lOMoARcPSD|26848337

BT-ICA

Building Technology 4 (Technological Institute of the Philippines)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATION

SPIRIT LEVEL - INSTRUMENT OR TOOL CAPABLE OF VERTICAL AND

HORIZONTAL LINE CHECK.

PLUMB BOB - IT’S USES FOR VERTICAL LINE CHECK.

PLASTIC HOSE FILLED W/ WATER – A METHOD OF LEVELLING (HORIZONTAL)

BATTERBOARDS WITHOUT TRANSIT.

3-4-5 MULTIPLES W/ THE USE OF STEEL TAPE MEASURE – A MANUAL METHOD

OF SQUARING THE CORNERS OF BUILDING LINES IN BUILDING LAYOUT.

SHEET PILLING – A BARRIER FORMED TO PREVENT THE MOVEMENT OF SOIL TO

STABILIZE FOUNDATION.

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATIONS

LAYOUT IS SOMETIMES CALLED “ STAKING OUT” WHICH MEANS THE PROCESS

OF RELOCATING THE POINT OF BOUNDARIES AND PROPERTY LINE OF THE SITE
WHERE THE BUILDING IS TO BE CONSTRUCTED.

IT INCLUDES CLEARING, STAKING, BATTER BOARDS AND ESTABLISHES THE

EXACT LOCATION OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION AND WALL LINE ON THE GROUND.

STAKE – ARE WOODEN STICKS USED AS POSTS SHARPENED AT ONE END

DRIVEN INTO THE GROUND TO SERVE AS BOUNDARIES OR SUPPORTS OF THE
BATTER BOARDS.

BATTER BOARD – WOOD STICK OR BOARD NAILED HORIZONTALLY AT THE

STAKE WHICH SERVE AS THE HORIZONTAL PLANE WHERE THE REFERENCE POINT
OF THE BUILDING MEASUREMENTS ARE ESTABLISHED.

STRING – IS EITHER PLASTIC CHORD OR GALVANIZED WIRE ACROSS THE

BATTER BOARDS USED TO INDICATE THE OUTLINE OF THE BUILDING WALL AND
FOUNDATION.

LAYOUT METHODS AND PROCEDURES

1. BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION BEGINS, SEE TO IT THAT A BUILDING PERMIT

IS FIRST SECURED FROM THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES CONCERNED.

2. RELOCATE THE BOUDARIES OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE. IT IS

SUGGESTED THAT THE RELOCATION OF THE PROPERTY LINE SHALL BE DONE
BY GEODETIC ENGINEER SPECIALLY FOR THOSE LOTS WITHOUT EXISTING
REFERENCE POINTS OR ADJOINING STRUCTURES.

3. CLEAR THE SITE OF ANY EXISTING STRUCTURE, TREES, AND OTHER

ELEMENTS THAT WILL OBSTRUCT THE CONSTRUCTION WORK.

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4. CONSTRUCT AND ALLOCATE A SPACE FOR LABORERS’ QUARTERS,

CONSTRUCTION OFFICE, BODEGA FOR THE MATERIALS AND WORKING TOOLS
AND TEMPORARY WASTE DISPOSAL.

5. APPLY FOR A TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS OF ELECTRIC AND WATER

SUPPLY. ELECTRIC CURRENT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE POWER NEEDS OF THE
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT AND IS NECESSARY ON OVERTIME SCHEDULES
ESPECIALLY IN THE TIME OF CONCRETING. WATER IS ALSO A PRIME NEED IN
CONSTRUCTION.

6. CONSTRUCT A TEMPORARY FENCE AROUND THE CONSTRUCTION.

7. VERIFY THE MEASUREMENT IN THE PLAN IF THE DISTANCES INDICATED

ARE FORM:

CENTER TO CENTER

OUTER TO CENTER

OUTER TO OUTER

INSIDE TO INSIDE

8. FIX THE BATTER BOARD TO ITS HORIZONTAL POSITION WITH THE AID OF
LEVEL INSTRUMENT PREFERABLY PLASTIC HOSE WITH WATER.

9. AFTER ESTABLISHING THE REFERENCE POINT AND LINE OF THE FOOTING,

TRANSFER THE INTERSECTING POINTS OF THE STRING ON THE GROUND BY
THE AID OF PLUMB BOB AND INDICATE THE SIZE AND WIDTH TO BE
EXCAVATED.

EXCAVATION

EXCAVATION WORK IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS CATEGORIZED INTO

TWO TYPES: THE MINOR AND MAJOR EXCAVATION DEPENDING UPON THE SIZE AND
NATURE OF THE FOUNDATION TO BE CONSTRUCTED. EXCAVATION FOR A SMALL
CONSTRUCTION WITH INDEPENDENT WALL, OR COMBINED FOOTING IS CLASSIFIED
UNDER THE MINOR EXCAVATION, WHILE THE REST WHICH REQUIRES SIZEABLES OR
TOTAL EXTRACTION OF THE EARTH FALL UNDER THE CATEGORY OF MAJOR
CONSTRUCTION.

MINOR EXCAVATION

EXCAVATION UNDER THIS CATEGORY ARE THOSE CONSTRUCTION HAVING

INDEPENDENT FOOTING AND HOLLOW BLOCK WALL FOOTING WHERE THE DIGGING
OF THE SOIL FOR THE FOOTING EXTEND TO A DEPTH FROM 1.00 TO 1.50 METER AND
ABOUT HALF A METER DEPTH FOR THE WALL FOOTING.

MAJOR EXCAVATION

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION THAT REQUIRES WIDE EXCAVATION OR TOTAL

EXTRACTION OF THE SOIL ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO CATEGORIES DEPENDING
UPON THE CONDITION OR LOCATION OF THE SITE. WHEN THE AREA OF THE
CONSTRUCTION SITE IS BIG THAT THERE IS ENOUGH SPACE TO ACCOMMODATE

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WORKING ACTIVITIES, STORING OF MATERIALS AND DUMPING GROUND FOR THE

EXCAVATED SOIL.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ON A BUSY COMMERCIAL CENTER WITH

ADJACENT EXISTING STRUCTURE IS CONSIDERED TO THE MOST COMPLICATED
AMONG THE VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION WORKS SINCE THIS REQUIRES CAREFUL
STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF THE RIGHT APPROACH.

PROBLEMS MIGHT BE ENCOUNTER:

1. THE MANNER OF THE EXCAVATION TO BE EMPLOYED WHICH WILL NOT AFFECT

OR DAMAGED THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE.

2. THE KIND OF EQUIPMENT TO BE USED IN THE DIGGING AND EXTRACTING THE

GROUND MAY NOT BE A PROBLEM BUT THE PLACE WHERE TO STATION THE
EQUIPMENT DURING THE OPERATION.

3. HOW AND WHERE TO DISPOSE THE EXTRACTED SOIL INVOLVES THE EFFECTIVE
MANNER OF MANEUVERING THE PAYLOAD AND DRUMPTRUCKS IN HAULING
WITHOUT OBSTRUCTING THE PEDESTRIAN AND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC FLOW.

4. WHERE TO DISPOSE THE UNDERGROUND WATER TO BE DRAINED BY THE

WATER PUMP DURING THE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION WHICH MIGHT CAUSE
MUDDY ROAD AND CREATE INCONVENIENCE TO TRAFFIC.

5. THE KIND OF SHEETING AND BRACING TO BE USED IN SHORING OR

UNDERSPINNING TO PROTECT THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE MUST BE
CONSIDERED.

FOUNDATION AND FOOTING

THE FUNCTION OF A FOUNDATION IS TO TRANSFER THE STRUCTURAL LOADS

FROM A BUILDING SAFELY INTO THE GROUND.

ALL FOUNDATIONS SETTLE TO SOME EXTENT AS THE SOIL AROUND

BENEATH THEM ADJUST ITSELF TO THESE LOADS.

UNIFORM SETTLEMENT IS USUALLY OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCES IN A

BUILDING, BUT A DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT CAN CAUSE SEVERE STRUCTURAL
DAMAGE.

3 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING:

SUPERSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE ABOVE GROUND PORTION OF THE

BUILDING.

SUBSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE HABITABLE BELOW-GROUND PORTION.

FOUNDATION – WHICH ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THE BUILDING THAT

TRANSFER ITS LOAD INTO THE SOIL.

3 TYPES OF SUBSTRUCTURES:

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SLAB ON FILL

CRAWLSPACE

BASEMENT

2 BASIC TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE THAT TRANSFER THE LOAD TO THE

EARTH AT THE BASE OF THE COLUMN OR WALL OF THE SUBSTRUCTURE.

DEEP FOUNDATIONS TRANSFER THE LOAD AT A POINT FAR BELOW THE

SUBSTRUCTURE.

FOUNDATION IS THAT PORTION OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS THAT CARRY OR

SUPPORT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING.

FOOTING IS THAT PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE STRUCTURE WHICH

DIRECTLY TRANSMIT THE COLUMN LOAD TO THE UNDERLYING SOIL OR ROCK,
FOOTING IS THE LOWER PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION STRUCTURE.

FOUNDATION BED - REFERS TO THE SOIL OR ROCK DIRECTLY BENEATH THE

FOOTING.

PILE FOUNDATION – WHEN A FOUNDATION BED IS TOO WEAK TO SUPPORT A

RAFT FOOTING, THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE MATERIALS
WHERE TO TRANSFER THE EXCESS LOAD TO A GREATER DEPTH WHEREIN PILES IS
THE ANSWER.

PILE – IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER OF SMALL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA WITH

REASONABLE LENGTH DRIVEN DOWN THE GROUND BY MEANS OF HAMMERS OR
VIBRATORY GENERATOR.

PILE IS DISTINGUISHED FROM A CAISSON BY BEING DRIVEN INTO PLACE RATHER

THAN DRILED & POURED.

PILES ARE GENERALLY DRIVEN CLOSELY TOGETHER IN CLUSTERS CONTAINING

FROM TWO TO TWENTY-FIVE PILES. EACH CLUSTER IS LATER JOINED AT THE TOP
BY A REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE CAP.

PILE CAP – DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD OF THE COLUMN OR WALL EQUALLY AMONG
THE PILES.

CAISSONS – IS SIMILAR TO A COLUMN FOOTING IN THAT IT SPREADS THE LOAD

FROM A COLUMN OVER A LARGE ENOUGH AREA OF SOIL.

FOUNDATION WALL – THAT PART OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH

FORMS THE PERMANENT RETAINING WALL OF THE STRUCTURE BELOW GRADE.

GRADE BEAM – THAT PART OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM W/C SUPPORTS THE

EXTERIOR WALL OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE AND BEARS DIRECTLY ON THE
COLUMN FOOTING.

RETAINING WALL – A WALL OR LATERALLY BRACED, THAT BEARS AGAINST AN

EARTH OR OTHER FILL SURFACE AND RESISTS LATERAL AND OTHER FORCES.

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CANTILEVER WALL – A REINFORCED CONCRETE WALL WHICH RESIST

OVERTURNING BY THE USE OF CANTILEVER FOOTING.

GRAVITY WALL – A MASSIVE CONCRETE WALL THAT RESIST OVERTURNING BY

VIRTUE OF IT’S OWN WEIGHT.

BEARING WALL – A WALL CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING AN IMPOSED LOAD.

FOOTING ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING – IS A STRIP OF REINFORCED CONCRETE WIDER

THAN THE WALL WHICH DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD TO THE SOIL.

A STEEL PERCENTAGE EQUALS TO 0.2 TO 0.3% OF THE CROSS SECTIONAL

AREA OF CONCRETE IS SAID TO BE ADEQUATE EXCEPT ON UNUSUAL CASES.

COLUMN FOOTING – IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:

1. ISOLATED OR INDEPENDENT FOOTING – IS A KIND OF FOOTING REPRESENTS

THE SIMPLEST AND MOST ECONOMICAL TYPE, IN THE FORM OF:

SQUARE BLOCK FOOTING

SQUARE SLOPE FOOTING

SQUARE STEPPED FOOTING

2. COMBINED FOOTING – IS USED WHEN TWO OR MORE COLUMNS ARE SPACED

CLOSELY TO EACH OTHER THAT THEIR FOOTING WILL ALMOST OR COMPLETELY
MERGE. IT’S EITHER :

RECTANGULAR

TRAPEZOIDAL

3. CONTINUOUS FOOTING – IS SOMETIMES CLASSIFIED AS WALL FOOTING WHICH

SUPPORT SEVERAL COLUMNS IN A ROW. IT’S EITHER:

INVERTED SLAB FOOTING

INVERTED TEE FOOTING

4. RAFT OR MAT FOOTING – IT’S OCCUPIES THE ENTIRE AREA BENEATH THE
STRUCTURE AND CARRY THE WALL AND THE COLUMN LOADS.

UNIFORM SLAB

THICKENED SLAB

BEAM & GIRDER

CONCRETE

CONCRETE IS AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE OUT FROM THE MIXTURE OF

CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL AND WATER. THIS IS KNOWN AS SOLID MASS OR PLAIN
CONCRETE. CONCRETE IN WHICH REINFORCEMENT IS EMBEDDED IN SUCH A

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MANNER THAT THE TWO MATERIALS ACT TOGETHER IN RESISTING FORCES IS

CALLED REINFORCED CONCRETE.

SLUMP TEST – A READY MEANS OF DETERMINING THE CONSISTENCY OF

FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE.

DESIGNING OF CONCRETE MIXTURE IS BASED ON THE WATER-CEMENT RATIO.

0.68 lb. OF WATER / lb. OF CEMENT WILL PRODUCE CONCRETE CAPABLE OF

DEVELOPING 2,500 PSI IN 28 DAYS.

LESS WATER PRODUCE STRONGER CONCRETE.

MORE WATER PRODUCE LESSER STRENGTH.

ADMIXTURE – ACCELERATES OR RETARDS CONCRETE SETTING.

SIZES OF MEASURING BOX FOR :

40 kg. CEMENT – 300mm X 300mm X 300mm

50 kg. CEMENT - 320mm X 320mm X 330mm

CONCRETE MIXTURE:

CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND GRA

VEL

“AA” 1:11/2: 3 12 9.5 0.5

cu.m. 1.0 cu.m.

“A” 1:2:4 9 7
0.5 1.0

“B” 1:21/2:5 7.5 6 0.5

1.0

“C” 1:3:6 6 5
0.5 1.0

MORTAR MIXTURE:

CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND

“A” 1:2 18 14.5

1.0 cu.m.

“B” 1:3 12 9.5

1.0

“C” 1:4 9 7
1.0

“D” 1:5 7.5 6

1.0

POST AND COLUMN

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POST – REFERS TO A PIECE OF TIMBER OF EITHER CYLINDRICAL, SQUARE OR OTHER

GEOMETRICAL CROSS SECTION PLACED VERTICALLY TO SUPPORT A BUILDING.

COLUMN – REFERS TO VERTICAL STRUCTURE USE TO SUPPORT A BUILDING MADE

OF STONE, CONCRETE, STEEL OR COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE MATERIALS.

STOREY – IS THE SPACE IN A BUILDING BETWEEN FLOOR LEVELS OR BETWEEN A

FLOOR AND A ROOF ABOVE.

REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN ARE CLASSIFIED AS:

SHORT COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS NOT GREATER THAN

TEN TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.

LONG COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS MORE THAN TEN TIMES
THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.

TYPES OF COLUMNS ARE:

TIED COLUMN – HAS REINFORCEMENT CONSISTING OF VERTICAL OR

LONGITUDINAL BARS HELD IN POSITION BY LATERAL REINFORCEMENT CALLED
LATERAL TIES.

SPIRAL COLUMN – IS THE TERM GIVEN WHERE A CIRCULAR CONCRETE CORE

IN ENCLOSED BY SPIRALS WITH VERTICAL OR LONGITUDINAL BARS. THE
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT IS PROVIDED WITH EVENLY SPACED CONTINUOUS
SPIRAL HELD FIRMLY IN POSITION BY AT LEAST THREE VERTICAL BAR SPACERS.

COMPOSITE COLUMN – WHERE STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMN IS EMBEDDED

INTO THE CONCRETE CORE OF A SPIRAL COLUMN.

COMBINED COLUMN – WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL ENCASED IN CONCRETE OF

AT LEAST 7 cm. THK. REINFORCED WITH WIRE MESS SURROUNDING THE COLUMN
AT A DISTANCE OF 3 cm. INSIDE THE OUTER SURFACE OF THE CONCRETE
COVERING.

LALLY COLUMN – IS A FABRICATED STEEL PIPE PROVIDED WITH A FLAT STEEL

BARS OR PLATE WHICH HOLD A GIRDER, GIRTS OR BEAM. THE STEEL PIPE IS
SOMETIMES FILLED WITH GROUT OR CONCRETE FOR CORROSION.

METAL REINFORCEMENT

THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESSES THAT MAY ACT ON THE STRUCTURE ARE:

1. COMPRESSION STRESS

2. TENSION STRESS

3. SHEAR STRESS

4. TORSION STRESS

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REINFORCEMENT NEED TO PROVIDE ON BEAM TO RESPONSE TO POSITIVE AND

NEGATIVE BENDING WHICH MAY CAUSE FAILURE OR COLLAPSE OF THE
STRUCTURE.

REINFORCED CONCRETE – IS A COMBINATION OF CONCRETE AND STEEL.

CONCRETE – IS STRONG IN SUPPORTING COMPRESSION LOAD BUT WEAK IN

RESISTING TENSION FORCES.

STEEL – POSSESSES THE STRENGTH TO RESIST BOTH COMPRESSION AND

TENSION.

BALANCE BEAM – WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONCRETE AND STEEL ARE JUST
ENOUGH TO CARRY THE COMPRESSION AND TENSION FORCES
SIMULTANEOUSLY.

INFLECTION POINTS – REFER TO THE PORTION OF A BEAM WHERE BENDING

MOMENT CHANGES FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE.

NO BENT BARS – WHEN BARS ARE NOT BENT, AN ADDITIONAL STRAIGHT

REINFORCING BARS ARE PLACED ON THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE
SUPPORTS EXTENDED TO THE REQUIRED LENGTH.

BENT REINFORCING BARS – ARE BENT UP ON OR NEAR THE INFLECTION POINT

AND ARE EXTENDED AT THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORT TOWARDS
THE ADJACENT SPAN.

4cm. – ALLOWANCE PROTECTIVE COVERING OF STEEL BARS FROM THE

OUTSIDE OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT.

ADVANTAGE OF THE BEND BARS, ITS RESIST THE DIAGONAL TENSION.

BUILDING CODE REQUIRED THAT A BALANCE BEAM SHALL PROVIDE, THAT THE
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE EQUAL TO .005
TIMES THE CROSS SECTIONAL PRODUCT OF THE WIDTH AND THE DEPTH OF THE
BEAM.

USED LATERAL TIES –

10mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 32mm SMALLER

12mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 36mm BIGGER

THREE FACTORS FOR SPACING OF THE LATERAL TIES:

SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 16 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LONGITUDINAL

OR MAIN REINFORCING BARS.

SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 48 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LATERAL TIES.

NOT MORE THAN THE SHORTEST DIMENSION OF THE COLUMN.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION

SCAB – A SHORT FLAT PIECE OF LUMBER WHICH IS BOLTED, NAILED OR

SCREWED TO TWO BUTTING PIECES IN ORDER TO SPLICE THEM TOGETHER.

FISH PLATE – A WOOD OR METAL PIECE USED TO FASTEN TOGETHER THE

ENDS OF TWO MEMBERS WITH NAILS OR BOLTS.

SPLICE PLATE – A METAL PLATE USED FOR FASTENING TWO OR MORE

MEMBER TOGETHER.

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COGGED JOINT – A CARPENTRY JOINT BY TWO UNEVEN TIMBERS, EACH OF

WHICH IS NOTCHED AT THE PLACE WHERE THEY MEET.

NOTCHING – JOINING OF TIMBERS, USUALLY MEETING OR CROSSING AT RIGHT

ANGLES, BY CUTTING A DAP IN ONE OR BOTH PIECES.

CROSSLAP JOINT – A JOINT CONNECTING TWO WOOD MEMBERS WHICH

CROSS EACH OTHER, HALF THE THICKNESS OF EACH IS CUT SO THAT THE
THICKNESS WILL THE SAME AS THAT OF EACH MEMBER.

SQUARE SPLICE–A TYPE OF HALF LAPPED USED TO RESIST TENSION.

BRIDLE JOINT – A JOINT IN WHICH TWO TONGUES PROJECT FROM THE SIDES
OF THE TENONED MEMBER, THESE TONGUES FIT INTO CORRESPONDING SLOTS
IN THE MORTISED MEMBER.

TENON – THE PROJECTING END OF A PIECE OF WOOD, OR OTHER MATERIALS

WHICH IS REDUCED IN CROSS SECTION, SO THAT IT MAY BE INSERTED IN A
CORRESPONDING CAVITY IN ANOTHER PIECE IN ORDER TO FORM A SECURE
JOINT.

YACAL – LUMBER PREFFERED WHEN IN CONTACT WITH CONCRETE.

BOARD FOOT – THE VOLUME OF A PIECE OF WOOD ONE INCH. THICK, ONE
FOOT WIDE AND ONE FOOT LONG.

BOLIDEN SALT – TREATMENT IN WOLMANIZED LUMBER.

DAP – A NOTCH IN A TIMBER FOR RECEIVING ANOTHER TIMBER.

DADO – A RECTANGULAR GROOVE CUT ACROSS THE FULL WIDTH OF A PIECE

OF WOOD TO RECEIVE THE END OF ANOTHER PIECE.

SOLIGNUM – TRADE NAME FOR ANTI-TERMITE SURFACE APPLICATION ON

WOOD.

FLOOR STRUCTURE

WOOD FLOOR SYSTEM

FLOOR FRAMING IS THAT PLATFORM STRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING

SUSPENDED BY POSTS, COLUMNS, WALLS AND BEAMS.

THE DESIGN OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM DEPENDS UPON THE

FOLLOWING CONSIDERATIONS:

1. LIVE LOAD – REFERS TO THOSE MOVABLE LOADS IMPOSED ON THE

FLOOR.

2. DEAD LOAD – REFERS TO THE STATIC LOAD SUCH AS THE WEIGHT

OF THE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS WHICH GENERALLY CARRY THE
LIVE LOAD.

3. TYPES OF MATERIALS TO BE USED – THE CHOICE FROM THE

VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS SUCH AS LUMBER, CONCRETE,
AND STEEL.

4. THE SIZING AND SPACING OF THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS –

DEPENDS UPON ITS STRENGTH AND CAPABILITY TO CARRY THE LOAD
AT A CERTAIN SPACING.

5. SPAN OF THE SUPPORTS – PERTAINS TO THE DISTANCES BETWEEN

THE POSTS, COLUMNS OR SUPPORTING WALLS.

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THE PLATFORM - FLOOR FRAMING STRUCTURE IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE

FOLLOWING TYPES:

A. THE PLANK AND BEAM FLOOR TYPE

B. THE PANELIZED-FLOOR SYSTEM

C. THE CONVENTIONAL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEM

THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM ARE:

GIRDER – IS A PRINCIPAL BEAM EXTENDING FROM WALL TO WALL OF A

BUILDING SUPPORTING THE FLOOR JOISTS OF FLOOR BEAMS.

SILL – THAT PART OF THE SIDE OF A HOUSE THAT RESTS HORIZONTALLY UPON
THE FOUNDATION.

FLOOR JOISTS – ARE THOSE PARTS OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM PLACED ON THE
GIRDERS WHERE THE FLOOR BOARDS ARE FASTENED.

HEADER AND TRIMMER – HEADER IS A SHORT TRANSVERSE JOISTS THAT

SUPPORT THE END OF THE CUT-OFF JOIST AT A STAIR WELL HOLE. TRIMMER IS A
SUPPORTING JOIST WHICH CARRIES AN END PORTION OF A HEADER.

FLOORING – THE TONGUE AND GROOVE WHICH ARE POPULARLY KNOWN AS T

& G IS GENERALLY SPECIFIED FOR WOOD FLOORING.

TAIL BEAM OR TAIL PIECE – A SHORT BEAM, JOIST OR RAFTER WHICH IS

SUPPORTED BY A HEADER JOIST AT ONE END AND A WALL AT THE OTHER.

LEDGER STRIP – A STRIP OF LUMBER WHICH IS NAILED TO THE SIDE OF THE

BEAM, FORMING A SEAT FOR THE JOISTS.

DRAFTSTOP PLATE – IS A PIECE OF LUMBER USES TO DRESS UP THE EDGE OF

THE JOISTS.

SOLE PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER WHICH SERVES AS A BASE FOR THE

STUDS IN A STUD PARTITION.

SILL PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER, AT THE BOTTOM OF THE FRAME OF

AWOOD STRUCTURE WHICH REST ON THE FOUNDATION.

TOP PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER AT THE UPPER PORTION OF THE STUDS IN

ASTUD PARTITION.

CRIPPLE STUD – IN ABUILDING FRAME, A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT THAT IS

SHORTER THAN USUAL, AS A STUD ABOVE AND BELOW OPENING.

BLOCK OR SOLID BRIDGING – SHORT MEMBERS WHICH ARE FIXED VERTICALLY

BETWEEN FLOOR JOISTS TO STIFFEN THE JOISTS.

CROSS BRIDGING – DIAGONAL BRACING IN PAIRS, BETWEEN ADJACENT FLOOR

JOISTS TO PREVENT THE JOISTS FROM TWISTING.

HANGER OR STIRRUP – A METAL SEAT, ATTACHED TO A GIRDER TO RECEIVE

AND SUPPORT A JOIST.

BALLOON FRAMING – CONSTRUCTION HAS STUDS CONTINOUS TO ROOF

SUPPORTING SECOND FLOOR JOISTS.

WESTERN FRAMING – THAT HAS SUBFLOOR EXTENDED TO THE OUTER EDGE

OF THE FRAME AND PROVIDE A FLAT WORK SURFACE AT EACH FLOOR.

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REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM

BEAM - IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT SUPPORTS THE TRANSVERSE LOAD

WHICH USUALLY REST ON SUPPORTS AT ITS END.

GIRDER – IS THE TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT SUPPORTS ONE OR

MORE SMALLER BEAM.

BEAM ARE CLASSIFIED AS :

A) SIMPLE BEAM

B) CONTINUOUS BEAM

C) SEMI – CONTINUOUS

SIMPLE BEAM – REFERS TO THE BEAM HAVING A SINGLE SPAN SUPPORTED AT

ITS END WITHOUT A RESTRAIN AT THE SUPPORT. SIMPLE BEAMS IS SOMETIMES
CALLED AS SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM.

RESTRAINT MEANS A RIGID CONNECTION OR ANCHORAGE AT THE SUPPORT.

CONTINUOUS BEAM – IS A TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT REST ON MORE

THAN TWO SUPPORTS.

SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM – REFERS TO A BEAM WITH TWO SPANS WITH OR

WITHOUT RESTRAINT AT THE TWO EXTREME ENDS.

WEB REINFORCEMENT

WEB REINFORCEMENT IS THE SAME AS THEIR STIRRUPS USED IN THE BEAM

TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT IN ITS DESIGNED POSITION. THE WEB
REINFORCEMENT IS NOT ONLY INTENDED TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT AND
PROVIDE LATERAL SUPPORT BUT ALSO SERVES TO RESIST DIAGONAL TENSION AND
COUNTERACT THE SHEAR ACTION ON THE STRUCTURE. THE VERTICAL STIRRUPS
SHOULD ENCIRCLE THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT AND HOOK BENT WITH A DIAMETER
NOT LESS THAN 5 TIMES THE DIAMETER OF THE STIRRUPS AT ITS END AND SECURED
PROPERLY TO PREVENT SLIPPING OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT IN THE CONCRETE.

REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB:

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THE

FOLLOWING TYPES:

1. ONE WAY SOLID SLAB AND BEAM.

2. TWOWAY SOLID SLAB BEAM.

3. RIBBED FLOORS.

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4. FLAT SLAB OR GIRDERLESS FLOORS SOLID OR RIBBED.

EACH TYPE OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN ADVANTAGES IN

APPLICATION DEPENDING UPON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS:

1. SPACING OF THE COLUMNS.

2. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE LOADS TO BE SUPPORTED

3. LENGTH OF THE SPAN

4. THE COST OF THE CONSTRUCTION

ONE WAY SLAB – ONE WAY SLAB IS THE COMMON TYPE OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM WHICH THE REINFORCEMENTS RUNS ONLY IN ONE
DIRECTION. MADE OF SOLID SLAB SUPPORTED BY TWO PARALLEL BEAMS. IT IS
COMPARATIVELY ECONOMICAL FOR A MEDIUM AND HEAVY LIVE LOADS ON SHORT
SPANS RANGING FROM 2.00 TO 3.50 METERS LONG. ALTHOUGH THE
REINFORCEMENTS ARE ALSO PLACED IN THE SLAB PARALLEL WITH THE BEAMS
PERPENDICULAR WITH THE MAIN REINFORCEMENTS CALLED “TEMPERATURE
REINFORCEMENTS”. USUALLY NO. 3 STEEL BAR IS USED TO COUNTERACT THE
EFFECT OF SHRINKAGE AND CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE. IT ALSO DISTRIBUTES
POSSIBLE CONCENTRATION OF LOADS OVER A LARGER AREA.

TWO WAY SLAB – SLAB WHICH ARE SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES WHERE THE
FLOOR PANEL IS NEARLY SQUARE IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL TO EMPLOY THE TWO
DIRECTIONS OF REINFORCING BARS PLACED AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH EACH OTHER.

THE CODE SPECIFIES THAT THICKNESS OF THE SLAB SHALL NOT BE LESS
THAN 4 INCHES OR 10 CM. NOR LESS THAN THE PERIMETER OF THE SLAB DIVIDED BY
180. THE SPACING OF THE REINFORCEMENT SHALL NOT BE MORE THAN 3 TIMES THE
SLAB THICKNESS.

RIBBED FLOOR SLAB – IS AN ECONOMICAL TYPE OF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION

BUT IS APPLICABLE ONLY TO MEDIUM SPAN LENGTH WITH LIGHT OR MEDIUM LOAD.

A RIBBED FLOOR SLAB CONSISTS OF SMALL ADJACENT T-BEAM WHEREIN THE

OPEN SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS ARE FILLED BY CLAY TILES, GYPSUM TILES OR
STEEL FORMS. THE TILES ARE GENERALLY 30 X 90 CM. WITH DEPTH OF 10 TO 40CM.
O.C. PLACED @ 5CM. O.C. MAKING THE RIBS 10 CM. WIDE.

THE CONCRETE SURFACE LAYER PLACED ON TOP OF THE TILES RANGES

FROM 5 TO 6.5 CM. THICK. THE REINFORCEMENT OF A RIBBED FLOOR SYSTEM
CONSIST OF TWO BARS PLACED AT THE LOWER PART OF THE RIB WHERE ONE IS
BENT AND THE OTHER REMAINED STRAIGHT, OR SOMETIMES, STRAIGHT BARS ARE
PALCED AT THE TOP AND BOTTOM OF THE RIB. TEMPERATURE BARS ARE EITHER
NO. 2 BARS OR 6 MM. OR WIRE MESH WHICH RUNS AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH THE RIBS.

FLAT SLAB – IS A RECTANGULAR SLAB DIRECTLY SUPPORTED BY COLUMNS

WITHOUT BEAMS OR GIRDERS. THESLAB IS EITHER UNIFORM IN THICKNESS OR
PROVIDED WITH SQUARE SYMMETRICAL AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN
REINFORCED WITH BARS RUNNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS. THE INCREASED AREA
DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN CALLED DROP PANEL OR SIMPLY DROP. ON THE
OTHER HAND, A FLARED HEAD IS EMPLOYED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A FLAT-SLAB
FLOOR MAKING A CAPITAL OF THE COLUMN.

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WHEN THE COLUMN DESIGN IS NOT PROVIDED WITH CAPITAS, A STRAIGHT

FLAT UNDERNEATH IS PROVIDED IN THE SLAB THROUGHOUT THE SYSTEM, WHICH IS
CALLED FLAT PLATE CONSTRUCTION.

THIS FLOOR SYSTEM IS ECONOMICAL IN TERMS OF MATERIALS AND LABOR.

CONSTRUCTION JOINT – A JOINT WHERE TWO SUCCESSIVE PLACEMENT OF

CONCRETE MEET.

CONTRACTION JOINT OR EXPANSION JOINT – A JOINT BETWEEN ADJACENT

PARTS OF A STRUCTURE WHICH PERMITS MOVEMENT BETWEEN THEM.

CONTROL JOINTS – EMPLOYED TO REDUCE RESTRAINT BY ACCOMODATING

MOVEMENT OF MASONRY WALL.

BLOCK OUT – IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES UNDER CONSTRUCTION, A SPACE

WHERE CONCRETE IS NOT TO BE PLACED.

COLD JOINT – A JOINT FORMED WHEN A CONCRETE SURFACE HARDEN

BEFORE THE NEXT BATCH OF CONCRETE IS PLACED AGAINST.

CREEP – PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF A MATERIAL UNDER A SUSTAIN LOAD.

CAMBER – CONVEX CURVATURE IN BEAM OR TRUSS.

LAYING OUT OF STAIRS

THE METHOD OF LAYING OUT STAIRS ARE:

1. DETERMINE THE CLEAR HEIGHT OF THE RISE IN

METER. ORDINARILY, THE RISE PER STEP IS 17 TO 18 CM
AND THE MINIMUM TREAD WIDTH IS 25 CM.

2. DIVIDE THE RISE ( HEIGHT IN METER) BY .17 OR .18 TO DETERMINE THE

NUMBER OF STEPS.

3. DIVIDE THE RUN DISTANCE IN METER BY .25 OR .30m.

4. IF THE RESULT, FOUND IN STEP THREE IS LESS THAN THE NUMBER FOUND
IN STEP TWO, THE RUN LENGTH HAS TO BE EXTENDED.

5. THERE SHOULD BE NO FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF A RISER. SHOULD THERE BE

FROM THE RESULT OF STEP TWO, ADJUST A FUNCTIONAL VALUE IN EQUAL
PROPORTION TO THE NUMBER OF RISER HEIGHT, BUT IN NO CASE SHALL THE
RISE PER STEP BE GREATER THAN 19 CM OR LESS THAN 17 CM OTHERWISE,
THE STAIRS WILL NOT BE AN IDEAL ONE.

IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAKE A CROSS SECTIONAL SKETCH OF A STAIR BEFORE

MAKING THE FINAL PLAN LAYOUT INDICATING THE NUMBER OF STEPS TO
AVOID ADJUSTMENTS OF THE RUN DURING THE ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION.

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TYPE OF STRINGERS

THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF STRINGER CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE

METHOD OF ATTACHIND THE RISERS AND THE TREADS.

1. CUT

2. CLEATED

3. BUILT-UP

4. RABBETED (HOUSE)

BALUSTER – ONE OF A NUMBER OF SHORT VERTICAL MEMBERS OFTEN

CIRCULAR IN SECTION, USED TO SUPPORT A STAIR HANDRAIL.

BALUSTRATE – AN ENTIRE RAILING SYSTEM INCLUDING A TOP RAIL, VERTICAL

MEMBERS AND BOTTOM RAIL.

BULL-NOSED STEP – A STEP USUALLY LOWEST IN AFLIGHT, HAVING ONE OR

BOTH ENDS ROUNDED TO A SEMI-CIRCLE AND PROJECTION BEYOND THE FACE
OF THE STAIR STRING/S.

BANISTER – HANDRAIL FOR A STAIRCASE.

RISER – A VERTICAL FACE OF ASTAIR.

KICKER PLATE – STAIR ANCHOR TO CONCRETE.

TYPES OF ROOF

THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF ROOF AND NUMEROUS VARIETY OF SHAPES

THAT ONE HAS TO BE FAMILIAR WITH:

SHED OR LEAN-TO ROOF- IS CONSIDERED AS THE SIMPLEST FORM OF ROOF

CONSISTING OF ONE SINGLE SLOPE.

GABLE OR PITCH ROOF- THE MOST COMMON TYPE AND ECONOMICAL FORM
OF ROOF MADE OF TRIANGULAR SECTIONS CONSISTING OF TWO SLOPES MEETING
AT THE CENTER OF THE RIDGE FORMING A GABLE.

SAW TOOTH ROOF- IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHED MADE INTO A SERIES
TO LEAN-TO ROOF COVERING ONE BUILDING. THIS IS COMMONLY USED ON
FACTORIES WHERE EXTRA LIGHT IS REQUIRED THROUGH THE WINDOW ON A
VERTICAL SIDE.

DOUBLE GABLE ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF A GABLE OR A HIP AND VALLEY

ROOF.

HIP ROOF- IS ALSO A COMMON FORM USED IN MODERN HOUSES HAVING

STRAIGHT SIDES ALL SLOPING TOWARD THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING
TERMINATING AT THE RIDGE.

HIP AND VALLEY ROOF- IS A COMBINATION OF THE HIP ROOF AND AN

INTERESTING GABLE ROOF FORMING A T OR L SHAPED BUILDING. THIS TYPE OF

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ROOF FORM HOWEVER, HAS A VARIETY OF MODIFICATION WHICH ARE NOT

ILLUSTRATED.

PYRAMID ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE HIP ROOF WHEREIN THE

FOUR STAIGHT SIDES ARE SLOPING TOWARDS THE CENTER TERMINATING AT A
POINT.

GAMBREL ROOF- IS A MODIFICATIN OF THE GABLE ROOF WITH EACH SIDE

HAVING TWO SLOPES.

BUTTERFLY ROOF- IS A TWO SHED ROOF WHERE THE SLOPE MEET AT THE
CENTER OF THE BUILDING.

MANSARD ROOF- WHERE THE SIDES OF THE ROOF SLOPE STEEPLY FROM
EACH SIDE OF THE BUILDING TOWARDS THE CENTER FORMING A FLAT DECK ON TOP.

FRENCH OR CONCAVE MANSARD ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE

MANZARD ROOF WHERE THE SIDES ARE CONCAVE.

DOME- IS A HEMISPHERICAL FORM OF ROOF USUALLY USED ON

OBNSERVATORIES.

CONICAL ROOF OR SPHIRE- IS A STEEP ROOF OF CIRCULAR SECTION THAT

TAPERS UNIFORMLY FROM THE CIRCULAR BASE TO A CENTRAL POINT.

TYPES OF ROOF FRAME

THE THREE TYPES OF ROOF FRAME COMMONLY USED ARE:

1. RAFTERS TYPE

2. TRUSS TYPE

3. LAMINATED TYPE

THE VARIOUS KINDS OF RAFTERS FOR ROOF CONSTRUCTIONS ARE:

COMMON RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS EXTENDED AT RIGHT ANGLES FROM THE

PLATE OR GIRTS T THE RIDGE.

HIP RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS LAID DIAGONALLY FROM THE CORNER OF A

PLATE OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.

VALLEY RAFTERS- RAFTERS PLACED DIAGONALLY FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS

AT THE INTERSECTION OF GABLE EXTENSION WITH THE MAIN ROOF.

OCTAGONAL RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS PLACED ON AN OCTAGONAL SHAPED

PLATE AT THE CENTRAL APEX OR RIDGE POLE.

JACK RAFTERS- ANY RAFTER WHICH DOES NOT EXTEND FROM THE PLATE OR
GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.

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JACK RAFTERS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO:

1. HIT JACKS

2. VALLEY JACKS

3. CRIPLE JACKS

JACK RAFTERS FRAMED BATWEEN HIP RAFTERS AND GITS ARE CALLED HIP
JACKS. THE FRAME BETWEEN THE RIDGE AND VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED
VALLEY JACKS, WHILE THOSE FRAMES BETWEEN THE HIP AND THE VALLEY
RAFTERS ARE CALLED CRIPPLE JACKS.

TRUSS – IS A BUILT-UP FRAME COMMONLY EMPLOYED ON A LONG SPAN ROOF

UNSUPPORTED BY INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS OR PARTITIONS. TRUSS IS A DESIGN OF
A SERIES OF TRIANGLES USED TO DISTRIBUTE LOAD, STIFFEN THE STRUCTURE AND
FLEXIBILITY FOR THE INTERIOR SPACING AS WELL AS STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRUSSES ARE:

LIGHT TRUSSES:

PITCHED HOWE

SCISSORS RAISED
CHORD

SAWTOOTH 1 ½ STORY
FRAME

FLAT UTIL
ITY

BOWSTRING

HEAVY TRUSSES:

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HOWE
TRUSS BELGIAN

FINK PRATT

SCISSORS CAMBERED
FINK

WARREN FLAT HOWE

SAW TOOTH FLAT PRATT

PURLINS – THE STRUCTURAL MEMBER PLACED ON TOP OF A RAFTER OR TOP CHORD

OF A TRUSS THAT SUPPORTS THE ROOF SHEATING.

PURLINS SIZE AND SPACING:

SPAN: 2.00 SIZE: 50mm X 75mm

3.00 50mm X 100mm

3.50 50mm X 150mm

4.50 50mm X 200mm

ROOF AND ROOFING MATERIALS

THE TERM ROOF USED HERE MEANS THE TOP COVERING OF A BUILDING
THAT SERVES AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING FROM THE WEATHER.

ROOFING CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MATERIALS USED:

FIBER

WOOD

METAL

SLATE

TILES

REINFORCED CONCRETE

PLASTICS

FIBERGLASS

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METAL ROOFING – IS THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION,

THIS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:

GALVANIZED IRON

ALUMINUM

TIN

TITANIUM COPPER ZINC

COPPER

STAINLESS STEEL

LEAD

AMONG THE METAL ROOFING ENUMERATED, GALVANIZED IRON SHEET IS THE

MOST COMMONLY SPECIFIED CONSIDERING THE ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFER.

GALVANIZED IRON ROOFING IS EITHER PLAIN OR CORRUGATED. THE

THICKNESS ARE MEASURED IN TERMS OF “GAUGE” FROM ga. 14 TO ga. 30. Gauge 26 IS
THE MOST COMMONLY USED FOR ROOFING.

THE STANDARD COMMERCIAL SIZE WIDTH IS 0.80 m. WITH LENGTH THAT

RANGES FROM 1.50 TO 3.60 m.

PLAIN G.I. SHEET COMMERCIAL STANDARD SIZE IS 0.90m. X 2.40m. IT’S ALSO
USED FOR ROOFING, GUTTERS,FLASHING,RIDGE,HIP AND VALLEY ROLLS,
DOWNSPOUT, AND STRAP FOR RIVETING.

CORR. G.I.ROOFING FASTENERS:

NAILING

RIVETING

PANTILE – A ROOFING TILE WHICH HAS THE SHAPE OF “S” LAID ON IT’S SIDE.

MISSION TILE – A CLAY ROOFING TILE, APPROX. SEMI-CYLINDRICAL IN SHAPE

LAID IN COURSES WITH THE UNIT HAVING THEIR CONVEX SIDE ALTERNATELY UP
AND DOWN.

ROMAN TILE – A CHANNEL SHAPED, TAPERED, SINGLE LAP ROOPING TILE.

GALVANIZED – ZINC COATED MATERIALS.

A FRAME – A 3-PIECE RIGID STRUCTURAL FRAME IN THE SHAPE OF THE

UPRIGHT CAPITAL “A”.

CHORD – A PRINCIPAL MEMBER OF A TRUSS.

BATTEN – WOOD STRIPS TO SUPPORT ROOF TILES.

SPLIT RING – CHORD SPLICE CONNECTORS FOR TRUSSES.

FORM, SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING

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FORM IS A TEMPORARY BOARDING, SHEATING OR PANS USED TO

PRODUCE THE DESIRED SHAPE AND SIZE OF CONCRETE. FORMS ARE USED IN
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF A BUILDING ARE BUILT-UP
INTO ITS SPECIFIED DIMENSIONS BY THE USE OF FORMS THAT SERVES AS MOULD
FOR THE MIXED CONCRETE.

FORMS SHOULD BE WATERTIGHT, RIGID AND STRONG ENOUGH TO

SUSTAIN THE WEIGHT OF CONCRETE. IT SHOULD BE SIMPLE AND ECONOMICALLY
DESIGNED TO BE REMOVE EASILY AND REASSEMBLED WITHOUT DAMAGE TO
THEMSELVES OR TO THE CONCRETE.

FACTORS CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF FORMS ARE:

COST OF MATERIALS

THE CONSTRUCTION AND ASSEMBLING COST

THE NUMBER OF TIMES IT COULD BE USED

STRENGTH AND RESISTANCE TO PRESSURE AND THE TEAR & WEAR

WOOD BOARD AND PLYWOOD FORMS

WOOD FORM IS THE MOST COMMON AND WIDELY USED FORMS IN MINOR
OR MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.

PLYWOOD AS FORM IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL BOTH IN LABOR AND

MATERIALS.

PLYWOOD HAS PLAIN EVEN SURFACE WITH UNIFORM THICKNESS.

IT OFFERS FITTED JOINTS, ELIMINATE DRESSING, PLANING OF THE SURFACE

WHICH IS NORMAL TO WOODEN BOARDS FORMS.

THE LAMINATED CROSS-GRAINED OF PLYWOOD HAS MADE THE BOARD

STRONGER AND FREE FROM WARPING.

PLYWOOD IS LIGHT-WEIGHT, HANDY AND FAST TO WORK ON.

PRODUCE SMOOTH FINISHES OF CONCRETE THAT SOMETIMES NEED LITTLE

OR NO PLASTERING AT ALL.

METAL FORM ARE SELDOM USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BECAUSE OF

THE VARIED DESIGNS AND SHAPES OF THE STRUCTURES. ALTHOUGH METAL FORMS
ARE EXTENSIVELY USED ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION. METAL FORMS ARE GENERALLY
MADE OUT OF G.I. SHEET, OR BLACK IRON SHEET, SUPPORTED BY FLAT AND ANGLE
BARS DESIGNED TO BE ASSEMBLED AND LOCKED BE MEANS OF CLAMP, BOLTS AND
NUTS.

CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS

CONCRETE WEIGHS ABOUT 2,200 TO 2,400 kg./cu.m. FORMS SHALL BE

GUARDED AGAINST BULGING AND SAGGING FAILURE THAT OCCUR DURING THE
PROCESS OF POURING. THE THICKNESS OF THE FORM AND THE SIZES OF THE
FRAME AND RIBS DEPENDS UPON THE NATURE OF THE STRUCTURE TO BE
SUPPORTED CLASSIFIED AS SMALL, MEDIUM AND MASSIVE STRUCTURE.

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SMALL STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SMALL FOOTINGS, COLUMNS AND BEAM

FOR ONE OR TWO STOREY BUILDING WHEREIN 6mm. THK. PLYWOOOD IS
SATIFACTORILY USED SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

MEDIUM STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING CONCRETE COLUMNS, BEAMS, AND

CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GENERALLY OF 2 TO 3 STOREY HIGH. WHEREIN 6mm OR
12mm THK. PLYWOOD IS USED AS FORM SUPPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm OR 50mm
X 75mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

MASSIVE STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING HEAVY LOADS USES FORMS OF

VARIOUS THICKNESS THAT RANGE FROM 6mm TO 19mm THK. PLYWOOD
SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm TO 50mm X 100mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

TWO TYPES OF FRAMING:

LONGITUDINAL RIB TYPE

PERPENDICULAR RIB TYPE

TYPES OF COLUMN FORMS:

SQUARE

RECTANGULAR

CIRCULAR

BEAM FORMS CONSIST OF ONE BOTTOM FORM AND A PAIR OF SIDE FORMS.

TYPES OF WALL FORMS:

CONTINUOUS

FULL UNIT

LAYER UNIT

GREASING OF FORMS

THE PURPOSE OF GREASING THE FORM IS TO MAKE THE WOOD WATER

PROOF, THUS PREVENTING ABSORPTION OF WATER IN THE CONCRETE WHICH
CAUSES SWELLING AND WARPING. IT’S ALSO PREVENTS ADHERENCE OF CONCRETE
TO THE PORES OF THE WOOD.

YOKE – IS A HORIZONTAL FRAMEWORK AROUND THE FORMWORK FOR A COLUMN.

SCAFFOLDING – WORKER’S PLATFORM

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION TERMS

ENGLISH VERNACULAR ENGLISH

VERNACULAR

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Adobe Anchor --------------------- Liyabe Earth Fill----------------

--- Escombro

Aligned ----------------------------- Kaliniya Eave ------------------------

Alero,Barakilan,

Sopo

Alignment -------------------------- Asintada Electrician -----------------

Elektrista

Alternate or staggered ------------ Uno Sinotra Engineer -------------------

Inhenyero

Anchor ------------------------------ Liyabe Exterior Siding --------

--- Tabike

Architect ---------------------------- Arkitekto Faucet ---------------------- Gripo

Astragal ----------------------------- Batidura Fascia Board --------------

Senepa

Balusters ---------------------------- Balustre,Barandilla Feet ------------------------

Piye

Beam -------------------------------- Biga Fill -----------------------

-- Tambak

Banisters ---------------------------- Barandil Filler -----------------------

Tapal, Dagdag

Barrel Bolt -------------------------- Trankilya Floor Joist -----------------

Soleras

Baseboard -------------------------- Rodapis Fillet -----------------------

Batidura

Bath tub ---------------------------- Baniera Flooring -------------------

Sahig, Suelo

Bolt --------------------------------- Pierno Floor sill -----------------

- Guililan

Bottom Chord --------------------- Tirante, Estunyo Flush ----------------------

Alahado

Brace ------------------------------- Pie de Gallo Foundation or Footings-

Pundasyon

Brick ------------------------------- Landrillo Foreman ------------------

Kapatas,

MaestroDe Obra

Canopy ---------------------------- Media Agua Framework ---------------

Balangkas

Cabinet Hinge -------------------- Espolon Gable Roof -------------- Dos

Aguas

Carpenter ------------------------- Karpintero Girder ---------------------

Guililan

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Carpentry ------------------------- Karpinteria Girts or Girder -----------

Sepo

Cast Iron -------------------------- Pundido Gravel ---------------------

Graba

Ceiling ---------------------------- Kisame Good Grain ---------------

Haspe

Ceiling Board -------------------- Groobe ------------------

-- Canal

Ceiling Joist ---------------------- Kostil Yahe Gutter ---------------------

Alulod, canal

Cement --------------------------- Semento Hand rail -----------------

Gabay

Cement Brick -------------------- Ladrilyo Head ----------------------

Sombrero

Cement Tiles --------------------- Baldosa Hinge ---------------------

Bisagra

Chain bolt ------------------------ Baral de Kadena Hip roof ------------------

Kuatro Aguas

Collar ----------------------------- Sinturon Horizontal Stud --------

Trabe-Anzo

Column --------------------------- Kolumna,Haligue Inch -----------------------

Pulgada

Concrete -------------------------- Konkreto Jamb ----------------------

Hamba

Concrete Slab -------------------- Larga Masa Joist -----------------------

Suleras

Concrete Beam ------------------ Biga Kingpost ----------------

- Pendolum

Conductor ------------------------ Alulod Laborer ----------------

--- Piyon

Contractor ------------------------ Kontratista Landing ------------------

Mesa Pahingahan

Corr. G.I. sheets ----------------- Yiero Canalado Lavatory -----------------

Lababo

Galbanisado

Closed Stringer ------------------ Escalera Laying of CHB orAdobe Stone -

-----------

Asinta

Crushed Stone ------------------- Eskombro Lean to roof ------------- Sibe

Diagonal Brace ------------------ Sinturon Level ---------------------

Lebel

Door ------------------------------- Pinto Machine Bolt ----------

- Peirno Pasante

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Door Fillet ------------------------ Batidora Mason -------------------

Kantero

Door Head ------------------------ Sombrero (Pintuan) Masonry -----------------

Kanteria

Door Jamb ------------------------ Hamba Pintuan Masonry Fill ------------

Lastilyas

Drawbore Pin or Drawpin ------ Punsol Meter ---------------------

Metro

Mitre or Miter -------------------- Canto Mesa Septic Tank -------------

Poso Negro

Mixture of Sand & Gravel ------ Lastilyas Shape -------------------- Korte

Mortar ----------------------------- Paupo Sheet --------------------

- Plantsa

Mortar Joists ---------------------- Kostura Shower -------------------

Dutsha

Moulding -------------------------- Moldura Sidings -------------------

Tabika

Nailers ----------------------------- Pamakuan Sink -----------------------

Prigadero

Nail -------------------------------- Pako Sketch Plan -----------

--- Krokis

Nail Setter ------------------------ Punsol Slab (rough) --------------

Larga Masa

Newel Post ----------------------- Tukod Slope --------------------

-- Bahada

Nut --------------------------------- Tuerka Solder ---------------------

Hinang

Nicolite Bar ----------------------- Estanyo Solder Bar ----------------

Estaniyo

Oakum ----------------------------- Estopa Spacing -------------------

Biento

Open Stringer --------------------- Hardinera Split Knob ----------------

Poleya

Over Hand or Projector ---------- Bolada Stairs ----------------------

Hagdanan

Painter ------------------------------ Pintor Stake --------------------

--- Staka

Panel -------------------------------- Bandeha Stringer (open) -----------

Hardinera

Panellee Door ---------------------- De Bandeha Stringer --------------------

Madre, Madrina

Pattern ------------------------------ Plantilya Stucco ---------------------

Palitada

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Pea Gravel ------------------------- Grabita Stud (vertical)-------------

Pilarete

Pendulum (King Post) ------------ Pendulon Stud (horizontal) ---------

Pabalagbag

Pickwork --------------------------- Piketa Temper (metal

work)----- Suban, Subuhan

Piglead ------------------------------ Tingga, Estopa Thread ---------------------

Roskas

Plain G.I. sheet -------------------- Yiero Liso Galbanisado Tinsmith -------------------

Latero

Plain G.I. Strap -------------------- Lingueta Tinsmithing ---------------

Lateria

Plank Board ------------------------ Senepa Top Chord ---------------- Kilo,

Tahilan

Plaster ------------------------------- Palitada Transom ------------------

Espeho

Plastered Course ------------------- Kusturada Tread ---

------------------- Baytang, Perdano

Plug ---------------------------------- Tapon Trellise -----------------

--- Pergola

Plumb Bob -------------------------- Hulog Truss -------------------

---- Truss, Kilo

Plumber ----------------------------- Tubero Varnished -----------------

Varnisado

Plumb Line ------------------------- Hulog Vertical Stud ----------

---- Pilarete

Post ---------------------------------- Poste, Haligue Wainscoating Tiles -------

Asolehos

Projection --------------------------- Bolada Washer ---------------------

Pitsa, Tsapa

Purlins ------------------------------- Reostra Water Closet --------------

Inidoro

Putty --------------------------------- Masilya Window -------------------

Bintana

Quarter Round ---------------------- Mediacana Window Grille -----------

Rehas

Rabbet ------------------------------- Vaciada Window Head ------------

Sombrero

Bintana

Rafters ------------------------------- Kilo Window Jamb --------

---- Hamba Bintana

Reinforcing Bar -------------------- Cabilla, Bakal Window Sill -------------- Pasamano

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Ridgeroll ---------------------------- Caballete W.I. Strap -----------------

Planchuela

Riser --------------------------------- Senepa, Takip Wiring Knob -------------

Poleya

Silipan

Rivets ------------------------------- Rimatse Wood Grain --------------

Haspe

Roof -------------------------------- Atip, Bubong Wood Plank --------------

Tabla

Sand -------------------------------- Buhangin Wrought Iron Strap ------

Plantsuela

Scaffolding ------------------------ Andamiyo, Plancha

Scratch Coat ----------------------- Rebokada

Screw ------------------------------- Turnilyo

PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION

THE INTRODUCTION OF PRECAST-CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION WAS

BROUGHT ABOUT BY BUILDING COSTS THAT HAS CONSIDERABLY INCREASED
FASTER THAT MOST INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS THAT ARE AFFECTED BY THE LARGE
AMOUNT OF ON-SITE LABOR INVOLVED IN THE TRADITIONAL METHODS OF
CONSTRUCTION.

THE DEMAND FOR SKILLED WORKERS ON ON-SITE BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION IS INCREASINGLY OUTRUNNING THE SUPPLY. THE ANSWER TO
THERE PROBLEMS WERE BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF
CONSTRUCITON AND SUBSTITUTION OF SITE LABOR BY FACTORY PRODUCED
PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE WHICH HAS RAPIDLY DEVELOPED AND GAINED
IMPORTANCE.

THE CONCRETE IS CAST IN PERMANENT FORMS OF STEEL, CONCRETE,

GLASS-FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC.

THE WET CONCRETE IS VIBRATED MECHANICALLY IN THE FORMS TO

ACHIEVE MAXIMUM DENSITY AND HIGHEST SURFACE QUALITY.

CONCRETE STRENGTH IN PRECAST IS USUALLY 5000 PSI, WHILE 270,000

PSI FOR STRENGTH OF STEEL.

PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS ARE USUALLY STEAM CURED WITH THE

USE OF HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CEMENT TO ENABLE A PRECAST TO REMOVE IN
FORM IN 24 HOURS.

FORMS ARE CALLED CASTING BEDS. THE CASTING BEDS AVERAGE 125
METERS TO EXTEND 250 METERS IN LENGTH.

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TYPES OF PRECAST STRUCTURE

WALL PANELS – THIS TYPE OF PRECAST STRUCTURE HAS NUMEROUS

DESIGNS DEPENDING UPON THE ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS. THE COMMON
SHAPES PRODUCED FOR ONE TO FOUR STOREY HIGH STRUCTURES ARE SECTIONS
HAVING A WIDTH UP TO 2.40 m. THEY ARE USED AS CURTAIN WALLS ATTACHED TO
COLUMNS AND BEAMS OR SOMETIMES AS BEARING WALLS.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WALL PANELS ARE:

1. FLAT TYPE

2. DOUBLE TEE TYPE

3. RIBBED TYPE

4. WINDOW OR MULLION TYPE

TO IMPROVE THE THERMAL INSULATION OF THE PANEL, FOAM GLASS,

GLASS FIBER OR EXPANDED PLASTIC IS INSERTED BETWEEN TWO LAYERS OF
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE ADEQUATELY BONDED INTERCONNECTING THE TWO
LAYERS TO ACT AS ONE UNIT. STRESSES IN HANDLING AND ERECTION OF THE
MEMBER IS MORE THAN THAT OF THE FINISHED FILLED STRUCTURE, HENCE,
CONTROL OF CRACKING IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE.

PRECAST COLUMN

PRECAST COLUMN SIZES ARE FROM .30 x .30m. to .60 x .60m. IN A MULTI-
STOREY CONSTRUCTION, THE COLUMNS ARE MADE CONTINUOUS UP TO FOUR
STORIES WHEREIN CORBELS ARE USED TO PROVIDE BEARING FOR THE BEAM. TEE
COLUMN IS SOMETIMES USED TO SUPPORT DIRECTLY DOUBLE TEE FLOOR
MEMBERS WITHOUT THE USE OF INTERMEDIATE MEMBERS.

PRECAST BEAMS

THE SHAPE OF PRECAST BEAMS DEPENDS UPON THE MANNER OF

FRAMING. THE VARIOUS SHAPES ARE:

RECTANGULAR BEAM

INVERTED TEE BEAM

L –SHAPED BEAM

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AASHTO BRIDGE GIRDER – AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY

AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS.

ROOF AND FLOOR MEMBERS

SOLID FLAT SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.

HOLLOW CORE SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.

DOUBLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

SINGLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A PECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE

ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF A PRECAST SOLID SLAB AT 1/40 OF ITS SPAN. DEPTH
TYPICALLY RANGE FROM 90-200mm.

AN 200mm PRECAST HOLLOW-CORE SLAB CAN SPAN APPROXIMATELY 7.60M.,

250mm SLAB APPROX. 9.80M., AND A 300mm SLAB APPROX. 12.0M. SPAN.

ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE DOUBLE TEES AT 1/28 OF THEIR

SPAN. THE MOST COMMON DEPTHS OF DOUBLE TEES ARE
300,350,400,450,510,610, AND815mm.

A PRECAST CONCRETE SINGLE TEE 928mm DEEP SPANS APPROXIMATELY

26.0M. AND 1142mm TEE FOR 32.0M. SPAN.

ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS AND GIRDERS AT 1/16

OF THEIR SPAN FOR LIGHT LOADINGS AND 1/12 OF THEIR SPAN FOR HEAVY
LOADINGS. THESE RATIOS APPLY TO RECTANGULAR, INVERTED TEE AND L-
SHAPED BEAMS. THE WIDTH OF A BEAM OR GIRDER IS USUALLY ABOUT ½ ITS
DEPTH. THE PROJECTING LEDGERS ON INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS
ARE USUALLY 150mm WIDE AND 300mm DEEP.

TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF A PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN. ADD UP THE

TOTAL ROOF AND FLOOR AREA SUPPORTED BY THE COLUMN. A 250mm. COLUMN
CAN SUPPORT UP TO ABOUT 185 sq.m. OF AREA. A 300mm. COLUMN FOR 240 sq.m.
AREA. A 400mm. COLUMN FOR 370 sq.m. AREA. A 500mm. COLUMN FOR 560 sq.m.
AREA. A 600MM. COLUMN FOR 740 sq.m. AREA.

JOINING PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

BOLTING, WELDING, AND GROUTING ARE ALL COMMONLY EMPLOYED IN THESE

CONNECTIONS. EXPOSED METAL CONNECTORS NOT COVERED BY TOPPING ARE
USUALLY DRY PACKED WITH STIFF GROUT AFTER BEING JOINED, TO PROTECT THEM
FROM FIRE AND CORROSION.

THE SIMPLEST JOINTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ARE THOSE

THAT RELY UPON GRAVITY BY PLACING ONE ELEMENT ON TOP OF ANOTHER, AS IS
DONE WHERE SLAB ELEMENTS REST ON A BEARING WALL OR BEAM, OR WHERE A
BEAM RESTS ON THE CORBEL OF A COLUMN. BEARING PADS ARE USUALLY
INSERTED BETWEEN THE CONCRETE MEMBERS AT BEARING POINTS TO AVOID THE
CONCRETE-TO-CONCRETE CONTACT THAT MIGHT CREATE POINTS OF HIGH
STRESS. BEARING PADS ALSO ALLOW FOR EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN THE
MEMBERS. FOR SOLID AND HOLLOW-CORE SLABS THESE PADS ARE STRIPS OF

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HIGH-DENSITY PLASTIC. UNDER ELEMENTS WITH HIGHER POINT LOADING SUCH AS

TEES AND BEAMS, PADS OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER AREUSED.

PRESTRESSING OF CONCRETE

THERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS EMPLOYED IN APPLYING PRESTRESSED

FORCE TO A CONCRETE BEAM:

PRECOMPRESSING METHOD – IS A PROCESS OF USING JACKS REACTING

AGAINST ABUTMENT.

SELF-CONTAINED METHOD – THE PROCESS IS DONE BY TYING THE JACK BASE

TOGETHER WITH WIRES OR CABLES LOCATED ON EACH SIDE OF THE
BEAM. USUALLY THE WIRES AND CABLES ARE PRESSED THROUGH A HOLLOW
CONDUIT EMBEDDED IN THE CONCRETE BEAM. ONE END OF THE TENDON IS
ANCHORED AND FORCES ARE APPLIED AT THE OTHER END. AFTER ATTAINING
THE DESIRED PRESTRESS FORCE, THE TENDON IS THEN WEDGED AGAINST THE
CONCRETE, REMOVING THE JACK EQUIPMENT.

BOND FRICTION – THE PRESTRESSING STRANDS ARE STRETCHED BETWEEN

MASSIVE ABUTMENT PRIOR TO CASTING OF CONCRETE IN THE BEAM
FORMS. AFTER THE CONCRETE HAS GAINED SUFFICIENT STRENGTH, THE JACKS
ARE THEN RELEASED TRANSFERRING THE PRESTRESSED FORCE TO THE
CONCRETE BY BOND AND FRICTION ALONG THE STRANDS.

THE SELF CONTAINED AND THE BOND AND FRICTION METHODS CAN
GENERALLY BE CLASSIFIED AS PRE-TENSIONING OR POST-TENSIONING
SYSTEM. THESE METHODS CAN BE APPLIED TO MASS PRODUCTION OF CASTING
SEVERAL METERS LONG OF STRUCTURE AND CUTTING THE INDIVIDUAL BEAM OR
POST TO THE DESIRED LENGTH OUT FROM THE LONG CASTING.

THERMAL PRESTRESSING – THE STEEL IS PREHEATED BY MEANS OF ELECTRIC

POWER WHICH ARE ANCHORED AGAINST THE OPPOSITE END OF THE CONCRETE
BEAM. THE COOLING PROCESS PRODUCES PRESTRESS FORCE THROUGH
RESTRAINED CONTRACTION.

THE CAUSES OF PRESTRESS LOSSES ARE:

1. SLIP AT ANCHORAGE

2. ELASTIC SHORTENING OF CONCRETE

3. CREEP OF CONCRETE

4. SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE

5. RELAXATION OF STEEL STRESS

6. FRICTIONAL LOSS DUE TO INTENDED OR UNINTENDED

CURVATURE IN THE TENDONS.

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CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSING

CONCRETE OF HIGHER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS USED FOR PRESTRESSED

STRUCTURES. MOST OF THE PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION SPECIFY A
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BETWEEN (4,000 to 6,000 psi) 280-422 kg/cm2
BECAUSE OF THE FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFERS.

A) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE HAS A HIGHER MODULUS OF

ELASTICITY. IT MINIMIZE THE REDUCTION OF PRESTRESS LOSS.

B) INCREASING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF THE CONCRETE

MEETS THE PROBLEM OF HIGH BEARING STRESSES AT THE ENDS OF
POST AND BEAM WHERE THE PRESTRESSING FORCE IS TRANSFERRED
FROM THE TENDON TO THE ANCHORAGE DOWELS WHICH DIRECTLY
BEARS AGAINST THE CONCRETE.

C) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE DEVELOPS STRONGER BOND

PRESTRESSES TO PRETENSIONING CONSTRUCTION.

D) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE GIVES HIGHER STRENGTH TO

PRECAST CONSTRUCTION WHEN CURING IS CAREFULLY CONTROLLED.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE

PRESTRESSING FORCE COULD BE DETERMINED BY:

1. MEASURING THE TENDON ELONGATION.

2. EITHER BY CHECKING JACK PRESSURE ON A CALIBRATED GAGE OR

LOAD CELL OR BY THE USED OF CALIBRATED DYNAMOMETER.

POST TENSIONING – THE STRESSING OF UNBONDED TENDONS AFTER

CONCRETE HAS CURED.

BUILDING MATERIALS

WOOD MATERIALS

WOOD HAS DURABILITY AND BEAUTY. IT HAS GREAT ABILITY TO ABSORB SHOCKS
FROM SUDDEN LOAD AND LIGHT IN WEIGHT WHICH ADAPTABLE IN A COUNTLESS
VARIETY OF PURPOSES.

TWO MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD:

SOFTWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.

HARDWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR FLOORING, STAIRS, PANELLING,

FURNITURES AND INTERIOR TRIM.

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PROPERTIES OF WOOD:

HARDNESS – MEASURED BY THE COMPRESSION, WHICH A PIECE

UNDERGOES WHEN A WEIGHT IS APPLIED.

FLEXIBILITY – THE AMOUNT A PIECE WILL BEND BEFORE BREAKING.

STRENGTH – TO THE GRAIN.

DURABILITY – THE RELATIVE VALUE / LIFESPAN OF WOOD.

DEFECTS OF LUMBER:

DECAY – CAUSED BY THE ATTACKED OF FUNGI.

CHECKS – CRACKS OR LENGTH WISE SEPARATION ACROSS THE ANNUAL

RINGS OF GROWTH.

KNOTS – IRREGULAR GROWTHS IN THE BODY WHICH INTERRUPS

SMOOTH CURVE.

PITCH POCKETS – WELL REFINED OPENINGS BETWEEN ANNUAL RINGS

CONTAINING SOLID OR LIQUID PITCH.

WANE – IS THE LACK OF WOOD ON THE EDGE OR CORNER OF A PIECE.

TYPES OF WARPING:

CUPPING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS

CONVEX/CONCAVE ACROSS THE BOARD.

BOWING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS

CONVEX/CONCAVE LONGITUDINALLY.

TWISTING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH ONE CORNER IS

RAISED.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

STRIPS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 8” WIDE.

BOARDS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND AT LEAST 8” WIDE.

DIMENSION LUMBER – PIECES MORE THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 5”

IN ANY DIMENSION.

TIMBER – PIECES 4” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.

LOG – PIECES 12” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.

THREE CATEGORIES OF LUMBER:

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YARD LUMBER – USED FOR ORDINARY LIGHT CONSTRUCTION AND

FINISHING WORK. COMMONLY USED FOR FLOORING, PLANK SIDING, TRIM
AND MOULDING.

SHOP LUMBER – IT IS INTENDED FOR USE IN SHOPS OR IN MILLS MAKING

SASH, DOORS, AND CABINETS.

STRUCTURAL LUMBER – IS INTENDED FOR USE IN HEAVY

CONSTRUCTION FOR LOAD-BEARING PURPOSES AND IS CUT INTO TIMBERS
OF LARGER SIZE.

WOOD GRAIN:

EDGE GRAIN – ANNUAL RINGS RUN APPROX. AT RIGHT ANGLE TO THE

FACE.

FLAT GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS RUN MORE OR LESS PARALLEL
TO THE SURFACE.

ANGLE GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS ARE AT ABOUT 45 DEG. TO

THE FACE.

SEASONING OF LUMBER:

AIR DRYING – LUMBER IS STRIP-PILED AT ASLOPE ON ASOLID

FOUNDATION. THIS ALLOWS AIR TO CIRCULATE AROUND EVERY PIECE
WHILE THE SLOPING ALOOWS WATER TO RUN OFF QUICKLY.

KILN-DRYING – MORE EXPENSIVE LUMBER WHICH IS REQUIRED FOR

MORE REFINED USES SO AS WOOD WILL NOT MOVE. IT MUST BE DRIED TO
A MOISTURE CONTENT OF NOT MORE THAN 5 TO 10 PERCENT. THIS IS
DONE IN AN AIRTIGHT STRUCTURE SCIENTIFICALLY HEATED BY STEAM
PIPES IN WHICH THE LUMBER IS ARTIFICIALLY DRIED TO THE CORRECT
MOISTURE CONTENT.

MANUFACTURE BOARDS:

MANUFACTURED BOARDS ARE MADE OF WOOD BUT DOES NOT

APPEAR IN THEIR NATURAL STATE. THIS TYPE OF BUILDING MATERIALS CAN BE
CLASSIFIED AS A TYPE OF LUMBER AS THEY ARE THE BY-PRODUCT IN THE
MANUFACTURE OF LUMBER. THE COMPLETE UTILIZATION OF WOOD HAS LEAD TO AN
EXPANDED FIELD OF MANUFACTURED BOARDS.

TYPES OF BOARDS:

PLYWOOD – IS MADE OF AN ODD NUMBER VENEER SHEETS GLUED

TOGETHER WITH THE GRAINS RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLE TO EACH
OTHER. IT IS LIGHT IN WEIGHT AND STRONG THAT SCREW OR NAIL CAN BE
DRIVEN CLOSE TO THE EDGES WITHOUT DANGER OF SPLITTING.

THE DIFF. TYPES OF PLYWOOD:

SOFT PLYWOOD - THE MOST COMMON FOR STRUCTURAL USE

HARDWOOD PLYWOOD – ARE USED FOR PANELLING AND

FINSHING WHERE USUALLY ON ONE FACE IS HARD FINISHED.

EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD – IS MADE FOR EXTERNAL USE.

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HARDBOARD – IS MADE FROM WOOD CHIPS WHICH ARE EXPLODED INTO

FIBERS UNDER STREAM OF HIGH PRESSURE. THE LINING IN THE WOOD
ITSELF BINDS PRESSED WOOD TOGETHER WITH NO FILLERS OR ARTIFICIAL
ADHESIVES APPLIED. PRESSED WOOD IS EQUALLY STRONG IN ALL
DIRECTIONS BUT VERY BRITTLE. ITS COLOR VARIES FROM LIGHT TO DARK
BROWN.

PARTICLE BOARD – IS MANUFACTURES FROM WOOD CHIPS, CURLS,

FIBERS, FLAKES, STRANDS, SHAVING, SLIVERS ETC. BOUND TOGETHER
AND PRESSED INTO SHEETS AND OTHER MOLDED SHAPED. PARTICLE
BOARD HAS EQUAL STRENGTH IN ALL DIRECTION OF A GIVEN CROSS
SECTIONAL AREA, IT IS NOT BRITTLE AND CAN RESIST WARPING.

MASONRY

MASONRY REFERS TO A MAN-MADE UNITS WHICH ARE FORMED AND

HARDENED INTO MODULAR BUILDING UNITS.

BASIC BRICKWORK TERMINOLOGY:

COURSE – IS A HORIZONTAL LAYER OF BRICKS OR OTHER MASONRY UNITS.

BED JOINT – IS THE HORIZONTAL MORTAR IN EVERY COURSE.

HEAD JOINT – IS THE VERTICAL MORTAR IN EVERY MASONRY UNIT.

STRETCHER IS A BRICK LAID WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL AND ITS
LONG DIMENSION HORIZONTAL.

HEADER – IS A BRICK LAID SO AS TO BOND TWO WYTHES TOGETHER.

WYTHE – IS A VERTICAL LAYER OF MASONRY UNITS, ONE UNIT THICK.

SOLDIER – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS END WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL.

ROWLOCK – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS FACE WITH ITS END VISIBLE IN THE WALL
FACE.

STRUCTURAL BONDS FOR BRICKWORK:

RUNNING BOND CONSISTS ENTIRELY OF STRETCHERS.

COMMON BOND HAS A HEADER COURSE EVERY SIXTH COURSE

ENGLISH BOND ALTERNATES COURSES OF HEADERS AND STRETCHERS.

FLEMISH BOND ALTERNATES HEADERS AND STRETCHERS IN EACH COURSE.

JOINT TOOLING PROFILES FOR BRICKWORK:

WEATHERED JOINT CONCAVE JOINT VEE JOINT

FLUCH JOINT RAKED

JOINT STRIPPED JOINT

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STRUCK JOINT

REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY

A REINFORCED BRICK WALL IS CREATED BY CONSTRUCTING TWO WYTHES

OF BRICK 50 –100mm APART, PLACING THE REINFORCING STEEL IN THE CAVITY, AND
FILLING CAVITY WITH GROUT. GROUT IS A MIXTURE OF CEMENT, AGGREGATES, AND
WATER.

BRICK BOUNDS

THE METHOD OF LAYING BRICKS IN A WALL IN ORDER TO FORM SOME

DISTINCTIVE PATTERN OR DESIGN IS REFERRED TO AS THE PATTERN
BOND.

THE METHOD BY WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL UNITS IN A BRICK STRUCTURE

ARE TIED TOGETHER EITHER BY OVERLAPPING OR BY METAL TIES IS
KNOWN AS THE STRUCTURAL BOND.

THE ADHESION OF MORTAR TO BRICKS OR TO STEEL REINFORCEMENT

USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THEM IS CALLED THE MORTAR BOND.

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS:

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS ARE CLASSIFIED AS BEARING AND NON-BEARING

BLOCKS. LOAD BEARING BLOCKS ARE THOSE WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM 15
CM. TO 20 CM. AND ARE USED TO CARRY LOAD ASIDE FROM ITS OWN WEIGHT. NON-
BEARING BLOCKS ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE BLOCKS WHICH ARE INTENDED FOR
WALLS, PARTITIONS, FENCES OR DIVIDERS CARRYING ITS OWN WEIGHT WHOSE
THICKNESS RANGES FROM 7.5 CM. TO 10 CM.

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS HAS THREE CELLS AND TWO ONE HALF CELLS
AT BOTH ENDS HAVING A TOTAL OF FOUR.

CONCRETE

CEMENTS

PORTLAND CEMENT

MADE FROM MATERIALS WHICH MUST CONTAIN IN THE PROPER PROPORTIONS OF

LIME, SILICA, ALUMINA AND IRON COMPONENTS. FOUR PARTS OF LIMESTONE TO
ONE PART CLAY ARE BASIC INGREDIENTS. THESE ARE MIXED, BURNED THEN
PULVERIZED. PORTLAND CEMENT IS SOLD EITHER IN CEMENT BAGS OF 40 & 50
KILOS WEIGHT OR IN BULK INTO CEMENT TRUCKS.

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SPECIAL CEMENTS

WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT – SAME MATERIALS AS NORMAL PORTLAND EXCEPT

IN COLOR. THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS IS CONTROLLED TO PRODUCE A
PURE WHITE, NON-STAINING CEMENT. IT IS USED PRIMARILY FOR
ARCHITECTURAL PURPOSES SUCH AS CURTAIN WALL AND FACING PANELS,
DECORATIVE CONCRETE STUCCO AND TILE GROUT, OR WHEREVER WHITE OR
COLORED CONCRETE OR MORTAR IS SPECIFIED.

MASONRY CEMENT OR TILE ADHESIVES – HAS BEEN SPECIALLY DESIGNED TO

PRODUCE BETTER MORTAR THAN THAT MADE WITH NORMAL PORTLAND CEMENT
OR WITH A LIME-CEMENT HAS PARTICULARLY GOOD PLASTICITY AND
WORKABILITY, GOOD ADHESION AND BOND.

WATERPROOFED PORTLAND CEMENT – NORMALLY PRODUCED BY ADDING A

SMALL AMOUNT OF STEARATE, USUALLY CALCIUM OR ALUMINUM TO THE CEMENT
CLINKER DURING THE FINAL GRINDING.

TYPES OF AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE

CONCRETE CAN BE CONSIDERED TO BE AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE BY

BINDING TOGETHER PARTICLES OF SOME INERT MATERIAL WITH A PASTE MADE OF
CEMENT AND WATER. THESE INERT MATERIAL ARE THE AGGREGATE. AGGREGATES
USED ARE SAND, GRAVEL CRUSHED STONE, CINDER. CRUSHED FURNACE SLAG,
BURNED CLAY, EXPANDED VERMICULITE, AND PERLITE.

SAND - FOUND IN RIVERBEDS,

FREE OF SALT

AND MUST BE WASHED.

FINE AGGREGATE - ¼” AND

SMALLER DIAMETER STONES.

COARSE AGGREGATE - BIGGER THAN ¼” DIAMETER

STONES.

CONCRETE MIXES

CLASS “AA” - 1: 1 ½: 3 - CONCRETE UNDER WATER,

RETAINING

WALLS

CLASS A - 1:2:4 - FOOTINGS, COLUMNS

BEAMS, R.C.

SLABS

CLASS B - 1: 2 1/ 2:5- SLAB ON FILL, NON BEARING WALLS

CLASS C - 1: 3: 6 - CONCRETE PLANT BOXES, ETC.

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CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES

SLUMP TEST- WHEN FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE IS CHECKED TO ENSURE THAT THE
SPECIFIED SLUMP IS BEING ATTAINED CONSISTENTLY. A STANDARD SLUMP CONE IS
12 INCHES HIGH (0.30) AND 8 INCHES (O.20) IN DIAMETER AT THE BOTTOM AND 4
INCHES (O.10) ON TOP WHICH IS OPEN ON BOTH ENDS.

THE CONE IS FILLED IN THREE EQUAL LAYERS, EACH BEING TAMPED OR

RODDED 25 TIMES WITH A STANDARD 5/8” BULLET NOSED ROD. WHEN THE CONE
HAS BEEN FILLED AND LEVELED OFF, IT IS LIFTED CAREFULLY AND THE AMOUNT OF
SLUMP IS MEASURED.

ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION ‘X’

BEAMS AND COLUMNS 7.5 cm. (.075) 3”

SLABS AND TUNNEL INVERTS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”

TOPS AND WALL, PIERS, PARAPET & CURBS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”

SIDE WALLS AND ARCH IN TUNNEL LINING 10.0 cm. (.10) 4”

CANAL LINING 7.5 cm. (.075)

3”

HEAVY MASS CONSTRUCTION 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST- COMMON QUALITY-CONTROL TEST OF CONCRETE,

BASED ON 7 AND 28 DAYS CURING PERIODS. SPECIMENS ARE USUALLY CYLINDRICAL
WITH A LENGHT EQUAL TO TWICE THE DIAMETER. STANDARD SIZE IS 12 INCH. HIGH
AND 6 INCH. DIAMETER. FILLING IS DONE THE SAME WAY AS THE SLUMP TEST BUT
TAKEN OUT FROM THE MOLD IN 24 HOURS. IT IS THEN SENT TO A COMPRESSION
TESTING LABORATORY, BY MAKING THE CYLINDER WHILE STILL WET. SOME
COMPRESSIVE STRESSES ARE 2,000 psi, 2,500 psi, 3,000 psi.

SOME OF THE BRANDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT

ISLAND CEMENT

CONTINENTAL CEMENT

HI- CEMENT

UNION CEMENT

RIZAL CEMENT

FILIPINAS CEMENT

PACIFIC CEMENT

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FORTUNE CEMENT

REPUBLIC CEMENT

NORTHERN CEMENT

BRANDS OF WHITE CEMENT

PRIME WHITE CEMENT

KEENE

TRINITY

SNOWCRETE

MORTAR – CEMENT, SAND & WATER.

GROUT – CEMENT AND WATER MIXTURE.

CONCRETE – CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL & WATER.

TYROLEAN FINISH – ROUGH PLASTER FINISH OBTAINED BY FLINGING PLASTER

ON A WALL W/ A HAND OPERATED MACHINE.

EFFLORESCENCE – AN ENCRUSTATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS CAUSED BY FREE

ALKALIES LEACHED FROM MORTAR OR ADJACENT CONCRETE AS MOISTURE
MOVE THROUGH IT.

ADIABATIC CURING - THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR W/O THE GAIN

OR LOSS OF HEAT DURING THE CURING PERIOD.

WHEATHERED – MOST WATERPROOFED TYPE OF MORTAR JOINTS FOR WALLS.

ADOBE BRICK – LARGE ROUGHLY MOULDED SUN DRIED CLAY BRICKS OF

VARYING SIZES.

ASHLAR BRICK – A BRICK WHOSE FACE HAS BEEN HACKED TO RESEMBLE

ROUGHLY HACKED STONE.

RETARDER – AN ADMIXTURE WHICH DELAY THE SETTING OF CEMENT PASTE

OR MIXTURES/ AN ADDITIVE MIXED WITH PLASTER TO CONTROL THE RATE OF
HARDENING.

STEAM CURING – THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR IN WATER VAPOR AT

AN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AT EITHER ATMOSPHERIC OR HIGH PRESSURE.

QUOIN / COIN – IN MASONRY, A HARD STONE OR BRICK USED TO REINFORCE

AN EXTERNAL CORNER OF A WALL.

ZOCALO – LOW WALL AROUND A CHALET-TYPE HOUSE.

FORTIFICATION – THA WALL OF INTRAMUROS.

SCRATCH COAT – INITIAL SCORED LAYER OF PLASTER WORK.

CINDER BLOCK – A LIGHT WEIGHT MASONRY UNIT MADE OF CINDER

CONCRETE.

MORTAR FOR BLOCK LAYING IS 0.0125 m.

PLASTERING THICKNESS IS 0.016 m.

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MORTAR FILLER FOR HOLLOW CELL 0.05 X 0.075 X 0.20 = 0.00075 cu.m.

FOR 4 CELL/BLOCK = 0.00075 X 4 = 0.003 cu.m. FOR 4” CHB.

FERROUS AND NONFERROUS METALS

FERROUS- METAL IN WHICH IRON IS THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT.

NONFERROUS- CONTAINING NO, OR VERY LITTLE IRON.

FERROUS METAL:

STEEL- A MALLEABLE ALLOY OF IRON AND CARBON PRODUCED BY MELTING AND

REFINING PIG IRON AND/ OR SCRAP STEEL, GRADED ACCORDING TO THE CARBON
CONTENT.

PRODUCE BY THREE BASIC RAW MATERIALS, IRON ORE, AND LIMESTONE. FIVE
PARTICLES OF ALL THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS OF STEEL, WHICH OTHERWISE
WOULD BE WASTE, ARE BLENDED AND BURNED ON A MOVING GATE TO CAUSE THE
FORMATION OF CLINKERS. THESE ARE CALLED SINTER, A HIGH- GRADE BLAST-
FURNANCE CHARGE MATERIAL.

FROM THESE, RAW MATERIALS WHICH IS MELTED INTO INGOTS PLACE IN

MOLDS, A GRAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE MADE. THEY
INCLUDED:

COLD-ROLLED SHEETS ARE GALVANIZED (GIVEN A ZINC COATING). PIG IRON IS

USED TO MAKE CAST IRON WHICH IS HIGH IN COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT BUT LOW
IN TENSILE STRENGHT, AND HAS LITTLE USE FOR CONSTRUCTION. HOWEVER
SINCE IT IS CHEAP AND EASY TO CAST, IT IS USED FOR PUMPS, MOTORS,
ENGINES AND BECAUSE OF ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE IT IS USED FOR PIPES
TO SOME EXTENT.

WROUGHT IRON IS PRODUCED WHEN PIG IRON IS MELTED IN SUCH A WAY AS

TO REMOVE NEARLY ALL OF THE CARBON AND OTHER IMPURITIES. IT IS EASILY
WORKED AND IS TOUGH AND DUCTILE. IT’S MAIN USES ARE FOR WIRE AND
METAL ORNAMENTS.

STAINLESS STEELS ARE MADE WITH CHROMIUM OR A COMBINATION OF

NICKEL AND CHROMIUM USED IN BUILDINGS OF EXTERIOR WALLS PANELS,
FRAMES FOR DOORS EXPANSION JOINTS, FLASHING, COPINGS, FASCIA AND
GRAVEL STOPS.

COPPER- BEARING STEEL HAS HIGH RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND IS USED

FOR MAKING SHEET STEEL AND METAL LATH.

STEEL PRODUCTS

ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES

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SHEET PILING- SECTIONS ARE MADE TO INTERLOCK AND ARE AVAILABLE IN

SEVERAL SHAPE.

STEEL PIPE- SEAMLESS OR WELDED SMALL DIAMETER PIPE AND

ELECTRICALLY WELDED LARGE DIAMETER PIPE.

REINFORCING STEEL- MADE FROM NEW STEEL OR FROM DISCARDED

RAILWAY- CAR AXLES OR RAILS.

REINFORCING STEEL COMES IN PLAIN OR DEFORMED BARS, THAT IS, BARS

WHICH HAVE LUGS OR DEFORMATIONS ROLLED ON THE SURFACE TO
PROVIDE ARCHORAGE IN CONCRETE.

SIZES-START WITH NO.2 OR ¼ in. (DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO GET THE

EQUIVALENT IN inch DIAMETER)

No. 2= ¼“ = 6 mm.

No. 3= 3/8” = 10 mm.

No. 4= ½” = 12mm.

No. 5= 5/8” = 16mm.

No. 6= ¾” = 20mm.

No. 7= 7/8” = 22mm.

No. 8= 1” = 25mm.

No. 9= 1 1/8 = 30mm.

WELDED WIRE FABRIC- ANOTHER TYPE OF REINFORCING MATERIAL. IT

CONSISTS OF PARALLEL, LONGITUDINAL WIRES WELDED TO TRANSVERSE
WIRES AT REGULAR INTERVALS.

STEEL WIRE – OVER 150,000 USES FOR WIRE INCLUDING PINS, NEEDLES,
NAILS, BOLTS, CABLES, PIANO WIRE, FENCES.

BOLTS AND NUTS – (EITHER HOT FORGED OR COLD-FORMED FROM WIRE

OF THE APPROPRIATE DIAMETER). FOR BOLTS, WIRE IS FED INTO AN
AUTOMATIC BOLT-MAKING MACHINE WHICH CUTS TO LENGTH HEADS, TRIMS,
POINTS, AND IN MANY ROLLS THE THREAD.

STEEL STRAPPING – MADE FROM HIGH-TENSILE FLAT WIRE IN A NUMBER

OF SIZES. USED FOR BANDING COLUMN FORMS TO KEEP THEM FROM
BULGING UNDER THE PRESSURE OF FRESHLY POURED CONCRETE. A
TIGHTERNER TIGHTENS IT AND THE TWO LAPPED ENDS IS SEALED.

OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS – LIGHTWEIGHT WARREN-TYPE TRUSSES MADE

IN SEVERAL DIFFERENT STYLES.

SHEET STEEL – BLACK AND GALVANIZED, CAN BE USED TO MANUFACTURE

CORRUGATED ROOFING AND SIDING AND FORMED STEEL DECKING.

STEEL STUDS – LIGHTWEIGHT, REQUIRING MINIMUM STORAGE SPACE AND

DOES NOT WARP OR SHRINK. FASTENERS DO NOT POP, AND JOINTS STAY
CLOSED. MUCH FASTER TO INSTALL THAN WOOD STUD

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INSTALLATION. AVAILABLE IN 1 5/8, 2 ½ AND 3 5/8 INCHES. PLUMBING STACKS

AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS FIT EASILY INTO A STEEL-FRAMEWALL.

PANS AND DONES – MANUFACTURED FOR USE IN FORMING ONE-WAY AND

TWO-WAY RIBBED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS.

NONFERROUS METALS:

ALUMINUM – ITS ORE, BAUXITE, REQUIRES 10 KILOWATT HOURS FOR EACH POUND
OF METAL ALUMINUM EXTRACTED. THE REDDISH BROWN ORE IS WASHED AND
TREATED IN A SODA SOLUTION TO YIELD A CHALKY-WHITE POWDER CALLED
ALUMNA, CONTAINING A HIGH CONCENTRATION OF ALUMINUM.

ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS A VAPOR BARRIER ON WALLS AND

CEILINGS AND AS REFLECTIVE INSULATION.

COPPER – A LUSTROUS REDDISH METAL, HIGHLY DUCTILE AND

MALLEABLE; HAS HIGH TENSILE STRENGTH, IS AN EXCELLENT ELECTRICAL AND
THERMAL CONDUCTOR, IS AVAILABLE IN A WIDE VARIETY OF SHAPES; WIDELY USED
FOR DOWNSPOUTS, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS, FLASHINGS GUTTERS, ROOFING,
ETC.

COPPER ALLOYS ARE BRASSES, AND BRONZES WHICH CONTAIN

PRIMARILY ZINC AND TIN, RESPECTIVELY, AND THE ALLOYS CONTAINING NICKEL.

BRASSES ARE USED IN ARCHITECTURAL AND HARDWARE

APPLICTIONS. BRONZES ARE USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF SPRINGS.

LEAD – A SOFT, MALLEABLE, HEAVY METAL; HAS LOW MELTING POINT AND
A HIGH COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION. VERY EASY TO CUT AND WORK,
ENABLING IT TO BE FITTED OVER UNEVEN SURFACES. USED FOR ROOFING,
FLASHING AND SPANDREL WALL PANELS.

TIN – A LUSTROUS WHITE, SOFT AND MALLEABLE METAL HAVING A LOW

MELTING POINT; RELATIVELY UNAFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO AIR; USED FOR MAKING
ALLOYS AND SOLDER AND IN COATING SHEET METAL.

STRUCTURAL SHAPES

THE MOST COMMON SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL USED IN BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION ARE THE AMERICAN STANDARD FORMS SUCH AS:

1. SQUARE BARS 6. I-BEAM

2. ROUND BARS 7. TEE

BEAM

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3. PLATE BARS 8. H-
COLUMN

4. ANGLE
BARS 9. WIDE FLANGES

5. CHANNELS 10. ZEE

STANDARD CHANNEL

THE STANDARD CHANNEL HAS THE SHAPE OF UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE

CONSISTING OF TWO FLANGES ON ONE SIDE. IT THEREFORE REQUIRES LATERAL
SUPPORT TO PREVENT ITS TENDENCY TO BUCKLE. THE STANDARD CHANNELS ARE
GENERALLY USED AS ELEMENTS OF BUILT-UP SECTIONS FOR COLUMNS AND ARE
ALSO SUITABLE FOR FRAMING AROUND FLOOR OPENINGS, SPANDRELS, AND
LINTELS ATTRIBUTED TO THE ABSENCE OF FLANGE ON THE OTHER SIDE. THE
CHANNEL SECTION IS IDENTIFIRD AS C 15 x 20 WHICH MEANS THAT THE CHANNEL
HAS A DEPTH OF 20 cm. AND WEIGHTS 15 kg. PER METER LENGTH.

WIDE FLANGE

WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE DESIGNATED AS W 12 x 24 WHICH MEANS THAT

THE FLANGE HAS A DEPTH OF 24 cm. AND IT WEIGHS 12 kg. PER METER LENGTH. ALL
WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE GENERALLY WITH PARALLEL FACE FLANGE EXCEPT
THOSE WITH 5% SLOPE INSIDE FACE PRODUCED BY BETLEHEM STEEL
COMPANY. COMPARATIVELY, WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE MORE EFFICIENT THAN
STANDARD I BEAM WITH RESPECT TO BENDING RESISTANCE.

STANDARD I-BEAM

THE USE OF I-BEAM AS A COLUMN IS UNECONOMICAL, BECAUSE THE WHIRL

OR REVOLVING ACTION OF THE STRUCTURE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH THE
CENTROID PARALLEL TO THE WAB OF THE I-BEAM IS COMPARATIVELY SMALL.

H-BEARING PILES

H-BEARING PILES ALTHOUGH SUITABLE FOR PILE DRIVING ON DEEP

EXCAVATIONS IS MUCH MORE SUITABLE THAN THE I-BEAM FOR COLUMNS.

ZEE SECTIONS

THE ZEE SECTION IS ANOTHER STRUCTURAL FORM IN A LETTER Z WHICH IS

NOT FREQUENTLY USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION EXEPT ON THE FABRICATION
OF STEEL WINDOWS AND OTHER FRAMES.

WROUGHT IRON – A COMMERCIALLY PURE IRON OF FIBROUS NATURE, VALUED

FOR ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE AND DUCTILITY.

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CAST IRON – AN IRON ALLOY USUALLY INCLUDING CARBON AND SILICON

WHICH HAS HIGH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH BUT LOW TENSILE STRENGTH.

WELDING – IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH TWO METALS ARE SO JOINT THAT

THERE IS AN ACTUAL UNION OF THE INTERATOMIC BONDS.

EXTRUSION – THE PROCESS OF PRODUCING METAL SHAPES OF A CONSTANT

CROSS SECTION BY FORCING THE HOT METAL THROUGH AN ORFICE IN A DIE BY
MEANS OF A PRESSURE RAM.

RED OXIDE – PROTECTIVE COAT FOR IRON.

LAP SEAM – A JOINT FORMED BY OVERLAPPING THE EDGES OF METAL SHEET

OR PLATES AND JOINING THEM BY RIVETING OR SOLDERING OR BRACING.

JOINING STEEL MEMBERS

STEEL SHAPES CAN BE JOINED INTO A BUILDING FRAME WITH ANY OF THREE
FASTENING TECHNIQUES.

RIVETS

A RIVETS IS A FASTENER CONSISTING OF A CYLINDRICAL BODY AND

A FORMED HEAD WHICH IS BROUGHT TO A WHITE HEAT, INSERTED THROUGH HOLES
IN THE MEMBERS TO BE JOINED, AND HOT-WORKED WITH A PNEUMATIC HAMMER TO
PRODUCED A SECOND HEAD OPPOSITE THE FIRSTHEAD.

PROCESS OF RIVETING:

A) A HOT STEEL RIVET IS INSERTED IN HOLES THROUGH THE TWO

MEMBERS TO BE JOINED,

B) ITS HEAD IS THEN HELD WITH HAND HAMMER WITH A CUP-SHAPED

DEPRESSION,

C) WHILE A PNEUMATIC HAMMER DRIVES A RIVET SET REPEATEDLY

AGAINST THE BODY OF THE RIVET TO FORM THE SECOND HEAD,

D) THE RIVET SHRINKS AS IT COOLS, DRAWING MEMBERS TIGHTLY

TOGETHER.

BOLTS

THE BOLTS COMMONLY USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION FALL INTO

TWO GENERAL CATEGORIES:

1) CARBON STEEL BOLTS – OR COMMON BOLTS ARE SIMILAR TO THE

ORDINARY MACHINE BOLTS THAT CAN BE PURCHASED IN HARDWARE
STORES.

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2) HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS – ARE HEAT TREATED DURING

MANUFACTURE TO DEVELOP THE NECESSARY STRENGTH. IT IS
USUALLY TIGHTENED USING PNEUMATIC OR ELECTRIC IMPACT
WRENCH.

A MAJOR PROBLEM IN HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTING OR FRICTION-TYPE

CONNECTIONS IS HOW TO VERIFY THE NECESSARY TENSION HAS BEEN ACHIEVED IN
ALL THE BOLTS IN A CONNECTION.

SEVERAL WAY TO ACHIEVED PROPER TIGHTENING:

TURN-OF-NUT METHOD

LOAD INDICATOR WASHER

TENSION CONTROL BOLTS

PROCESS OF TIGHTENING A TENSION CONTROL BOLT:

A) THE WRENCH HOLDS BOTH THE NUT AND THE SPLINED BODY OF THE
BOLT, AND TURNS THEM AGAINST ONE ANOTHER TO TIGHTEN THE BOLT,

B) WHEN THE REQUIRED TORQUE IS ACHIEVED, THE SPLINED END TWISTS

OFF IN THE WRENCH,

C) A PLUNGER INSIDE THE WRENCH DISCHARGES THE SPLINED END INTO A

CONTAINER.

WELDING

WELDING CAN JOIN THE MEMBERS OF A STEEL FRAME AS IF THEY WERE A

MONOLITHIC WHOLE. WELDED ARE STRONGER THAN THE MEMBERS THEY JOIN IN
RESISTING BOTH SHEAR AND MOMENT FORCES.

TYPICAL WELDS USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION:

FILLET WELD

DOUBLE FILLET WELD

DOUBLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD

SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR

V-GROOVE WELD

V-GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR

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PUDDLE WELD

PARTIAL-PENETRATION SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD

THE BASIC SYBOLS ARE:

BACK FILLET PLUG OR

SLOT

GROOVE OR BUTT

SQUARE V BEVEL U J FLARE V FLARE BEVEL

THE ARROW

THE REFERENCE LINE CARRIES THE

DESCRIPTIVE SYMBOLS

THE ARROW POINTS TO

THE WELD

THE BASIC SYMBOLS

THE BASIC WELD SYMBOL IS LOCATED ON EITHER SIDE OF THE REFERENCE LINE AS
FOLLOWS:

SYMBOLS ON THE TOP OF THE REFERENCE LINE REFER TO WELDS ON THE SIDE OF
THE JOINT OPPOSITE THE

ARROW

SYMBOLS ON THE BOTTOM OF THE REFERENCE

LINE

REFER TO WELDS ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE

JOINT AS

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AS THE ARROW

SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS

FIELD WELD – THIS WELD BE DONE IN THE FIELD DURING ERECTION. OTHER WELDS
ARE DONE EARLIER IN THE FABRICATOR’S SHOP.

WELD ALL AROUND – THIS INDICATES THAT THE WELD SHOULD BE CARRIED FULLY
AROUND THE PERIMETER OF THE JOINING PIECES.

BACKUP BAR – AS INDICATED IN THIS EXAMPLE, A BACKUP BAR TO SUPPORT THE

FIRST PASS OF THE WELD MUST BE PLACED ON THE SIDE OF THE JOINT OPPOSITE
THE ARROW.

SPACER – SMALL METAL SPACERS ARE USED TO MAINTAIN A GAP BETWEEN THE
PIECS TO BE JOINED, PRIOR TO WELDING.

A SHARP BEND NEAR THE END OF THE ARROW INDICATES THAT THE ARROWHEAD IS
POINTING TOWARD THE GROOVED SIDE OF THE BEVEL OR J-GROOVED JOINT

GLASS

THE MAJOR INGREDIENT OF GLASS IS SAND (SILICON DIOXIDE). A HARD

BRITTLE INORGANIC SUBSTANCE, ORDINARILY TRANSPARENT OR TRANSLUCENT;
PRODUCED BY MELTING A MIXTURE OF SILICA, A FLUX AND A STABILIZER; WHILE
MOLTEN MAYBE BLOWN, DRAWN, ROLLED, PRESSED OR CAST TO A VARIETY OF
SHAPES.

DURING ITS MANUFACTURED, ORDINARY WINDOW GLASS IS ANNEALED,

COOLED SLOWLY UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITION, TO AVOID LOCKED-IN THERMAL
STRESSES THAT MIGHT CAUSE IT TO BEHAVE UNPREDICTABLY IN USE.

THICKNESSES OF GLASS

GLASS IS TYPICALLY MANUFACTURED IN A SERIES OF THICKNESSES RANGING

FROM APPROXIMATELY 2.5mm, THROUGH 3mm, IS CALLED SINGLE-STRENGTH, OR
6mm TO 22mm, IS CALLED DOUBLE-STRENGTH, AND ON SPECIAL ORDER, 25mm IS
AVAILABLE.

TYPES OF CLEAR GLASS

1. TEMPERED GLASS

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TEMPERED GLASS IS PRODUCED BY CUTTING ANNEALED GLASS TO THE

REQUIRED SIZES FOR USE, REHEATING IT TO APPROXIMATELY 1200 DEGREES
FAHRENHEIT, COOLING BOTH ITS SURFACES RAPIDLY WITH A BLAST OF AIR
WHILE ITS CORE COOLS MUCH MORE SLOWLY. ITS FOUR TIMES AS STRONG IN
BENDING AND MORE RESISTANT TO THERMAL STRESS AND IMPACT.

2. HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS

THE HEAT STRENGTHENED PROCESS IS SIMILAR TO TEMPERING, BUT

ITS, ABOUT ONE-THIRD AS HIGH AS TEMPERED GLASS IN TERMS OF BENDING
AND STRENGTH.

3. LAMINATED GLASS

ITS MADE BY SANDWICHING A TRANSPARENT VINYL INTERLAER BETWEEN

SHEETS OF GLASS AND BONDING THE THREE LAYERS TOGETHER UNDER
HEAT AND PRESSURE. WHEN ITS BREAKS, THE SOFT VINYL HOLDS THE
SHARDS OF GLASS IN PLACE RATHER THAN ALLOWING THEM TO FALL OUT OF
THE FRAME.

4. PATTERNED OR ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASS

HOT GLASS CAN BE ROLLED INTO SHEETS WITH MANY DIFFERENT SURFACE
PATTERNS FOR USE WHERE LIGHT TRANSMISSION IS DESIRED BUT VISION MUST BE
OBSCURED FOR PRIVACY.

5. SPANDREL GLASS

SPECIAL OPAQUE GLASSES ARE PRODUCED FOR COVERING THE SPANDREL

AREA (THE BANDS OF WALL AROUND THE EDGES OF FLOORS) IN GLASS
CURTAIN. IT IS USUALLY TEMPERED OR HEAT-STRENGTHENED TO RESIST THE
THERMAL STRESSES THAT CAN CAUSED BY ACCUMULATIONS OF SOLAR HEAT
BEHIND THE SPANDREL.

6. WIRED GLASS

SIMPLY A ROLLED GLASS INTO WHICH WIRE MESH IS INSERTED DURING THE
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. THE WIRE GREATLY INCREASES THE
RESISTANCE TO SHATTERING THROUGH IMPACT. ITS USE FOR SAFETY
GLAZING, WHEN ITS BREAKS FROM THERMAL STRESS, THE WIRES HOLD THE
SHEET OF GLASS TOGETHER.

TINTED AND REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS

SOLAR HEAT BUILDUP CAN BE PROBLEMATIC IN THE INHABITED SPACES OF

BUILDINGS WITH LARGE AREAS OF GLASS, ESPECIALLY DURING THE WARM PART OF
THE YEAR. THIS IS USE TO REDUCE GLARE AND CUT DOWN ON SOLAR HEAT GAIN.

1) TINTED GLASS

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TINTED GLASS IS MADE BY ADDING SMALL AMOUNTS OF SELECTED CHEMICAL

ELEMENTS TO THE MOLTEN GLASS MIXTURE TO PRODUCE THE DESIRED HUE
AND INTENSITY OF COLOR IN GRAYS, BRONZES, BLUES, GREEN, AND GOLDS.

2) REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS

REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS APPEAR AS MIRROR FROM THE OUTSIDE ON A

BRIGHT DAY AND AT NIGHT, WITH LIGHTS ON INSIDE THE BUILDING, THEY APPEAR AS
DARK BUT TRANSPARENT GLASS.

3) INSULATING GLASS

A SECOND SHEET OF GLASS APPLIED TO A WINDOW WITH AN AIRSPACE

BETWEEN THE SHEETS CUTS THIS RATE OF HEAT LOSS IN HALF. TWO KINDS
OF EDGES SEALS ARE FUSED GLASS EDGES AND A METAL SPLINE AND
ORGANIC SEALANT.

GLASS PRODUCTS

I. GLASS BLOCKS

COMPARABLE IN MANY WAYS TO UNIT MASONRY BUT HAVE THE ADDED

FEATURE OF TRANSMITTING LIGHT. THEY ARE MADE INTO TWO SEPARATE
HALVES, WHICH ARE HEAT-SEALED TOGETHER TO FORM A HOLLOW UNIT WITH
REASONBLY HIGH THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND SOUND INSULATION. THE EDGE
SURFACES OF THE BLOCK ARE COATED WITH A GRITTY MORTAR BOND.

TWO TYPES:

1. FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS – DIRECT OR DIFFUSE THE DAYLIGHT WHICH PASSES

THEOUGH THEM TO IMPROVE THE ILLUMINATION OF THE BUILDING INTERIOR.

THREE STYLES OF FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS:

A. A LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK – DIRECTS INCOMING LIGHT UPWARD TOWARD

THE CEILING. USED ALWAYS ABOVE EYE LEVEL.

B. A LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK – DIFFUSES INCOMING LIGHT EVENLY

THROUGHOUT THE INTERIOR OF THE ROOM.

C. GENERAL PURPOSES BLOCK

2. DECORATIVELY OR ARCHITECTURAL GLASS – AVAILABLE IN A WIDE RANGE OF

STYLES AND PATTERNS. THESE GLASS MASONRY UNITS PROVIDE ALMOST
UNLIMITED DESIGN VERSATILITY WHEN USED IN WINDOW, OPENINGS AND
FACADES, AS INTERIOR WALLS AND DIVIDER PANELING.

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PAINT FINISHES

THE PURPOSE OF A FINISH IS TO PROTECT, PRESERVE OR VISUALLY

ENHANCE THE SURFACE TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED. FINISHES INCLUDE PLASTIC
LAMINATED SURFACE COVERINGS SUCH AS PLASTIC LAMINATED AND VINYL OF
FABRIC WALL COVERING.

PAINT GENERALLY REFERS TO OPAQUE OR CLEAR FILM-FORMING

MATERIAL THAT ACTS AS A SHIELD OR BARRIER BETWEEN THE BUILDING MATERIAL
AND THOSE ELEMENTS OR CONDITIONS THAT MAY ADVERSELY AFFECTS OR
DETERIORATE. THE PAINT FILM MUST RESIST DETERIORATION DUE TO SUNLIGHT
HEAT, TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS, WATER OR MOISTURE VAPOR, MILDEW AND
DECAY CHEMICALS AND PHYSICAL ABRASION. PAINT MAY ALSO SERVE TO MAKE
SURFACES MORE SANITARY, IMPROVE HEATING AND LIGHTING EFFECTS, AND
PROMOTE HUMAN COMFORT AND SAFETY.

WHEN USING PAINT, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOR AND

SURFACE TEXTURE MUST BE CONSIDERED. CERTAIN COLORS MAY BE STIMULATING
WHILE OTHERS ARE RELAXING. WHITE AND LIGHT COLORS REFLECT SIZE OF FORM
AND SPACE. DARK COLOR CAN INHIBIT THE PERCEPTION OF FORM AND MAY BE
USED FOR CONTRAST. FLAT PAINT FINISHES SOFTEN AND DISTRIBUTE,
ILLUMINATION EVENLY. GLOSSY FINISHES REFLECT LIGHT AND CAN CAUSE GLARE,
BUT THEY ALSO PROVIDE SMOOTH, EASILY CLEANED, NON-ABSORPTIVE SURFACES.

MOST PAINTS ARE CAREFULLY FORMULATED TO MEET SPECIFIC

APPLICATION THAT USE REQUIREMENTS AND ARE READY-MIXED FOR APPLICATION
EXCEPT FOR THINNING, STIRRING, OR THE ADDITION OF AN ACTIVATOR OR
CATALYST. IT IS ALWAYS ADVISABLE THEREFORE TO FOLLOW THE PAINT
MANUFACTURERS RECOMMENDATIONS IN THE APPLICATION AND USE OF A PAINT OR
OTHER PROTECTIVE COATING.

PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO:

MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED

WOOD, METAL MASONRY, CONCRETE, PLASTIC, ETC.,

SURFACE FINISH TEXTURE

GLOSS, SEMI-GLOSS, EGG SHELL, SATIN, FLAT,& VARNISH.

CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION AND USE OF A PAINT INCLUDE:

SURFACE PREPARATION

- THE FOUNDATION OF ANY PAINT SYSTEM MUST BE PROPERLY PREPARED TO

ENSURE PROPER ADHESION OF THE PAINT FILM TO ITS SURFACE.

TYPE OF PAINT

- PAINT MUST BE COMPATIBLE WITH THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED.

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- SPECIFICATIONS INCLUDE THE PAINT VEHICLE, FINISH COLOR, EXPOSURE, AND

MANUFACTURER AND/OR TRADE NAME.

METHOD

- DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS BEING

APPLIED. COATINGS MAY BE BRUSHED, ROLLED OR SPRAYED ON.

DRYING

- THE TIME AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR A PAINT TO DRY MUST BE

CHECKED.

FILM THICKNESS

- THE DRY FILM THICKNESS (DFT) IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE NUMBER OF
COATS.

- MULTIPLE THIN COATS ARE GENERALLY MORE EFFECTIVE THAN A SINGLE

THICK COAT.

- A MINIMUM OF 2 COATS IS REQUIRED TO PRODUCE 5 MIL DFT.

COVERAGE

- A PAINT’S COVERAGE CAN BE ESTIMATED BY ITS PERCENTAGE OF VOLUME

SOLIDS:

- ie. PAINT WITH 100% VOLUME SOLIDS:

(NO THINNER)

1 GAL COVERS

1600 SF (149 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT

800 SF ( 74 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT

400 SF ( 37 m2) @ 4 MIL DFT

-PAINT WITH 50% VOLUME SOLIDS

(50% THINNER)

1 GAL COVERS

800 SF (74 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT

400 SF (37 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT

PAINT GENERALLY CONSIST OF:

PIGMENT – FINELY GROUND SOLIDS THAT PROVIDE THE PAINTS COVERINGS

OR HIDING POWER OR ITS COLOR.

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VEHICLE – LIQUID MEDIUM TO CARRY THE PIGMENT IN SUSPENSION

DURING APPLICATION. AND CONSISTS OF BINDERS AND SOLVENTS.

BINDER SERVE TO FORM THE PAINT FILM AND CAUSE IT TO ADHERE THE
SURFACE BEING PAINTED.

BINDERS ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROTECTIVE QUALITY AND

DURABILITY OF THE PAINT FIL OR PROTECTIVE COATING.

SOLVENTS OR THINNERS ACTS DRYING AGENTS.

DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF SOLVENT USED, A PAINT MAY DRY OR HARDEN

BY OXIDATION, EVAPORATION, CHEMICAL ACTION, OR BY THERMOSETTING
ACTION AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.

COLOR

DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MANUFACTURER.

EXPOSURE

EXTERIOR OR INTERIOR

CHARACTERISTICS:

PIGMENTED COATING

LACQUER AND ENAMEL PAINTS

CLEAR COATINGS

VARNISHES, LACQUERS, SHEELAC, SEALERS

RUST INHIBITIVE COATINGS

ZINC-PIGMENTED COATINGS

ZINC, SILICONS, ALKYD, OR ASPHALT OR BASE COATINGS

ASPHALT OR TAR COATINGS THAT FORM NON-PEMEABLE BARRIERS AGAINST

WATER AND OXYGEN TO PROTECT SUBMERGED FERROUS METAL AND TO
WATERPROOF MASONRY SURFACES.

CEMENT MORTAR COATINGS

MIXTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT, LIME AND WATER USED TO DAMPPROOF

MASONRY MATERIALS AND PROTECT EXPOSED STEEL

PLASTIC AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER COATINGS

COATING RESISTANT TO MILDEW, MOLD, FUMES, MARINE ENVIRONMENTS ETC.,

PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ITS VEHICLE OR BINDER:

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ALKYDS – USED FOR EXTERIOR PAINTS.

OIL MODIFIED RESINS THAT HARDEN BY OXIDATION AND EVAPORATION.

THE MOST COMMON PAINT VEHICLE

FAST DRYING A HARDER THAN ORDINARY TIME, LOWERS THE GLOSS, AND
IMPROVES THE PAINTS WETTING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND ELASTICITY TO
RESIST BLISTERING.

HAVE GOOD DRYING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND WATER RESISTANCE FOR

EXTERIOR EXPOSURES, AND GOOD COLOR RETENTION.

ASPHALT – USED FOR WATERPROOFING AT FIREWALL AND ROOF DECKING.

COATINGS WITH A VEHICLE OF BOTH PETROLEUM AND NATURAL ASPHALTS

ARE USED TO PROTECT WOOD, MASONRY, CONCRETE AND AS ROOF COATING.

HAVE GOOD WATER RESISTANCES BUT THERMOPLASTIC IN NATURE.

ADDITION OF ALUMINUM GLAKES HELPS TO REFLECT THE SUN’S RAYS.

ADDITION OF EPOXY RESINS MINIMIZES THE COLD FLOW AND MAXIMIZES THE
CHEMICAL-RESISTANCE OF ASPHALT.

CHLORINATED RUBBER – USED FOR INDUSTRIAL FLOORING.

USED IN COATINGS HIGHLY RESISTANT TO ALKALIES, ACIDS, CHEMICALS, AND

WATER

MAY BE REMOVED BY COAL TAR SOLVENTS

HAS LIMITED RESISTANCE TO PROLONGED HEAT EXPOSURE

USED IN SWIMMING POOLS, WATER TREATMENT PLANTS

EPOXY CATALYZED – USED FOR DUCO FINISH.

TWO COMPONENT COATINGS CONSISTING OF A PIGMENTED PRIMER OR

ENAMEL AND AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST.

MIXED JUST PRIOR TO USE – HAS LIMITED “POT LIFE”

PRODUCES BY CHEMICAL ACTION A DENSE, HARD FILM SIMILAR TO BAKED

ENAMEL.

HAS EXCELLENT RESISTANT TO SOLVENTS, CHEMICALS, PHYSICAL ABRASION,

TRAFFIC WEAR, A CLEANING MATERIALS

HAS GOOD ADHESION PROPERTIES, COLOR RETENTION AND STAIN

RESISTANCE.

HAS GOOD DURABILITY FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURE BUT MAY CHALK.

HARDWARE

HARDWARE - METAL PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION, SUCH AS BOLTS, HINGES,

LOCKS, TOOLS, ETC. THEY ARE CLASSIFIED AS:

FINISHING HARDWARE – HARDWARE, SUCH AS HINGES LOCKS, CATCHES, ETC.

THAT HAS A FINISHED APPEARANCE AS WELL AS FUNCTION, ESP. THAT USED WITH
DOORS, WINDOWS, AND CABINETS, MAYBE CONSIDERED PART OF THE DECORATIVE
TREATMENT OF A ROOM OR BUILDING.

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ROUGH HARDWARE – IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, HARDWARE MEANT TO BE

CONCEALED, SUCH AS BOLTS, NAILS, SCREWS, SPIKES, RODS, AND OTHER METAL
FITTINGS.

SOME FINISHING HARDWARE BRANDS:

1. SARGENT 7. RABBIT

2. STANLEY 8. UNIVERSAL

3. YALE 9. EAGLE

4. CORBIN 10. MASTER

5. SCHLAGE 11. ALPHA

6. KWIKSET 12. YETI

DOORS – AN ENTRANCE WAY

TYPES OF DOOR:

FLUSH – A SMOOTH-SURFACED DOOR HAVING FACES WHICH ARE PLANE

WHICH CONCEAL ITS RAILS AND STILES OR OTHER STRUCTURE WHEN USED
INSIDE, IT IS OF HOLLOW CORE, WHEN USED FOR EXTERIOR IT IS OF SOLID CORE.

PANEL DOOR – A DOOR HAVING STILES, RAILS AND SOMETIMES MUNTINS,

WHICH FORM ONE OR MORE FRAMES AROUND RECESSED THINNER PANELS.

KINDS OF DOORS:

SWINGING DOOR

OVERHEAD SWING-UP GARAGE DOOR – A RIGID OVERHEAD DOOR WHICH

OPENS AS AN ENTIRE UNIT.

OVERHEAD ROLL-UP GARAGE DOOR – A DOOR WHICH, WHEN OPEN, ASSUMES

A HORIZONTAL POSITION ABOVE THE DOOR OPENING, MADE OF SEVERAL
LEAVES.

ROLL-UP DOOR (SOLID OR SEE-THROUGH ALUMINUM SHUTTERS) A DOOR

MADE UP OF SMALL HORIZONTAL INTERLOCKING METAL SLATS WHICH ARE
GUIDED IN A TRACK: THE CONFIGURATION COILS ABOUT AN OVERHEAD DRUM
WHICH IS HOUSED AT THE HEAD OF THE OPENING, EITHER MANUAL OR MOTOR -
DRIVEN.

ACCORDION DOOR – A HINGED DOOR CONSISTING OF A SYSTEM OF PANELS

WHICH ARE HUNG FROM AN OVERHEAD TRACK. WHEN THE DOOR IS OPEN, THE
FACES OF THE PANELS CLOSE FLAT AGAINST EACH OTHER. WHEN THE DOOR IS
CLOSED, THE EDGES OF ADJACENT PANELS BUTT AGAINST (OR INTERLOCK)
EACH OTHER TO FORM A SOLID BARRIER.

BI-FOLDING DOOR - ONE OF TWO OR MORE DOORS WHICH ARE HINGED

TOGETHER SO THAT THEY CAN OPEN AND FOLD IN A CONFINED SPACE.

REVOLVING DOOR - AN EXTERIOR DOOR CONSISTING OF FOUR LEAVES (AT 900

TO EACH OTHER) WHICH PIVOT ABOUT A COMMON VERTICAL AXIS WITHIN A

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CYLINDRICALLY SHAPED VESTIBULE, PREVENTS THE DIRECT PASSAGE OF AIR

THROUGH THE VESTIBULE, THEREBY ELIMINATING DRAFTS FROM OUTSIDE.

SLIDING DOOR - A DOOR MOUNTED ON TRACK WHICH SLIDES IN A HORIZONTAL

DIRECTION USUALLY PARALLEL TO ONE WALL.

BY-PASSING SLIDING DOOR - A SLIDING DOOR WHICH SLIDES TO COVER A

FIXED DOOR OF THE SAME WIDTH OR ANOTHER SLIDING DOOR.

SLIDING POCKET DOOR - A DOOR WHICH SLIDES INSIDE A HOLLOW OF THE

WALL.

DUTCH DOOR - A HINGED DOOR WHICH IS DIVIDED TO TWO. THE UPPER PART
CAN BE OPENED WHILE THE LOWER PORTION IS CLOSED.

FRENCH DOOR

FINISHING HARDWARES:

A. TO HUNG A DOOR

HINGE- A MOVABLE JOINT USED TO ATTACH SUPPORT AND TURN A DOOR

ABOUT A PIVOT, CONSISTS OF TWO PLATES JOINED TOGETHER BY A PIN WHICH
SUPPORT THE DOOR AND CONNECT IT TO ITS FRAME, ENABLING IT TO SWING OPEN
OR CLOSED.

TYPES OF HINGES:

1. BUTT HINGE - CONSISTS OF TWO RECTANGULAR METAL PLATES WHICH ARE

JOINED WITH A PIN, IN LARGE HINGE, THE PIN IS REMOVABLE, IN SMALL HINGES, IT IS
FIXED.

FAST PIN HINGE - A HINGE IN WHICH THE PIN IS FASTENED PERMANENTLY

IN PLACE.

FULL SURFACE HINGE - A HINGED DESIGNED FOR ATTACHMENT ON THE

SURFACE OF THE DOOR AND JAMB WITHOUT MORTISING.

LOOSE JOINT HINGE - A DOOR HINGED HAVING TWO KNUCKLES, ONE OF

WHICH HAS VERTICAL PIN THAT FITS IN A CORRESPONDING HOLE IN THE
OTHER, BY LIFTING THE DOOR UP, OFF THE VERTICAL PIN, THE DOOR MAY BE
REMOVED WITH UNSCREWING THE HINGED.

LOOSE PIN HINGE - A HINGE HAVING A REMOVABLE PIN WHICH PERMITS ITS
TWO PARTS TO BE SEPARATED.

PAUMELLE HINGED - A TYPE OF DOOR HINGE HAVING A SINGLE JOINT OF

THE PIVOT TYPE, USUALLY OF MODERN DESIGN.

OLIVE KNUCKLE HINGE - A PAUMELLE HINGE WITH KNUCKLES FORMING AN

OVAL SHAPE.

2. SPRING HINGES - A HINGE CONTAINING ONE OR MORE SPRINGS, WHEN A DOOR IS

OPENED, THE HINGE RETURNS IT TO OPEN POSITION AUTOMATICALLY, MAY ACT IN
ONE DIRECTION ONLY, OR IN BOTH DIRECTIONS.

DOUBLE ACTION - EXCELLENT FOR USE IN RESTAURANTS, HOSPITALS,

KITCHENS, THE DOOR OPENS BY JUST PUSHING IT WITH THE SHOULDER OR
FEET.

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SINGLE ACTION

3. PIVOT HINGE - THE AXLE OR PIN ABOUT WHICH A WINDOW OR DOOR ROTATES.

VERTICAL SPRING PIVOT HINGE- A SPRING HINGE FOR A DOOR WHICH IS

MORTISTED INTO THE HEEL OF THE DOOR, THE DOOR IS FASTENED TO THE
FLOOR AND DOOR HEAD WITH PIVOTS.

B. TO FIX ONE SASH

TYPES OF BOLT AND FASTENER:

CHAIN HEAD AND FOOT BOLT

DOOR OR BARREL BOLT

FLUSH BOLT

CHAIN DOOR FASTENER

C. TO LOCK THE DOOR

LOCKSET – A COMPLETE LOCK SYSTEM INCLUDING THE BASIC LOCKING

MECHANISMS AND ALL THE ACCESSORIES, SUCH AS KNOBS ESCUTCHEONS, PLATES,
ETC.

BUTTON – A SMALL REJECTING MEMBER USED TO FASTEN THE FRAME OF A

DOOR OR WINDOW.

KNOB – A HANDLE, MORE OR LESS SPHERICAL USUALLY FOR OPERATING A

LOCK.

ESCUTCHEON – A PROTECTIVE PLATE SURROUNDING THE KEYHOLE OF A

DOOR.

PLATES – A THIN FLAT SHEET OF MATERIAL.

STRIKES – A METAL PLATE OR BOX WHICH IS SET IN A DOORJAMB AND IS

EITHER PLACED OR RECESSED TO RECEIVE THE BOLT OR LATCH OF A LOCK,
FIXED ON DOOR.

LIP STRIKE – THE PROJECTION FROM THE SIDE OF A TRIKE PLATE WHICH
THE BOLT OF A LOCK STRIKES FIRST, WHEN A DOOR IS CLOSED; PROJECTS
OUT FROM THE SIDE OF THE STRIKE PLATE TO PROTECT THE FRAME.

USE A DIFFERENT LOCKSET FOR EACH ROOM:

ENTRANCE LOCKSET – WITH A KEY AND UNIVERSAL BUTTON WHICH

WHEN PUSHED STAYS PUT AND LOCKS THE DOOR.

BEDROOM LOCKSET – SAME AS THE ENTRANCE LOCKSET BUT SIMPLER

IN DESIGN.

TOILET LOCKSET – WITHOUT A KEY HAS A BUTTON THAT IS PUSHED TO

LOCK INSIDE.

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KIND OF LOCKSET:

INTEGRAL LOCK – A TYPE OF MORTISE LOCK HAVING ITS CYLINDER IN

THE KNOB.

CYLINDER LOCK – A BORED LOCK WHICH HAS A CYLINDRICAL CASE INTO

WHICH A SEPARATE LATCH CASE FITS.

LATCH – A SIMPLE FASTENING DEVISE HAVING A LATCH BOLT, BUT NOT A DEAD BOLT
CONTAINS NO PROVISIONS FOR LOCKING WITH A KEY.

NIGHT LATCH – KEY OPERATED LATCH WITH SAFETY PIN.

LIFT LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH WHICH FASTENS A DOOR BY MEANS OF A

PIVOTED BAR THAT ENGAGES A HOOK ON THE DOOR JAMB, A LEVER WHICH LIFTS
THE PIVOTED BAR USED TO UNFASTEN THE DOOR.

RABBETED LOCK – A LOCK OR LATCH IN WHICH THE FACE IS FLUSH WITH THE
RABBET ON A RABBETED DOOR JAMB.

ROLLER LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH HAS A ROLLER UNDER SPRING TENSION
INSTEAD OF A BEVELED SPRING BOLT, THE ROLLER ENGAGES A STRIKE PLATE,
HAVING A RECESS FORMED TO RECEIVE.

SCREEN DOOR LATCH – A SMALL LOCKING OR LATCHING DEVICE USED ON SCREEN

DOORS AND GENERATED BY A KNOB OR LEVER HANDLE, SOMETIMES EQUIPPED
WITH A DEAD BOLT.

HASP – A FASTENING DEVICE CONSISTING OF A LOOP OR STAPLE AND A SLOTTED

HINGE PLATE NORMALLY SECURED WITH A PADLOCK.

KEY-PADLOCK – A DEVICE WHICH FASTENS IN POSITION MAYBE OPERATED BY A KEY.

MAGNETIC PADLOCK – A KIND OF LOCK WHICH OPENS BY USING THE

CORRESPONDING MAGNET WHICH GOES WITH IT.

HASPLOCK – A KIND OF HASP THAT HAS A BUILT-IN LOCKING DEVICE WHICH CAN BE
OPENED ONLY WITH A KEY.

BORED LOCK – A LOCK INTENDED FOR INSTALLATION IN A CIRCULAR HOLE IN A

DOOR.

CREMONE BOLT – USED TO FASTEN UPPER AND LOWER DOOR.

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DEAD BOLT – A TYPE OF DOOR LOCK, THE BOLT, WHICH IS SQUARE IN SECTION IS
OPERATED BY THE DOOR KEY OR A TURN PIECE.

TYPES OF AUTOMATIC DOOR CLOSER:

PNEUMATIC TYPE

SEMI-CONCEALED OVERHEAD TYPE

CONCEALED TYPE

OVERHEAD LIQUID TYPE

TYPES OF CABINET HINGED DOOR:

FLUSH

OVERLAPPING

OFFSET

TYPES OF CABINET HINGES:

BUTT HINGES

COMMON BUTT

LOOSE PIN

T-HINGE

PIANO HINGE

DECORATIVE HINGE

OFFSET HINGES – USED FOR HANGING LIPPED OR OVERLAPPING

DOORS, AVAILABLE IN SEMI-CONCEALED AND SURFACE-MOUNTED STYLES.

PIVOT HINGES – MADE FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOORS.

INVISIBLE HINGES – DON’T SHOW FROM THE FRONT AND IS

EXPENSIVE. THEY CAN BE USED FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING
DOOR.

FLUSH COUNTER HINGE – FOR A DROP DOWN DOOR THAT CAN BE

LOWERED TO SERVE AS WORK SURFACES REQUIRE HINGES THAT LAY
FLUSH IN THE SURFACE, MORTISE THEM INTO BOTH SURFACES, THEY
DON’T SHOW WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED. A DROPDOWN DOOR ALSO
REQUIRES A CHAIN OR STAY SUPPORT TO HOLD THE DOOR’S WEIGHT
WHEN IT’S OPEN.

CATCHES FOR CLOSING OF CABINET DOORS IN PLACE

KINDS OF CATCHES:

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FRICTION CATCH – ANY CATCH WHICH WHEN IT ENGAGES A STRIKE, IS

HELD IN THE ENGAGED POSITION BY FRICTION.

MAGNETIC CATCH – A DOOR CATCH FLAT THAT USES A MAGNET TO

HOLD THE DOOR IN A CLOSED POSITION.

BULLET CATCH – A FASTENER WHICH HOLDS A DOOR IN PLACE BY

MEANS OF A PROJECTING SPRING ARCTUATED STEEL HALL WHICH IS
DEPRESSED WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED.

TYPES OF KNOBS:

SCREW-IN KNOB

BOLT-ON KNOB

FLUSH KNOB

FLUSH RING

PULL

OTHER FINISHING ACCESSORIES:

GRAB BAR – A HAND GRIP USUALLY INSTALLED IN SHOWER, WHICH MAY

BE USED FOR STEADYING ARE SELF.

SELF BRACKET – ANY OVER HANGING MEMBER PROJECTING FROM A

WALL OR OTHER BODY TO SUPPORT A WEIGHT.

METAL BRACKET – USED TO SUPPORT ANY CABINET OR SHELF.

SPRING DOOR CLOSER – ATTACHED ABOVE A SCREEN DOOR TO

AUTOMATICALLY CLOSE IT.

DOOR STOPPER – TO PREVENT THE DOOR WITH ITS LOCKSET FROM

HARMING THE WALL OR TILES.

ROUGH HARDWARES:

NAILS

COMMON WIRE NAIL WITH HEAD AND FOR STRENGTH.

FINISHING NAIL WITHOUT HEAD AND FOR BETTER APPEARANCE

MASONRY OR CONCRETE NAIL USED FOR CONCRETE, MORTAR AND BRICK

SURFACE

SIZES, 1”, 1 ½”, 2 “, 2 ½”, 3”, 3 ½”, 4”, 6”

OTHER COMMON HAMMER DRIVEN FASTENER

SCOTCH NAILS BRADS

STAPLES TACKS

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SCREWS

CLASSIFIED BY GAUGE (DIAMETER), LENGTH, HEAD TYPE, AND METALLIC

MAKE-UP.

TYPES OF SCREW HEAD

FLAT HEAD SCREW

OVAL HEAD SCREW

PHILIPPS HEAD

SHEET-METAL SCREW

ROUND HEAD SCREW

LAG SCREW

WASHERS

FLAT

COUNTER SUNK

FLUSH

BOLTS

BOLTS HAVE THREADED SHAFTS THAT RECEIVE NUTS. TO USE THEM, A HOLE
IS DRILLED, PUSHING A BOLT THROUGH AND ADDING A NUT.

BOLTS TIGHTENED WITH SCREW WHILE HOLDING THE NUT WITH A WRENCH.

NUTS

FLAT SQUARE NUT

HEX NUT

SQUARE NUT

ACORN NUT

T – NUT

KNURLED NUT

WING NUT

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HUNGER BOLTS – FOR HANGING FIXTURES FROM WALLS.

U-BOLTS – TO ATTACH FLAT SURFACE TO ROUND POLES AND PIPES.

JOINERY BRACKETS

MENDING PLATE

T-PLATE

FLAT CORNER PLATE

L-BRACKET

AWNING – AN ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTED WINDOW.

BAY WINDOW – A WINDOW WHICH PROJECTS OUTSIDE THE MAIN LINE OF A

BUILDING.

HOPPER WINDOW – A WINDOW SASH WHICH OPENS INWARD AND ITS HINGED
AT THE BOTTOM.

ORIEL WINDOW – A PROJECTED WINDOW BEYOND BUILDING WALL CARRIED BY

A CORBEL.

BATTEN DOOR - A DOOR W/OUT STILES WHICH IS COSTRUCTED OF VERTICAL

BOARDS HELD TOGETHER BY HORIZONTAL BATTENS.

STILE – VERTICAL FRAMES OF PANELLED DOOR.

TRANSOM – WINDOW OVER A DOOR.

DOOR JAMB – FINISHED FRAME SURROUNDING A DOOR.

ANCHOR BOLT – A STEEL BOLT USUALLY FIXED IN ABUILDING STRUCTURE

WITH ITS THREADED PORTION PROJECTING.

PLATE BOLT – A BOLT IN A BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH SECURES THEPLATE

OR SILL.

MACHINE BOLT – A THREADED BOLT HAVING A STRAIGHT SHANK AND A

CONVENTIONAL HEAD SUCH AS A SQUARE, HEXAGONAL, BUTTON OR
COUNTERSANK.

CARRIAGE BOLT – A BOLT WITH NECK FOR NON-RATATING MOUNTING.

LAG SCREW – COMMON HARDWARE FASTENER FOR TRUSS BRACES.

KNOB BOLT – A DOOR LOCK WITH A SPRING BOLT CONTROLLED BY ONE OR

BOTH KNOBS AND DEAD BOLT CONTROLLED BY AKEY.

BACKSET – THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM THE FACE OF A LOCK OF LATCH

TO THE CENTER OF THE KNOB OR LOCK CYLINDER.

GUSSET – A PLATE ATTACHED TO SIDE OF A JOINT FOR INCREASE HOLDING

POWER.

BRAD – A THIN NAIL WITH SMALL HEAD.

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KERF – IN A SUSPENDED ACOUSTICAL CEILING, AGROOVE CUT INTO THE

EDGES OF AN ACOUSTICAL TILES TO RECEIVE SPLINES OR SUPPORTING
MEMBERS OF THE CEILING SUSPENSION SYSTEM.

PERFORATED TAPE – A TYPE OF TAPE USED IN FINISHING JOINTS BETWEEN

GYPSUM BOARD.

SAHARA – USED FOR WATERPROOFING.

PARQUET – INLAID WOOD FLOORING USUALLY SET IN SIMPLE GEOMETRIC

PATTERN.

VINYL TILE – A FLOOR TILE COMPOSED PRINCIPALLY OF POLYVINYL CHLORIDE.

BEVEL – THE ANGLE WITH ONE SURFACE OF A BODY MAKES WITH ANOTHER
SURFACE WHEN THEY ARE NOT AT RIGHT ANGLE.

CHASE – A CONTINOUS RECESS BUILT INTO A WALL TO RECEIVE PIPES, DUCTS,

ETC.

GYPSUM BOARD – MATERIAL USED IN DRYWALL CONSTRUCTION.

PLOUGH – A GROOVE EXTENDED ALONG THE EDGE OR FACE OF THE WOOD

MEMBER BEING CUT PARALLEL TO GRAIN.

BUILDING PROTECTION

PREVENTIONS

WATERPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING SURFACES AGAINST THE

DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF WATER.

DAMP-PROOFING – PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS PROVIDED BY WATER

REPELLENT MATERIALS WHICH TURN WATER ASIDE AND FORCE IT TO RETURN TO
THE EARTH. THE DAMPNESS THAT SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE THE BUILDING
CAN BE CAUSED BY PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE OUTSIDE OR BY
CONSIDERATION OF WATER VAPOR GENERATED ON THE INSIDE.

CLEAR PROTECTIVE TREATMENTS FOR MASONRY, CONCRETE – THIS IS A

CLEAR, INVISIBLE SILICONE WATER REPELLENT SPECIALLY FORMULATED FOR
APPLICATION ON MASONRY AND BRICKS (STANDARD SILICONE REPELLENT) AND
FOR LIMESTONE AND CONCRETE THAT SEEPS MUCH RAINWATER (SPECIAL
FORMULATED SILICONE REPELLENT). THE SILICONE LIQUID IS APPLIED BY BRUSH
OR LOW PRESSURE SPRAY AND DOES NOT AFFECT THE COLOR OR
NATURALNESS OF THE MATERIAL.

ANAY (TERMITE) PROOFING BY SOIL POISONING – IT IS IMPORTANT TO POISON

THE SOIL AGAINST ANAY (WHITE ANTS) IN ORDER TO STOP THE ANAY FROM
INFESTING THE MAINPOSTS, WALLS AND FLOORING.

WOOD PRESERVATIVE (POWDER POST TERMITES) A CHEMICAL LIQUID PAINTED

AND APPLIED TO LUMBER TO PRESERVE IT FOR YEARS. IT PROTECTS WOOD
AGAINST POWDER POST BEATLES (BUKBOK) POWDER POET TERMITE (UNOS),
DECAY CAUSING FUNGI, SUCH AS SAP STAIN AND SRYROT.

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FIREPROOFING – A CLEAR LIQUID APPLIED EASILY ON WOOD, PLYWOOD,

LUMBER AND OTHER BOARD THAT RETAINS THE NATURAL BEAUTY, GIVES ADDED
STRENGTH AND PROTECTS MATERIALS AGAINST FIRE, WEATHER, DECAY,
INSECTS AND WARPING. SINCE THE LIQUID PENETRATED INTO THE WOOD, WHEN
THERE IS FIRE. IT REACTS BY DISPERSING THE FLAME, PREVENTING
PROGRESSIVE BURNING.

RATPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING ROOMS AGAINST THE INTRUSION

OF RATS AND OTHER SMALL DESTRUCTIVE ANIMALS FROM GNAWING THE
WOODEN PARTS OF THE HOUSE, HABITATING ON CEILINGS AND FLOORS OF
HOUSES AND BUILDINGS.

RUSTPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING THE FERROUS MATERIALS LIKE

STEEL, IRON FROM RUSTING OR CORROSION.

FLOOR PROTECTION – WHEN FLOORS ARE SUBJECTED TO WEAR AND TEAR,

OR FROM CHEMICAL ABRASIONS AND HEAVY USE, A SPECIAL KIND OF MATERIAL
SHOULD BE USED TO PROTECT THE FLOORING.

DESCALERS, PAINT AND CHEMICAL STRIPPERS – WHEN AN OLD HOUSE HAVING

OLE PAINT IS IN NEED OF REPAINTING, PAINT REMOVER IS APPLIED TO THE
SURFACE WHICH SOFTENS AND LIFTS THE PAINT. FOR CLEANING OF BUILDINGS
FROM STAINS, RUST, ALGAE OR EVEN CEMENT BUILD UP FROM FORMS OR
EQUIPMENT, ETC. A CHEMICAL STRIPPER OR DESCALER IS USED.

CONTROL, PROTECT AND MANAGE – FOR BUILDINGS THAT NEED TOTAL

CONTROL OF THE INCOMING AND OUTGOING INDIVIDUALS FOR THE PROTECTION
OF THE BUILDING AS A WHOLE FROM ROBBERS, STEALERS, ETC. THERE ARE SO
MANY EQUIPMENTS WHICH CAN BE INSTALLED.

THIS IS APPLIED ON THE FOLLOWING LOCATIONS:

ROOF DECKS

CONCRETE TERRACES AND BALCONIES

SHEATHING FOR WOOD SHINGLE AND TILE ROOFING

WATER TANKS

CONCRETE ROOF GUTTERS

PLANT BOXES INSIDE

KITCHEN FLOOR

TOILETS

CANOPIES

BASEMENT FLOOR AND WALLS

ELEVATOR PITS

SWIMMING POOL

MACHINE ROOMS, AIR CON & PUMP ROOMS

REFRIGERATION & COLD STORAGE ROOMS

THREE TYPES OF WATERPROOFING:

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INTEGRAL TYPE – MEDIUM IN POWDER FORM IS ADDED

AND MIXED WITH THE AGGREGATES OF CONCRETE. IN THIS CASE, ONE
PACK OF USUALLY .908 KILOS IS ADDED TO ONE BAG OF KILOS
CEMENT. SOME OF THE KNOWN BRANDS ARE SAHARA AND SAKURA.

MEMBRANE TYPE – RECOMMENDED FOR USE WHERE

DIRECT RAIN, OR STANDING WATER ARE EMINENT, THERE ARE ABOUT 14
USES. THE MATERIALS USED DEPENDING ON THE MANUFACTURER IS
EITHER ASPHALT PAPER LAID WITH HOT ASPHALT, IMPREGNATED
ASBESTOS FELT, SOMETIMES THICK POLYETHYLENE SHEETS IS ALSO
USED. OTHER MATERIALS ARE PERFORMED SELF SEALING ASPHALT.

FLUID APPLIED – A FLUID APPLIED ELASTOMERIC

COATING BASED ON HAVY SOLIDS ELASTOMER COMPOUND FORMULATED
TO WATERPROOF AND PRESERVE THE SUBSTRATE, LIKE CONCRETE,
WOOD, BRICKS AND STEEL. THE WATERPROOFING IS MONOLOTHIC,
SEAMLESS, FLEXIBLE AND ELASTIC OVER A WIDE TEMPERATURE RANGE,
WITHSTANDS EXTREME THERMAL MOVEMENT, SETTLING AND
CRACKING. IT RESISTS PUNCTURE AND TEARING ABRASIVE
OVERLAYMENTS. THIS ELASTOMERIC FLUID CAN BE APPLIED BY ROLLER,
BRUSH, SPRAY OR SQUEEGEE.

ROOFING FELTS – THE BASE FELTS USED IN BUILT-UP ROOFING ARE AVAILABLE IN
TWO BASIC TYPE – ASBESTOS FELTS AND ORGANIC OR RAG FELTS. THEY LOOK
ALIKE, SUPERFICIALLY, BUT THEY DIFFER WIDELY IN SERVICE.

ASBESTOS:

ASBESTOS FELTS – COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF ASBESTOS FIBER, A

NON-ROTTING, NON-WICKING INORGANIC MINERAL FIBER.

IDENTICAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES TO

FINISHING FELTS.

MINIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE OR WETTING OR DRYING

WHICH MEANS MINIMUM DISTORTION.

LOSES STRENGTH SLOWLY WHILE AGING.

EXCELLENT RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.

RAT RESISTANT.

ORGANIC:

ORGANIC FELTS – COMPOSED OF FIBROUS ORGANIC

MATERIALS. SUBJECT TO DETERIORATION BY OXIDATION AND TO WICKING.

DIFFERENT EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES FROM

FINISHING PLIES.

MAXIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE ON WETTING AND DRYING WHICH

MEANS MAXIMUM DISTORTION.

LOSES STRENGTH RAPIDLY WHILE AGING.

POOR RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.

POOR RESISTANCE TO ROT.

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VAPOR INSULATION (DAMPROOFING)

THE DAMPNESS THAT SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE BUILDINGS CAN BE CAUSED BY

PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE OUTSIDE OR BY CONDENSATION OF WATER
VAPOR GENERATED ON THE INSIDE. PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS PROVIDED
BY WATER REPELLENT MATERIALS WHICH TURN ASIDE AND FORCE IT TO RETURN TO
THE EARTH DONE THE OUTSIDE OF THE BUILDING. MOISTURE VAPOR ON THE OTHER
HAND CAN PERMEATE MOST ORDINARY BUILDING MATERIALS SUCH AS WOOD,
PAPER, LATH PLASTER, UNTREATED BRICK, ETC. THE MOISTURE VAPOR WILL
CONDENSE WATER WHEN ITS TEMPERATURE IS REDUCED BY CONTACT WITH A
COOL SURFACE OR COOL AIR. HENCE, HIGH HUMIDITY IN A BUILDING MAY RESULT IN
CONDENSATION OF WATER NOT ONLY ON THE INSIDE OF WALLS AND WINDOWS BUT
ALSO ON THE OUTSIDE OR WITHIN THE EXTERIOR WALLS, CEILING OR ROOF.
MOISTURE VAPOR IS PRODUCED BY COOKING OCCUPANTS, LAUNDERING, EARTH
CRAWL SPACES, BASEMENT FLOORS, HUMIDIFIES, ETC.

VAPOR BARRIERS (DAMPROOFING MATERIALS)

THESE ARE MATERIALS WHICH EFFECTIVELY RETARD OR STOP THE FLOW OF WATER
VAPOR AND NORMALLY ARE PRODUCED IN SHEETS OR THIN LAYERS. VAPOR
BARRIERS SHOULD BE INSTALLED ON THE WARM SIDE OF THE INSULATION. THEY
SHOULD BE CONTINUOUS SURFACES OF ASPHALT OR WAX COATED PAPER,
ALUMINUM, OR OTHER METAL FOIL SHEETS OR POLYETHYLENE FILM. THEY CAN BE
ATTACHED TO THE INSULATION AS PART OF THE MANUFACTURED PRODUCT OR
INSTALLED SEPARATELY IN OR ON THE WARM SIDE OF THE WALL, FLOOR, OR
CEILING. THEY MUST BE CONTINUOUS AND ALLOW NO OPENINGS THROUGH WHICH
VAPOR MAY PASS. ALTHOUGH ASPHALT PAPER IS A GOOD MOISTURE BARRIER, IT IS
NOT A VAPOR BARRIER, AND SHOULD BE USED ON THE OUTSIDE OF A BUILDING FOR
THAT PURPOSE.

MATERIALS USED AS VAPOR BARRIERS:

POLYETHYLENE FILM – THIS IS CHEMICALLY INERT PLASTIC,

UNAFFECTED BY ACIDS, ALKALIS AND CAUSTICS, PRODUCED IN ROLLS OF 3
TO 20 FT. WIDE. COMMON THICKNESSES ARE 2,3,4 AND 6 MIL (1MIL = .001
IN.) THIS FILM IS USEFUL NOT ONLY AS VAPOR BARRIER FOR WALLS,
CEILINGS AND FLOORS BUT ALSO AS A BARRIER TO PREVENT THE
PASSAGE OF MOISTURE FROM THE EARTH UPWARD THROUGH A
CONCRETE SLAB LAIN ON THE GROUND. POLYETHYLENE FILM CAN BE
APPLIED VERTICALLY IN 36 IN. WIDE STRIPS TO STUDDING ON 16 IN.
CENTERS WITH A FULL OVERLAP ON ALTERNATE STUDS. FILMS ARE
STAPLED TO STUDS. OVERLAPS AND EXTENSIONS TO FLOORS AND
WALLINGS SHALL BE 6 IN.

ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS VAPOR BARRIER AS A SINGLE SHEET,

OR AS A THIN LAYER OF FOIL LAMINATED TO A HEAVY BACKING OF
ASPHALT-IMPREGNATED KRAFT PAPER. THIS IS ALSO DONE WITH TWO
LAYERS OF FOIL LAMINATED WITH ASPHALT CEMENT.

KRAFT PAPER COATED WITH ASPHALT OR WAX. SOMETIMES TWO

LAYERS OF PAPER ARE CEMENTED WITH A CONTINOUS LAYER OF
ASPHALT. ANOTHER MATERIALS USED FOR DAMP-PROOFING OF
CONCRETE WALLS IS “WEATHERKOTE” BITUMINOUS EMULSION, BY SHELL.

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THERMAL INSULATION

IN COLD WEATHER, WE ARE INTERESTED IN TRANSFERRING HEAT FROM FURNACES,

RADIATORS, HEATING PANELS, INTO VARIOUS ROOMS OF OUR BUILDINGS. AT THE
SAME TIME WE ARE INTERESTED IN PREVENTING THAT HEAT FROM BEING
TRANSFERRED FROM THE INTERIOR OF THE BUILDING TO THE OUTSIDE.

DURING THE SUMMER, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT WE PREVENT THE TRANSFER OF HOT

OUTSIDE TEMPERATURES TO THE WORKING AND LIVING SPACE WITHIN OUR
BUILDINGS.

ALL OF THESE ARE DONE BY THE JUDICIOUS USE OF MATERIALS WHICH IS BEST
PREVENT THE TRANSFER OF HEAT, THIS WE CALL THERMAL INSULATION.

KINDS OF THERMAL INSULATION

LOOSE FILL – THIS BULKY AND DIVIDED INTO:

FIBROUS TYPE

GRANULAR INSULATION

FIBROUS LOOSE FILL

GRANULE

BLANKET INSULATION- IS MADE FROM SOME FIBROUS MATERIAL SUCH AS

MINERAL WOOL, WOOD FIBER, COTTON FIBER, OR ANIMAL HAIR.

BATTS

STRUCTURAL INSULATION BOARD

STRAWBOARD

CORKBOARD

BLOCK OR RIGID SLAB INSULATION – THIS TYPE OF INSULATION IS SO CALLED

BLOCK OR RIGID BECAUSE THE UNITS ARE RELATIVELY STIFF AND INELASTIC.

FOAMED PLASTIC INSULATION

CELLULAR GLASS INSULATION

FOAMED CONCRETE

CELLULAR HARD RUBBER

SHREDDED WOOD OR WOOD FIBER

RIGID SLAB INSULATION

RIGID INSULATION- WHICH ARE IMPERVOUS TO MOISTURE

PENETRATION RESULTING FROM CONTINUOUS CONTACT WITH THE
EARTH AND MOISTURE ARE PARTICULARLY USEFUL AS PERIMETER
INSULATION.

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REFLECTIVE INSULATION

ALUMINUM FOIL

COPPER- FOIL INSULATIONS

REFLECTIVE INSULATION

SHEET FOIL

FOAMED-IN PLACE INSULATION – THIS IS POLYURETHANE PRODUCT MADE BY

COMBINING A POLYISOCYANATE AND A POLYESTER RESIN. THIS TYPE OF
INSULATION CAN BE APPLIED EITHER BY POURING OR BY SPRAYING. THE BASIC
INGREDIENTS FOR BOTH ARE DRAWN FROM THEIR CONTAINERS, MEASURED, AND
MIXED BY MACHINE.

APPLICATION BY POURING

APPLICATION BY SPRAYING

SPRAYED-ON-INSULATIONS – MATERIALS USED ARE POLYURETHANE FOAM

ASBESTOS FIBER MIXED WITH INORGANIC BINDERS, VERMICULITE AGGREGATE
WITH A BINDER SUCH AS PORTLAND CEMENT OR GYPSUM AND PERLITE
AGGREGATE USING GYPSUM AS A BINDER. MACHINES ARE USED FOR BLOWING
THESE INSULATIONS INTO PLACE; AS A RESULT THE SHAPE OR IRREGULARITY OF
THE SURFACE BEING INSULATED IS OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCE.

ASBESTOS FIBER INSULATION

CORRUGATED INSULATION

SOIL TESTING

LARGER THAN A SINGLE FAMILY HOUSE, IT IS NECESSARY TO DETERMINE THE SOIL

AND WATER CONDITION BENEATH THE SITE.

METHOD OF SOIL TESTING:

1. DIGGING TEST PITS – ARE USEFUL WHEN FOUNDATION IS NOT EXPECTED

TO EXTEND DEEPER THAT ABOUT 8 FEET WHICH IS THE MAXIMUM PRACTICAL
REACH OF SMALL EXCAVATION MACHINE.

2. TEST BORING – BORING WITH STANDARD PENETRATION TESTS CAN GIVE

AN INDICATION OF THE BEARING CAPACITY OF THE SOIL BY THE NUMBER OF
BLOWS OF A STANDARD DRIVING HAMMER REQUIRED TO ADVANCE A
SAMPLING TUBE INTO THE SOIL BY A FIXED AMOUNT.

TYPES OF SOILS:

ROCK – IS A CONTINUOUS MASS OF SOLID MINERAL MATERIALS, SUCH AS

GRANITE OR LIMESTONE, THAT CAN ONLY BE REMOVED BY DRILLING AND
BLASTING.

SOIL – IS A GENERAL TERM REFERRING TO EARTH MATERIAL.

BOULDER – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL IS TOO LARGE TO LIFT BY HAND.

COBBLE – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL TAKES THE WHOLE HAND TO LIFT.

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GRAVEL – IF THE PARTICLE CAN BE LIFTED EASILY WITH THUMB AND

FOREFINGER.

SAND – IF THE PARTICLE SEEN BUT ARE TOO SMALL TO BE PICKED UP.

FINE GRAINED SOIL – IF THE PARTICLES ARE TOO SMALL TO BE SEEN.

SILT

CLAY

PILE DRIVING

MATERIAL USED IN PILE FOUNDATION ARE:

1. TIMBER

2. CONCRETE

3. STEEL

TIMBER – CANNOT RESIST HIGH STRESSES DUE TO HARD DRIVING THAT IS

REQUIRED TO PENETRATE HIHLY RESISTANT LAYER OF SOIL. THE TIP OF THE
TIMBER PILE WHICH COULD BE EASILY DAMAGED IS PROTECTED BY THE USE OF
STEEL SHOES, ON THE OTHERHAND THE BUTT IS ALSO PROVIDED WITH AN AMPLE
PROTECTION BY THE USE OF CUSHION BLOCK.

CONCRETE PILES ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

1. CAST-IN-PLACE

CASED – IS CAST INSIDE A METAL SHELL FORM WHICH ARE LEFT IN THE
GROUND.

UNCASED – ELIMINATE THE METAL CASING.

2. PRECAST PILES – ARE REINFORCED TO RESIST HIGH STRESS CAUSED BY

THE HAMMER IN DRIVING.

METAL PILE – IS AN EXCELLENT AMTERIAL FOR PILE BECAUSE OF ITS STRENGTH

CHARACTERISTICS TO WITHSTAND HARD DRIVING AND RAPID PENETRATION INTO
THE GROUND, RELATIVELY WITH SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS.

DIFFERENT METAL PILES:

H-BEARING PILES

BOS PILES

RAIL PILES

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