1995 ERIC Digest EDO-CG-95-59

Models of Adolescent Transition

William A. Borgen and Norman E. Amundson

Overview to an independent adult).

Adolescents face a range of developmental issues. An Expanded View of Career Counseling
Havighurst (1952) suggested that two important areas Engendering Competence
included work and relationships. Levinson (1978) focused The above study suggests a need for a broader view
on changing relationships and on exploration, while of career counseling; counseling which recognizes the
Erikson (1968) commented on intimacy and commitment developmental needs of young people, the influence of
to goals. Super (1963) indicated that exploring and crys- social and economic changes, and the importance of bas-
tallizing vocational choice are important to older adoles- ing intervention strategies on personal and career com-
cents and young adults. What seems evident is that older petence, all within a context of diminished and changing
adolescents and young adults enter transitions with the opportunities for choice. In order to address this broader
goal of becoming independently functioning adults, as range of issues, we have employed a competence model
they strive to meet evolving personal and career related with eight main areas (Amundson, Borgen & Tench, in
needs. Rapid and escalating changes in labor market and press): purpose, problem solving, communication skills,
post-secondary educational opportunities mean that ado- theoretical knowledge, applied knowledge, organiza-
lescents now are confronted with the challenge of meet- tional adaptability, human-relations skills, and self-con-
ing their personal and career needs when neither can of- fidence. We also have developed a number of counsel-
fer certainty or a sense of personal control. ing strategies that facilitate a smoother transition:
Transition from High School 1. Developing Multiple Plans. Many young people
A longitudinal study by Amundson, Borgen, and leave high school with a narrow plan of action and with
Tench (in press) found that young people left high school few alternatives. They fully expect to be successful with
unprepared for current career realities and that both the the plan and are not prepared to face any barriers. De-
career and personal areas of their lives were in a state of veloping flexibility in career planning requires a sense of
change and uncertainty. At the end of their final year of purpose, problem solving skills, and several plans. Help-
high school, young people in the study expressed opti- ful strategies include visualization, lateral thinking, as-
mism about entering the career area of their choice and sessing options, and decision making in a context of un-
they expected to be successful workers in challenging jobs certainty (Gelatt, 1989).
which offered personal satisfaction. About half the re- 2. Self Advocacy and Marketing. As young people
spondents indicated some concern about meeting post- move towards further education, or into the labor mar-
secondary entrance standards. Approximately 9 and 18 ket, it is critical for them to market and advocate for them-
months following graduation, depression, self-esteem, selves. With scarce opportunities and confusing bureau-
and anxiety were correlated with a range of perceived cracies, there is a need to develop communication skills,
problems, including money, lack of support from family self confidence, organizational adaptability, and effective-
and friends, internal attribution of general transition prob- ness in human relations. This requires activities such as
lems, external attribution of career/employment difficul- mentoring, role-played practice, and ongoing economic,
ties, and lack of job satisfaction. emotional, and informational support.
At the end of the study, some of the young people 3. Managing Changing Relationships. The emotional
were interviewed. They were asked about factors that and social changes adolescents experience can challenge
helped or hindered the post-high-school transition. Posi- young people as they try to cope with barriers in the edu-
tive factors included supportive family and friends, mak- cation system and labor market. Friends provide emo-
ing money, satisfying leisure activities, personal achieve- tional support, but this is a time when friendship pat-
ments, and educational success. Negative factors in- terns are changing. Parents are needed for emotional,
cluded relationship problems, career confusion, financial material, and information support, but, at the same time,
difficulties, unemployment, lack of satisfying work, lack they need to allow young people sufficient room to de-
of post-secondary educational opportunities, and diffi- velop their own sense of identity. Coping with relation-
culty in adjusting to post-secondary educational de- ship issues can be facilitated through communication,
mands. human relationship training, and problem solving, which
Developmentally, the young people were trying to blurs most of the traditional distinction between career
meet personal and career-related needs, which were in a and personal counseling.
state of flux and uncertainty. It was apparent that a lack 4. Meeting Basic Needs. Young people have a strong
of progress in one area could have a negative influence need for community. Other central needs include having
on the other (e.g., an inability to gain post-secondary edu- a sense of meaning in life, physical and emotional secu-
cational admission or paid work could drastically alter rity, and basic structure in relationships and living. As
one’s ability to move from being a dependent adolescent
young people move beyond high school, many of these basic education programs, and market trends. They must also de-
needs require revaluation. In addition to changing relation- velop skills to assess the relevance of information. Acquir-
ships, questions emerge as to how to make a living, how to ing these skills involves both theoretical and applied knowl-
plan meaningful activities, and how to effectively manage edge. Counseling strategies within this domain include help-
time. To facilitate these changes, young people need to es- ing young people develop research, interviewing, and criti-
tablish a sense of purpose and understand how they are meet- cal analysis skills.
ing their current and future needs. Counselors can help clarify Conclusion
these issues. Without this type of developmental assistance,
young people often lack the resilience to maneuver within The breadth of the above components suggests the fol-
increasingly competitive educational and labor market envi- lowing:
ronments. 1. Career counseling needs to encompass a greater range
5. Coping with Stress. Adolescence is a period of consid- of issues.
erable stress. While much of the stress can by minimized 2. Personal and career issues are inextricably intertwined
through support, persistence, and active decision making and for young people.
planning, there still will be times when young people find
themselves in difficult situations. Coping with stress is asso- 3. The ways in which young people make some of their
ciated with various competencies such as organizational transition experiences greatly influence their psychological
adaptability, human relations, problem solving, and self con- well being.
fidence. Particular strategies for stress management include 4. Families and friends form a strong base for support in
relaxation techniques, managing ‘self talk,’ focusing, and us- the transition period.
ing support systems.
References
6. Coping with Loss. We were surprised at the extent to
Amundson, N. E. Borgen, W. A., & Tench, E. (in press). Per-
which young people were influenced by various personal
sonality and intelligence in career education and voca-
losses. These losses involved death in the family (usually
tional guidance counselling. In D. H. Saklofske & M.
grandparents) and the experience of parental separation and
Zeidner (Eds.), International Handbook of Personality and
divorce. The impact of these losses upon career events was
Intelligence. New York: Plenum.
considerable, suggesting a definite need for youth to develop
competence in handling loss and grieving. Counseling in Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity youth and crisis. New York: W.
this domain blurs many of the traditional distinctions between W. Norton.
the personal and career areas. Gelatt, H. B. (1989). Positive uncertainty: A new decision
7. Bridging Programs. Many young people lack “hands- making framework for counseling. Journal of Counseling
on” experience as they attempt to enter the world of work. Psychology, 36, 252-256.
Many also are unfamiliar with, and fearful of, moving into Havighurst, R. J. (1952). Developmental tasks and education. New
post-secondary education. To address this concern, counse- York: David McKay.
lors need to develop work experience and co-op education
programs to help young people acquire the necessary expe- Levinson, D. (1978). The seasons of a man’s life. New York:
rience. Post-secondary education entry programs can also Ballantine.
play an important role in easing transition difficulties. Super, D. E. (1963). Career development: Essays in vocational de-
8. Information and Information Access. The challenge in velopment. New York: College Entrance Examination
the information age is not only how to gather information, Board.
but how to turn information into personally relevant knowl-
edge. Young people need up-to-date information on careers,
William Borgen and Norm Amundson are professors in the De-
partment of Counselling Psychology,

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Department of Education, Of fice of Educational Research and Improvement, Contract No. RR93002004. Opinions expressed in this report do
not necessarily reflect the positions of the U.S. Department of Education, OERI, or ERIC/CASS.

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