lack of clean drinking water
• 2nd Stage: Population grow steadily due to Improvement in health care (eg. Small-pox, plague
vaccine hygiene, sanitation, food supply, decrease in infant mortality rates.
• 3rd Stage: Slow Population growth due to Family planning, lower infant mortality, education,
better per capita income, increased standard of living & changing status of women.
• 4th Stage: education, health care, better income and standard of living
India currently has 28 states and 8 Union territories. They vary not only in their geographical size and
population count but also in population density, socio-economic conditions, cultural practices,
education, social norms, static of women in society etc.
These factors influence the health seeking behavior and living conditions of the people, especially the
productive health of women, etc. & also places states in various demographic transition stages.
Example: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Goa etc.: 5th Stage
• Uttar Pradesh, Bihar etc.: 3rd Stage
• Pockets of Tribal Areas - Sentinelese tribe in 1st Stage
Projections until 2025 (with the total population estimated at 1.38 billion) reveal that it will be difficult
to contain population growth even under assumption of moderate decline in fertility.
It is mainly because of the high fertility of the part and the resultant momentum of population growth.
This is especially so in the case of the Hindi speaking states of the North.

Sex Ratio
• It is defined as the number of
females per 1000 males. It is
highly skewed in India.
1901 - 972/1000
1951 - 946/1000
1991 - 927/1000 (LPG reforms)
2011 - 943/1000 (2011 census)
• Between 2014-16 & 2015-17,
Assam docked the biggest
improvement followed by Jammu
& Kashmir (undivided) Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh
(undivided) & Bengal also
showed on uptick.
• Haryana & Himachal Pradesh
showed marginal improvement
Kerala saw the biggest dip from
959 to 948 but since its sex
ratio was so high that it is still
second only to Chhattisgarh.

Pg.41
• The child sex ratio at India level (914) is lowest since independence. Increase trend has been
noticed in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu etc.
• Patriarchal mindset has led to low development of women in education, health etc. It has
resulted in early marriages, lower literacy, and high fertility & mortality levels in many parts of
the country.
Literacy
• As per India, literacy definition:
“Any person above the age of seven years, who can read and write with understanding in any
language.”
2011 census: 73% population = LITERATE
82% - Men literate
65% - Women literate
94% - highest in Kerala (men = 92%)

Pg.42
Life Expectancy
• Expectation of life refers to the average life of the people of a country.
Category 2016 (years) 2041 (expected) in years
Women 70
75
Men 67
71
Overall 69
Rural-urban Differentiation
• Ratio of urban population to the total population of a country is an INDEX of the level of
industrialization of that country.
India = agricultural country
Rural population > Urban population
• As per census 2011; about 30% population was living in urban areas
• In the last 100 years, percentage of urban population in the country has increased from 13% to
30%. It proves that in the economic life of India, role of cities has been increasing.
• Compared to developed countries, the number of cities and the ratio of population living urban
areas is very low.
India 30%
England 80%
USA 74%
South Korea 83%
Japan 78%
Belgium 97%
Population related targets in India (National Population Policy 2000)
• Achieve zero growth rate of population by 2045
• Reduce infant mortality rate to below 25 per thousand live births by 2030
Currently : 39/1000
1990s : 84/1000
• Reduce MMR to below 1/1000 live births.
• To reduce total fertility rate to 2.1 by 2010. (currently ~2.1)
Objectives
• Meet unfulfilled needs for basic reproductive & child health care services, supplies &
infrastructure.
• To make school education upto age 14 FREE & COMPULSORY.
• To achieve universal immunization of children against all vaccine preventable diseases
• To promote delayed marriage for girls nor earlier than 18 years of age.
• To achieve 100% deliveries by trained persons.
• To make registration of birth, death, marriage & pregnancy compulsory.
• To curtail spread of AIDS.
• To achieve universal access to information for contraception.

Pg.43
Strategic Themes
• The national population policy has identified the following strategic themes:
• Decentralised planning & programme implementation under which the Panchayats and other
bodies will plan and implement the family welfare programme.
• Expansion of family welfare
• Special provisions for child health
• Empowering women for improved wealth & nutrition.
• Special family welfare programme for urban slums, tribals & hilly people.
• Use of Indian medicines & homeopathy for family welfare
• Support for senior citizens
• Increasing male participation in family welfare programme
Facts to remember
• In advanced countries of Europe, America & Japan, the ratio of those less than 15 years of age is
between 20-30% as against 35% in India. It shows birth rate is high in India.
• In India. The proportion of children in the age group 0-6 yrs. has decreased from 18% in 1991 to
15.1 % in 2001.
• Since 2001 the percentage of working population has been improving in India.
• The birth rate in India, as per census 2011, is still very high in comparison to developed countries
like Japan, Germany, Italy, Canada, USA, UK and Russia.
• 2001-11 is the first decade (with exception of 1911-21) which actually added lesser population
compared to previous decade.

Pg.44
 SOCIAL WELL BEING
The concept of Social well-being is a more modern and contemporary concept of development. It not
only includes the physical measure of health, education, employment etc. but also measures abstract
concept which includes emotional state, spiritual health, mental health etc.
The concept of social well-being includes:
1. The domain of Being (It is related to physical condition like where person works, jobs, etc.)
2. The domain of Becoming (It includes aspirational and futuristic aspect like hope).
3. The domain of Belonging (It includes relational aspect like family, friends.)

Concept of Social Capital

Traditionally capital was classified as:
1. Natural Capital like soil, water, minerals.
2. Human Capital like education, talent, skill.
3. Produced Capital like roads, factories, language…

Natural Capital + Human Capital = Produced Capital

(Measured by GDP, GNP etc.)

In 1990s – “Robert Putman” in his book “Making Democracies Work”, talked about fourth type of
capital called as SOCIAL CAPITAL.
Social Capital is the totality of relationship in the society which includes – Trust, Collaboration,
Inter-dependence, and Participations – where people can work and live together in a society. There are
3 forms of social capital – Bonding, Bridging and Linking.

SOCIAL CAPITAL

BONDING BRIDGING LINKING

• Between individuals or
• Between individuals or • Between people at
group that are dissimilar
group that has different hierarchical level
• Easy to exploit
similarity • Easy to exploit
• Not occur naturally
• Strong Relation • Not occur naturally
• Example: India-China
• Naturally occurring • Example: Govt-Citizen
• Example: Family

Pg.45
 Social Capital
1. Social Capital can be developed through trust and reciprocity in relations. Social capital at
national or society scales can be fostered by reconciliation. It is significant objective to achieve in
diverse and fractured communities.
2. Countries like Germany, Sri-Lanka, South Africa have consciously tried to develop social capital
based on reconciliation with the past history.
3. In contemporary development program and approaches like rural development, tribal
development, forest based programs, agriculture issues that need participative approaches must
work on developing social capital.
4. In efforts related to sustainable development based objective social capital is a necessary pre-
requisite.
5. The efforts like RTI, Grievance Redressal Cells, People to People Contact are all part of
developing social capital with the government.

Pg.46
 MIGRATION
Migration, together with fertility and mortality is a fundamental element in determining population
growth and population structure in a particular area.
Migration can be

International Rural to Urban Inter-Regional Intra-national Intra Inter

Urban to Rural urban Urban

• On the basis of time criterion, migration may be temporary or permanent

• If we take into consideration, the distance, the migration maybe long or short.
• On the basis of number, migration may be individual or mass.
• On the basis of social organization, migration may be that family, clan or individual.
• On the basis of causes, migration may be social, economic, political or religious.

Causes of Migration:
The causes of migration may be physical (climate, drought, flood, earthquake, volcanic eruption)
epidemics or socio-economic and cultural.
Some of the important causes of migration described below:
Technology Economic Causes Overpopulation

• People with sophisticated • The migration from third world

technology move towards • Prime reason of emigration countries is mainly because of
other areas with more seems to be economic the push factor of over-
technology or opportunities population

• Example: During Industrial

• It was because of this
Revolution in 1789, the • The migrants included domestic
reason the slaves and
movement of Europeans servants, agricultural laborers,
African Negroes were
towards North and South unskilled and semi-skilled
transported to plantation
America, Australia, New workers etc.
in tropical America
Zealand etc.
• Lust for virgin land
motivated Europeans to
settle in Prairies of USA to
Canada.

Pg.47
 Socio-Cultural and
Political Causes Demographic Causes
Religious Causes
• The humans desire to • After Second World War • Number of demographic factors play a
stay, work and enjoy it’s one of the main vital role in migration of human
with people of his causes population. For example Age has been
ethnic and cultural recognized as one of the major
group, is also demographic factors controlling the
important cause of degree of desire to move among the
human migration potential migrants

• Political refugees in a
worldwide phenomenon
• Example of this
categories are Kashmiris,
Tamils, Vietnamese,
Syrians, Iraqis etc.

General Rise Over

Diffusion of Information Wars Government Policy
Level of Aspiration
• The availability of • Because of this • The first world war • Each government has
information through reason Indians involved the a foreign policy for
mass communication, are travelling displacement of example. There is
education, cultural towards Canada, above 6 million huge scope in Russia,
contact and spatial USA, Australia people and Second Australia, Canada,
interaction also and South West World War involved Brazil and Gulf
increases the chances Asian Countries. involuntary countries to provide
of population displacement of 60 job to millions of
migration million people people.
• Indo-Pakistan Wars
also resulted in
migration of millions
of people.
Consequences of Migration
The process of migration has direct bearing on the demography, society, economy and ecology of place
of origin and destination of the migrants.
• Change in Demographic Characteristics:
o Migration being tangible transformation in demographic characteristics.
o The absolute number of population and attributes like density of population, sex-ratio,
fertility rate, age composition, literacy rate and occupation structures are transformed at
both places i.e. place of origin and destination of migration.

Pg.48
• Change in Sex Ratio:
o One of the high sex ratios in Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh is mainly due to male
selective emigration for several decades from these areas.
• Economic Gains:
o There is more judicious use of natural resources at the place of destination as a result of
which the production in the agricultural and industrial sectors goes up to economic
prosperity.
Also, there are some positive as well as negative consequences.
• Positive Consequences:
o In destination region migrants are cheap labor and migrants bring skills and aspirations.
o Almost all prosperous regions and centres of world have benefitted from migration.
o The source region also benefitted from migration – Remittance Benefits.
 Entirely by bringing in investments by outflowed people.
• Negative Consequences:
o These are mostly perception related to migrants.
 Security threats.
 Cultural Alleviation/Differences
o Most of the negative consequences are due to bad development policies and bad
governance.
THEORIES OF MIGRATION
1. Ravenstein’s Theory
Ravenstein Theory is set of statement that describes the reasons, patterns and the people who
migrate and nature of people.
• The most important reason for migration is economic reason.
• Most migrants travel a short distance (on given choice) so it’s also called as Distance Decay Law.
• Long distance migrations are always towards commercial centres.
• Single adult males are most mobile and this explains most of the reason for migration is
economic.
• Every migration happens in step.
o This is also referred as leap frogging.
• For every migration there is counter-migration.

• Counter migration has same property and nature as onward migration is.
• Properties of Onward Migration: Single adult male migration.
o Reason – Mostly commercial and travelling short distances are preferred.

Pg.49
• Counter migration does not have the same intensity.
o If onward migration has 100 people, then counter migration will have only 10 people.
2. The Push - Pull Theory
o Migration happens because of 2 factors:
1. Push Factors from source regions.
2. Pull Factors to destination regions.
Push Factors – Undesirable factors, poverty, lack of job, economy, education, distress reasons,
adverse reasons, actually felt
Pull Factors–Attractiveness of destination, economy.
• Push factors are mostly objective and absolute whereas pull factors are mostly
subjective.
• Pull Factors – Based on one’s evaluation, one’s expectation.
• Push and Pull Factors always acts together. Both are accompanied by each other.
3. Lee’s Theory of Migration
o There are four considerations in decision making for migration:
1. Factors in Source Region.
2. Factors in Destination Region
3. Intervening Obstacles
4. Personal and Individual Factors.
4. Stouffer’s Theory
o Intensity of migration is directly proportional to opportunities at the destination but
inversely proportional to intervening opportunities.
Place A – Source Regions
Place B – Opportunities like job, housing security, quality of life.
People from A to B ∝ Number of Opportunities.
o But if centres present between has intervening opportunities, then people will most
likely stay in middle.

A Source Destination B
Intervening opportunities
X Y Z

𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎 (𝐁𝐁)
So migration ∝
𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶
o This is the reason why most of the people travel short distances which results in leap
frogging. This theory is also known as Theory of Intervening Opportunities.
5. Gravity Theory

Pg.50
 o If 2 places, A and B one with more better opportunities then migration between them is
directly proportional to the product of their population and inversely proportional to
square of distances between them
Place – A Place – B
population a d population b

Place A Population a
Place B Population b
Distance between A and B d
𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚
The migration between them ∝ d2

6. Zelinsky’s Mobility Transition Theory

He related migration to demographic transition theory and to the process of urbanization from
rural economies.

TRIBE RURAL URBAN + RURAL URBANISATION +

MODERNISATION

I II III IV
I Stage
• In 1st stage there is no migration.
• These are mostly tribal groups.
• This is traditional society and pre-industrial; society.
II Stage
• Rural Development
• Beginning of 1st industry
• Commercial Agriculture + Trade
• Rural-Urban migration domination.
III Stage
• Rural-Urban Migration: Urban centres more developed and industries proliferated.
• Urban-Urban Migration: Helped by improvement in technology.
IV Stage
• Population + Economic Development.
• No Rural migration (no villages), postindustrial cities.
Reasons of Migration
1. Ravenstein said primary reason for migration is – economic – job/employment because
migration happens towards centres of development which are essentially urban centres.

Pg.51
2. Lee – Migrations are related to –
• The conditions of source and destination regions.
• Influenced by personal factors. (Family, perception, health etc.)
3. Many a times migrations are related to how we expect the conditions of the destination regions
to impact our future. (We evaluate our choices based on information we have and expectations
of a place.)
Push Reasons and Pull Reasons:
• Push reasons – Adverse conditions (poverty, crowds, conflict, unemployment, etc.) they
are generally reality, absolute and actually exist. Towards Europe, Middle East from Syria,
Afghanistan, etc.).
• Pull Conditions – Attraction of destination. They are expectations, more related to
psychology.
Sjaastad’s” theory talks about perception and expectations
4. In recent times, push factors also include adverse climatic conditions.
Consequences of Migration
• Consequence is a complex issue and migration too. There are lots of misconceptions about
migration.
o Human beings by nature are migrants and by nature they move and are mobile.
o Migration is a natural way to balance resource inequalities. It is a spontaneous process.
o Historically, migration is responsible for cultural spread, growth and expansion of human
civilization, trade and technology diffusion, etc.
o In history, there has been many forced (not desirable) migration/involuntary migration.
Examples:
 Slave trades.
 Because of conflicts/political persecutions:
 Jews, India’s partition
 In South East Asia
 In Central Asia
• In conflict areas, people escaping near
Death situation => positive choice for
migrants and refugees – migration is the
only way to escape – Matters of “Human Rights”.
Examples: Syrian Crisis, Kashmiri Pandits, Rohingyas, Droughts, Rural poverty (U.P. Bihar R-U)
Migration of workers back to villages during COVID times.
• From perspective of “Migrants”, migration is good.
Source regions which have problems of poverty, hunger, drought – “out migration” is good for
such regions because:
o Out migration decongest strained economies;
o Relieve pressure of limited resources.
o They benefit from remittances. “Money order economy” benefitted.
Example: Kerala, Punjab, Bihar, U.P, Odisha.

Pg.52
• In destination regions, young workers moving in and bring with them risk taking ability,
innovations, entrepreneurship, labor – Good for Economy.
Example: Mumbai, Bengaluru, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, etc.
• Results in slums, congestions, conflicts, increase in crimes. (Problems because of bad
enforcement of laws, inequalities, poor government). Migrants are victims, soft targets (W-E
people, people from Bihar and U.P, U.S – racism.
• Immigration is often related and linked to adverse consequences – congestion, over-crowding,
strained infrastructure, crime but in reality most adverse consequences because of inept and
inadequate urban planning. E.g., Delhi.
o Problems of Migration are related to backwardness of source region.
o Urban planning must anticipate crowding.
Challenges related to Migration:
Such as conflicts, crimes, over-crowding, strained resources. (Better addressed by – urban planning,
removing inequality rather blaming migrants and blocking migrations options.).
• Migration should be seen in positive light. Migration needs to be better managed. The problems
are not because of migrants. Solution lies in inequitable development, better planning and
better governance.
Indian Migration International Migration
• Out Migrants (Emigrants) • In Migrants (Immigrants)
• Old history – ancient times
• Oldest one in India - Parsis
• South East Asia, Tamil, Cholas
• Impact of partition – Bangladesh, West Pakistan
• Indentured Labor (Major migrants)
migrants, Nepalese population.
• Migration related to partition • 150s-1960s – Tibetan population
• Migration related to Europe, US,
• Recently – Afghanistan population moving in India.
economic boom of Middle East
• In 1990s – Migration related • Conflicts around India and South Asia and Central
globalization (I.T. prof) – US, Australia, Asia have forced refugees to more towards India.
New Zealand (New world). E.g.,: Sri-Lanka Tamils in 1980s-90s.
• 2018-20: Type of reverse migration from US,
Middle East back into India – Related to political
• 1970s-1980s –Canada
development, increased protectionism and
declining job prospects.
• In 2020 – COVID crisis has accelerated the reverse
migration.
Internal Migration in India
• Within the Indian territory
o Within the states – Intrastate Migrants.
o Migrants across the State borders – Interstate migrants
• Reasons

Pg.53
 o More birth
o Moved with family because of Approximately 30% of all migration
Education, Marriage
o Employment 10%
o Business and trade
• Reasons of internal migration fundamentally is related to:
o Economic disparities
o Rural distress
o Lack of economic and education opportunities in source regions.
• The main component of migration- Rural-Urban migration.
o Urban – Urban – Smaller towns towards large cities (tier I and II).
• Responsible for overgrowth of large cities, strained infrastructure, rural de-population, because
of bad economic planning.
• Source Regions:
o U.P.
o Bihar
o Hill region of North
o Tribal pockets of Central India.
o Backward states – Odisha, Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand.
• Destination Regions:
o Maharashtra (Mumbai, Pune)
o Gujarat (Surat, Ahmadabad)
o Andhra Pradesh (Vizag, Vishakhapatnam)
o Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Chennai)
o West Bengal (Kolkata, Asansol)

Pg.54
 Cultural Regions
Concept of Cultural Regions: Part of
Paper I: Perspectives in Human Geography
Paper II: Cultural Setting
Cultural Regions:
• The concept of cultural region has been derived from cultural ecology referring to the
geographical region over which a degree of homogeneity in cultural traits may be identified. A
cultural region is a contiguous geographical area characterised by cultural homogeneity.
• The concept owes its origin to Ratzel’s notion of a Kulturprovinz. He was the first to introduce
the concept of cultural region in his book Anthropogeography. Subsequently, Sauer developed
the Berkeley School of Cultural Geography. He demarcated the cultural regions of the world on
the basis of cultural practices. The main focus of Sauer was on relation between apparently
static fold culture and their physical environment (resources).
• Zelinsky has rightly observed that a ‘Cultural region comprises of a huge mass of learned
behaviour, attitudes and ideas that control the greater part of their participants’ thoughts and
actions. The possible combinations are so numerous that no two individuals are culturally
identical, indeed each constitutes a kind of cultural micro-organism. At the other extreme,
certain cultural practices are almost universal … relying on such criteria, the entire human
species might be regarded as sharing a cultural macro-region. Between these two extremes, are
the cultural meso-regions, having a common heritage. The sense of cultural identity is most
pronounced in a micro-region and becomes diffused in a macro-region.
Broeck’s Cultural Regions:
He gave 6 regions and Sub regions:
• Occidental Realm (Western Christian and Developed World. Also includes Australia and New
Zealand).
• Islamic Realm (Middle East, Pakistan, Central Asia and North Africa).
• Indic Realm (South Asia).
• East Asian Realm (China, Japan, Korea).
• South East Asian Realm (South East Asian countries + Bhutan).
• Meso-African Realm (Africa excluding North Africa and Sahara).
Although Broeck and Webb gave a sense of cultural regions but it was not a comprehensive
scheme. Because it ignited 4 different distinct regions. (1) Latin America, (2) Russia Slav
Region, (3) Central Asia is not typically the extension of middle East, (4) Local Tribal cultures,
across the world.

Morril Identified 5 Cultural regions, based wholly on religion:

1. Western Christian 4. Eastern - Buddhist
2. Islamic 5. Afro-Tribal region
3. Indic - Hindu

Pg.55
Cultural regions of India:
• Very high ethnic and tribal diversity • 180languages
• Diversity in religion and beliefs • More than 500 dialects
• Cultural diversity (High) • Racial Diversity
India’s Cultural regions, can be identified on the basis of
 Tribal regions Linguistic regionalization almost covers
 Religion regions the ethnic and religious diversity
 Linguistic regions
i.e. For India, Linguistic regionalization is more convenient basis of cultural regions.
According to Ministry of Culture, India can be divided into 7 cultural regions:
1. Northern - Patiala
2. Southern – Tanjore
3. Eastern – Kolkata
4. North Eastern – Dimapur Cultural Zonal Centres
5. North Central – Prayagraj
6. South Central – Nagpur
7. Western – Udaipur

Pg.56
 Linguistic Diversity and Linguistic Regions of India
Language as a Determinant of Cultural Region:
India is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, and multi-religious country. According to anthropologists and
historians, the Indian population comprises the people who came here from the Mediterranean region,
central Asia, south-west Asia, south-east Asia, Mongolia, Tibet, and China Each of the racial and ethnic
groups has its own language. After coming to India, the cultural mixing led to the mixing of their
languages also. These languages have their core and peripheral areas. This broad linguistic regional
identity formed the basis for the demarcation of Indian states in 1956. According to the Census of 1961,
there were 187 languages spoken by different sections of the Indian society. Of these, 94 were spoken
by less than 10,000 people. According to Vadodra-based Bhasa Research and Publication centre, the
country had 1100 languages in 1961, but nearly 220 of them disappeared in the past 50 years. The lost
languages were spoken mostly by nomads. At present, there are more than 19,500 languages or dialects
spoken as mother tongue (Census 2011). The fifteen main languages, as mentioned in the Eighth
Schedule of the Indian Constitution, are spoken by over 92% of the total population of the country. The
geographical distribution of the main languages of India has been shown in.
The Indian languages belong to the
following four linguistic groups:
1. The Indo-European family
(Arya)
2. The Dravidian family (Dravida)
3. Austric family (Nishada)
4. Sino-Tibetan family (Kirata)
1. The Indo-Aryan language:
This is the most important
group of Indian languages
spoken by most of the people
of northern India. Its core
area is known as the Khari
Boli region, comprising
Haryana and western Uttar
Pradesh. Going away from the
core, it has different shades
and dialects. Prof. A. Ahmad
has given a diagrammatic
representation of the
diffusion of Khari-Boli (Hindi)
in different directions from Figure: Major Languages of India

Pg.57
 the core area. Offshoots include Dardi, Kohistani, Kashmiri, Lahnda, Sindhi, Kachhchi, Gujarati,
Marathi, Odiya, Bengali, Assamese, Bihari, Avadhi, Bagheli, Chhattisgarhi, Hindi, Punjabi,
Rajasthani, Nepali, and Pahari. Hindi (the National language) is the principal language of the
Indo-European Family spoken by over 40% of the total population of the country. It is mainly
spoken in Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
and Uttarakhand. Urdu is closely akin to Hindi and is popular in Bihar, Delhi, Hyderabad, J&K,
M.P., Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and in most of the places of urban India.
2. The Dravidian Family: The Dravidian family of the Indian languages is mainly spoken in Andhra
Pradesh (Telgu), Karnataka (Kannada), Kerala (Malayalam), and Tamil Nadu (Tamil). These four
languages are spoken by more than 22% of the total population of India.
3. The Austric Family: The Austric languages are spoken by the tribal groups of Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Odisha and West Bengal. These languages belong to
two main branches: (i) Munda (Santhali), and (ii) Mon-Khmer (Khasi and Nicobari). Of the two,
Mon Khmer (Khasi) is confined to the Khasi and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya, and the Nicobari to
Nicobar Islands, while Munda language is spoken by the tribals of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal.
4. The Sino Tibetan Family: The Sino-Tibetan language is spoken mainly in the Himalayan belt. It
has three major sub-divisions:
a) Tibeto-Himalayan: It comproses Chamba, Lahauli, Kannauri, and Lepcha in Himachal
Pradesh. The Balti, Bhutia, Ladakhi and Tibetan languages are spoken in the northern
parts of the Jammu and Kashmir state. The Bhutia and Kinnauri are the dominant
languages in Himachal Pradesh.
b) The North Assami and Arunachal Pradesh: In north Assam and Arunachal Pradesh the
main languages are Abor, Aka, Assami, Dafla, Miri, and Mishmi.
c) The Assami-Myanmari (Burmese): These languages are spoken by the Assamese, Bodo,
Kochin, Kukichin, Miri, Naga, and Xaxa tribes.

Figure: Evolution of the Indo-Aryan Languages: Geographic Patterning (Second Stage)

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 Linguistic Regions of India
S.No. Linguistic Region State/Union Territory
1 Assamese Assam and adjacent regions
2 Bengali West Bengal and parts of Tripura
3 Gujarati Gujarat and adjacent regions
Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh Jharkhand, Madhya
4 Hindi
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Padesh and Uttarakhand
5 Kannada Karnataka and adjacent regions
6 Kashmiri Kashmir Division
7 Malyalam Kerala and Lakshadweep
8 Marathi Maharashtra and Goa
9 Odiya Odisha and adjacent regions
10 Punjabi Punjab and adjacent parts of Haryana
11 Tamil Tamil Nadu and Puducherry
12 Telgu Andhra Pradesh and Adjacent regions

As the states of India were delineated on the basis of languages in 1956, the scheduled languages are
spoken by the majority of the population in respective states. In Kerala for example, over 96% of the
population speaks Malayalam, and in Andhra Pradesh over 85% of the people speak Telgu. Thus, every
scheduled language has its specific region and the core of these exist in the state. The boundary of a
linguistic region is, however, not a demarcated line a transitional zone over which one language
gradually loses its dominance and gives way but a to another. There is an intermingling of languages in
several areas. Further, in many states, the major language of one of the adjacent states is the second
most important language spoken by the second largest group of people in the state. For example, in
Kerala, Tamil is the second most important language, while in Tamil Nadu, it is Telgu, in Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh the second language is the Urdu.
Hindi is the official language of the country spoken by about 40% of the total population. The
Hindi belt includes the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattigarh,
Rajasthan, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Delhi in which over 90% of the tou population
speaks Hindi.
Urdu is basically a variant of Hindi written in Arabic/Persian script instead of Devnagri script of
Hindi. It was born in India but is virtually 'homeless' without a strong regional base The state of Jammu
and Kashmir has adopted Urdu as the official language of the state. It is the mother tongue of about 8%
of the total population of the country. It is spoken mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Delhi, Jummu & Kashmir and Uttarakhand.
Bengali, the second most spoken language of India has its cultural core in West Bengal, but its
periphery extends in Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, and Tripura.
Telugu stands next to Bengali with its linguistic core in Andhra Pradesh and extension in Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu. It has been called as the Italian of the East.
Marathi stands fourth in numerical strength. Its linguistic core lies Maharashtra (93%) with
speakers also in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Goa. Konkani, spoken in the Konkan coastal
areas and Goa, is an offshoot of Marathi.

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Tamil occupies the fifth rank in numerical strength, but best represents the old Dravidian script. It has
rich literature commencing with the beginning of the Christian Era. Its linguistic core lies in Tamil Nadu
(92%), but it extends its influence in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Puducherry.
Gujarati emerged from Gujarat and has carved out its influence in Maharashtra and Rajasthan
Kannada stands next to Gujarati. Its linguistic core lies in Karnataka (91%) and it has its extension in
Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.
Among the Dravidian languages, Malayalam has the smallest number of speakers. Its linguistic
core lies in Kerala (92%) and extends in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
Odiya has a distinctive character as it is the old Apabhramsa and has enriched itself with Sanskrit.
Assamese has its distinctive pronunciation and grammar, but is often included in the Bengal Assam
group.
Religion as a Determinant of Cultural Region
Religion has been defined differently by different scholars. Friedrich Schleimacher defined religion as
feeling of absolute dependence. According to William James, religion is the enthusiastic of expousal
Otto defines the essence of religious awareness as awe, a unique blend of fear and fascination before
the divine. The main characteristics of religious life are: (i) traditionalism, temper myth and symbol, (iii)
concept of salvation, (iv) sacred places and objects, (v) sacred actions (rituals). (ei) sacred writings, (vii)
the sacred community (monastic order), and (vili) the sacred experience.
Religion, like language, is a symbol of group identity and a cultural rallying point. All societies have value
systems, common beliefs, understandings, and expectations which unite their people. Religion plays a
crucial role in the socioeconomic life of the people and even their utilisation of natural resources is
closely controlled by the religion of the people. Geographers are concerned with the interaction
between religion and landscape (resources). Thus, religion provides a good basis for the demarcation of
cultural regions.
India is a multi-religion country. It is the birth place of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and
Sikhism. Subsequently, the successive waves of people of other religious faiths came to India. They
maintained their religious identity. For example, the Syrian Christians appeared on the west coast of
India in the first century AD. They are still found in Kerala. The Muslims came to India from South-West
Asia and Central Asia and maintained their religious identity.
Growth and Composition of Various Religions
The growth rate of population of different religions in India is different during the last decade. In
general, the population growth rate of all the religions has come down in the past decade (2001-11)
Hindus population growth rate slowed down to 16.76% from the previous decade figure of 19.92%,
while Muslims witnessed sharp fall in growth rate of 24.60% (2001-11) from the previous figure of
29.52% (1991-2001). Such sharp fall in population growth of Muslims did not happened in the last 6
decades. Christian population growth was at 15.5% while Sikh population growth rate stood 8.4%. The
most educated and wealthy community of Jains registered the least growth in 2001-11 with figure of
just 5.4%.
The growth rate of Hindus, Muslims and Christians is expected to fall more in upcorning 2021 Census
while other religions like Sikhism, Jainism and Buddhism are expected to remain stable for the next two
decades considering already slowed down rate of these religions. (Source: All India Religion Census Data
2011.)

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Hindus: According to the Census 2001, about 80% of the total population of India is Hindu by faith. They
are predominantly distributed throughout the country, but in a few areas, like the Kashmir Valley,
Punjab, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and parts of Kerala, they are in minority.
Hinduism is one of the oldest religions of the world. It is a polytheistic (multiplicity of gods and
goddesses) religion. The proportion of Hindu population is the highest in Himachal Pradesh (95%) and
lowest in Mizoram (3.6%). It is higher than the national average in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat,
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Tripura,
while it is much lower in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Punjab.
Muslims: Islam is a strictly monotheistic (one God) religion. The percentage of Muslim population in
India is 14.2% (2011). The Muslims are well spread in the country, but their high concentration is found
in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Jammu and
Kashmir, and southern districts of Uttarakhand. The proportion of Muslim population is, however, the
highest in the state of Jammy and Kashmir (over 68%) and insignificant in the state of Mizoram (1.1%).
Their proportion is higher than the national average in Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Jammu and Kashmir,
Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
Christianity: Christianity is a universal religion which has the largest number of followers in the world.
As stated above, Christianity came to India in the first century AD when the Syrian Church was
established in Kerala. Christians constitute about 2.3% of the total population of India (2011). The
largest number of Christian population is in the state of Kerala-about 29% of the total population.
Christians number more than one million in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya, nagaland and
Tamil Nadu. Their proportion is significantly large in the states of Mizoram, and Goa. Nagaland (90%)
and Mizoram (87%) have the largest percentage in population.
Sikhs: The religion of Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Sahib in the 15th century. The Sikhs constitute
about 2% of the population of the country (Census, 2001). Sikhism attempted to create social harmony
by removing the Hindu caste system and permitting widow remarriage. But for a long time it remained
confined to Punjab and has accepted Gurmukhi as its language. Nearly 79% of total population of Sikhs
is concentrated in the state of Punjab.
In addition to Punjab, Sikhs are found in Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, Rajasthan and the Terai region of
Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand (Udhamsingh Nagar). At present, canbe found in any part of the country
and have acquired international presence in the U.K., Canada, the U.S.A., Australia, New Zealand, Kenya,
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Singapore, and Hong Kong.
Buddhism: Buddhism was founded by Gautam Buddha (563-483 BC) in North India. The Buddhists
constitute less than one per cent of the total population of the country. Nearly 80% of the Buddhists live
in Maharashtra. The traditional pockets of Buddhism are Ladakh, areas of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tripura.
Jainism: India is homeland Jainism which is minority religion (0.4%) has perceptible in other followers
found Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and particularly an
important influence in business politics.

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Zoroastrianism: Parsis (population about 1.67 lakh) the followers of Zoroastrianism (2011). dominant
religion the of Old Empire. essence of ethics well summed up three words: Humata (good thoughts),
Hukhta (good words), and Huvarshta (good deeds). Their religious book is Dinkart. They first reached
Diu AD and shifted their colony to Bharhat (1490). From there spread to Navsari and ultimately to
Udvada. They been influenced by the Hindu customs, they not advocate celibacy, and permit
remarriage. About of the population concentrated in Greater Mumbai and rest in Navsari, Udvada,
Surat, and Ahmadabad. The population of Parsis decreasing alarming Their birth significantly low as
compared the death rate. Religious Regions cultural regions India.
Greater the country dominance Hindu religion and culture with sprinkled populations Muslims,
Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, tribals. The states north east India however, characterised the mixed
population Christians, Tribals, Hindus, and Muslims. The Muslim dominated regions the Kashmir
Division and Kargil district Jammu Kashmir state. Muslims quite significant in northern Kerala Agra,
Meerut, Lucknow, Rohilkhand, Saharanpur divisions Uttar Pradesh. Ahmadabad, Bhopal, Hydarabad,
Kolkata Mumbai, Surat. The state Punjab Territory Chandigarh are Sikh dominated parts the country.
Customs: Customs are very important component of geography. A custom a frequent repetition of the
same act to the extent that becomes characteristic the of people performing the act. Habit a similar
word which is adopted an individual, while custom the which been adopted by most people ethnic
group society. There is positive correlation between the customs utilisation of environment (resources).
In the tradition bound society has oral folk traditions. the delineation cultural regions, customs (folk
dance, lore, folk medicine, etc.) also important indicators.
Cultural regions India based on Language, Religion and Customs: On the basis of language, religion,
customs, and traditions, India may be divided into the following ten cultural regions:
1. The Ladakhi-Buddhist Cultural Region
2 The Kashmiri-Muslim Cultural Region
3. The Sikh-Gurumukhi Cultural Region
4. The Kinnauri-Dev-Bhumi Cultural (Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand)
5. The Hindu-Hindi Cultural Region
6. The Mixed Cultural Region north
7. The Bengali Cultural Region
8. The Tribo-Hindu Cultural Region Chotanagpur
9. The Marathi Hindu Cultural Region
10. The Dravido-Cultural Region (comprising of Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Malyalam)

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1. The Ladakh Cultural Region: It has
the dominance of Buddhists and
Ladakhi language. There are
Gompas and monasteries in this
region. Leh and Dhramshala are
the important sacred and cultural
centres of this region.
2. The Kashmiri-Muslim Cultural
Region: Stretching over the valley
of Kashmir and northern parts of
Jammu (Doda district, etc.) and
southern parts of Ladakh (Kargil)
divisions, it is a predominantly
Muslim dominated region in
which Kashmiri is the main
language. Hindus and Sikhs
though in minority, speak
Kashmiri and follow the Kashmiri
cultural traditions.
3. The Sikh-Gurmukhi Cultural
Region: Stretching over the state
of Punjab and the Union Territory
of Chandigarh, this region has the
majority of Sikhs who speak
Punjabi language. The Hindus are
in minority. This region is
characterised by Gurudwaras in
almost all the villages and towns.
The Golden Temple situated in the
city of Amritsar is a sacred place
and an important pilgrimage centre
for religious people.
4. The Kinnauri-Dev Bhumi Cultural
Region: This region sprawls over
the mountainous parts of Himachal
Pradesh and Uttarakhand. It is
called the Dev-Bhumi in which
there are many religious shrines
(Kedarnath, Badrinath, Haridwar,
Hemkund, Paonta Saheb, etc.). In
the region of Himachal Pradesh,
Kinnauri is the dominant language,
while in Uttarakhand, Hindi is the
language of the masses.

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5. The Hindu-Hindi Cultural Region: This region covers the states of Bihar, Haryana, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, southern parts of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh.
It is the Hindi Heartland with dominance of Hindu religion. In western Uttar Pradesh and in
urban centres, Muslims consititute a significant minority. Sikhs and Christians are also sprinkled,
mainly in the urban areas like Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow Varanasi, Meerut, Agra, and Allahabad
etc..
6. The Mixed Cultural Region of North East India: Stretching across the states of Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura, it is a region of mixed
culture in which there are areas of dominance of Hindus, Christians, Muslims and Tribal religion.
There is a great diversity in the languages, religion, customs, folk-dances, music, and folk
medicine.
7. The Bengali-Cultural Region: Spreading over West Bengal and the adjacent regions of Odisha,
Jharkhand and Bihar, this region has the dominance of Bengali speaking people. The main
religion of the people is Hinduism, while Muslims constitute a significant minority in isolated
pockets.
8. The Tribo-Hindu Cultural Region: This cultural region spreads over Chotanagpur plateau. Most
of the people belong to Hindu religion, while Christians are also significant in number. Most of
the people speak Hindi language.
9. The Marathi-Hindu Cultural Region: Stretching over Maharashtra, parts of Gujarat, Goa, and the
adjacent regions of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, this region has a dominance of Marathi
language and Hindu population. Concentration of Muslims, Parsis, and Buddhists is in isolated
pockets.
10. The Dravido-Cultural Region: This regionsprawls over Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and
Tamil Nadu. The people belong to the Paleo-Mediterranean race and speak Dravidian language.
The major languages are Tamil, Malyalam, Telgu, and Kannad.

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 TRIBES OF INDIA
Cultural Setting: Major Tribes and their problems

Paper II
RDP: Tribal Area Development

1. Defining tribe is not easy because there is no single way to do it. There is lack of consensus on
the criteria for defining tribes. So, tribes are loosely defined as the group of people maintaining
close contact with each other and have descent from common ancestor.
2. Under the Constitution, tribes are defined under Articles 342, 366 (25) and schedules V and VI –
provisions for STs and other tribes.
3. Though defining the is not easy, there are certain traits:
• Primitive traits:
a. Common territory
b. Common Lineage
c. Cultural Similarity
d. Distinct language
• Geographical isolation
• Shyness of contact with mainstream population
• Economic backwardness
• Totem worship
Some Special features of PVTGs:
1. They are on the verge of extinction
2. Extremity low literacy
3. Stagnating population
4. Subsistence level of economy
5. Primitive agriculture

Total 75 PVTGs in India

STS PVTGs De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-

Nomadic tribes

De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic tribes

During British times, certain tribes were classified as Criminal Tries. Such tribes were later de-
notified as de-notified, nomadic and semi-nomadic. They still face social stigma of being
criminals.

Pg.65
Major Tribes in India:

Spatial Distribution of Tribes:

• 70% of total tribal population of India in 6 states MP, MH, Odisha, Gujarat, Rajasthan and
Jharkhand.
• NE States has more tribal population as a percentage of total population found in India in their
State.
Demographic Attributes of Tribal Population: 2011 Census
Attributes India Tribal Population

PGR (Decadal) 17.64% 23.7%

Sex Ratio 940 990

Literacy Rate 74% 59%

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Gond:
• Gonds, one of the largest tribal groups in the world.
• MP, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, AP, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Telangana, UP, West Bengal
and Odisha.
• They speak the Gondi language which is a Dravidian language.
• Their staple food are two kinds of millet: kodo and kutki.
• Rice is mostly consumed during festival feasts.
• Gonds believe that earth, water and air are ruled by Gods.
• For the past few decades they have been witness to the Naxalite – Maoist insurgency in the
central part of India.
• Gondi people formed the Salwa Judum, an armed militant group to fight the Naxalite insurgency.
Santhal
• The Santhal are among the largest and one of the oldest tribes in India.
• They are spread across Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal.
• From time immemorial they have cleared forests, tilled the land and produced food for
subsistence.
• They are also well-versed in the art of hunting and sericulture.
• Santhal Rebellion of 1835.
• Dancing and singing as a group is an integral part of Santhal culture.
• One of the most studied tribal religious in the country.
• Santhal worship Marang Buru or Bong as supreme deity. Who must be placated with prayers and
offering in order to ward off evil.
• A characteristic feature of the Santhal village is a sacred grove on the edge of the settlement,
considered the home of spirits.
Bhil
• The Bhil are one of the largest tribal groups.
• Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and
Rajasthan.
• The name is derived from the word ‘billu’, which means bow so they are excellent archers
coupled with deep knowledge about their local geography.
• Traditionally, experts in guerrilla warfare, most of them today are farmers and agricultural
labours.
• They are also skilled sculptors.
Sahariya
• The Sahar, or sahariya are an ethnic group in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India.
• The Saharias are mainly found in the Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
• The Sahariyas are expert woodsmen and forest product gatherers.
• The main business is gathering & selling of forest wood, gum, tendu leaf, honey, mahua and
medicinal herbs.

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• Their traditional occupations also include making baskets, mining and quarrying and breaking
stones. They also hunt and fish.
• The tribe members believe in Animism Folk Hinduism’s gods and goddess that they worship and
celebrate in major festivals.
Konds
• The konds are a tribal group found in the hills and jungles of Odisha in eastern India.
• The name Kond (also Khond, Kondh, or Kandha) translates as “mountaineer” and probably
comes from the Dravidian word konda meaning “hill”.
• The Konds refer to themselves in their own tongue as Ku.
• The Khonds were historically animists. But the extended contact with the Oriya speaking Hindus
made Khonds to adopt many aspects of the Hinduism and Hindu culture.
• They have a subsistence economy based on hunting and gathering but they now primarily
depend on a subsistence agriculture i.e. shifting cultivation or slash-and-burn cultivation or
Podu.
• The Dongria Khond are excellent fruit farmers.
• They have adapted to horticulture and grow pineapple, organs, turmeric, ginger and papaya in
plenty.
Sentinelese
• The Sentinelese are an indigenous people who inhabit North Sentinel Island in the Bay of Bengal
in India.
• Along with the Great Andamanese, the Jarawas, the Onge, the Shompen, and the Nicobarese,
the Sentinelese are one of the six native and often reclusive peoples of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
• Unlike the others, the Sentinelese appears to have consistently refused any interaction with the
outside world.
• They are hostile to outsiders and have killed people who approached or landed on the island.
• In 1956, the Government of India declared North Sentinel Island a tribal reserve and prohibited
travel within 3 miles (4.8 km) of it.
Irula
• Irula are a Dravidian ethnic group inhabiting the area of the Nilgiri mountains, in the states of
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
• People of Irula ethnicity are called Irular, and speak Irula, which belongs to the Dravidian family.
• Traditionally, the main occupation of the Irulas has been snake, rat catching and honey
collection.
• They also work as labourers (coolies) in the fields of the landlords during the sowing and
harvesting seasons or in the rice mills.
• Fishing and cattle farm is also a major occupation.

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Angami
• The Angamis are a major Naga ethnic group native to the state of Nagaland in North-East India.
They are predominantly settled in Kohima District and Dimapur District of Nagaland.
• The Angami Nagas are hill people depending basically on cultivation and livestock-rearing.
• The Angamis are known for terraced wet-rice cultivation; because of this labor-intensive
cultivation, land is the most important form of property among them.
• The Sekrenyi festival, known locally as Phousanyi, is a major annual festival of the Angami Nagas.
• It is “purification festival” held to wash off all past sins.
• The Christian converts among the tribals have gradually rejected these rituals.
Khasi
• The Khasi people are an indigenous ethnic group of Megahalaya in north-eastern India with a
significant population in the bordering state of Assam.
• The Khasi people form the majority of the population of the eastern part of Meghalaya.
• They are Mon-Khmer speaking people.
• Before the arrival of Christian missionaries, the majority of the Khasi people practiced an
indigenous tribal religion.
• Now around 85% of the Khasi population has embraced Christianity.
Reang
• Reang (aka Bru in Mizoram) are one of the tribes in the Indian state of Tripura.
• However, they may also be found in Mizoram and Assam.
• They speak the Reang dialect of Kokborok language which is of Tibeto-Burmese origin and is
locally referred to as Kau bru.
• Around 30,000 people had fled from Mozoram to Tripura in 1997 in the wake of inter-
community violence.
• Internally-displaced community.
• Hodaigri is a folk dance, performed in the state of Tripura, India by the Bru people.
Gaddi
• The Gaddis are a tribe living mainly in the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and
Kashmir.
• Nomadic in nature travel to pastures along with their flocks.
• They make livelihood by rearing, selling sheep, goats, mules and horses.
• They are primarily the worshippers of Lord Shiva.
Bakrawal
• The Bakarwal are a mostly Muslim nomadic tribe based in the Pir Panjal and Himalayan
mountains of South Asia.
• They are traditionally, and still mainly, goatherds and shepherds.
• They reside in the entire Kashmir region between India and Pakistan, and in the Nuristan
province of Afghanistan.

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Tribal Problems
Background: The main reason for the backwardness of the tribal population is in the isolationist policy
of British. Tribals were isolated from the mainstream population and they could not enjoy the fruits of
development.
Example: The regulation B of 1833 act
British created non-regulation provinces with special laws and justice system.
After independence, there was debate about the approach that India should adopt towards the
governance of tribal population. The approach was:
1. Isolationist approach (same as British)
2. Integrationalist approach (integrate the tribes with their needs)
3. Assimilationist reformist approach (reforms the tribe and bring them at par with the main
stream population).
• 1st & 3rd points are of extreme in nature.
• 2nd point is a middle path, mixed approach (respecting their Culture and Development)
For tribal internationalist approaches, best example is “Tribal Panchseel”.

Given by J L NEHRU

Tribal Panchsheel 1.
5.
Non-imposition: Tribal
The result of
Features population should develop
implementation of policies
along their own genius &
should not be judged by
imposition of alien values
amount of money spent.
should be avoided.
4. 3.
2.
Tribal areas should not be Training of tribals in
Tribal rights: in land &
over administered. administration
forests be respected.

Geography & Tribal Backwardness

1. Connectivity issues: Difficult terrain, forested areas hinder the development of the
infrastructure.
2. Lack of Education: 59% literacy, lack of awareness, leading to poverty.
3. Resources Curse: According to center for Science & Environment, 50% of the top mineral
producing districts are in tribal regions. This leads to the displacement of tribes employment
under informal sector without social security. It also leads to deforestation which affects the
tribal livelihood and their sentiments.
4. Displacement of tribes: 40% of the population that is displaced due to any development project
is the tribal population. Tribes are not provided with adequate compensation leading to poverty.
When displaced. The tribes are shifted to urban areas leading to the cultural shocks, vulnerable

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 to new diseases, social deprivation, infertility complex ultimately. They will become the majority
of the urban poor.
Youtube documentary: Nero’s Guest by P. Sainath
Xaxa Committee dealt with 5 critical issues like health, education, unemployment migration and legal
and the constitutional matters.
Recommendations:
1. Health assembly: Local people should gather and raise awareness about the nutritional and
other requirements for children, mother & adolescents.
2. Health Infrastructure: The tribal potential should be utilized like traditional healers, herbs,
medicine etc.
3. Focus on 3 A’s: Anganwadi worker- Asha worker – Auxiliary nurse midwife to reduce IMR &
MMR. These 3A’s can also raise aware to reduce, substance abuse (40% of females & 70% of
males, are addicted to tobacco in tribal regions).
Xaxa Committee recommendations on Education:
Issues in Tribal Education
• High dropout ratio due to lack of cultural connect with education.
• Lack of importance given to education for parents
• Early marriages as an obstacle.
• Livelihood issues: child labour to supplement family income.
• Infrastructure issues in the form of Schools, teachers etc.
• Language as a barrier: Tribal children can hardly connect with English & other mainstream languages.
Need for Education for Tribals
• Understanding of their rights.
• Employment
• Better standards of living
Recommendations
• Give importance of tribal culture
o Educate the children about their Culture so that they can use their indigenous knowledge
• Effective implementation of RTE Act, 2009
o Having residential schools as majority of the tribes are nomadic & migration is also a
major reason for high Demilitarization of schools in Naxal affected regions.
• Social audit to ensure the participation on of local community.
Xaxa Committee recommendations on Economic Parameters:
90% of tribal depend on agriculture & other activities include animal rearing, boat keeping, hunting
gathering. Therefore, tribal population is involved in MFP collection like collection of wax, tendu leaves
etc. So, Recommendation is :
• In order to increase the employment opportunities their activity should be promoted by TRIFED
(Tribal Federation) & we need to create micro watershed to promote agriculture & skill
development of tribal population creating national institute for tribal development.

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Xaxa Committee recommendations on Legal & Constitution matters:
Land alienation: Displacement & forced migration.
• Tribal community reside in the hilly areas & therefore land is the basis of social, Cultural and
religion identity, livelihood & their very existence depends on Land.
• Traditionally the ownership of land has been with the tribal community. However, because of
the forest acts like Indian Forests Act of 1865, British acquired the forests for creation of
infrastructure like railways & state was given monopoly of the land. The alienation of tribes
continued even after independence under laws such as Wildlife Protection Act 1972, Forest
Conservation Act of 1980.
Recommendations:
• There is plenty of unutilized land available with centre, state, PSUs etc. Therefore, Govt. should
return such land to the original land owners/on use the same land for resettlement on displaced
tribes.
• Emphasis upon the consultation and the consent of Gram Sabha before acquiring the land.
• Gram Sabha should be empowered in identification, investigation and restoration of land to
tribal population.

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 INDIAS RACIAL COMPOSITION & DIVERSITY
• Study of racial diversity is a valid concept. It is about the diversity of human species based on
physical appearance, height, skin colour, type of hairs, colour of eyes, certain ratio such as nasal
index, cephalic index.
• India’s racial diversity is the consequence of years of immigrations & population interactions
between racial groups, called as process of peopling in India.
• India is not the home where human species evolved. Although in the Shivalik we do find fossils
of pre-historic hominids.
o Neanderthal man
o Australopithecus (2-3 million years ago)
o Ramapithecus
• The earliest who came to India where Negrito population from Africa OOA (out of Africa theory)
• Subsequently, other races also enter India. Because of relative geographical isolation of South
Asia. The tribes intermingled among themselves creating the ‘unique Indian Race’

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OOA Theory
Races of India
Given by Guha & S. K. Chatterjee
1. NEGRITOES:
• African origin population
• Negroids are different from Negritoes
o Short height
o Slight
o Dark skin
o Wooly hair
• Entered India 60-70 years ago
• Uralis, santinelese
• Bulbus forehead
• Particularly vulnerable tribal group
2. Proto-Australoid: Came from parts of East Mediterranean from the area present day Palestine.
• They look U. similar to negritos but, they have straight hair and relatively stronger built.
• Proto-Australoids along with Mediterranean where the builder of Indus Valley
civilization. They are now parts of Central India Bhills, Oraons, Munda, Kolwa, Chenchu
(part of Telangana, AP, Chalis)
3. Mediterranean: They are from part of Wester Mediterranean & migrated towards India around
3000 BC, Tall, Brown skin & muscular. They were the barriers of first form of Hinduism. They
were the main builders of Indus valley civilization. Most of these with advance culture, craft,
trade, town planning. They make up the bulk of Dravidian population of South India south of
Vindhyas. In north India, they make up a fair share of lower caste population.
4. Caucasoids: They came from parts of central
Asia and Europe. Taller, fair skin, sharper
features. They make up most of higher cost
of North India. The western Brakishefles are
example of Parsis. Kurgis, Nordics speaks
oryan group of knowledge.
5. Mongoloids: Primarily entered Indian from
Tibet & mostly in NE part. But today found in
North Indian Himalayan slates.
(a) Tibeto Mongoloids: They are typical
mongoloids yellow skin, smaller eyes,
upper lid has 2nd layer called
epicanthic folds.
(b) Paleo Mongolids: Relatively more
burnish skin & round phase (Assam &
West Bengal)

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 Geography optional syllabus for UPSC
PAPER 1: PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY
1. Geomorphology:Factors controlling landform development; endogenetic and exogenetic forces; Origin
and evolution of the earth’s crust; Fundamentals of geomagnetism; Physical conditions of the earth’s
interior; Geosynclines; Continental drift; Isostasy; Plate tectonics; Recent views on mountain building;
Vulcanicity; Earthquakes and Tsunamis; Concepts of geomorphic cycles and Landscape development;
Denudation chronology; Channel morphology; Erosion surfaces; Slope development ; Applied
Geomorphology : Geohydrology, economic geology and environment.
2. Climatology:Temperature and pressure belts of the world; Heat budget of the earth; Atmospheric
circulation; atmospheric stability and instability. Planetary and local winds; Monsoons and jet streams; Air
masses and fronto genesis, Temperate and tropical cyclones; Types and distribution of precipitation;
Weather and Climate; Koppen’s, Thornthwaite’s and Trewartha’s classification of world climates;
Hydrological cycle; Global climatic change and role and response of man in climatic changes, Applied
climatology and Urban climate.
3. Oceanography:Bottom topography of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans; Temperature and salinity of
the oceans; Heat and salt budgets, Ocean deposits; Waves, currents and tides; Marine resources: biotic,
mineral and energy resources; Coral reefs, coral bleaching; sealevel changes; law of the sea and
marine pollution.
4. Biogeography:Genesis of soils; Classification and distribution of soils; Soil profile; Soil erosion,
Degradation and conservation; Factors influencing world distribution of plants and animals; Problems of
deforestation and conservation measures; Social forestry; agro-forestry; Wild life; Major gene pool
centres.
5. Environmental Geography:Principle of ecology; Human ecological adaptations; Influence of man on
ecology and environment; Global and regional ecological changes and imbalances; Ecosystem their
management and conservation; Environmental degradation, management and conservation; Biodiversity
and sustainable development; Environmental policy; Environmental hazards and remedial measures;
Environmental education and legislation.
6. Perspectives in Human Geography:Areal differentiation; regional synthesis; Dichotomy and dualism;
Environmentalism; Quantitative revolution and locational analysis; radical, behavioural, human and
welfare approaches; Languages, religions and secularisation; Cultural regions of the world; Human
development index.
7. Economic Geography:World economic development: measurement and problems; World resources and
their distribution; Energy crisis; the limits to growth; World agriculture: typology of agricultural regions;
agricultural inputs and productivity; Food and nutrition problems; Food security; famine: causes, effects
and remedies; World industries: locational patterns and problems; patterns of world trade.
8. Population and Settlement Geography:Growth and distribution of world population; demographic
attributes; Causes and consequences of migration; concepts of over-under-and optimum population;
Population theories, world population problems and policies, Social well-being and quality of life;
Population as social capital. Types and patterns of rural settlements; Environmental issues in rural
settlements; Hierarchy of urban settlements; Urban morphology: Concepts of primate city and rank-size

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 rule; Functional classification of towns; Sphere of urban influence; Rural – urban fringe; Satellite towns;
Problems and remedies of urbanization; Sustainable development of cities.
9. Regional Planning:Concept of a region; Types of regions and methods of regionalisation; Growth centres
and growth poles; Regional imbalances; regional development strategies; environmental issues in
regional planning; Planning for sustainable development.
10. Models, Theories and Laws in Human Geography:Systems analysis in Human geography; Malthusian,
Marxian and demographic transition models; Central Place theories of Christaller and Losch; Perroux and
Boudeville; Von Thunen’s model of agricultural location; Weber’s model of industrial location; Rostov’s
model of stages of growth. Heartland and Rimland theories; Laws of international boundaries and
frontiers.

PAPER 2: GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

NOTE: Candidates will be required to answer one compulsory map question pertinent to subjects
covered by this paper.

1. Physical Setting:Space relationship of India with neighboring countries; Structure and relief; Drainage
system and watersheds; Physiographic regions; Mechanism of Indian monsoons and rainfall patterns,
Tropical cyclones and western disturbances; Floods and droughts; Climatic regions; Natural vegetation;
Soil types and their distributions.
2. Resources:Land, surface and ground water, energy, minerals, biotic and marine resources; Forest and
wild life resources and their conservation; Energy crisis.
3. Agriculture:Infrastructure: irrigation, seeds, fertilizers, power; Institutional factors: land holdings, land
tenure and land reforms; Cropping pattern, agricultural productivity, agricultural intensity, crop
combination, land capability; Agro and socialforestry; Green revolution and its socioeconomic and
ecological implications; Significance of dry farming; Livestock resources and white revolution; aqua –
culture; sericulture, apiculture and poultry; agricultural regionalisation; agro-climatic zones; agro-
ecological regions.
4. Industry:Evolution of industries; Locational factors of cotton, jute, textile, iron and steel, aluminium,
fertilizer, paper, chemical and pharmaceutical, automobile, cottage and agro-based industries; Industrial
houses and complexes including public sector undertakings; Industrial regionalisation; New industrial
policies; Multinationals and liberalization; Special Economic Zones; Tourism including eco -tourism.
5. Transport, Communication and Trade:Road, railway, waterway, airway and pipeline networks and their
complementary roles in regional development; Growing importance of ports on national and foreign
trade; Trade balance; Trade Policy; Export processing zones; Developments in communication and
information technology and their impacts on economy and society; Indian space programme.
6. Cultural Setting:Historical Perspective of Indian Society; Racial, linguistic and ethnic diversities; religious
minorities; major tribes, tribal areas and their problems; cultural regions; Growth, distribution and
density of population; Demographic attributes: sex-ratio, age structure, literacy rate, work-force,
dependency ratio, longevity; migration (inter-regional, intra- regional and international) and associated
problems; Population problems and policies; Health indicators.

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7. Settlements:Types, patterns and morphology of rural settlements; Urban developments; Morphology of
Indian cities; Functional classification of Indian cities; Conurbations and metropolitan regions; urban
sprawl; Slums and associated problems; town planning; Problems of urbanization and remedies.
8. Regional Development and Planning:Experience of regional planning in India; Five Year Plans; Integrated
rural development programmes; Panchayati Raj and decentralised planning; Command area
development; Watershed management; Planning for backward area, desert, drought prone, hill, tribal
area development; multi-level planning; Regional planning and development of island territories.
9. Political Aspects:Geographical basis of Indian federalism; State reorganisation; Emergence of new states;
Regional consciousness and inter state issues; international boundary of India and related issues; Cross
border terrorism; India’s role in world affairs; Geopolitics of South Asia and Indian Ocean realm.
10. Contemporary Issues:Ecological issues: Environmental hazards: landslides, earthquakes, Tsunamis, floods
and droughts, epidemics; Issues relating to environmental pollution; Changes in patterns of land use;
Principles of environmental impact assessment and environmental management; Population explosion
and food security; Environmental degradation; Deforestation, desertification and soil erosion; Problems
of agrarian and industrial unrest; Regional disparities in economic development; Concept of sustainable
growth and development; Environmental awareness; Linkage of rivers; Globalisation and Indian
economy.

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