GEOGRAPHY

OF INDIA
2024

rAJ HOLKAR

+919650697922

PCS Mantra: (9582804332, 9540241533)

 Geography of India Raj Holkar (9650697922)

Chapter: 1 Geographical Location of India

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Geographical Location of India

• Geographically India is a quadrilateral shaped landmass. India is located
in northern hemisphere latitudinally and eastern hemisphere
longitudinally.
• India’s north south extension is 3214 kms and east west expansion is 2933
kms. There is 281 kms of difference in both expansions.
• India has Monsoon Climate. it is extended in both tropical and temperate
climates.

Area
• Area of India is 32,87,263 sq kms. (Which is 2.42% of world’s total area).
• India is 7th largest country in the world by area after Russia, Canada,
America, China, Brazil and Australia.

Geographical extension
• The mainland geographical extension of India is between 8º4’ N to 37º6’
N in northern latitude and 68º7’ E to 97º25’ E in eastern longitude.
• India is situated in north of equator between 6º4’ N to 37º6’ N northern
latitude and 68º7’ E to 97º25’ E eastern longitude.
• Both the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is about 30º. The
southernmost point of India is located at Indira Point (6°4').

Standard Time Line

• 82º30' East longitude is considered as the Indian Standard Time Line /
Standard Meridian. It passes through Naini of Prayagraj almost through
the middle of India.
• India Standard Time is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of Greenwich Time.
There is a difference of about 2 hours in the far eastern and far western
parts of India.
• The Indian Standard Time Line passes through 5 states of India. The states
through which it passes are Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.

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Tropic of Cancer
• The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of India. The Standard
Time Line and the Tropic of Cancer intersect each other in Chhattisgarh.
• The Tropic of Cancer passes through eight states of India. The states
through which the Tropic of Cancer passes – Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura
and Mizoram.

Terrestrial Boundary
• The length of India's terrestrial border is 15,200 km. (15,106.7 km is given
in some sources) and the length of the coastal border of the mainland of
India is 6100 km.
• The total length of India's coastline including islands is 7,516.6 km.
• The length of the total border of India is 22,716.6 km. [15,200 (terrestrial
border) + 7,516.6 (coastline)].

Water Boundary
1. Territorial Maritime Boundary: Extends up to 12 nautical miles from
the base line of India. India has the rights to make full use of this area.
2. Contiguous zone: Extends up to 24 nautical miles from the base line of
India. In this area, India has the rights of cleanliness, collection of customs
duty and financial rights.
3. Exclusive Economic Zone: It extends up to 200 nautical miles from the
base line of India. In this area, India has rights for scientific research and
construction of new islands and exploitation of natural resources.

Frontier points of India’ quadrilateral boundaries

• Northernmost point: Indira Col (Jammu and Kashmir)
• Southernmost point: Indira Point (Andaman and Nicobar)
• Easternmost point: Kibithu (Arunachal Pradesh)
• Westernmost point: Guhar Moti (Gujarat)

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Neighboring countries of India

India has land borders with 7 countries. Neighboring countries of India sharing
land border are –
1. Pakistan (North-West) 2. Afghanistan (North-West)
3. China (North) 4. Nepal (North)
5. Bhutan (North) 6. Myanmar (East)
7. Bangladesh (East)
Note:
➢ Two island countries Sri Lanka and Maldives are situated in the south of
India. India and Sri Lanka are connected by 'Palk Strait'.
➢ Adam's Bridge is located between Tamil Nadu (India) and Sri Lanka.
Adam's Bridge starts from a place called 'Dhanushkodi'. Pamban Island
(Rameswaram) is a part of Adam's Bridge.

Indian Subcontinent: India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri

Lanka and Maldives are included in the Indian subcontinent.

India’s neighbouring countries and adjacent boundaries

• India-Bangladesh Boundary (4096.7 kms) (Longest Boundary): Five
states of India bordering with Bangladesh, which are –Assam, Meghalaya,
Tripura, Mizoram and West Bengal. West Bengal has longest boundary
with Bangladesh which is 2217 kms.
• India-China Boundary (3488 kms): Five states/union territories are
bordering with China which are – Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal Pradesh has
longest boundary with China.
• India-Pakistan Boundary (3323 km): Five states/union territories of
India bordering with Pakistan which are – Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir,
Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Rajasthan has longest boundary with
Pakistan.
• India-Nepal Boundary (1751 km): Five states of India bordering with
Nepal which are – Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal
and Sikkim. Bihar has longest boundary with Nepal of 729 km.

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• India-Myanmar Boundary (1643 km): Four states of India bordering

Myanmar which are – Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and
Mizoram. Arunachal Pradesh has longest boundary with Myanmar of 520
km.
• India-Bhutan Boundary (699 km): Four states of India bordering Bhutan
which are – Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
Assam has longest boundary with Bhutan which is 267 km.
• India-Afghanistan Boundary (106 km): Only the union territory of
Ladakh have border with Afghanistan.

States/union territories making international boundary with

various countries
• Bangladesh: West Bengal, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and Assam
• China: Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal
Pradesh
• Pakistan: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Jammu-Kashmir, Ladakh
• Nepal: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim and Uttarakhand
• Myanmar: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur
• Bhutan: West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam
• Afghanistan: Ladakh only

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International Boundaries of India

• Durand Line: between India and Afghanistan (Now in POK)
• Mac-Mohan Line: between India and China
• Redcliff Line: between India and Pakistan
• Zero Line: between Tripura and Bangladesh

Important Channels and straits of India

• Great Channel: Indira Point (India) – Indonesia
• 10º Channel: Little Andaman (Andaman) – Car Nicobar (Nicobar)
• 9º Channel: Minicoy – Lakshadweep
• 8º Channel: Maldives – Minicoy (India)
• 6º Channel: Great Nicobar (India) – Sumatra (Indonesia)
• Coco strait: Andaman (India) – Coco Island (Myanmar)
• Gulf of Munnar: Tamil Nadu (India) – Sri Lanka
• Palk Strait: Tamil Nadu (India) – Jaffna Peninsula (Sri Lanka)

Natural division of India

1. Great plain of India (43.2%)
2. Plateau Region (27.7%)
3. Hill Region (18.5%)
4. Mountainous Region (10.6%)

Coastal States of India

➢ The boundaries of 9 states and 4 union territories in India are along the
sea coast line.
➢ States and Union Territories with a Coastline in India (13 in total):
1. Gujarat 2. Maharashtra 3. Goa 4. Karnataka 5. Kerala 6. Tamil Nadu 7.
Andhra Pradesh 8. Odisha 9. West Bengal 10. Andaman and Nicobar
Islands 11. Lakshadweep 12. Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
13. Puducherry
➢ The sea coast line of Gujarat is the longest and that of Goa is the shortest.
➢ States situated on eastern coast: West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu (total 4)
➢ States situated on western coast: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka,
Kerala (total 5)

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➢ States with longest coastline (in decreasing order): Gujarat > Andhra
Pradesh > Tamil Nadu
➢ Coastal union territories: 1. Andaman Nicobar isles, 2. Lakshadweep
isles, 3. Puducherry, 4. Dadra Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
➢ Union Territories with longest coastline: Andaman & Nicobar >
Lakshadweep > Puducherry
➢ States and UTs with longest coastline: Andaman & Nicobar > Gujarat >
Andhra Pradesh

Landlocked States and UTs of India

➢ 19 states and 4 union territories of India are land locked.
➢ Union Territories: 1. Jammu – Kashmir 2. Ladakh 3. Delhi 4. Chandigarh
➢ States: 1. Himachal Pradesh 2. Punjab 3. Haryana 4. Uttarakhand 5.
Rajasthan 6. Uttar Pradesh 7. Bihar 8. Madhya Pradesh 9. Chhattisgarh 10.
Jharkhand 11. Telangana 12. Sikkim 13. Meghalaya 14. Arunachal Pradesh
15. Assam 16. Nagaland 17. Manipur 18. Tripura 19. Mizoram

Landlocked States and UTs of India who doesn’t make any

international boundary
➢ Out of the landlocked states and union territories of India, the border of 5
states and 2 union territories does not touch the international border.
➢ Landlocked states which do not form International Border: 1. Haryana
2. Chhattisgarh 3. Telangana 4. Madhya Pradesh 5. Jharkhand
➢ Landlocked Union Territories that do not form international
boundaries: 1. Delhi 2. Chandigarh

Largest States of India by area: Rajasthan > Madhya Pradesh >

Maharashtra > Uttar Pradesh

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Uttar Pradesh Border

➢ Uttar Pradesh is bordered by a total of 8 states and 1 union territory.
➢ States bordering Uttar Pradesh: 1. Uttarakhand 2. Himachal Pradesh 3.
Haryana 4. Rajasthan 5. Madhya Pradesh 6. Chhattisgarh 7. Jharkhand 8.
Bihar
➢ Union Territory bordering Uttar Pradesh – Delhi
➢ The state with maximum contiguous border with Uttar Pradesh is Madhya
Pradesh and the state with least contiguous border is Himachal Pradesh.
➢ Sonbhadra district of Uttar Pradesh is the only district in India whose
border is attached to 4 states. The states bordering Sonbhadra are
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand.

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Chapter 2: Geographical Structure of India

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There is a lot of diversity in India from the point of view of land features. About
11% of its total area is mountainous, 18% hilly, 28% plateau and 43% plain. From
the point of view of geological structure, India can be divided into five physical
divisions –
• Northern Hill Region
• Plain of Sutlej-Ganga and Brahmaputra
• Desert part of India
• Peninsular Plateau of South
• Coastal plains and islands

Northern Mountainous Region

Origin and Evolution: According to the theory of plate tectonics, the origin
of the Himalayas is due to the collision of two continents. Where the Himalayan
Mountains are located today, there used to be a vast ocean (Tethys Sea). In the
southern part of Tethys Sea, there was a continent called Gondwana Land,
whose remnants today exist in the form of eastern part of South America, Africa,
peninsular India and Australia. In the north of the Tethys Sea, a similar continent
was also located, which is called Angara Land. Its remains exist in the form of
Asia, Europe and North America.

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At the end of the Mesozoic, the bottom of the Tethys Sea, located between
the Gondwana land and the Angara land, started rising due to the movements of
the earth. Rising up, its water covered some of the lower regions of the Gondwana
land. With this, the Gondwana continent was broken due to the effect of
displacement and the Indian Ocean was formed in its place, but the upliftment
of the Tethys Sea floor did not end there. Due to displacement and folding, the
Indian Plate continued to fold along with the Eurasian Plate and the Tethys Sea
floor was rising higher and higher. As a result, some such mountain ranges were
formed which we find extending from China to Europe. These are also called the
mountain ranges of the Alpine group, of which the Himalayan Mountains are a
part. The Himalayas originated in the Tertiary period.
According to plate tectonics, the Himalayan Mountains were formed by the
collision of the Eurasian Plate and the Indian Plate and the folding of debris in
the Tethys Sea between these plates. Therefore, Tethys Sea can also be called
the womb or birth place of the Himalayas.
The Himalayas are the latest folded mountain ranges of the world. This
mountain is still rising. The Himalayan Mountain range from Kashmir to
Arunachal Pradesh is 2500 km. Extended in length. Its width in the east is 150
km. And 500 km in the west. The average height of the Himalayan Mountain
range is 6000 meters. The Karakoram, Kailash, Ladakh, Zanskar ranges are
found in the north-western part of the Himalayas while the Naga, Patkoi, Manipur
and Arakan ranges are found in the south-east. The reason for the Himalayas
being wider in the west than in the east is because of the greater pressure force in
the east than in the west. The Eastern Himalayas are higher than the Western
Himalayas because of the higher-pressure force.

Himalayan States and UTs

➢ There are 11 Himalayan states and 2 union territories in India.
➢ Himalayan States: Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Assam,
West Bengal
➢ Himalayan Union Territories: Jammu – Kashmir and Ladakh

Northern Mountain Ranges can be divided into 3 parts -

1. Trans Himalaya or Tibet Himalaya
2. Himalayan Region
3. Eastern Hills

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1. Trans Himalaya or Tibet Himalaya

• The Trans Himalaya is basically a segment of the Eurasian Plate. It was
formed before the Himalayas. It is situated to the north of the Great
Himalayas or Greater Himalayas.
• Its main expansion is in the state of Jammu and Kashmir and in Tibet.
Being located more in Tibet, it is also called Tibet Himalayan region.
• The Karakoram, Ladakh, Zanskar and Kailash Mountain ranges
come under this. Its length is about 965 km. There is lack of vegetation in
this part.
• It is made of sedimentary rocks. Rocks from Tertiary to Cambrian age are
found in it.
• Antecedent rivers like Sutlej, Indus and Brahmaputra are born from this
range.
• Many glaciers are found in the Trans Himalayas, in which Siachen (Nubra
Valley), Baltoro, Biafo and Hispar glaciers are prominent.
• The Trans Himalaya is separated from the Greater Himalaya by the ITSZ
(Indus – Tsangpo Suture Zone) or Hinge Line.

Godwin Austin (K2): The highest peak in the Trans Himalaya is 'Godwin
Austin (K2)'. Its height is 8,611 meters. This peak is located in the Karakoram
Mountain range. It is the highest mountain peak in India and the second highest
in the world.

Rakaposhi Peak: It is the highest steep slope peak in the world. It is situated
in the Ladakh Mountain range.

Mountain Ranges of Trans Himalaya

A. Karakoram Range: It is the northernmost mountain range of
India. It is also called the backbone of high Asia. India's highest
peak 'Godwin Austin (K-2)' is situated in this. The Siachen Glacier
is located in the Nubra Valley of the Karakoram range.
B. Ladakh Range: It is situated to the south of Karakoram. The
eastern part of the Ladakh range is the Kailash range (Tibet,
China). Rakaposhi, the peak with the steepest slope in the world,
is the highest mountain peak in this range. Mount Kailash (in
Tibet), the holy place of Hindu religion, is situated in this range.
Aksai Chin is situated in this mountain range.

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C. Zanskar Range: It is situated to the south of Ladakh and north

of the Great Himalayas. The Indus River flows between the
Ladakh Range and the Zanskar Range. Its expansion is in the states
of Jammu-Kashmir and Uttarakhand. 'Nanga Parbat' is the
highest peak of this mountain range. Mana Pass, Niti Pass,
Lipulekh Pass and Kingri-Bingri Pass are situated in this
mountain range.

Note: The Indus River cuts the Ladakh range at a place called 'Bunji' and
forms the deepest gorge of India.

2. Himalaya Mountain Region

Himalayan Mountain Region is divided in to three parallel ranges which are
arranged in north to south –
A. Great Himalaya or Inner Himalaya or Himadri
B. Lesser Himalaya or Mid Himalaya or Himachal Ranges
C. Sub Himalaya or Outer Himalaya or Shivalik Ranges

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A. Great Himalaya or Himadri

• Being always covered with snow, it is known as Himadri. It is also called
the Great Himalaya or the Inner Himalaya.
• The Great Himalaya is the oldest and most continuous range. The nature
of the arc of the Great Himalaya is asymmetric. The core of this part of
the Himalayas is made of granite.
• Its interior is made up of Archaean rocks such as granite, gneiss and schist
rocks and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks are found in its head and rear
parts.
• It extends like an arc from the gorge of Indus River/ Nanga Parbat in the
west to Namcha Barwa mountain in Arunachal Pradesh in the east.
• The highest peaks of the world such as Mount Everest, Kangchenjunga,
Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Nanga Parbat, Annapurna, Nanda Devi, Badrinath,
Neelkanth, Namcha Barwa and Kedarnath etc. are found in this range.
• The average height of the Greater Himalayas is about 6100 meters. Mount
Everest (Chomo Lungma) or Sagarmatha is its highest peak.
• The Ganga, Yamuna and their tributaries originate from the central part of
the Greater Himalayas. The rivers flowing through this mountain range are
Indus, Brahmaputra and Alaknanda.
• The Greater Himalayas are separated from the Middle Himalayas (Lesser
Himalayas) by the Main Central Thrust.
• In the Great Himalayas or Greater Himalayas, the height of the snow line
is higher in the western part than in the east, this is because the western
part is drier.
• The mountain slope of the Great Himalaya is gentle towards the north and
steep towards the south. The main reason for this is the convergent force
exerted by the Indo-Australian plate.

Highest peak of Himalaya: Mt Everest (It is called Chomolungma in Tibet and

Sagarmatha in Nepal). Its height is 8,848.6 meter (till December, 2020).
Highest peak of India: Godwin Austin (K-2). It is situated in Pak Occupied
Kashmir.
Passes in this mountain range: Burzil pass (Kashmir), Zoji La pass (Ladakh),
Baralacha La (Himachal Pradesh), Shipki La (Himachal Pradesh), Thang La
(Uttarakhand), Nathu La and Jelep La (Sikkim).

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Mountains Situated in Greater Himalayas

Mountain Altitude / Height (in Meter) Location
Mount Everest 8,848.86 Nepal – Tibet
Kangchenjunga 8,598 (8,586 in some sources) Sikkim (India) – Nepal
Makalu 8,481 (8,485/8,463 in some Nepal – Tibet
sources)
Dhaulagiri 8,172 (8,167 in some sources) Nepal
Nanga Parbat 8,126 Gilgit Baltistan
(Pakistan)
Annapurna 8,078 (8,091 in some sources) Nepal
Nanda Devi 7,816 Uttarakhand (India)
Namcha Barwa 7,756 (7,782 in some sources) Arunachal Pradesh –
Tibet
Kedarnath 6,940 Uttarakhand (India)

B. Lesser Himalaya or Himachal Ranges

• It extends to the south of the Main Himalayas/Greater Himalayas. These
mountains are made of Pre-Cambrian and Paleozoic rocks. The Pir
Panjal range is its western extension.
• Its width is 80 to 100 km. Its altitude is between 3700 to 4500 meters.
• This Himalaya is the most rugged. From tectonic point of view, this
Himalaya is mostly calm.
• Shimla (located in the Dhauladhar range), Mussoorie, Chakrata,
Nainital, Ranikhet and Darjeeling etc. are situated between the Lesser
Himalayas and the Shivalik range.
• Valleys like Kashmir Valley, Lahaul-Spiti, Kullu Valley, Kangra
Valley and Kathmandu Valley are situated between the Great Himalayas
and the Lesser Himalayas.
• The Main Boundary Fault is found between the Central Himalayas and
the Shivalik Himalayas.
• There are many small ranges under the Lesser Himalayas which are as
follows –
o Pir Panjal Range (Jammu – Kashmir)
o Dhauladhar Range (Himachal Pradesh)
o Nagtibba Range (Nepal – Uttarakhand)
o Mahabharata Category (Nepal)
o Mussoorie Range (Uttarakhand)

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• Marg: Small grasslands are found on the slopes of the Lesser

Himalayas, which are called 'Marg' in Kashmir, such as Sonmarg,
Gulmarg etc.
• Bugyal/Payar: The small grasslands found on the slopes of the Lesser
Himalayas are called Bugyal or Payar in Uttarakhand.
• Doon/Duar: The flat valleys or plains found between the Shivaliks and
the Lesser Himalayas are called Doon in the west and Duar in the east,
such as Dehradun and Haridwar.
• Karewa: The structure formed by glacial deposits in the Kashmir
Valley is called 'Karewa'. It is highly famous for the cultivation of
saffron.

C. Shivalik Range or Outer Himalaya

• It is the outermost and newest range of the Himalayas. Its construction
period is believed to be from middle Miocene to lower Pleistocene i.e.
Cenozoic era.
• The Shivalik range is situated to the south of the Lesser Himalayas. It
extends from the Potwar Basin of Pakistan in the west to the Kosi River
in the east.
• The average height of Shivalik is found between 900 to 1200 meters. It is
made up of thick layers of sand, pebble and conglomerate rock.
• The area spread between Indus and Teesta in the Giripad region of
Shivalik is called Bhabar plain.
• It is the latest part of the Himalayan Mountain range. It is called 'Hundwa
range' near Gorakhpur and 'Churia Muria range' in the east.
• It is known as Dafla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills in Arunachal Pradesh.

3. Eastern Hills
They are spread in the north-eastern states of India. Many of these are spread
along the border line of India and Myanmar and many are in the interior of the
country. Like – Patkoi Bum, Naga Hills and Mizo Hills etc.
Northern – Eastern ranges –
❖ Dafla Hill – Arunachal Pradesh Miri Hill – Arunachal Pradesh
❖ Abor Hill – Arunachal Pradesh Mishmi Hill – Arunachal Pradesh
❖ Patkai Boom – Arunachal Pradesh
❖ Bareil Range – Assam, Manipur and Nagaland

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❖ Mikir Hill – Assam Garo Hill – Meghalaya

❖ Khasi Hills – Meghalaya Jaintia Hills – Meghalaya

Regional Division of Himalaya:

Part of Himalaya Properties
Punjab Himalaya ➢ Between the Sidhu or Indus River and Sutlej
River is called Punjab Himalaya.
➢ It is extended in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh.
➢ Famous Mountain ranges like Karakoram, Ladakh,
Dhauladhar, Pir Panjal and Zanskar are found in
this part of Himalaya.
➢ In this part Rohtang, Banihal, Fotu La, Baralacha
La and Zoji La passes are found.
Kumaon ➢ This is spread between Sutlej and Kali River.
Himalaya ➢ This part is taller than Punjab Himalaya.
➢ Bhagirathi, Yamuna like rivers originates from this
part of Himalaya.
➢ Badrinath and Kedarnath are famous peaks found
in this part of Himalaya.
➢ Famous Sangam or “Panch Prayag” i.e. Dev
Prayag, Karna Prayag, Vishnu Prayag, Nand
Prayag and Rudra Prayag are found in this range.
➢ It is mainly situated in Uttarakhand state.
➢ Valley of Flowers also situated in this range.

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Nepal Himalaya ➢ This is the longest mountain region of Himalaya.

➢ It is spread about 800 kms between Kali and
Teesta rivers.
➢ World’s highest mountain peaks situated in this
part of Himalaya like – Mt Everest, Kanchenjunga,
Dhaulagiri, Annapurna and Makalu etc.
Assam Himalaya ➢ This spread between Teesta and Dihang River in
east for 720 kms.
➢ In this Himalaya Naga, Manipur, Khasi, Garo
hills are situated.
➢ Famous rivers of this part are Brahmaputra, Teesta,
Dihang, Dibang, Barakar and Lohit etc.

Difference between Western Himalaya and Eastern Himalaya

Western Himalaya Eastern Himalaya
situated between Indus River and Kali from the Singalila Mountains in
River. Sikkim to the eastern range of the
Himalayas.
Receives more rainfall from western Receives more rainfall from south-
disturbance (in winter season) west monsoon (in summer season)
Receives relatively less amount of Receives relatively high amount of
rainfall. rainfall.
Biodiversity comparatively less. High amount of biodiversity. The
biodiversity hot spot of India is located
here.
Height of snow line and tree line Height of snowline and tree line is
relatively lower relatively higher
Rivers Ganga, Yamuna and Indus flow Teesta and Brahmaputra rivers flow.

Major Himalayan Glaciers

Glacier Length Location
Siachen 76 kms. Karakoram Range
Biafo 62 kms. Karakoram Range
Hispar 61 kms. Karakoram Range
Baltoro 58 kms. Karakoram Range
Batura 58 kms. Karakoram Range
Chogolungma 50 kms. Karakoram Range
Khurdojin 41 kms. Karakoram Range
Rimo 40 kms. Karakoram Range

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Gangotri 30 kms. Kumaon Himalaya

Punmah 27 kms. Karakoram Range
Jemu 26 kms. Kangchenjunga (Sikkim/Nepal)
Rundun 19 kms. Karakoram Range
Milam 19 kms. Kumaon Himalaya
Sasaini 17.8 kms. Karakoram Range
Rupal 16 kms. Greater Himalaya (POK)
Sonapani 11 kms. Kashmir
Chodibari 07 kms. Uttarakhand (Near Kedarnath)

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Important Passes of India

Name of Pass State About the Pass
Karakoram Ladakh Highest pass of India (5,664 Meter
(Karakoram Range) height)
Zoji La Ladakh (Zanskar Srinagar – Leh state highway passes
Range) through this pass.
Chang La Ladakh
Burzil Jammu-Kashmir It connects Gilgit to Srinagar.
Pir Panjal Jammu-Kashmir
Banihal Jammu-Kashmir It connects Jammu to Sri Nagar.
(Pir Panjal Range) Famous for Jawahar tunnel.
Shipki La Himachal Pradesh It connects Shimla to Tibet. Sutlej
(Zanskar Range) enters through this pass.
Debsa Himachal Pradesh It connects Kullu to Spiti.
Lung Lacha Himachal Pradesh It connects Manali to Leh (Ladakh).
Rohtang pass Himachal Pradesh It connects Manali to Leh. It is called
Entrance Gate of Lahul – Spiti distt.
(Pir Panjal Range)
Of Himachal Pradesh. Atal Tunnel is
situated on it.
Baralacha Pass Himachal Pradesh It connects Leh (Ladakh) to Mandi
(Zanskar Range) (Lahul).
Mana Pass Uttarakhand It connects Garhwal (Uttarakhand) to
(Kumaon Range) Tibet. Saraswati River originates
from here place named Dev Tal.
Niti Pass Uttarakhand It is famous for Kailash Man Sarovar
Pilgrimage.
Lipulekh Pass Uttarakhand It connects Uttarakhand to Tibet. It
makes a boundary between India,
(Kumaon Range)
Nepal and China.
Nathu La Sikkim It connects Lhasa (Capital of Tibet) to
Sikkim. One of the most important
trade route between India and China.
Dongkha / Sikkim Cholamu lake, India’s highest
Donkia Pass elevation lake at this pass.
Jelep La Sikkim
Bomdi La Arunachal Pradesh
Yang Yap Pass Arunachal Pradesh Brahmaputra river enters in India near
to this pass.

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 Geography of India Raj Holkar (9650697922)

Diphu Pass Arunachal Pradesh It enables trade and transport between

India-Myanmar.
Pangsau Pass Arunachal Pradesh
Tuju Pass Manipur It connects Imphal (India) to
Myanmar.
Thal Ghat Maharashtra Mumbai-Nagpur-Kolkata main
railway line passes through this pass.
Bhor Ghat Maharashtra It connects Mumbai to Pune.
Pal Ghat Kerala
Senkota Pass Kerala It connects Tamil Nadu to Kerala.

Great Plains of the North

Sutlej- Ganga and Brahmaputra Plain
• It is spread from North of Rajasthan, Punjab-Haryana in west up to Assam
in north east including plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in mid.
• It is also expanded in Pakistan (Plains of Indus River) and Bangladesh
(Ganga-Brahmaputra plain)
• This plain was created by sediments brought by mighty Sutlej, Ganges,
Brahmaputra and their tributaries, so this plain is very fertile.
• Aravalli ridges acts as water divider between Indus-Sutlej River system
and Ganga-Yamuna River system. That’s why its eastern and western parts
are called eastern and western plains.

West Plain
A. Indus Plain: It’s Sutlej basin only falls within India rest is in Pakistan. That’s
why it is called as Plains of Sutlej in India.
B. Punjab-Haryana Plain: It is western Plain which is spread in Punjab and
Haryana states of India. It is drain by Sutlej, Beas and Ravi rivers. This is mostly
made of “Bangar” soil but on river banks a narrow strip of “Khadar” alluvium
also found which is called as “bet” in local language. This plain consists five
doabs (area between two rivers), which are –

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Doab Location
Bist Doab between Beas and Sutlej
Bari Doab between Beas and Ravi
Rachena Doab between Ravi and Chenab
Chajj Doab between Chenab and Jhelum
Sindh Sagar Doab between Jhelum-Chenab and Indus

C. Rajasthan Plain: Its extension is from Aravalli in east to Indo-Pak border in

west. It mostly lies in Rajasthan state. This is mostly desert plain and drain by an
inland river name ‘Luni’. Sambhar, Didwana, Pachpadra are important saline
lakes of this plain. Sambhar lake is India’s largest inland saline lake.

East Plain:
A. Ganga Plain: This plain Spreads in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
West Bengal. The depth of this ground is more. The Ganga plain is divided into
two parts from the point of view of surface –
Bangar: It is a plain made of ancient alluvial soil. It is higher than Khadar.
Flood water usually does not reach this region. In some areas of Bangar soil,
due to excessive irrigation, a white layer of salt is deposited on the land, which
is called 'reh' or 'kallar'. Two regional distinctions can be made for Bangar
land –
o Barind Plains: It is actually the ancient delta of the Ganga, situated
in the deltaic regions of Bengal.
o Bhur region: It is formed by deposition by wind. It is found today
as a continuous ridge on the Bangar highlands. It has more sand
content.

Khadar: It is formed by the deposition of new alluvium. This is a relatively

low region. The flood water of the rivers reaches here almost every year
due to which it remains fertile. Those regions of Bihar, Eastern Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal which are adjacent to the river valleys come
under Khadar. In Punjab it is called 'bet'.
B. Plain of Brahmaputra: It is also called Assam Valley. It is a long and narrow
plain between the Meghalaya Plateau and the Himalayan Mountains. It is only 80
kms. wide. The Brahmaputra River has immersed a huge amount of soil here in
making this valley, due to this accumulation of soil, islands have also been formed
at some places. Majuli Island is one such island which is the largest river island
in the world. The Brahmaputra River enters the plain near Sadiya and covers a

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distance of 720 km. On flowing, it turns south near Dhubri and enters in
Bangladesh.

Peninsular Plateau of South

• This is the oldest plateau not only of India but also of the world. It is made
up of Archaean rocks and no part of it is submerged under the sea.
• Being a tectonically calm area, the possibility of earthquakes here is very
less.
• The hills of Aravalli, Kaimur, Rajmahal and Shillong form the northern
boundary of the peninsular plateau. Its southern end is Kanyakumari.
• The Eastern Ghats are on its eastern border and the Western Ghats are
situated on its western border.
• During the separation of India from Africa, a rift valley was formed in the
form of the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats survived as a rift ledge.
The steep slope of the west coast of peninsular India declares that fault.
• The valleys of Narmada and Tapti rivers have divided it into two unequal
parts. The northern part is called the Malwa Plateau and the southern part
is known as the Deccan Trap. The flow of lava through a fissure opening
in the northwestern part of the plateau led to the formation of the Deccan
Trap.

A. Aravalli Mountain: It is a residual mountain. It is one of the oldest folded

mountains in the world. The length of Aravalli is 1100 km. Is. It extends from
Delhi to Ahmedabad. It is situated in the north west of the Malwa plateau. The
highest peak of Aravalli Mountain is 'Gurushikhar'.

B. Central Highland
• Malwa Plateau: This plateau is spread in the north-west of Narmada and
Tapti rivers and Vindhyachal mountain. Its height is 800 meters. It is made
of hard rocks like granite. Black soil formed from lava deposits is found
here. The main rivers flowing here are Banas, Chambal, Sindh, Mahi and
Betwa.

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• Bundelkhand Plateau: It is situated to the east of the Malwa plateau. Its

topography has been developed by intense erosion of gneiss and quartzite.
Because of the great ravines made by the Chambal River, this region is
called 'Bad land Topography'.
• Vindhya Mountain Range: Its length is 1200 km. This is highly eroded
mountain range. Its average elevation is 500 to 700 Meter. Its western part
has lava deposits but not on eastern part. In its west Bharner range and
in east Kaimur Mountain range are situated.

C. Deccan Plateau
• This plateau is spread to the west of the Tapti River. It is surrounded by
Satpura and Vindhyachal in the north-west, Mahadev and Maikal in the
north, Eastern Ghats in the east and Western Ghats in the west.
• It was formed from the basic lava that came out of the volcanic eruptions
occurring in the Cretaceous and early Tertiary periods.
• Its general slope is from north and north-west to south and south-east, that
is why the rivers coming out of this plateau are eastern. The Tapti River
forms its northern boundary.
• This plateau is spread over parts of the states of Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Gujarat.

Parts of Deccan Plateau

Lava Plateau of Deccan (Maharashtra): It is made of lava basalt. The depth of
lava is 2000 meter. Its average elevation is 300-900 meter.
Telangana Plateau: It is spread in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Its northern
part is plateau and southern part is plain. Its topography is favorable for formation
of ponds. That’s why so many ponds are found here. Godavari River divides this
plateau in two equal parts.
Mysore (Karnataka) Plateau: This is mainly made of ancient Archean gneiss
and granite rocks but between the Bengaluru and Mysore a belt of lava plateau
also found. It is bound by Nilgiri Mountain in south. Baba Budan Hills are part
of this plateau which is famous for iron ore. Cauvery is main river draining
Karnataka Plateau. Jog or Garsopa waterfall also situated in Karnataka on
Sharavati River.

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D. Eastern Plateau
• Baghelkhand Plateau: It is situated to the east of the Maikal range. To its
north are the Sonpur hills and to the south are the Ramgarh hills. The
central part is elevated from east to west.
• Chhattisgarh Plateau: It is situated to the south of the Baghelkhand
plateau. Here the rocks of the Cuddapah formation are found. This plateau
includes the valley of the Wainganga and the upper basin of the
Mahanadi. The height of this plateau increases towards the south.
• Dandkaranya plateau: It is situated in the border region of Chhattisgarh
and Andhra Pradesh. It is a rugged plateau made of Archaean rocks.
• Chhota Nagpur plateau: It is the north-eastern frontier plateau. The hills
of Parasnath are situated on this. Mahanadi, Son, Damodar and
Subarnarekha Rivers are the main rivers flowing on this plateau. It is a
very rich plateau in terms of minerals.
• Meghalaya plateau: It is also called the Plateau of Shillong. It is a
contemporary plateau of Chhota Nagpur plateau. It is a very cut-off and
forested plateau. It also includes the Garo Hills, Khasi, Jaintia and Mikir
Hills. The major rivers flowing on this plateau are Dudnai and Kaisnai.

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E. Eastern Ghats: These mountains extend in a north-east to south-west

direction from the Mahanadi valley to the Nilgiris in the south, parallel to the
eastern coastal plain. Their length is 1800 km. These are relict mountains and
they have been developed from the Cuddapah Formation. This range is from
Odisha to Tamil Nadu. Compared to the Western Ghat Mountains, its erosion has
been more, so it is less high in comparison. Due to river erosion, its serialization
has also almost ended. Visakhapatnam peak is the highest peak of Eastern Ghat
mountain, its second highest peak is Mahendragiri.
F. Western Ghats: The spread of these mountains is from Narmada valley to
Kanyakumari. It is also called Sahyadri. Its average height is about 900 – 1600
meters. The major peaks of the Western Ghats are Mahabaleshwar, Kalsubai and
Harishchandra. It is the second longest mountain range in India after the
Himalayas.
Order of major hills of Western Ghats (North to South): Nilgiri Hills
> Annamalai Hills > Cardamom Hills
It can be divided into three parts –
A. Northern Sahyadri: It is between 21ºN to 16ºN latitude from Tapti
valley to north of Goa. It is made of horizontal sheet of Deccan lava.
Kalsubai (1,646 meter) is its highest peak another important peaks are
Salher and Mahabaleshwar etc. Thalghat and Bhorghat are important
passes which provide rail-road passage between Konkan Plain and Deccan
Plateau.
B. Middle Sahyadri: It is between 16ºN latitude to Nilgiri in south. This
part is made of granite and gneiss. Sahyadri joins Nilgiri at Gudalur
heights. Here Eastern Ghats also joins Western Ghats. Doddabetta (2,637
meter) is the highest peak.
C. Southern Part: This part of Western Ghats separated from mains Sahyadri
by Palghat gap which is sudden break in continuity of Western Ghats. This
Gap provides rail-road connectivity between Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Anaimudi (2,695 meter) is the highest peak of Western Ghats.

Nilgiri Hills: The Nilgiri Hills is a topographical knot where the Eastern Ghat
Mountains and the Western Ghat Mountains meet. The highest peak of the
Nilgiris is Doddabetta which is the second highest peak in South India. The
highest peak of South India is Anaimudi, it is the peak of Annamalai mountain.

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Mountains and Peaks of South India

Mountains/Peaks Location
Nilgiri Mountains Kerala – Tamil Nadu
Annamalai Mountains Kerala – Tamil Nadu
Cardamom Mountains Kerala – Tamil Nadu
Palani Hills Tamil Nadu
Shevaroy Hills Tamil Nadu
Javadi Hills Tamil Nadu
Palakonda Hills Andhra Pradesh
Velikonda Hills Andhra Pradesh
Nallamalai Mountains Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
Nagari Hills Andhra Pradesh
Panchamalai Hills Tamil Nadu
Sirumalai Tamil Nadu

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Coastal Plain and islands

Coastal Plains of India can be divided in two parts – West Coast Plain and East
Coast Plain.

1. West Coast Plain:

• The extension of this plain is from Surat to Kanyakumari or Gulf of
Khambhat to Kumari Cape between the Arabian Sea coast and the
Western Ghats.
• The rivers flowing in the western coastal plain are short and swift. Most of
the rivers do not form delta at the mouth but form estuaries.
• Backwaters are found on the west coast, which are called 'Kayal' in
Kerala. Example – Bembanad and Ashtamudi.

Backwaters: It is a type of lagoon which is formed due to deposition of sand at

the mouth of rivers.
West coast of India can be further divided in four parts –
❖ Plain of Gujarat: coastal area of Gujarat
❖ Plain of Konkan: coastal area between Daman and Goa
❖ Plain of Karnataka: coastal area between Goa and Mangalore
❖ Plain of Malabar: coastal area between Mangalore and Kanyakumari

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2. East Coast Plain:

• This plain extends from the Subarnarekha River to Kanyakumari
between the Eastern Ghats and the sea coast.
• This plain is wider than the western coastal plain, mainly due to the
formation of delta by rivers like Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.
• The number of ports in the eastern coastal plain is less than in the western
coastal plain.
• It is called the 'Northern Circar Coast' between the Mahanadi and
Godavari rivers and the 'Coromandel Coast' between the Krishna and
Kaveri rivers.
• Kolleru Lake (Andhra Pradesh) is situated in the deltaic part of the
Godavari and Krishna rivers in the eastern coastal plain. It is a deltaic lake.
• The other two lakes, Chilka (Odisha) and Pulicat Lake (on the border of
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu) are located in the eastern coastal plain.
Both of these are Anoop Lake. Chilika Lake is the largest lagoon brackish
lake in India.
• East coastal plain can further divide in 3 sub parts –
A. Utkal Coastal Plain: It is spread from Ganga delta to Krishna delta for
400 kms.
B. Andhra or Kakinada Coastal Plain: This is spread between
Behrampur (Andhra Pradesh) to Pulicat Lake. There are several
important ports on this coast like Visakhapatnam, Kakinada and
Masulipatnam.
C. Tamil Nadu or Coromandel Coast: This plain is spread between
Pulicat lake and Kanyakumari for 675 kms. Chennai, Tuticorin and
Nagapatnam are famous ports on its coast. Gulf of Munnar on this
coast which is famous for its seeps.

Comparison of Western and Eastern Coastal Plains

Western Coastal Plain Eastern Coastal Plain
It is narrower and more humid. It is broad and relatively dry.
Here small and fast-moving rivers Big rivers (Krishna, Kaveri,
flow which are unable to form delta Godavari, Mahanadi) flow here and
so form estuaries. form big deltas.
There are many lagoons in the The number of lagoons is less in this
southern part of this plain. plain.
The west coast is more indented; The east coast is less indented and
hence it has more ports. therefore has fewer ports.

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Islands of India
India has a total of more than 1000 islands which are located in the Bay of Bengal
and the Arabian Sea. The islands of the Bay of Bengal are the summits of the
extended submerged range of Myanmar's Arakanyoma, while the islands of
the Arabian Sea are deposits of coral reefs deposited on volcanic islands. On the
basis of their position, the Indian Islands can be divided mainly into three parts,
which are as follows-

A). Islands of Bay of Bengal

Andaman and Nicobar Islands are prominent among the islands of the Bay of
Bengal. These are separated from each other by the 10º Channel. Its southern
most part is called Indira Point. It rains throughout the year. Hot-humid climate
and dense forests are found here.
Andaman and Nicobar isles:
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are basically the raised parts of the
oceanic fold mountains formed in the Tertiary era. There are about 350
islands in which only 38 islands have human habitation. The highest peak
of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is Saddle Peak (738 m in North
Andaman). One of this island group 'Barren Island' is the only active
volcano in India.
• In terms of area and population, the Andaman-Nicobar Islands are larger
than Lakshadweep.
• The southernmost point of India 'Indira Point' is located in Great Nicobar.
• The 10° Channel separates Andaman from Nicobar.
• 'Duncan Pass' is between South Andaman and Little Andaman.
• The second volcano of Andaman is Narcondam which is in dormant state.
• Port Blair, the capital of Andaman, is located in South Andaman.
• Landfall Island is the northernmost island of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
• Ethnic group found on Andaman-Nicobar Islands –
o Onges (Negroid race)
o Sentinelese (Negroid race)
o Jarawa (Negroid race)
o Shompen (Mongoloid race)
o Andamanese (Negroid race)
o Nicobarese (Mongoloid race)

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B). Islands of Arabian Sea

In this, 36 islands (10 inhabited) of the Lakshadweep group are included. They
are mainly composed of reef deposits. The southernmost of these is Minicoy,
which is separated from the Maldives by the 8º Channel.
Lakshadweep isles: This island is situated in the Arabian Sea. This island
group has been formed by the deposition of coral over the Lakshadweep-Chagos
undersea ridge. Atolls found in the oceanic part of India are mainly found in
Lakshadweep. 'Atoll' is a type of coral reef which is shaped like a ring or a
horseshoe. Atolls are areas of high biodiversity. Coral reefs are found around the
islands on which there are coconut trees. There are 36 islands under the
Lakshadweep group, out of which 10 are inhabited by humans.
• Kavaratti is the capital of Lakshadweep. Agati is the only island here with
an airport.
• Andrott is the largest island of the Lakshadweep group.
• Coconut is the only agricultural product here. Fishing is the main
occupation here. Tuna fish is the main fish caught here.

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• The 'Pitti Island' located here has been declared a bird sanctuary.
• About 94 percent of the population here is Muslim, who belong to the
Sunni sect.
• Here 'Malayalam' language is spoken on all the islands except Minicoy
Island. 'Mahal Bhasha' is spoken in Minicoy. Mahal language is basically
Maldivian language.
• The southernmost island of Lakshadweep is Minicoy, which is separated
from the rest of the islands by the 9° Channel.
• Lakshadweep and Maldives are separated from each other by the 8°
channel current.
• Lakshadweep is divided into two parts with the help of 11° latitude. The
northern part is called 'Aminidivi' and the southern part is called
'Cannanore'.

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C). Offshore islands

In addition to the Lakshadweep and Andaman group of islands, there are many
islands located in the west coast, east coast, Ganga delta and Gulf of Munnar of
India. Like- Pamban (Gulf of Munnar), Sri Harikota (Pulicat Lake), Wheeler
(Mahanadi-Brahmani estuary), New Moore (Ganga Delta) islands.
• Sri Harikota Island: It is situated in the fore part of Pulicat Lake. It is a
coral island.
• Pamban Island: It is situated in the Gulf of Munnar between India and Sri
Lanka. It is part of Adam's Bridge.
• New Moore Island: This island is located in the Bay of Bengal on the
border of Bangladesh and India. There is a dispute between the two
countries regarding the right over it. It is a very young island formed by
the deposition of debris at the mouth of the Ganges.
• Wheeler Island: This island is situated at the mouth of Mahanadi-
Brahmani.

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Chapter 3: Drainage System of India

The flow of water through a defined waterway is called Drainage. Thus, the
network of many waterways is called drainage system. Natural drainage system
is developed by rivers and their tributaries.
Factors Affecting Drainage Pattern:
• Form and composition of rocks
• Topographic gradient
• Volume of flowing water
• Duration or time of flow

From the point of view of origin, the Indian drainage system can be divided into
two parts –
1. Himalayan drainage system
2. Peninsular Drainage System

Comparison of Himalayan drainage system and Peninsular drainage system

Himalayan Rivers Peninsular Rivers
Himalayan rivers are perennial (full of Peninsular rivers are seasonal. Being
water throughout the year). Their source dependent only on rain water, their water
is often associated with glaciers. There level increases only once a year, usually
is an increase in the amount of water in during the south-west monsoon.
these rivers twice a year. Firstly, at the
Since Tamil Nadu receives winter rainfall
time of melting of snow in summer and
from the north-east monsoon, the water
secondly, at the time of South East
level in the lower reaches of the Kaveri
Monsoon.
River rises during the winter season during
Example: Ganga, Yamuna, Kosi etc. the north-east monsoon.
The basins of the Himalayan rivers are The basins of the peninsular rivers are
generally large, such as the Ganges generally small, such as the Narmada and
basin Tapti.
The Himalayan rivers are usually longer, Peninsular rivers are comparatively
due to the distance of the source area smaller.
from the sea.

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These rivers are tributaries of one or the Due to the steep peninsular slope, most of
other big river, so only few rivers fall the rivers fall into the sea.
directly into the sea.
These rivers carve out deep valleys and Often the valleys of these rivers are less
gorges in the source area. deep (shallow).
The Himalayan rivers cover long Peninsular rivers are not suitable for
distances in the plains and are navigable. sailing due to formation of waterfalls on
the way and increase or decrease in the
amount of water. These rivers are
navigable in deltaic parts.
Due to flowing in the plains and due to Peninsular rivers flow through hard rocky
the looseness of the terrain, the rivers terrain. Many rivers flow through rift
form erosion. valleys. Their path is straight and linear.
Narmada, Tapti etc. develop linear flow
due to flowing in rift valleys.
Himalayan rivers often form deltas at Peninsular rivers often form estuaries or
their mouths. small deltas at the mouth.

Himalayan drainage system

Three river systems are included in the Himalayan drainage system which are as
follows –
1. Indus River System
2. Ganges River System
3. Brahmaputra River system

1. Indus River System

• Under this, Indus and its tributaries like Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas,
Sutlej, Zaskar, Gomal, Drass, Shigar, Kurram, Kabul and Gilgit rivers are
included.
• Indus is the largest river in this river system. The origin of the Indus River
is the Chemayungdung (Bokhar Chu) glacier near Mansarovar Lake in
Tibet.

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• It first flows in the north-west direction, then cutting the Himalayan

mountains, enters India near Damchowk.
• The Indus is an antecedent river that cuts the Ladakh range at a place called
Bunji, north of Nanga Parbat, forming a deep gorge.
• It is one of the largest rivers of the world, its total length is 2,880 km. And
its total length in India is 1114 km.
• Under the Indus Water Treaty, India can use only 20 percent water of its
immersion capacity.
• Rivers joining Indus from left side are – Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab,
Jhelum, Zasker, Sohan, Siang, Shigar are important.
• Rivers joining Indus from right are – Shyok, Kabul, Kurram, Tochi,
Gomal and Gilgit.
• It enters Pakistan near Chillas. Near Mithankot in Pakistan, it receives the
combined stream of Panchnad (Sutlej, Beas, Chenab, Ravi and Jhelum).
• It joins the Arabian Sea in the east of Karachi (Pakistan).

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Tributaries of Indus River

Jhelum River:
➢ Jhelum, a tributary of the Indus River, originates from the Sheshnag Lake
near Verinag (Kashmir).
➢ After flowing from Wular Lake near Srinagar, it reaches Pakistan
through a narrow gorge.
➢ It joins the Chenab River in Pakistan, so it is also a tributary of the
Chenab River.
➢ Jhelum river forms about 170 km Indo-Pak border.
➢ Tulbul project and Uri project are being run in Jammu and Kashmir on
Jhelum River.

Chenab River:
➢ Chenab is formed by the meeting of two rivers named Chandra and
Bhaga. Both these rivers meet at Tandi near Keylong.
➢ This combined river flows in the north-west direction from Himachal
Pradesh by the name of Chandrabhaga and enters Jammu and Kashmir
by the name of Chenab.
➢ Chenab river receives water from Jhelum, Tawi and Ravi rivers.
➢ Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus River.
➢ Major water projects built on Chenab River are Salal Project, Baglihar
Project and Dulhasti Project.

Ravi River:
➢ The river originates from the Kullu Mountains near the Rohtang Pass in
Himachal Pradesh.
➢ It enters Punjab near Madhopur, and 26 km from Amritsar it enters in
Pakistan.
➢ It joins the Chenab near Rangpur. It is a tributary of Chenab.
➢ Major projects built on Ravi River are Chamera Project (Himachal
Pradesh) and Theen Project (Joint Project of Punjab and Himachal
Pradesh).

Beas River:
➢ The origin of this river is from near Rohtang Pass. The Beas River enters
the plains near Pong.
➢ India's longest canal 'Indira Gandhi Canal’ has been taken out from
'Harike Barrage' at a place named Harike (the confluence of Beas and
Sutlej).
➢ The Pong project is built on the Beas River itself.

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Sutlej River:
➢ Sutlej river originates from Rakas Tal (Tibet) near Mansarovar. It is an
antecedent river that cuts through the Himalayas and enters India through
the Shipki La pass.
➢ Beas river meets Sutlej at Harike. Sutlej river enters the plains at a place
called Ropar.
➢ Spiti river is its main tributary.
➢ Sutlej river forms 120 km long Indo-Pak border.
➢ The Sutlej River joins the Indus River near Mithankot.

Major projects built on the Indus River –

1. Bhakra-Nangal Project: It is the largest river valley project in India.
Bhakra and Nangal dams have been built on Sutlej at two places. Bhakra
Dam is the highest gravity dam in India. Water is supplied for
hydroelectricity from Bhakra and for irrigation from Nangal. For this
Govind Sagar reservoir has been built in Himachal. This project benefits
Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan.
2. Indira Gandhi Canal: This canal has been taken out from the Harike
Barrage situated at the confluence of Beas and Sutlej. It is the longest canal
in the world. Pong dam has been built on Ravi and Beas River for water
supply in this canal. From this, water is supplied in the desert parts of
Rajasthan.

2. Ganges River System

• The Ganges River originates from the 'Gangotri Glacier' near 'Gomukh' in
Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. Here it is known as Bhagirathi.
• The Alaknanda flowing in this region is an earlier river which cuts the
Himalayas and forms a narrow gorge. Bhagirathi and Alaknanda meet at
Devaprayag. It is from here that the name of the combined stream of both
becomes Ganga.
• The source of the Alaknanda River is the Satopanth glacier. Pindar river
joins Alaknanda at Karnprayag.
• The famous pilgrimage Badrinath is situated on the banks of river
Alaknanda. Kedarnath is situated on the banks of Mandakini River.
• Mandakini river joins near Rudraprayag on the right bank of Alaknanda.

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• The Ganga enters the plain near Haridwar. The Yamuna River joins the
Ganges at Prayagraj.
• Tons and Son are the rivers coming from the southern plateau and joining
the Ganges directly.
• The longest length of river Ganga is in Uttar Pradesh.
• Beyond Farakka, the river Ganga is known as Padma in Bangladesh.
• The Ganges in West Bengal gets divided into different streams named as
Bhagirathi-Hooghly and Padma-Meghna in Bangladesh.
• The Brahmaputra River meets the Ganges at Golunda as the Jamuna.
• When Ganga reaches West Bengal, it divides into two major distributaries
named Bhagirathi and Hooghly.
• The main river flows into Bangladesh where it flows first as Padma and
later as Meghna and falls into the Bay of Bengal.
• Together with the Brahmaputra, the Ganges forms the world's largest delta
known as the Sundarbans delta.

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Confluence of tributaries of Ganges

River Place of Confluence River Place of Confluence
Alaknanda Dev Prayag Son Patna
Ramganga Kannauj Gandak Hazipur
Yamuna Prayagraj Kosi Bhagalpur
Gomati Ghazipur Mahananda Malda
Ghaghra Chhapra Saraswati Prayagraj

Panch Prayag
Prayag Confluence
Deva Prayag Bhagirathi-Alaknanda
Rudra Prayag Mandakini-Alaknanda
Karna Prayag Pindar-Alaknanda
Nanda Prayag Nandakini-Alaknanda
Vishnu Prayag Dhauliganga-Alaknanda

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Rivers joining Ganga from left: Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Budhi
Ganga, Bagmati, Kosi and Mahananda.
Rivers joining Ganga from right: Yamuna, Son, Tons and Karmnasha River
Order of tributaries of Ganges in west to east:
Yamuna → Tons → Gomati → Ghaghara → Son → Gandak → Budhi Ganga →
Kosi → Mahananda → Hugli

Tributaries joining Ganges from Right side:

1. Yamuna River: It is the largest and most important tributary of the
Ganga. The Yamuna originates from the Yamunotri glacier situated on
the Bandarpunch range. Initially it flows to the west of the Ganges. Later
it flows south of the Ganges and joins the right bank of the Ganges near
Prayagraj. The river Yamuna flows in the south direction till Mathura,
later till Prayagraj it joins the Ganga flowing in the south-east direction.

Tributaries of Yamuna:
• On Right Bank (West to East): Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Ken
• On Left Bank: Tons, Hindon, Karen and Rind.

Tributaries of Yamuna
❖ Chambal River: The Chambal originates from the hills of
Janapav near Mhow situated on the Malwa plateau of Madhya
Pradesh. It first passes through a gorge in the north direction till
Kota district of Rajasthan, later it passes through Bundi, Sawai
Madhopur and Dhaulpur and finally joins Yamuna River in
Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh. The Chambal River is famous
for its 'Bad Land Topography' or erosion. The uplifted land is
called 'Rugged' here. The main tributaries of Chambal River are
Banas, Kshipra, Kalisindh and Parvati rivers.

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❖ Ken River: It originates from Kaimur hills located in Satna

district of Madhya Pradesh and joins Yamuna River near Banda
district.
❖ Betwa River: It originates from Vindhya Mountain range in
Kumra village (District-Raisen). In ancient times it was known as
'Netravati'. It flows through Madhya Pradesh and enters Uttar
Pradesh near Orchha. Betwa forms the border of Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. It joins Yamuna River in Hamirpur
district of Uttar Pradesh. The most prominent project built on this
river is Matatila.
2. Tons River: It is mentioned in the Puranas by the name 'Tamsa'. It is a
tributary of the Ganges. It originates from the hills of Kaimur in Satna
district. It joins the Ganges River near Sirsa in Uttar Pradesh.
3. Son River: Its name was also Son, Suvarna or Shonbhadra. It is a
tributary of river Ganga. It originates in Amarkantak (District-Anuppur)
from a place called Sonbhadra from Maikal hills of Vindhya Mountain
range. It enters Uttar Pradesh, then enters Jharkhand, enters Bihar and
finally joins the river Ganges near Patna. The most prominent project built
on it is the Bansagar Project (joint project of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar).

Tributaries joining Ganges from left side

❖ Ramganga: This river originates from the Garhwal district of Uttarakhand,
it joins the Ganga at Kannauj.
❖ Gomti River: It originates from Pilibhit district. It joins the Ganga near
Ghazipur. Lucknow and Jaunpur are two major cities situated on the banks
of this river.
❖ Ghaghra River: It originates from the 'Mapcha Chung Glacier' near Gurla
Mandhota peak located in Tibet Mansarovar. Ghaghra is known as
'Karnaili' in Nepal. It joins the Ganges near Chhapra in Bihar. 45 percent
of the total water area of this river falls in India.
❖ Gandak River: The origin of this river is the Nepal Himalayas. It joins the
Ganges River at Sonepur (Bihar). The Bihar-Nepal joint project
Gandak Hydroelectric Project is situated on the Gandak river.
❖ Budhi Ganga: This river originates from the western slopes of the Sumer
Hills near the Indo-Nepal border and joins the Ganges.
❖ Kosi River: Kosi River is made up of seven streams. Its main stream is the
Arun River, which originates from the 'Gosainthan peak' of Tibet in the

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north of the Himalayas. It meets the river Ganga at a place called

Kadhagola (Kursela) in Bihar. This river is famous for changing its
course. This river has a tendency to move west. This river is called 'Sorrow
of Bihar' because of the havoc caused by the flood caused by the river.
❖ Mahananda River: It originates from the hills of Darjeeling. In India, it
is the last tributary of the Ganga on the left bank.

Various river valley projects related to Ganga River system

❖ Tehri Project: Tehri Dam has been constructed at the confluence of
Bhilangana and Bhagirathi River at a place called Tehri. There is serious
opposition to this river valley project due to the construction of high dams
in earthquake-prone areas and deforestation on large areas.
❖ Tanakpur Project: It is implemented at a place named Tanakpur on Kali
River flowing on the border of Uttarakhand and Nepal.
❖ Gandak River Project: It is a joint project of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and
Nepal. Hydroelectricity is generated in Suratpura (Nepal) in Gandak river.
Dam was built at Bhainsalotan (Valmiki Nagar) in Bihar
❖ Kosi Project: It is a joint project of Bihar and Nepal. The basic objective
of this project is to provide flood control, hydro power generation and
irrigation. Hydroelectricity is being produced in Nepal.
❖ Rihand Project: Rihand Project is mainly a project of Uttar Pradesh but
Bihar and Madhya Pradesh also get its benefits. The project has been
implemented at a place called Pipani (Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh)
on Rihand, a tributary of Son. The reservoir has been constructed on the
border of Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Whose name is 'Govind
Vallabh Pant'.
❖ Ban Sagar Project: It is a joint project of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh located on Son River. Bansagar Dam has been constructed
in Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh.
❖ Matatila Project: It is a joint project of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh located on Betwa river. The dam has been constructed in Uttar
Pradesh.
❖ Chambal Project: It is a joint project of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
Under this scheme, dams have been built at three places on the Chambal
River. In Madhya Pradesh, a dam has been built at a place called
Chaurasigarh, behind which the reservoir is named 'Gandhi Sagar'. Dams
have been built in Rawatbhata and Kota in Rajasthan. The reservoir
located in Rawatbhata has been named 'Maharana Pratap Sagar' and the
reservoir located in Kota has been named 'Jawahar Sagar'.

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❖ Damodar Valley Project: It is a joint project of undivided Bihar (present

day Jharkhand) and West Bengal. It is India's first (year 1948) multi-
purpose project. The project model is based on the Tennessee River
Valley plan in the United States. It is a multi-purpose river valley project
with more thermal power generation than hydropower. There are thermal
power stations at Bokaro, Durgapur and Chandrapura. In this,
hydroelectricity is being generated at Maithon, Tilaiya and Bal Pahari.
A canal has been made on the Damodar River by making a
barrage in Durgapur, which is used for irrigation. Damodar river is called
'Sorrow of Bengal' because of the havoc of floods. The basic objective
of this project was flood control.
❖ Mayurakshi Project: It is a joint project of undivided Bihar (present day
Jharkhand) and West Bengal. A dam has been built on the Mayurakshi
river in Dumka district of Jharkhand. It is also called 'Canada Dam'.

Brahmaputra River System

• The Brahmaputra River originates from the Angsi Glacier
(Chemayungdung Glacier), a glacier of the Kailash range, located just
south of Kangyu Lake near Lake Manasarovar, located in the north of the
Himalayas. In Tibet it is known by the name 'Tsangpo'.
• The Brahmaputra basin is spread over four countries – China, India,
Bhutan and Bangladesh. The name of this river is Tsangpo (Yarlung
Jangbo) in China, Dihang in Arunachal Pradesh, Brahmaputra in Assam
and Jamuna in Bangladesh.
• It enters India by the name of Siang and then Dihang. After flowing some
distance in the south-west direction, its two major tributaries Dibang and
Lohit join it from its left bank. After this this river is known as
Brahmaputra.
• This river in India Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, p. Flows through the states
of Bengal, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Sikkim.
• Subansiri, Jia Bhareli (Kameng), Sankosh, Manas, Amo and Teesta rivers
are the main tributaries found on its right bank.
• Dibang, Lohit, Dhansiri, Kapili, Meghna and Barak rivers are the main
tributaries found on its left bank.
• Lohit river is also known as 'The River of Blood'.
• National Waterway No. 2 (from Sadiya to Dhubri) is located on the
Brahmaputra River itself.

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 Geography of India Raj Holkar (9650697922)

• Kapili river is a tributary of Brahmaputra, the city of Kamrup is situated on

the banks of this river.
• The total length of Brahmaputra River is 2900 km. In which 916 km. flows
in India.
• The Brahmaputra enters Bangladesh near Dhubri and Goalpara. The name
of Brahmaputra in Bangladesh is 'Jamuna'.
• Teesta river joins from the right side of Jamuna. Jamuna goes ahead and
joins Padma (River Ganges).
• Padma, after meeting Meghna River, falls into the Bay of Bengal by the
name of Meghna.
• Teesta river starts from Sikkim which flows through North West Bengal
and joins Jamuna in Bangladesh.
• The world's largest river island 'Majuli Island' is located in the middle of
the Brahmaputra River.

Important River valley projects on Brahmaputra River System:

❖ Ranga Hydroelectricity project: Arunachal Pradesh
❖ Paki Hydroelectricity project: Arunachal Pradesh
❖ Kopli Hydroelectricity project: Assam
❖ Doyang hydroelectricity project: Nagaland
❖ Loktak Hydroelectricity project: Manipur
❖ Tipaimukh Hydroelectricity project: Manipur
❖ Thaleshwari Hydroelectricity project: Mizoram
❖ Tuiwai Hydroelectricity project: Mizoram
❖ Rangeet Hydroelectricity project: Sikkim

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Drainage System of Peninsular India

• The peninsular river system is older than the Himalayan River system. The
Western Ghats is the main water divide in peninsular India.
• The general slope of the peninsular plateau is from east to south-east. Most
of the rivers originate from the Western Ghats and flow towards the east
like – Mahanadi, Krishna, Kaveri and Godavari. These rivers fall into the
Bay of Bengal.
• Narmada and Tapti are the two major rivers of peninsular India which flow
towards the west as an exception. These rivers fall into the Arabian Sea.
This is because these two rivers flow through a rift valley.
• The rivers falling into the Arabian Sea of peninsular India often form
estuaries. Like- Narmada and Tapti
• Rivers falling into the Bay of Bengal form deltas like – Krishna, Kaveri
and Godavari etc.
On the basis of the direction of flow, peninsular rivers can be divided into two
parts –
1. East Flowing Rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and Kaveri
2. West Flowing Rivers: Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada, Tapti and Periyar

East Flowing Rivers

• Mahanadi: Mahanadi originates near Singhawa (Chhattisgarh) to the
south of Amarkantak. Its tributaries are Shivnath, Hasdo, Mand, Doob,
Jonk and Tel. This river flows in Odisha and falls into the Bay of Bengal.
Hirakund Dam is built on this.

• Godavari: Godavari is the longest river of peninsular India. Due to age,

size and length, it is called 'Dakshin Ganga' or 'Vriddha Ganga'. It
originates from a place called Triambak situated on the Western Ghats in
Nashik district of Maharashtra. Indravati, Pranhita, Purna and Dudhwa
etc. are the main tributaries of Godavari.

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• Krishna: This east flowing river is the second longest river of peninsular
India. It originates from the Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar.
Tungabhadra and Bhima are its main tributaries. Koyna, Panchganga,
Ghatprabha, Malaprabha, Dudhganga and Musi are its other
tributaries. It flows into the Bay of Bengal forming an arcuate delta. The
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam in Andhra Pradesh and the Almatti Dam in
Karnataka are on the Krishna River only.

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• Pennar (North): It originates in the Nandidurga hills of Karnataka.

Flowing in Andhra Pradesh, it falls into the Bay of Bengal.
• Pennar (South): It rises in the Keshava hills (Karnataka) and flows south
of North Pennar to the Bay of Bengal.
• Kaveri: It originates in the Brahmagiri hills of Coorg district in the state
of Karnataka. Due to the rainfall in its upper catchment area (Karnataka)
from the south-west monsoon and in the lower catchment area (Tamil
Nadu) from the north-east monsoon, the water flow in this river remains
throughout the year. 56 percent of the Kaveri River basin is in Tamil Nadu,
41 percent in Karnataka and 3 percent in Kerala. The river Kaveri forms a
quadrilateral delta.
There are many natural water falls in the course of this river, in
which Shivasamudram (Karnataka) and Hogenkal (Tamil Nadu) are
famous. Due to the difference in relief, the Kaveri River as it flows
through the Kodagu hills in Karnataka forms the twin waterfalls of
Gaganchukki (Western) and Bharachukki (Eastern) which are collectively
known as Shivasamudram Falls.

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Projects related to East Flowing Rivers:

• Hirakund Project: Under this project a dam has been built on Mahanadi
in Odisha. Hirakund is the longest river dam in the world. Hydroelectricity,
irrigation and flood control are the main goals of this plan.
• Machkund Project: It is a joint project of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. In
this, a dam has been built on the Machkund river on the border of Odisha
and Andhra Pradesh.
• Tata Hydroelectric Project: This is a project developed in Maharashtra.
Under this scheme, hydropower is generated by collecting the water of
excessive rainfall on the Western Ghat mountain in the lakes. It is
developed by Tata Group.
• Koyna Hydroelectric Project: This project has been developed on the
Koyna River, a tributary of the Krishna River in the state of Maharashtra.
• Nagarjuna Sagar Project: It has been developed on Krishna River in
Andhra Pradesh.
• Shiva Samudram Project: This project was established in the year 1902
on the River Kaveri in the state of Karnataka. It is the oldest hydroelectric
project in India. For this project, 'Krishna Raj Sagar' reservoir has been
constructed on Krishna River.
• Mettur Project: This project has been established on the Kaveri River in
the state of Tamil Nadu. The name of the reservoir built behind the Mettur
Dam is 'Stanley Reservoir'. flood control and hydropower generation are
the main objectives of this plan.
• Sri Salem Project: This project is built on the Krishna River in the state
of Andhra Pradesh.
• Almaty Project: This project has been established on the Krishna River in
the state of Karnataka.
• Papanasam Project: It is a project set up on the Tamraparni River in the
state of Tamil Nadu.

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West Flowing Rivers

• Sabarmati River: It originates in the Aravalli range of Udaipur district of
Rajasthan. It flows through Rajasthan and Gujarat and falls into the Gulf
of Khambhat. Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are the main cities situated on
its banks.
• Mahi: It originates from Mehd lake in the western part of Vindhyachal
mountain. This river flows through Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Gujarat and falls into the Gulf of Khambhat.
• Narmada: It is the largest of the western channel rivers of peninsular India.
Its origin is the hill of Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh. It falls into the Gulf
of Khambhat near Bharuch in Gujarat. It flows through a rift valley
between the Vindhyachal Mountains in the north and the Satpura Hills in
the south. It cuts the marble rocks of Bhedaghat in Jabalpur to form the
'Dhuandhar Falls'. The Narmada River flows through Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The Narmada Valley Project
along with the Sardar Sarovar, Maheshwar, Narmada Sagar and
Omkareshwar dams is situated on this river.

• Tapti / Tapi River: It originates from Multai in Betul district of Madhya

Pradesh. Its main tributary is the Purna. This river flows in a rift valley and
falls into the Gulf of Khambhat near Surat.
• Periyar River: It is the main river of Kerala. It rises in the hills of
Annamalai and falls into the Arabian Sea north of Bembanad Lake.

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Projects on West Flowing Rivers:

• Narmada Valley Project: It is a multipurpose river valley project, the
beneficiary states of which are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and
Rajasthan. Under this project, 29 big dams are being built. In this, Narmada
Sagar Dam of Madhya Pradesh and Sardar Sarovar Dam of Gujarat are
most important. Due to the high height of the dam, the problem of water-
logging will arise on a large area, forests will be cut from a large area and
a large population will have to be displaced. Due to these problems, the
demand for reducing the height of the dam is being raised by sociologists
and environmentalists. Medha Patekar has given this protest the form of a
mass movement.
• Ukai Project: It is a joint project of Gujarat and Maharashtra. A dam has
been built on the Tapi river at a place called Ukai (Gujarat).
• Kakrapar Yojana: This is the scheme of Gujarat. Hydro-electricity is
being produced by constructing a dam on the Tapi river at a place called
Kakrapar.
• Mahi Yojana: Under this scheme, a dam has been built on the Mahi River
in Madhya Pradesh. The reservoir located behind the dam has been named
'Jamna Lal Bajaj Sagar'.
• Sharavati Hydroelectric Project: This project is implemented on
Sharavati river in Shimoga district of Karnataka. Under this, a water power
generation center has been set up at Jog (Mahatma Gandhi), India's highest
water fall. The name of its reservoir is 'Linganamakki reservoir'.
• Idukki Project: It is the biggest hydroelectric project of Kerala located on
Periyar river in Idukki district of Kerala.
• Parimbakulam Aliyar Scheme: It is a joint scheme of Kerala and Tamil
Nadu. Under this, the water of six rivers of Annamalai mountain and two
rivers of plain area has been used.

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Other rivers of Peninsular India:

• Subarnarekha River: This river originates from the Chhota Nagpur
plateau. This river forms the boundary line between Odisha and West
Bengal. It falls in the Bay of Bengal.
• Brahmani River: This river comes into existence from the mouth of Koel
and Shankh rivers near Rourkela (Odisha). It falls into the Bay of Bengal
near Wheeler Island.
• Pamba River: This river originates from the Annamalai hill and flowing
in Kerala, this river falls into the Bembanad lake.
• Luni River: This river originates from Nagpahari (Aravalli Range) in the
south-west of Ajmer (Rajasthan) and merges into the 'Ran of Kutch'.
• Sharavati River: This river originates in Shimoga district of Karnataka.
The famous 'Jog (Garsoppa) Falls' is on this river.
• Bharatpuzha River: It is the main river of Kerala. It is also known as
Ponnani. It rises in the hills of Annamalai and falls into the Arabian Sea
near a place called Ponnani.

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 Geography of India Raj Holkar (9650697922)

Multipurpose Projects of India

Project River Beneficiary States
Damodar Valley Damodar West Bengal and Jharkhand
Bhakhra-Nangal Satluj Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Himachal Pradesh
Beas Project Beas Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan
Kosi Project Kosi Bihar and Nepal
Hirakund Project Mahanadi Odisha
Chambal Project Chambal Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh
Mayurakshi Project Mayurakshi West Bengal and Jharkhand
Rihand Project Rihand Uttar Pradesh
Thean Dam Project Ravi Punjab and J&K
Gandak Project Gandak Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Nepal
Tihari Dam Project Bhilangana and Uttarakhand
Bhagirathi
Matatila Project Betwa Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh
Farakka Project Hugali West Bengal
Mahi Project Mahi Gujarat and Rajasthan
Narmada Project Narmada Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh
Nagarjuna Sagar Krishna Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
Project
Salal Project Chenab Jammu and Kashmir
Pochampad Project Godavari Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
Almatti Dam Krishna Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Project Maharashtra
Mettur Dam Project Kaveri Tamil Nadu
Shri Sailam Krishna Andhra Pradesh
Idukki Project Periyar Kerala
Nizam Sagar Manjra Andhra Pradesh
Shiva Samdram Kaveri Karnataka
Chhom Dam Krishna Maharashtra
Sharavati Project Sharavati Karnataka
Rajghat Project Betwa Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh
Ukai Project Tapti Gujarat
Kakrapar Project Tapti Gujarat
Pong Dam Beas Himachal Pradesh
Dulhasti Project Chenab Jammu and Kashmir
Tulbul Project Jhelum Jammu and Kashmir
Bagalihar Project Chenab Jammu and Kashmir
Uri Project Jhelum Jammu and Kashmir

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Papnasham Project Tamraparni Tamil Nadu

Pallivasal Project Madirapujhha Kerala
Ban Sagar Dam Son Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar
Ranjeet Sagar Dam Ravi Punjab
Durgapur Barrage Damodar Jharkhand and West Bengal
Hidkal Project Ghatprabha Karnataka
Laxmi Sagar Project Betwa Uttar Pradesh
Col Dam Project Sutlej Himachal Pradesh
Nathpa-Jhakhari Sutlej Himachal Pradesh
Project
Tungbhadra Project Tungbhadra Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
Koyna Project Koyna Maharashtra
Ramganga Project Ramganga Uttarakhand
Ghatprabha Project Ghatprabha Karnataka
Malprabha Project Malprabha Karnataka
Parimbkulam-Aliyar Parimbkulam Tamil Nadu and Kerala
Project
Sabarmati Project Sabarmati Gujarat
Subarnarekha Subarnarekha Jharkhand
Project
Tawa project Tawa Madhya Pradesh
Parvati Parvati Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and
Hydroelectricity Delhi
Kalindi Project Kalindi Karnataka
Teesta Project Teesta Sikkim
Sharda Project Sharda Uttar Pradesh
Paikara Project Paikara Tamil Nadu
Kunda Project Kunda Tamil Nadu
Girna Project Girna Maharashtra
Chamera Project Ravi Himachal Pradesh
Kali Project Kali or Kalindi Karnataka
Loktak Project Khunga and Imphal Manipur
Laxmi Sagar Dam Betwa Uttar Pradesh
Ratley Project Chenab Jammu and Kashmir
Karjan Project Karjan Gujarat
Hasdeo Bango Hasdeo Chhattisgarh
Project
Jayakwadi Project Godavari Maharashtra
Panchet Hill Project Damodar West Bengal
Tilaiya Project Barakar Jharkhand
Muchkunda Project Muchkunda Andhra Pradesh and Odisha

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Important Canals of India

State Canal Source or Origin of Canal
Punjab Sarhind Canal Sutlej River
Bhakhara canal Sutlej River
Nangal Canal Sutlej River
Haryana Gurgaon Canal Yamuna River
Uttar Pradesh Agra Canal Yamuna River
Sharda Canal Gomati River
Odisha Kendrapada Canal Birupa River
Taldanda Canal Mahanadi River
Bihar- Triveni Canal Gandak River
Jharkhand
Canada Dam Canal Mayurakshi River

West Bengal Midnapur Canal Kosi River

Eden Canal Damodar River
Tilpada Dam Canal Mayurakshi River
Rajasthan Gang Canal Sutlej River
Jakham Canal Jakham River
Meza Irrigation Canal Kothari River
Indira Gandhi Canal Beas-Sutlej River
Maharashtra Mutha Canal Five Lake
Bhundarda Dam Canal Pravira River
Tamil Nadu Mettur Dam canal Kaveri River

Kerala Mamalpujha Dam Mamalpujha River

Canal

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Lakes of India
Tectonic Lakes: These lakes are created by tectonic activities like
earthquakes, folding or faulting etc. e.g., Wular Lake (Kashmir). This is the
largest sweet water lake in India.
Crater Lakes: These lakes are resultant of volcanism. When craters left after
volcanism in due course of time they filled up by water and forming crater
lakes. e.g., Lonar lake (Maharashtra).
Lagoon Lakes: These lakes are formed at coastal areas by sand, silt or coral
deposits. e.g., Chilka lake in Odisha, is the largest lagoon lake in India. Other
lagoon lakes are – Pulicat Lake (Andhra Pradesh), Ashtamudi Lake
(Kerala), Kolleru Lake (Andhra Pradesh).
Glacial Lakes: These lakes are formed by glaciers. Like- Rakastal Lake,
Nainital Lake, Sat tal Lake, Bhimtal Lake.
Palaya Lake: These lakes are formed by inland drainage and air erosion-
deposition specially in deserts. Examples- Sambhar Lake, Didwana Lake,
Pachapadra Lake and Lunkaransar Lake all in Rajasthan.

Important Lakes of India

State Lakes State Lakes
Jammu and Wular Lake, Dul Uttarakhand Rakas tal, Nainital, Sat
Kashmir Lake, Sheshnag Tal, Bhimtal, Khurpa Tal,
lake, Anantnag Sam Tal, Puna Tal,
Lake, Berinag lake, Naukuchiya Tal, Dev Tal,
Nagin Lake, Rupkunda
Mansbal Lake,
Gandharbal Lake
Maharashtra Lonar Lake, Powai Rajasthan Sambhar Lake, Didwana
Lake, Salim Ali Lake, Pachpadra,
Lake, Gorewada Lunkaransar, Pichhola
Lake Lake, Rajsamand Lake,
Jaisamand, Nakki Lake,
Dhebar Lake, Fateh Sagar
Lake.
Odisha Chilka Lake Haryana Surajkund Lake

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Kerala Ashtamudi Lake, Uttar Phulhar Lake (Pilibhit),

Bembanad Lake, Pradesh Kitham Lake or Soor
Periyar Lake Sarovar (Agra)
Sur Sai Nawar (Etawah)
Assam Chapnala Lake Meghalaya Umiyam Lake

Andhra Kolleru Lake

Pradesh

Important Waterfalls of India

Waterfall Height River/Region State About
(m)
Kunchikal 455 Varahi River Karnataka This is the highest
waterfall in India.
UPPCS considers
Kunchikal as tallest
water fall in India.
Beripani 399 Mayurbhanj Odisha
Nohakalikai 340 Khasi Hills Meghalaya This is the tallest
waterfall in India
according to world
waterfall database.
Ling Siyang 337 Khasi Hills Meghalaya
Nohasanbagi 315 Khasi Hills Meghalaya
Thiang
Dudh Sagar 310 Mandovi Goa This situated on Goa-
River Karnataka border in
Western Ghats.
Meenmutty 300 Kallar River Kerala
Jog or 253 Sharavati Karnataka 1. According to breadth
Garsoppa River it is the Largest waterfall
Or Mahatma in India
Gandhi falls 2. This is the tallest
waterfall (uninterrupted
or direct fall)
Jung Falls 200 Tawang Arunachal
Pradesh

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Shiva 98 Kaveri River Karnataka This is the largest

Samudram waterfall of
India (according to
volume)
Dhuandhar, Narmada Madhya
Dugdh Dhara Pradesh
and Kapil
Dhara Falls

Chuliya Falls 18 Chambal Rajasthan

Madhar Falls Chambal Madhya
Pradesh
Punasa 12 Chambal Rajasthan
Hundru Falls 98 Subarnarekha Jharkhand
Kapildhara Narmada Madhya
River Pradesh

Chenna / 183 Narmada Madhya

Yenna Falls River Pradesh
Duduma 175 Odisha
Jorada 157 Muchkunda Odisha
Chitrakoot 100 Mayurbhanj Chhattisgarh This is called Niagara
Falls of India.
Satdhara Indravati Himachal
River Pradesh

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Important Valleys of India

Name of Valley State/ Region About
Murkha Valley Ladakh
Kashmir Valley Jammu and Kashmir Situated between Zanskar and
Peer Panjal Range.
Nubra Valley Ladakh Formed by Nubra River
originating from Siachen.
Suru Valley Ladakh
Parvati Valley Himachal Pradesh

Kinnaur Valley Himachal Pradesh It is famous for Apple

production.
Pangi Valley Himachal Pradesh
Kullu Valley Himachal Pradesh Situated between Dhauladhar
and Peer Panjal.
Sangla Valley Himachal Pradesh It is also known as Baspa
Valley.
Chamba Valley Himachal Pradesh Chamba, Dalhousie like famous
tourist places situated in this
Valley.
Kangra Valley Himachal Pradesh
Malna Valley Himachal Pradesh This known as Little Greece of
Himachal Pradesh.
Saur Valley Uttarakhand
Nelong Valley Uttarakhand Gangotri National Park is
situated here.
Johar Valley Uttarakhand It is also known as Milam
Valley or Gori Ganga Valley
Valley of Uttarakhand
Flowers
Dzukou Valley Nagaland
Yumthang Sikkim It is famous for its Hot
Valley Springs.
Araku Valley Andhra Pradesh
Neora Valley Darjeeling (W.B.)
Kambam Valley Tamil Nadu
Silent Valley Kerala Famous for Bio-Diversity.

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Chapter 4: Climate of India

Climate: The study and analysis of long-term temperature, rainfall,
atmospheric pressure and direction and velocity of winds in a place or country is
called climate. The whole of India is considered to be a country with tropical
monsoon climate in terms of climate.
Tropical monsoon climate is found in India. The word monsoon is derived
from the Arabic word 'Mausim'. The meaning of the word mausim is 'the reversal
of the direction of the winds according to the season'. In India, there is a seasonal
change in the direction of the winds blowing from the Arabian Sea and the Bay
of Bengal, in this context the Indian climate is called monsoon climate.
Factors Affecting Indian Climate:
• Location and latitudinal extent: India is located in the Northern
Hemisphere and the Tropic of Cancer passes almost through the middle of
India, so the temperature here is high. This makes India a tropical climate
region.
• Distance from the sea: India is surrounded by the sea from three sides.
The western coast, eastern coast and south Indian region of India are
affected by the marine climate, but the northern India, north-western India
and north-eastern India are affected by the marine climate. is negligible.
• Northern mountain ranges: The Himalayan region influences the climate
of India. it also causes rainfall in the Indian region during the monsoon
period and makes India vulnerable to cold wave effects by blocking
extreme cold waves coming from the Tibetan region in winter. Acts as a
cover or wall to protect against.
• Geomorphology: The physiographic structure of India, mountains,
plateaus, plains and deserts also affect the climate of India. The western
part of the Aravalli Mountain range and the eastern part of the Western
Ghats etc. are the areas receiving less amount of rainfall.
• Monsoon Winds: Monsoon winds also affect the Indian climate. The
amount of humidity in the air, the direction and speed of the wind etc. affect
the Indian climate.
• Vertical air circulation (jet stream): Jet stream in the upper troposphere
usually 12 km from the land in the mid-latitudes. Above is the name of an
air current running at a high speed from west to east. Its speed is generally
150-300 km per hour.

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• Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances: Tropical cyclones form

in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea and affect a large area of
peninsular India.
• Southern-Oscillation: Whenever the pressure on the upper surface of the
Indian Ocean becomes high, then a low pressure is created over the Pacific
Ocean and when a high pressure is created over the Pacific Ocean, then the
Indian Ocean Low pressure builds up. This high and low air pressure
interaction of both the oceans is called Southern Oscillation.
• El Nino: Due to its effect, there is less rainfall in India.
• La Nina: It is the opposite concept of El Nino. Under its effect, the amount
of rainfall in India remains good.

Koppen's Climate Classification:

Koppen has divided Indian climatic regions into 9 parts which are as follows –
1. Monsoon climate with short winter season (AMW type): This type of
climate is found in the western coastal areas south of Mumbai. In these
areas rains more than 250-300 cm in summer from the south-west
monsoon. Areas included in this climate region – Malabar and Konkan
Coast, south of Goa and western slope of Western Ghat Mountains, North-
East India and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
2. Tropical Savanna Climate Region (AW Type): This climate is found in
most parts of the Peninsular Plateau except the Coromandel and Malabar
Coastal regions. The upper boundary of this climate zone almost coincides
with the Tropic of Cancer that is, this climate is found in most parts of
peninsular India located south of the Tropic of Cancer. Savanna type of
vegetation is found here. In this type of region, it rains about 75 cm from
the south-west monsoon in summer and winter is dry.
3. Monsoon climate with dry summers, wet winters (AS type): This is the
region where winters are rainy and summers are dry. It receives most of
the rainfall in the winter season from the North-East Monsoon (Retreating
Monsoon). The amount of rainfall is about 75-100 cm in winter. Under this
comes the border areas of Coastal Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
4. Semi-arid steppe climate (BShw type): Here the rainfall is 30-60 cm in
summer and there is lack of rain in winter. Steppe type of vegetation is
found here. Under this – Central Rajasthan, Western Punjab, Haryana,
border areas of Gujarat and rain shadow region of Western Ghats are
included.

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5. Hot desert climate (BWhw): Here the rainfall is very less (less than 30
cm annually) and the temperature is high. Natural vegetation is found here
less or negligible. Thorny desert vegetation is found here. Under this
region, the western region of Rajasthan, northern Gujarat and southern part
of Haryana are included.
6. Dry winter monsoon climate (CWG type): This type of climate is found
in most of the Gangetic plains, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, eastern Rajasthan,
Assam and plateau parts of Malwa. Here the temperature rises up to 40 ° C
in summer and remains up to 27 ° C in winter. In these climatic regions,
rainfall mainly occurs in summers and winters are dry.
7. Humid climate with short summers (DFc type): This type of climate is
found in parts of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam (eastern part of
the Himalayas). Winter is cold, humid and of long duration. The
temperature in winter is up to 10°C.
8. Tundra-like climate (ET type): Here the temperature remains below
10°C throughout the year. In winter, it rains in the form of snow. Under
this –3000 m to 5000 m high altitude areas of Uttarakhand, Kashmir,
Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh are included.
9. Polar equivalent climate (E type): Here the temperature is less than 0 °
C throughout the year (snow covered region). Under this the western and
central part of the Himalayas (Jammu-Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh)
with 5000 m or more higher altitudes are included.

Theories of Origin of Indian Monsoon

There are four main theories regarding the origin of Indian monsoon which are
as follows –
1. Thermal theory of origin of Indian monsoon
2. Equatorial westerly wind theory
3. Jet stream theory
4. El Nino theory

1. Thermal theory of the origin of Indian monsoon:

According to this theory, the main reason for the origin of monsoon winds is
thermal. In summer, the sun's rays fall vertically in the northern hemisphere. Due
to this, a large low pressure (LP) is formed here. Due to this low pressure, th e
north-east trade winds are absent which blow between 5° to 30° north and south
latitudes throughout the year.

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The thermal equator shifts towards the north, due to which the South-East
Trade winds cross the equator and come to the northern hemisphere. According
to Farrell's law, these winds coming in the Northern Hemisphere turn to their
right-hand side (North-East) and start flowing over the entire Indian subcontinent.
Since these winds are coming after a long sea journey, hence they contain water
vapor.
These south-west monsoon winds bring the rainy season by dividing into
two parts in the Indian subcontinent. First, the Arabian Sea branch on the western
slope of the Western Ghats and second, the Bay of Bengal branch causes heavy
rainfall in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and North-East India.
The Bay of Bengal branch converges towards the low-pressure area of
north-west India. With the decrease of water vapor from east to west, the amount
of rainfall decreases.
Trade Winds: Trade winds are the winds that blow between 5° to 30° north
and south latitudes and between 35° north and south latitudes (high pressure)
to 0° latitude (low pressure).

In winter, the sun's rays fall directly on the Tropic of Capricorn. Due to this,
formation of high pressure (H.P.) area in north-western part of India as compared
to Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal and formation of low pressure (L.P.) area in
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal (due to less cooling). Due to this the monsoon
winds start blowing in the opposite direction.
In winter, the north-east trade winds start blowing again. It brings the
north-east monsoon and receives water vapor from the Bay of Bengal and rains
on the coast of Tamil Nadu.

2. Equatorial Westerly Wind Theory or Anti-Equatorial Westerly

Wind Theory:
This theory has been propounded by Flon. According to this, the equatorial
westerly wind is the south-west monsoon wind. Its origin is due to internal heat
convergence.
Flon has considered the thermal effect to be the main reason for the origin
of monsoon. Due to the northward shift of the thermal equator in summer, the
Inter-thermal Convergence (ITCZ) occurs north of the equator. The equatorial
westerly winds modify their direction and start flowing towards the low pressure
over the Indian subcontinent and this process itself gives rise to the South-West
Monsoon.

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The low-pressure area turns into a high-pressure area when the Sun moves
south in the winter season and the north-east trade winds become active again.

3. Jet Stream Theory of the Origin of Indian Monsoon:

This theory has been propounded by Yest. Jet stream is a very fast air flow system
between the upper atmosphere (9-18 km). Its speed is maximum (340 km per
hour) in the central part. These winds act as a cover over the earth which affects
the weather of the lower atmosphere.
The Southwest Monsoon coming over India is associated with the
warm easterly jet stream. It runs between 8°N to 35°N latitudes. The north-
east monsoon is associated with the subtropical westerly jet stream. It runs
between 20° to 35° north and south latitudes.
Generation of North-East Monsoon by the sub-tropical westerly jet
stream:
The sub-tropical jet stream blows from west to east across western and central
Asia in winter. The plateau of Tibet acts as a barrier in its path and divides it into
two parts. One branch starts flowing parallel to it from the north of the Tibetan
Plateau and the other branch flows towards the east in the south of the Himalayas.
The mean position of the southern branch is about 25° north latitude in
February. Its pressure level is 200 to 300 millibars. The Western Disturbance
which comes in winter in India is brought by this jet wind. The rise in night
temperature is an indicator of the arrival of these disturbances.
The westerly jet stream is a column of cold air that pushes air to the surface.
This creates high pressure on the surface (in the north-western parts of India) and
these winds blow towards the Bay of Bengal (low air pressure area due to
relatively high temperature). It is through these winds that cold waves blow in
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in winter. After reaching the Bay of Bengal, these winds
turn to their right (Right Hand Side) and take the form of monsoon. When this
wind reaches the coast of Tamil Nadu, it rains water vapor absorbed from the Bay
of Bengal in the coastal parts of Tamil Nadu.
Generation of Southwest Monsoon by the warm easterly jet stream: The
westerly jet stream does not flow over the Indian subcontinent in summer and is
shifted to the north of the Tibetan Plateau. At this time, the warm easterly jet
stream runs in the upper atmosphere of India. The reason for the origin of the
warm eastern jet stream is believed to be the excessive heating of the plateau parts
of Central Asia and Tibet.

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The circular circulation begins in the central part of the troposphere in the
direction of the clockwise needle in the warm rising air from the plateau of Tibet.
This rising air splits into two separate streams near the troposphere. One of these
moves towards the equator as the easterly jet stream and the other moves towards
the pole as the westerly jet stream.
The eastern jet stream flows in the southwest direction in the upper
atmosphere of India and starts settling down in the Arabian Sea. This creates a
huge high pressure there. On the contrary, when this warm jet stream moves over
the Indian subcontinent, it pulls the surface air upwards and creates a large low
pressure here. To fill this low pressure, winds start moving towards north-east
from the high-pressure area of Arabian Sea. These are called south-west monsoon
winds.
Due to the warm easterly jet stream, pre-monsoon 'tropical cyclones'
occur in India. This causes heavy rainfall. The easterly jet stream is not only
seasonal but also erratic. When it moves over a large area of India for a long
period of time, a situation of flood is created. When these winds are weak, drought
occurs.

4. The El Nino theory of the origin of the Indian monsoon:

There is a characteristic upheaval in the oceans and atmosphere at an interval of
about 3 to 8 years. It starts from the Peruvian coast of the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
The Humboldt or Peru current (cold current) flows along the coast of Peru. This
current flows northwards away from the South American coast. Humboldt
Current is characterized by the upwelling of cold water from the depths. Near the
equator, this south equatorial current turns westward across the Pacific Ocean.
With the onset of El Nino, the upwelling of cold water stops and the cold
water is replaced by warm water coming from the west. Now the temperature of
the cold current of Peru rises. Due to the effect of its warm water, firstly the
temperature of the southern equatorial warm current increases. Since the southern
equatorial warm current moves from east to west, the water of the entire Central
Pacific Ocean gets heated and low air pressure is formed there. Whenever this
low pressure extends to the east-central region of the Indian Ocean, it modifies
the direction of the Indian monsoon. Compared to this low pressure, the low
pressure (in summer) formed over the terrestrial part of the Indian subcontinent
is comparatively less. Therefore, the flow of winds from the high-pressure area
of the Arabian Sea starts towards the South-East Indian Ocean. This leads to
drought conditions in the Indian subcontinent. On the contrary, when the El Nino

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current is confined to the central Pacific, the path of the south-west monsoon
winds is not obstructed and India receives abundant rainfall.

Indian monsoon
South-West Monsoon:
Generally, the monsoon season in India lasts from June to September. At this
time, an area of low air pressure is formed in North-Western India and Pakistan.
The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) moves northwards till the foothills
of the Shivaliks. Due to this, an elongated low-pressure belt is formed in the Indo-
Gangetic plain over the Indian subcontinent, which is called the monsoon trough.
To fill this low pressure, the south-east trade winds running in the southern
hemisphere cross the equator and turn towards east (according to Ferrel's law)
and take the form of south-west monsoon wind.
The origin of the south-west monsoon in India is related to the 'warm
eastern jet stream'. The southwest monsoon first reaches the Andaman and
Nicobar coast in India on 25 May. Then reaches Chennai and
Thiruvananthapuram on 1st June. Touches Kolkata and Mumbai between June 5
and 10. Reaches Patna, Ahmedabad, Nagpur between 10th to 15th June and
reaches cities like Lucknow, Delhi, Jaipur after 15th June.
After knocking over peninsular India, the south-west monsoon divides into two
branches –
A. Arabian Sea Branch
B. Bay of Bengal branch
A. Arabian Sea Branch of the South-West Monsoon: This branch of
the South-West Monsoon strikes the highlands of the Western Ghats almost at
right angles. western coast of India, Western Ghat Mountains, some parts of
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh receive rainfall from the Arabian Sea
branch.
The western slope of the Western Ghat Mountains of India by the Arabian
Sea branch receives more rainfall than the coastal part. For example – It rains 650
cm in Mahabaleshwar whereas it rains in Mumbai only 190 cm. The amount of
rainfall is very less in the eastern part of the Western Ghats because it is a rain
shadow area. It rains Only 60 cm in Pune.
The Arabian Sea branch, passing through Rajasthan, collides with the
Himalayas and rains on the mountain slopes of Jammu-Kashmir and Himachal

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Pradesh. Despite passing through Rajasthan, there are two main reasons why this
monsoon branch does not bring rain here –
• The direction of the Aravalli ranges being parallel to the direction of flow
of these monsoon winds.
• Hot and dry winds coming from Sindh region (Pakistan) reduce the relative
humidity of monsoon winds. Due to which the air does not get saturated.
Rain shadow region of the Arabian Sea branch: After crossing the Western
Ghats, the rain bearing air currents move up the eastern slopes where they get
heated adiabatically. As a result, rain shadow area is formed. The higher the
height of the mountain, the wider the rain shadow area will be formed.

B. Bay of Bengal Branch of Southwest Monsoon: This branch of

Monsoon is active from Sri Lanka to Sumatra Island of Indonesia. The Bay of
Bengal branch proceeds in two streams. The northern current of this branch
knocks in the Khasi Hills located in Meghalaya and its second current takes a left
turn at the eastern end of the low-pressure trough. From here this air stream flows
along the direction of the Himalayas from south-east to north-west. This stream
rains in the plains of North India.
➢ Monsoon rains in the northern plains are further strengthened by cyclonic
troughs or westerly winds blowing from the west.
➢ In the plains, the intensity of rainfall decreases from east to west and from
north to south. The reason for the decrease in rainfall in the west is the
increase in the distance from the source of moisture. On the other hand, the
reason for the decrease in the intensity of rainfall from north to south is the
increase in the distance of the source of moisture from the mountains.
➢ Both the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch meet in the
plateau of Chhota Nagpur.
➢ The Arabian Sea Monsoon branch is more powerful than the Bay of Bengal
branch for two main reasons –
o The Arabian Sea is larger in size than the Bay of Bengal.
o Most of the branch of the Arabian Sea falls in India while the Bay
of Bengal branch goes to Myanmar, Malaysia and Thailand.
➢ The eastern coastal plain of India (especially Tamil Nadu) remains
comparatively dry during the southwest monsoon period. Because it is
located parallel to the monsoon winds and also it falls in the rain shadow
area of the Arabian Sea branch.

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Northeast Monsoon or Withdrawal of Monsoon

By the end of September, the low pressure created in the northwest starts
weakening and eventually it moves towards the equatorial region. Cyclonic
conditions are replaced by anticyclonic conditions. As a result, the winds start
blowing away from the northern region. At the same time, the sun appears to be
moving south of the equator. The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) also
moves towards the equator. At this time the winds in the Indian subcontinent blow
from the north-east to the south-west. This condition persists continuously from
October to mid-December which is called withdrawal monsoon or North East
Monsoon. By the end of December, the monsoon has completely withdrawn from
India.
The retreating monsoon moves over the Bay of Bengal and picks up
moisture from Bay of Bengal, causing rainfall over eastern or coastal Odisha,
Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka in October–November. A low-pressure form
in the Bay of Bengal in October, moves south and gets trapped between the
Odisha and Tamil Nadu coasts in November, causing heavy rainfall.
Interruption of Monsoon: There is a time in the rainy season in the months of
July and August when the monsoon becomes weak. The cloud formation
becomes less and rain stops especially over the Himalayan belt and the south
eastern peninsula. This is known as interruption of monsoon. These
obstructions are believed to be caused by the low altitude of the Tibetan Plateau,
which causes the monsoon trough to turn north. During this period, where the
whole country has to be content with no rain, the sub-Himalayan regions and
the southern slopes of the Himalayas receive heavy rainfall.

Western Disturbance: Generally, when the sky is clear but due to the coming
of winds from the west, there is a disturbance in the period of good weather.
These westerly winds come from the Mediterranean Sea and enter India after
crossing Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. These winds blow at high speed in
Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. They turn eastward around the sub-Himalayan
belt and reach directly to Arunachal Pradesh, causing light rain in the Gangetic
plains and snowfall in the Himalayan belt.
This phenomenon mainly occurs in the winter season because at this time
a weak high pressure is formed over North West India. At the same time India is
influenced by the 'Western Jet Stream' which brings temperate cyclones
rising from the Mediterranean Sea to India. This is called Western
Disturbance. The mainly affected states are Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. The rains

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that result from this are very useful for the Rabi crop, especially the wheat crop.
This rain is known as 'Mavath'.

seasons of India
The climate of India is divided into four seasons by the Indian Meteorological
Department –
1. Winter
2. Summer
3. Monsoon
4. Autumn

1. Winter: Its period is considered from mid-December to February. At this

time the position of the Sun becomes Dakshinayan. Therefore, the temperature of
India located in the northern hemisphere decreases. In this season, the isotherms
are generally straight from east to west. The isotherm of 20° passes through the
central part of India. In this season, the temperate cyclone arising from the
Mediterranean Sea enters India with the help of the western jet stream. This is
called Western Disturbance. It causes rain in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Western Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. This rain
that occurs in winter is called Mavath. This rain is useful for the Rabi crop.

2. Summer: This season lasts from March to May. Due to the Uttarayan of
the Sun, the temperature rises all over India. In this season, strong hot and dry
winds blow during the day in north and north-west India, which are known as
Loo. In this season, the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) starts moving
north due to the gradual northward motion of the Sun and crosses the 25° latitude
line in July.
In this season, when the terrestrial dry and hot winds meet with the sea
moist winds, severe storms are generated at those places. It is known as Pre-
Monsoon Cyclone. Following are the local names of pre-monsoon cyclones in
India –
• Norwester: Eastern India (West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha). It is
beneficial for tea, jute and rice cultivation.
• Kal Vaishakhi: Local name for Norwester in West Bengal
• Cherry Blossoms: Karnataka and Kerala (Helpful in blooming of coffee
flowers)
• Mango rain / Mango shower: South India (Helps in early ripening of
mangoes)

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• Bordochilla: Local name for Norwester in Assam.

Rainy season: The time of this season lasts from June to September. At this
time, due to high temperature in northwestern India and Pakistan, an area of low
air pressure is formed. Therefore, the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
moves northwards to the foothills of the Shivaliks and a low pressure is created
in the plains of the Ganga. To fill this pressure, the South East Trade winds cross
the equator to the South West Monsoon enters India in the form of winds. These
South West Monsoon winds divide into two branches. The first, Arabian Sea
branch, rains in India's Western Ghats, Western Ghat Mountains, Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. The
second, Bay of Bengal branch, rains in parts of India like North-East India,
Eastern India, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttarakhand.
The Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills are spread in the shape of a funnel, and
open towards the sea, so the winds coming from the Bay of Bengal get trapped
here and cause heavy rainfall. Mawsynram, located in the southern part of the
Khasi Hills, is the rainiest place in the world.

Autumn: The time of this season is considered from September to mid-

December. The weather during this time is pleasant and neither too hot nor too
cold. It is the time of withdrawal of monsoon in India.

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Chapter 5: Geological Structure of India

Rocks About
Archean ➢ These rocks are formed due to cooling of hot magmatic earth.
Group of These are oldest and fundamental rocks on earth.
Rocks ➢ These rocks are gneiss, schist and granite.
➢ These rocks are formed before the origin of living creatures, so
they have no fossils of living creatures.
➢ These rocks are formed due to cooling of hot lava, so these
rocks are crystalline.

Extension: These rocks are found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra

Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand and south-east of
Rajasthan.
Dharwar ➢ These rocks are formed from erosion and deposition of
Group of Archean rocks.
Rocks ➢ These are oldest layered rocks.
➢ There was no living organism at that time of formation of
Dharwar rocks, so there are no fossils in these rocks too despite
being layered rocks.
➢ These rocks are originated in Dharwar and Shimoga districts of
Karnataka.
➢ Aravalli mountains are also made of these groups of rocks,
which is the oldest fold mountain in India.
➢ These are the most important rocks economically. Many
important minerals like iron, gold and manganese are found in
these rocks.

Extension: These rocks are extended in south of Deccan plateau from

north of Karnataka up to Kaveri basin, Bellary and Shimoga districts,
Sasar range of Nagpur and Jabalpur, Champaner range of Gujarat, in
north India in Ladakh, Zanskar, Garhwal, Kumaon ranges of
Himalaya and Assam plateau in Shillong ranges.

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Cuddapah ➢ These are formed from erosion and deposition of Dharwar

group of rocks. These rocks are layered too.
rocks ➢ These rocks are named after Cuddapah district of Andhra
Pradesh.
➢ These rocks are famous for sand stone, chalk stone, marble and
asbestos.
➢ Mineral deposits are least found in these rocks. But iron and
manganese are found in these rocks in some parts. Copper and
lead also has been found in Rajasthan in these rocks.

Extension: Papa Ghani and Cheyar ranges, Nallamalai range of

Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Himalaya.
Vindhya ➢ These rocks are formed after Cuddapah. These rocks are
Group of formed after deposition of shallow seas and river valleys.
Rocks ➢ These rocks have fossil evidences of microorganisms.
➢ Sand stone, Chalk stone, China clay, Fire resistant clay are
found in these rocks.
➢ Sanchi stupa, Red Fort, Jama Mosque are made of red sand
stone of these rocks. These rocks are widely used in
constructions.
➢ In Panna district of Madhya Pradesh and Golkunda district of
Karnataka, there are deposits of diamond are found too.

Extension: These rocks are extended from Son River valley, Semari
range, Kurnool range of south-west Andhra, Bhima range of Bhima
River valley, from Godavari valley to Narmada valley and plateaus
of Malwa and Bundelkhand.
Gondwana ➢ These rocks are formed between carboniferous and Jurassic
Group of era.
Rocks ➢ There was Sow age at that time. Due to glaciers, there was
erosion at the peaks of mountains and deposits collected in
shallow water bodies or river valleys. This made river valley
very fertile. So ancient trees grown in these valleys.
➢ In Carboniferous era there were so many rifts in India formed,
and the vegetation were covered by lava comes out from these
rifts. This vegetation transformed in to coal due to immense
pressure and temperature under these rocks.

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➢ 90% of coal deposits of India are in these rocks.

Extension: These rocks are found in Mahanadi valley, Godavari

valley, Kutch, Kathiawar, Western Rajasthan, Madras, Guntur,
Cuttack, Rajmahendry, Vijayawada, Tiruchirappalli, Ramnath
Puram, Son valley, Damodar valley, Wardha valley etc.
Deccan ➢ In the last phase of Mesozoic era in Cretaceous period, there
Trap was Reunion hotspot volcanism due to this entire Deccan filled
up with hot magma comes out from rifts.
➢ This structure is made of basalt and dolomite.
➢ Due to disintegration of these rocks, black soils formed.

Extension: These rocks are found in majority parts of Maharashtra,

Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and some parts of Bihar, Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh.
Tertiary ➢ These rocks are formed in between Eocene era and Pliocene
Group of era. Himalayas too formed in this era.
Rocks ➢ These rocks are found in India in coastal areas and some in
Himalayas and adjoining areas.

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Chapter 6: Natural Vegetation of India

Vegetation found in India are classified in these types –
1. Tropical Evergreen Forest
2. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest
3. Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest
4. Tropical Thorn Forest or Desert Vegetation
5. Mountain or Montane Forest
6. Tidal or Mangrove Forest

1. Tropical Evergreen Forest:

• Climatic conditions: This vegetation grows in those areas where more
than 200 cm of annual rainfall and high temperature throughout the year.
Air in these areas is humid and saturated. Temperature in those areas in
between 25ºC to 27ºC. Humidity is 75% and above.
• Specialties: These forests are evergreen and dense. Height of trees are
between 30 to 60 meters. These are hardwood trees. Because of hardwood
they are of vital economic importance. These woods are used for cooking
fuels and construction.
• Main trees and vegetation: Important trees of these forests are -
Mahogany, Ebony, Sandal wood, Rose wood, Garjan, Rubber,
Cinchona, Bamboo etc. These forests are useful for spices. Rubber and
Cinchona are found on southern Sahyadri and Andaman & Nicobar isles.
95% of Andaman & Nicobar Forest is constituted of these forests. In
northern Sahyadri it is called as “Shola” forest.
• Distribution: North-east India, western summit of Western Ghats,
Andaman & Nicobar isles, Shillong plateau, Lakshadweep, Arunachal
Pradesh and Nagaland.

2. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest:

• Climatic conditions: These forests are developed in those areas where
annual rainfall is between 100 to 200 cm. These are also called “monsoon
forest” too. These are deciduous trees because they shed their leaves in
summers. Humidity is low here in comparison to tropical evergreen forests.
Temperature here also is between 25ºC to 27ºC. Average humidity is here
about 60%.

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• Specialties: In these forest trees shed their leaves due to lack of humidity
and to save their moisture from evaporation. Average height of trees is
between 25 to 45 meters. Monsoon trees are economically very important.
Their woods are used for production of furniture and railway sleepers.
• Main trees and vegetation: Teak are the most dominant tree, along
with that Deodar, Palash, Blue gum, Sal, Sandal wood, Rose wood,
Ebony, Arjun, Khair, Mahua, Mango, Amla, Shahtoot (Malburry)
and Bamboo are important trees of moist deciduous forest or Monsoon
Forest. Teak and sandal wood are widely used in furniture making, Sal is
used for railway sleepers making.
• Distribution: These trees are found on eastern slopes of Western Ghats,
Tarai or Terai region of Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,
Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Chhota Nagpur
region of Chhattisgarh.

3. Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest:

• Climatic conditions: This forest is found in those regions where annual
rainfall is between 50-100 cm. Average annual temperature is 28ºC and
least humidity.
• Specialties: Average height of trees are between 6-9 meters. Roots of trees
are deep so that they can get water from depth. Barks of these are thin and
leaves are broad so that they can prevent loss of moisture by slowing down
the rate of evaporation.
• Main trees and vegetation: Mahua, Babool, Sal, Teak, Tendu, Palash,
Neem, Peepal and Dates are important tress of Dry Deciduous Forest.
• Distribution: These forests are found in eastern Rajasthan, northern
Gujarat, western Madhya Pradesh, south-west Uttar Pradesh, southern
Punjab, Haryana and rain shadow zones of Western Ghats.

4. Tropical Thorn Forest or Desert Vegetation:

• Climatic condition: This vegetation grows in those areas where annual
rainfall is less than 50 cm. Average annual temperature is high throughout
the year. Humidity is least.
• Specialties: Trees in this forest are small thorny bushes. Roots of these
bushes are so deep, leaves are small, thick and thorny and fleshy so that
they can preserve moisture for long time.

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• Main trees and vegetation: Babool, Acasia, Khair, Khejra, Cactus and
Dates are important vegetation of Thorn or Desert Forest.
• Distribution: This vegetation are found in western Rajasthan, northern
Gujarat, rain shadow zone of western Ghats and in some parts of Delhi,
Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. Few traces are found from Indore
in Madhya Pradesh to Kurnul in Andhra Pradesh in semi-circular arch
shape.

5. Mountain or Montane Forest:

These are forest grows on heights of mountains. Temperature, height and
humidity greatly affects the montane vegetation. Montane vegetation can be
classified of three types in India -
(i) Montane Sub Tropical Forest
(ii) Montane Temperate Forest
(iii) Alpine Forest

(i) Montane Sub Tropical Forest: They are found in foothills of Himalaya,
Peninsular India and Western Ghats up to an elevation of 1000 to 2000 meters.
Montane Sub Tropical Forest is also categorized in three parts –
A) Sub Tropical Broad leaved Hill Forest:
Climatic conditions: 75 to 125 cm annual rainfall, average annual
temperature 18ºC to 21ºC, Humidity above 80%.
Specialties: evergreen, broad leaved
Main tree and vegetation: Oak, Chestnut, Beech, Sal and Pine
Distribution: eastern parts of Himalaya, Nilgiri and Palani hills, Maikal
range between 1000 to 1500 meters of elevation
B) Sub Tropical Moist Forest:
Climatic conditions: moist through the year, Humidity 80% and above
Specialties: valuable timber for furniture and house.
Main trees and vegetation: Pine and Chir
Distribution: Eastern and Western Himalayas at an elevation of 1000 to
2000 meters.
C) Sub Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest:
Climatic conditions: annual rainfall less than 100 cm, summers are dry
and hot
Specialties: low scrub, small evergreen stunted trees and shrubs.

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Main trees and vegetation: Olive, Acacia modesta and Pistacia

Distribution: Foothills of Himalaya, Bhabar and Shivalik region.

(ii) Montane Temperate Forest: These Forest are found at greater elevation
between 1800 to 3000 meters. They are also divided in three parts –
A) Montane Wet Temperate Forest:
Climatic conditions: Mean annual rainfall is between 150 cm to 300 cm.
Mean annual Temperature 11ºC to 14º C, Humidity is 80%.
Specialties: evergreen forest, trees are enveloped with epiphytes, trunks
have large girth, height of trees are more than 6 meters
Main trees and vegetation: Deodar, Chilauni, Chestnut, Birch, Palm,
Machilus, Magnolia, Blue pine, Cinnamomum, Lit Sea, Oak, Hemlock etc.
Distribution: Hills of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and eastern Himalaya at higher
elevation
B) Himalayan Moist Temperate:
Climatic conditions: annual rainfall 150 cm to 300 cm, Humidity 80% and
above
Specialties: coniferous trees, 30 to 50 meters height.
Main tress and vegetation: Pine, Cedars, Silver fir, Spruce etc.
Distribution: Kashmir, Darjeeling, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand at higher elevation above 1800 meters.
C) Himalayan Dry Temperate:
Climatic conditions: annual rainfall is less than 100 cm
Specialties: coniferous forest with xerophytic shrubs.
Main trees and vegetation: Oak, Deodar, Olive, Ash etc.
Distribution: Ladakh, Lahul, Spiti, Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and
Sikkim.

(iii) Alpine Forest: These forests are found at extreme elevation between 3000
to 4500 meters. It is mixture of coniferous and broad leave trees.
• Climatic conditions: extreme cold and height, snow clad throughout the
year
• Specialties: Alpine Forest is mix of coniferous and broad leave trees.
Coniferous trees have average height of 30 meters while broad leave forest
of 10 meters.

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• Main trees and vegetation: Fir, Spruce, Rhododendron, Juniper,

Honeysuckle etc.
• Distribution: Found in Himalayas at extreme elevation.

Himalayan Vegetation: This vegetation is divided in two parts –

1. Eastern Himalayan Vegetation
2. Western Himalayan Vegetation
1. Eastern Himalayan Vegetation: These type of vegetation changes with
change in elevation, because increase in height, means change in
temperature and rainfall.
2. Western Himalayan Vegetation: Western Himalaya is cooler and drier in
comparison to eastern. Vegetation here is slightly different what is in
eastern Himalaya. There is lack of fern and parasites in western Himalayas.
Rest of the vegetation is very similar to eastern Himalaya at greater
elevation.

6. Mangrove or Tidal Forest:

Mangroves are very special forest ecosystem of Tropical and Sub tropical region.
These are forest found on littoral coastal zones in seas. Mangroves are found on
India’s coast on mouths of rivers, littoral swamps. These forests are mostly
preserved and protected. Mangroves have variety of halophytes plants which
gives shelters large number marine species including fishes, turtles and many
more. Due to frequent high tides, these soils are saline and plants have become
adopted to it called “halophytes”. India has world’s largest mangrove or tidal
forest. Mostly in Ganga –Brahmaputra delta which is world’s largest mangrove
forest jointly hold by India and Bangladesh.
Distribution of Mangrove Forest:
• Eastern coast: Sundarvan (West Bengal), Mahanadi Delta and
Bhitarkanika (both in Odisha), Krishna and Godavari Delta (Andhra
Pradesh), Pichavaram and Muthu Pet (Tamil Nadu).
• Western Coast: Gulf of Cambay and Gulf of Kutch both in Gujarat,
Goa, Kondapur (Karnataka), Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Bembanad in
Kerala.
• Other region: Andaman & Nicobar isles.

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Specialties:
• Due to high tides, these forests are frequently flooded with saline waters of
sea, and during low tides this vegetation witness dryness, so this vegetation
are resistant to salinity, flooding and aridity too.
• This vegetation is resistant to saline waters too. That’s why called
“halophytes”.
• Roots of these trees are strong and deep so having a strong hold on soil,
that’s why they work as natural barrier and protecting coastal areas from
cyclones and tsunamis.
• Mangrove woods are hard and durable, so widely used for making boats.
• These woods are important cooking fuel too.
• They also prevent coastal erosion and protect coasts from sea waves.
• These trees also help in reducing pollution.

Main trees and vegetation: Mangrove, Coconut, Sundari, Tad, Bet, Bamboo,
Phoenix are important trees of Mangrove Forest. Due to excess of Sundari trees,
the mangrove forest of Ganga-Brahmaputra delta known as “Sundarvan”.
Mangrove forest are quite famous for their biodiversity across the world.

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Chapter 7: Soils of India

Indian Agricultural Research Board (IARB) has classified soils of India in eight
classes –
1. Alluvial Soil 5. Mountain Soil
2. Black Soil 6. Saline and Alkaline Soil
3. Red-Yellow Soil 7. Arid or Desert Soil
4. Laterite Soil 8. Peat and Marshy Soil

1. Alluvial Soil
Origin: This soil has been formed by sand, silt and clay deposition in northern
plains, brought by three mighty rivers originating from Himalayas i.e., Sutlej,
Brahmaputra and Ganges and their tributaries. This is an azonal soil (which is
made of silt and sand, drew far from distant regions).
Specialties:
• This soil has been divided in two types based on size and age of soil
particles –
1. Khadar: This newer alluvium, brought each year by flooding rivers.
This soil mostly found in river basin and at river banks. This is the most
fertile soil.
2. Bangar: This is older alluvium, this is found away from river basin or
flood plain, mostly contains kanker nodules. They are less fertile than
Khadar.
• Potash, Phosphorus, Nitrogenous and Lime content are less in alluvial soil.
• In dry areas they have more basic content.

Area and Distribution:

This is the most widely spread soil over India. It is spread in an area about 15
lakh sq. km., it is about 46% of total area. It’s support 40% of India’s
population. This soil found all along Indus-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains of
North India and east and west coastal area of India. Apart from above this also
found in Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Tapti River valleys.

2. Black Soil
Origin: These soils are formed by disintegration of basaltic lava of Deccan
plateau. That’s why this is a clayey, lava dominant, fertile soil.

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Specialties:
• This is dark black color soil. Soil particles are fine.
• This is highly argillaceous soil contains 60% clay content.
• Black soil is highly water retentive soil.
• In rainy season it gets sticky but in dry season in summers water
evaporates, this leaves deep and board cracks in soil, this permits
oxygenation of soil to sufficient depth, this makes black soil extraordinary
fertile.
• This soil rich in Lime, Potash, Aluminium, Magnesium, and Iron are in
sufficient quantity but it lacks in Phosphorus, Humus and Nitrogen.
• It is less fertile on gradient of hills. But fertile on middle of plateaus.
• This soil supports wide variety of crops. This soil is very famous for Cotton
crop, that’s why it is also called “Cotton Soil”. Apart from cotton it
supports wheat, sugarcane, barley, rice, tobacco, peanuts, soybean, and
banana etc.

Area and Distribution:

This is spread over 4.6 lakh sq. km. of area (16.6% of total area). This is the
second most widely spread soil in India. This found in Deccan Trap area of
Maharashtra, western Madhya Pradesh, northern Karnataka, Telangana, northern
Andhra Pradesh, south-east Gujarat, north-west Tamil Nadu and south-east
Rajasthan.

3. Red-Yellow Soil
Origin: These soils are formed from disintegration of granite and gneiss rocks.
Due to the presence of iron oxides this soil appears red in color when they added
with water, they appear red-yellow in color. This soil contains fine particles of
minerals like – Feldspar, Olivine, getting from parent rock which is chocolate
color. Due to presence of these mineral this soil looks yellow in color.
Specialties:
• Due to genesis from variety of rocks, there is a difference in soil fertility,
structure of particles and depth is witnessed.
• These soils are porous in dry and highland so they are not fertile there, but
in low land they are rich in Iron, Potash, Potassium, Aluminium so they are
fertile. Although they are poor in nitrogen, lime and humus but fairly
rich in potash and potassium.

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• When this soil is fine and deep, then only it became fertile.
• This soil supports a wide variety of crops i.e., cotton, wheat, rice, pulses,
cereal etc.

Area and Distribution:

This soil occupies almost 3.5 lakh sq. km. of area which is roughly 10.6% of
total area. This soil spread almost whole of Tamil Nadu. Other regions with red
soil are parts of Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, south part of
Bihar, eastern part of Rajasthan.

4. Laterite Soil
Origin: These soils are developed in those areas having repeated season of wet
and dry. Wet period with immense rainfall of 200 cm and above and dry period
with extreme temperature. These soils are formed by disintegration of rocks and
various chemical processes. This soil is formed by leaching process because of
immense rainfall. Because of leaching sand, clay and lime portions are leached
down but Iron and Aluminium compounds remained as top soil. Due to this
compound this soil getting red color of laterite soil.
This soil is of two types –
1. One which is found on high land is dry, leached and less fertile because
they have low water retention capacity.
2. Second which is found on low land is wet, humid, clay and loamy soil, this
increases its water retention capacity and making it fertile.

Specialties:
• This soil lacks nitrogen, lime and potash. This soil also lacks humus. Due
to lack of lime this soil is acidic in nature. Due to acidic nature this soil
supports tea leave cultivation.
• This soil is rich in iron but poor in lime, because of leaching action lime
content wash away and only iron pan left.
• This soil is famous for coffee, tea and dry fruits plantation. Karnataka
and Maharashtra are famous for cashew. In Tamil Nadu on Western
Ghats and south Karnataka is famous for coffee plantation. This region also
famous for Tapioca production.
• This soil also supports crops like – peanuts, rubber and wide variety of
spices.

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Area and Distribution:

• Laterite soil covers approximately 2.48 lakh sq. km. of area, which is 8-
9% of total area. This soil mainly found on Eastern and Western Ghats,
Rajmahal Hills, Hills and plateaus of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Odisha, Chhota Nagpur plateau, Meghalaya plateau, (Ratnagiri, Satara and
Kolava) districts of Maharashtra and parts of West Bengal.
• Its largest spread is in Kerala state.

5. Mountain Soil
• These soils are thin, fine, marshy and porous.
• In foothills of Himalaya a sandy, porous and less fertile soil, tertiary
deposits are known as mountain soil.
• This soil can support tea plantation, rice and some fruits.
• On summits of western Himalayas few traces of fertile soil can be found
which supports apple plantation.
• In mid Himalaya due to presence of large vegetation, in due course of time
this vegetation turned in to humus and made this soil fertile.
• This soil is acidic due to excess of humus content.
• This soil lacks potash, phosphorus, nitrogen and lime but rich in
humus.
• This soil is largely affected from erosion.

6. Saline and Alkaline soil

• This soil locally known as “reh”, “usar”, “kallar”, “thur’, “kakar”,
“chopan”.
• This soil lacks nitrogen and lime content.
• This soil is made by water logging for prolonged time.
• In coastal areas due to repeated flooding by salty ocean water turns it into
saline soil.
• In Haryana Punjab region due to excess of irrigation and water logging for
a long period, this soil turned into saline soil and rendered it unfertile. In
water logging condition due to capillary action salts of sodium, magnesium
and calcium deposited on top soil. It creating a white layer of salt on top of
soil. This makes soil saline. This saline known as “kallar” in Punjab
Haryana region.

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• In western Uttar Pradesh in Aligarh, Kannauj region because of absence of

gradient and hence lack of drainage causing water logging, this causing
saline soil formation. This soil is known as “Usar” in Kannauj and
Kanpur region.
• Saline soil can be treated with lime to make it fertile again.
• Due to excess of calcium and potassium soil becomes alkaline, and
unfertile. Alkaline soil can be treated with gypsum to make it fertile
again.

7. Desert Soil
• This is almost sandy soil, with sand content is more than two third portion.
• This soil is rich in iron and phosphorus but lacks in nitrogen and
humus.
• This is an alkaline nature soil.
• After irrigation this soil can be made fertile.
• This soil supports cereals, barely, jowar, raagi crops cultivation.
• This soil is found in western Rajasthan, southern Haryana and Punjab and
western Uttar Pradesh.

8. Peaty and Marshy Soil or Organic Soil

• This soil found in high humidity climate. This makes the region marshy.
Vegetation in due course of time rotten after felling and tuning in humus
for thousands of years. This makes Peaty or Marshy soil.
• This soil black in color and acidic in nature.
• This soil has immense portion of fossils and dead organic components,
that’s why it is very rich in humus.
• This is also called “organic soil” because of excess in organic content.
• Due to excess of phosphorus and aluminium sulphate, this soil is unfit for
plant growth.
• This soil is mostly found in Kerala, Alpujha district of Kerala, Almora
district of Uttarakhand, Sundarvan delta and other deltaic regions.

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Chapter 8: Agriculture in India

Specialties of Agriculture in India
• Subsistence agriculture: Agriculture is the only source of income for
large population.
• Cereals as the main crop in production to maximize the profit.
• Rainfed agriculture which is largely dependent on monsoon.
• Huge pressure to increase production because of every increasing
population.
• Diversity of crops also affecting cropping pattern and productivity.
• Intensive subsistence agriculture continuously deteriorating fertile land.
• Fodder is considered as least priority crop.
• Agriculture is cardinally attached to society and economy of India.

Type of Crops based on season

1. Kharif Crop: These crops require high temperature and excess water. So,
these crops are sown in June or July and harvested in September and
October. Main crops under Kharif cultivation are – Rice, Jawar, Maize,
Cotton, Peanut, Jute, Tobacco, Millet, Sugarcane, Pulses, Onion, Chili,
Bottle-guard, Okra etc.
2. Rabi Crop: These crops require little cool temperature while sowing and
warm climate when ripening. That’s why these crops are sown in Autumn
season. These crops sown in October and November months and harvested
in April and May months. Main crops under Rabi cultivation are – Wheat,
Gram, Mustard, Rapeseed, Barely, Oats, Chickpea, Lentils, Potato,
Banana, Tomato, Cabbage etc.
3. Zaid Crop: These crops are cultivated in region well irrigated for short
term. These crops are sown in between March and June months. Main
crops under Zaid cultivation are – Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber,
Bitter-gourd, Fodder, Pumpkin, Guar (Cluster Bean), Arahar (Pigeon
pea), Urad (Black Gram), Mung Dal (Green Gram), Masur (Lentils)
etc.

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Types of Agriculture Practiced in India

1. Subsistence Agriculture
• Most of the farmers in India practice subsistence agriculture.
• They practice agriculture on a small patch of land with family and cattle.
• Their agricultural practice is rudimentary, old and least productive.
• Only cereal crops are focused crop.

2. Plantation Farming
• Plantation farming was introduced by British in India in 19 th century.
• In this farming mostly cash crops are produced like Rubber, Coffee, Tea,
Coco, Banana, Coconut and spices etc.
• This farming requires huge investment initially, big patch of land,
technology, management skills, modern agricultural tools and storage and
food processing centers.

3. Migratory Framing or Jhum farming

• This type of agriculture is practiced by mostly tribes in distant forests. They
used to clear the forest by felling trees and burning them to prepare the
field. That’s why it is also called “slash and burn” farming too.
• When soil fertility lost after 2-3 years, they used to migrate somewhere else
and again clearing the forest and preparing the field, that’s why migratory
farming.
• This type of farming has resulted in huge deforestation and biodiversity
degradation.
• This trivial method of agriculture has caused massive deforestation and soil
erosion on hills and foothills of Himalayas where this farming has been
practiced.
• This farming has been widely practiced by tribes in north-east India in
Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunachal
Pradesh and some parts of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
• Main crops produced in this farming are – Rice, Maize, Millet, Tobacco
and Sugarcane.

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Different Agricultural Forms

Agriculture Activity Agriculture Activity
Horticulture Gardening Viticulture Grape production
Aeroponics growing plants in air Horticulture Vegetable production
Sericulture Production of silk and Floriculture Flower production
rearing of silk worms
Vermiculture Earthworm rearing Pisciculture Fish farming

Apiculture Beekeeping Hydroponics growing plants in water

Pomiculture fruit production

Green Revolution
• Green Revolution was started in India in 1966-67. Father of Green
Revolution in India was M. S. Swaminathan.
• Father of Green Revolution in the world was noble prize winner Prof.
Norman Borlaug.
• Green Revolution means enhancing the crop yield by using genetically
modified crops. The crop yield per hectare was enhanced at least 2 to 4
times after using GM crops or Hybrid Seed. This was called Green
Revolution it benefitted both irrigated and non-irrigated fields.

12 components of Green Revolution –

1. High Yield Variety Crops 7. Rural Roads
2. Irrigation 8. Agricultural Credit
3. Use of Pesticides 9. Agricultural Mechanization
4. Command Area Development 10. Chemical Fertilizers
5. Land Reforms 11. Reform of Land Holdings
6. Rural Electrification 12. Agriculture University

Effects of Green Revolution

Positive Effects Negative Effects
Increase in crop yield Inter cropping imbalance
Progress in wealth of farmers Increased the regional income disparity
Drop in import of crop Benefitted to large farmers mostly
Promoted capitalist agriculture Increased unemployment

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Generated rural employment Enhanced migration tendency in rural

Industrial Development Environmental problems

Classification of Crops
• Cash crops: Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Peanut etc.
• Cereal crops: Rice, Wheat, Maize, Barely, Millet etc.
• Plantation crops: Coffee, Tea, Coconut, Rubber, Spices etc.
• Horticulture crops: Mango, Apple, Banana, Grapes, Guava etc.

Rice (Oryza Sativa)

• Rice is India’s most important cereal crop. 23% of total cropping area is
dedicated to rice cultivation.
• Largest rice cultivation area of rice is in West Bengal. India has second
position in rice production after China.
• Rice has 42% share in total cereal production.
• Rice is although a kharif crop but it also sown in winters. Oas rice in
winter, Bora rice in summers and Aman rice in November.
• In north India rice is sown in May and June months and harvested in
September- October months.

Essential conditions for rice cultivation:

• Rice crop requires 24ºC average mean monthly temperature and hot
humid climate.
• Rice crop requires more than 150 cm rainfall.
• Rice crop requires deep fertile soil or clay or domat soil.

Wheat (Triticum)
• Wheat is second most important cereal produced in India. 14% of total
cropping area is dedicated to wheat cultivation.
• Important producer states of wheat are – Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
• India produces 12% of global wheat production.

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• In north India wheat is sown in October-November months and harvested

in March-April months. But in south India wheat is sown in September-
October and harvested in December-January.
• Wheat is a Rabi crop of temperate climate.
• Winter rainfall which called ‘Mavath’ is very important for wheat crop.

Essential conditions:
• For wheat crop temperature should be in between 10ºC to 15ºC.
• Wheat crop requires 50-70 cm annual rainfall.
• Wheat crop grows in light domat, sandy and clayey soil.

Jowar (Sorghum)
• This crop cultivated in both seasons Rabi and Kharif. This is an African
origin plant.
• Jowar is mainly produced by Maharashtra (34%), Karnataka (13%),
Madhya Pradesh (13%).
• Highest productivity of jowar is in Andhra Pradesh.

Essential conditions:
• Rainfall: 30-100 cm annual
• Temperature: 26ºC to 33ºC
• Soil: light domat, black clayey soil.

Bajra (Pearl Millet)

• This is also an African origin plant. This is sown in Kharif season in India.
• Main producers of Bajra in India are – Rajasthan (27%), Gujarat (19%),
Maharashtra (15%) and Haryana
• Highest productivity of Bajra is in Haryana.
• Bajra is a tropical crop. It requires 40-50 cm annual rainfall, 25ºC to 31ºC
temperature and sandy, desert or domat soil.

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Maize
• This is a Kharif crop. This crop requires semi-arid dry climate.
• Maize is produced in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar and Rajasthan.
• Maize crop requires 50 to 100 cm annual rainfall, 25ºC to 30ºC
temperature and dark domat or alluvial clayey soil.

Peanut
• Peanut is also a kharif crop. It requires 50 to 75 cm annual rainfall,
temperature in between 20ºC to 30ºC and light domat or sandy soil.
• It is widely produced in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Gram
• It is a tropical rabi crop. Which requires 40 to 50 cm annual rainfall,
temperature in between 20ºC to 25ºC and domat soil.
• Important Gram producer states in India are – Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
• Highest cropping area and highest production both are in Madhya Pradesh.

Cotton
• This is a tropical and sub-tropical crop. Grows in kharif season. It requires
50 to 75 cm annual rainfall, temperature in between 21ºC and 30ºC, dark
black soil of Deccan.
• Main producer of cotton in India are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh
and Punjab.
• Highest productivity of cotton is in Punjab.
• India is 3rd largest producer of cotton after USA and China.

Jute
• This is humid climate crop. It is mostly sown in kharif season.
• India alone produces 66% of global Jute production.
• Top Jute producer states in India are – West Bengal, Bihar, Assam and
Jharkhand.
• Jute crop requires 100 to 200 cm of annual rainfall, temperature in
between 24ºC and 35ºC, soil is alluvial or Kaamp soil.

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Sugarcane
• This is tropical crop. This crop requires high temperature and high
humidity.
• Important sugarcane producer states in India are – Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka etc.
• Per hectare productivity in south India is more in comparison to north India
because of high humidity in south.
• Sugarcane crop requires excessive irrigation, most of the irrigation in India
is used for sugarcane crop only.
• Sugarcane crop requires 150 cm or more annual rainfall. Temperature in
between 20ºC and 26ºC. Soil should be fertile domat, it can also grow in
black soil.

Tobacco
• There are two type of tobacco is grown in India –
1. Nicotiana Tabacum: it is used in cigarette, cigar and cherut.
2. Nicotiana Rustica: it is used in khaini, hukka and bidi.
• 90% of tobacco produced in India is nicotiana rustica.
• Main states producing tobacco in India are – Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Bihar.
• Tobacco requires 50 cm annual rainfall, but more than 100 cm of annual
rainfall will be harmful, temperature should be 15ºC to 30ºC, and soil
should be acidic and sandy.

Rubber
• This is a crop of hot and humid climate.
• India is the third largest producer of rubber after Thailand and Indonesia.
• Rubber is produced mainly in – Tamil Nadu, Assam and Karnataka.
• Kerala producing almost 92% of total rubber production in India.
• Rubber plantation requires more than 200 cm annual rainfall and
temperature in between 25ºC and 35ºC, soil should be acidic laterite or
mountain soil.

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Tea
• Tea is plant of hot and humid climate and shadow loving plant. Tea
plantation done in shadow region like summits of mountains.
• There should be no water logging near the roots of tea plants, that’s why
they require gradient filed e.g., summits of hills and mountains.
• Important tea producing states in India are – Assam, West Bengal, Tamil
Nadu and Tripura.
• Tea plantation requires 200 to 300 cm of annual rainfall, temperature in
between 24ºC and 30ºC and soil should be loose and acidic, composed of
organic elements.

Coconut
• This is coastal climate plant.
• India has first place in production, import and utilization of coconut.
• Important coconut producing states in India are – Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
• Coconut plantation requires 150 cm of annual rainfall, temperature should
be 20ºC to 25ºC and soil should be laterite.

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Chapter 9: Mineral Resources of India

Minerals are of two types –
1. Metallic Minerals: these are elements with metal constituents. These are
sub types of metallic minerals too –
• Ferrous Metal: Haematite, Magnetite, Limonite, Siderite and Pyrite.
• Iron mixed metal: Chromium, Cobalt, Manganese, Nickel, Tungsten,
Zirconium, Molybdenum etc.
• Non-Ferrous metal: Cadmium and Mercury
• Other metal: Copper, Zinc, Brass, Antimony, Led, Gold, Silver,
Platinum, Lithium, Uranium etc.

2. Non-Metallic mineral: Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas, Graphite, Phosphate,

Potash, Sulfur, Diamond, Neelam (Blue Sapphire), Gypsum, Asbestos, Sand
Stone etc.

Iron
• Iron is found in Dharwar series of rocks.
• There are several ores of iron from then we get iron metal – Magnetite
(72% ferrous content) > Haematite (60-70% ferrous) > Limonite (50-
60% ferrous) > Siderite (40-45%)
• Magnetite is best iron ore with highest ferrous content.
• Order of iron ores in terms of deposits in India – Haematite > Magnetite
> others

State Iron ore Producer Region

Chhattisgarh Dalli Rajahra, Bailadila
Karnataka Baba Budan Hills, Kudremukh and Bellary
Jharkhand Noamundi, Jamada, Singhbhum
Odisha Badam Pahadi, Keonjhor, Bonai
Andhra Pradesh Kurnul, Cuddapah

Manganese
State Producing Region
Odisha Keonjhor, Kalahandi, Sundargarh
Madhya Pradesh Balaghat, Chhindwara
Maharashtra Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri
Jharkhand West Singhbhum

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Bauxite
State Producing region
Odisha Kalahandi, Raigarh, Panchpattmalli, Gandhmardan
Madhya Pradesh Katni, Jabalpur, Shahdol, Mandla
Jharkhand Palamu, Lohardaga
Chattisgarh Bustar, Bilaspur, Sarguja

Copper
State Producer region
Rajasthan Khetari, Kho dariba,
Madhya Pradesh Malajkhand (Balaghat district)
Jharkhand Mosabani, Rakha, Sonamakhi

Silver
State Producer region
Rajasthan Jawar mines
Karnataka Kolar region, Chitra Durga
Andhra Pradesh Cuddapah, Guntur, Kurnool

Asbestos
State Producer region
Jharkhand Codarma, Giridih, Hazaribagh
Rajasthan Jaipur, Udaipur, Bhilwara
Andhra Pradesh Nellore, Visakhapatnam, Krishna district

Gold
• Almost 90% of Gold is produced by Karnataka.
• Producer region – Kolar Mines, Hatti Mines, Subarnarekha River basin,
sand deposits of Son River.

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Thorium
• Thorium is harvested from monazite and ilmenite ore.
• India has largest deposit of thorium in world.
• Producer region –
Kerala: Kollam and Palakkad district has highest concentration of thorium
ore or monazite sand. Its source is Travancore hills.
Jharkhand: Chhota Nagpur plateau has also some traces of thorium
deposits. Apart from Kerala and Jharkhand, coastal region of Tamil Nadu
and Odisha, Mahanadi delta region has also few deposits of thorium ores.

Uranium
• This is found in few traces in Jharkhand, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Kerala and Tamil Nadu region.
• Jadugoda mines of Jharkhand is famous for uranium mines.

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Chapter 10: Energy Resources in India

Coal
• This is also called Black Gold.
• Largest coal deposit in world is found in Gondwana rocks.
• Type of coal –

Name of Sub Name Carbon Deposit region

Coal content
Peat coal Low grade 40% or less
coal
Lignite coal Brown coal 40-60% Neveli (Tamil
Nadu), Assam and
West Bengal
Bituminous Black coal 60-80% Jharkhand,
coal Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, MP
Anthracite Rock coal 80-90% Jammu & Kashmir
coal

Coal Producers region:

• Jharkhand: Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih
• West Bengal: Raniganj, Birbhum
• Odisha: Talcher, Sambhalpur
• Chhattisgarh: Koraba, Sohagpur
• Andhra Pradesh: Godavari valley, Singreni
• Maharashtra: Wardha valley

Coal based thermal power plants

1. Naveli thermal power plant, Tamil Nadu
2. Korba thermal power plant, Chhattisgarh
3. Talcher thermal power plant, Odisha
4. Rihand thermal power plant, Uttar Pradesh
5. Singrauli thermal power plant, Uttar Pradesh
6. Ramgundam thermal power plant, Andhra Pradesh
7. Harduaganj thermal power plant, Uttar Pradesh

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Petroleum
Producer region
1. Bombay high: it is situated 110 nautical miles west of Mumbai coast. It
is also called B-19.
2. K G basin: this is situated on Andhra Pradesh coast between Krishna and
Godavari River.
3. Assam Valley: Digboi, Naharkatia and Surma valley.
4. Gujarat: Ankaleshwar, Lunej, Kalol and Gulf of Cambay
5. Other region: West Bengal, Jaisalmer, Bikarner and Barmer region of
Rajasthan.

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Chapter 11: Industries of India

Factors responsible for Industrialization
1. Raw material, 2. Availability of Energy, 3. Transportation, 4. Availability of
Cheap labour, 5. Reach to market, 6. Availability to water resource, 7. Changing
economic scenario.
Impediments in Industrial development
1. Increase in cost due to delay in plant of action
2. Reduction in supply of raw material
3. Unavailability of energy resources
4. Lack of rail – road transportation
5. Lack of will among ruling government of political leadership
6. Lack of skill development
7. Lack of investment e.g., FDI or capital

Industries in India before independence

Industry Year of Place of establishment
Establishment
Iron and Steel Industry 1874 AD Kulti (West Bengal)
Aluminum Industry 1938 AD INDAL, Hira Kund (Odisha)
Cement Industry 1904 AD Chennai
Chemical Fertilizer Ind. 1906 AD Rani pet (Tamil Nadu)
Ship making Industry 1941 AD Hindustan shipyard
(Visakhapatnam)
First Cotton Mill 1818 AD Kolkata
(unsuccessful)
First Cotton Mill 1854 AD Mumbai (Dabur Industry)
(successful)
Jute Industry 1955 AD Risra (West Bengal)
Wool Industry 1876 AD Kanpur

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Famous Industries of India

1. Iron and Steel Industry
• This is a weight losing industry, so this industry mainly established near
the source of raw material so that the transportation cost of raw material
can be minimized.
• Important raw material for Iron and Steel industry are – Iron ore, cooking
coal, limestone, manganese and dolomite.
• First iron and steel industry was established in India in 1874 AD in Kulti
(W.B.).
• In 1907 AD first private sector iron and steel industry was established at
Jamshedpur by Tata Steel named as TISCO, this place later known as Tata
Nagar.

Iron and Steel Industries established in 2nd Five Year Plan

• Bhilai (Chhattisgarh): with the help of Russia (1959 AD)
• Durgapur (W.B.): with the help of Britain (1962 AD)
• Raurkela (Odisha): with the help of Germany (1959 AD)

Iron and Steel Industries established in 3rd Five Year Plan

• Bokaro (Jharkhand): with the help of Russia

Important Iron and Steel Industries

1. Kulti- Burnpur- Hirapur (TISCO) Asansol, West Bengal
• Iron ore: Singhbhum (Jharkhand)
• Coal: Raniganj (W.B.), Jharia (Jharkhand), Ramgarh (Jharkhand)
• Manganese: Bahajamda-Banspani (Odisha)
• Water: Barakar river (tributary of Damodar River)
• Limestone: Birmitrapur (Odisha), Gangpur (Odisha)

2. Raurkela Iron and Steel Industry

• Iron ore: Keonjhor and Sundargarh mines (Odisha)
• Coal: Jharia mines (Jharkhand)
• Manganese: Keonjhor (Odisha)

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• Limestone: Birmitrapur (Odisha)

• Water: Koyal and Sankh river

3. Tata Iron and Steel Industry (TISCO), Jamshedpur

• Iron ore: Singhbum and Noamundi (Odisha)
• Coal: Jharia mines (Jharkhand), Joda mines (Odisha)
• Manganese: Singhbhum (Odisha)
• Limestone: Birmitrapur (Odisha)
• Water: Suwarnarekha and Kharkai river

4. Bhilai Iron and steel Industry, Bhilai (Chhattisgarh)

• Iron ore: Dalli rajahra (Chhattisgarh)
• Coal: Korba (Chhattisgarh) and Kargali (Jharkhand)
• Manganese: Balaghat mine (MP)
• Limestone: Raipur Durg region
• Water: Tandula dam

5. Durgapur Iron Steel Industry (West Bengal)

• Iron ore: Noamundi, Singhbhum region (Jharkhand)
• Coal: Raniganj-Jharia coal belt
• Manganese: Keonjhor (Odisha)
• Limestone: Birmitrapur (Odisha)
• Water: Damodar River

6. Bokaro Iron and steel Industry, Bokaro (Jharkhand)

• Iron ore: Keonjhor (Odisha)
• Coal: Jharia and Bokaro mines (Jharkhand)
• Manganese: Kiruburu (Odisha)
• Limestone: Palamu (Jharkhand)
• Water: Damodar River

7. Selam Iron and Steel Industry, Selam (Tamil, Nadu) [estd. 1982
AD]
• It was India’s first iron and steel plant which made stainless steel.
• This was a lignite-based iron and steel plant.
• It gets iron ore from Shevaroy hills (Tamil Nadu).

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• Lignite coal is resourced from Neveli mines (Tamil Nadu).

• Manganese and Limestone are resourced from local mines in Tamil Nadu.

8. Vishakhapatnam Iron and Steel Plant, Vishakhapatnam

(Andhra Pradesh)
• It was India’s first coastal iron and steel plant.
• It was established in 6th Five Year Plan.
• This plant getting iron ore from Bailadila mines (Chhattisgarh).
• Coal is from Damodar basin and also imported from Australia.
• Limestone from Khamman district Andhra Pradesh.

9. Vijayanagar Iron and Steel Plant, Hospet (Karnataka)

• This plant resourcing iron ore Hospet, Baba Budan Hills and
Chickmangluru region.
• Coal is resourced from Kanhan valley (MP) and Singreni (AP).
• This plant getting water and electricity from Tungbhadra Hydro power
project.

Aluminium Industry
• This is such an industry which requires a lot of electricity. So, this industry
has been located at such place which has immense amount and
uninterrupted and cheap supply of electricity.
• First plant of Aluminium was established at Hirakund in 1938 AD under a
private sector company name INDAL. Later in 1942 AD The Aluminium
Corporation of India Jaykeynagar, (near Asansol, West Bengal).
• Aluminium plant established in second five-year plan-
1. Hirakund (Odisha)
2. Renukut (Uttar Pradesh)

Aluminium Plants in India

1. Hindustan Aluminium Company (HINDALCO)
• Plant: Renukut (Uttar Pradesh)
• Bauxite ore supply: Ranchi (Jharkhand)
• Electricity supply: Rihand Hydro Power Project

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2. Indian Aluminium Company Limited (INDALCO)

• Plants: 1. Muri (Jharkhand), 2. Alvay (Kerala), 3. Belur (W.B.), 4.
Hirakund (Odisha), 5. Belgam (Kanataka)

3. Bharat Aluminium Corporation (BALCO)

• Plants: Korba (Chhattisgarh) and Koyana (Maharashtra)

4. Madras Aluminium Corporation (MALCO)

• Plant: Maitur (Tamil Nadu)

5. National Aluminium Corporation (NALCO)

• Plant: Damanjodi (Koraput, Odisha), Angul (Dhekanal, Odisha)

6. Aluminium Corporation of India

• Plant: Jeykey nagar (West Bengal)

7. Vedanta Aluminium Limited

• Plant: Jharsuguda (Odisha)

Cement Industry
• Cement is a fundamental industry for all constructional activities. It is a
weight losing industry. That’s why this industry is located at the source of
raw material.
• Raw material in cement industry is – Limestone, coal and gypsum. Madhya
Pradesh has largest deposits of limestone, that’s why Madhya Pradesh has
highest concentration of cement industry.

Types Plant in cement industry

1. Sludge based Cement Plant: In these plants waste from chemical fertilizer
industry used as raw material. e.g. Sindari Plant
2. Slag based Cement Plant: In these plants waste from iron and steel
industry is used as raw material. e.g. Sikapani (Jharkhand), Bhadrawati
(Karnataka), Raurkela (Odisha), Durgapur (W.B.), Visakhapatnam (Andhra
Pradesh) and Durg (Chhattisgarh) etc.

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3. Cement Plants based on sea creature’s shell: In these plants shells of dead
marine or sea creatures used as raw material. e.g. Dwarika, Chennai,
Thiruvananthapuram and Porbandar.
Important cement producing states:
• Madhya Pradesh: Satna, Katni, Jabalpur, Ratlam, Neemach, Maihar and
Banmore etc.
• Chhattisgarh: Jamul, Durga and Mandhar etc.
• Andhra Pradesh: Vijayawada, Krishna, Guntur, Kurnool,
Vishakhapatnam etc.
• Rajasthan: Sawai Madhopur, Udaipur, Churu, Chittorgarh etc.
• Gujarat: Porbandar, Jamnagar, Dwarika, Vadodara, Ahmedabad etc.
• Tamil Nadu: Tulukapatti, Thalaiuthu, Tiruvenvelli etc.
• Maharashtra: Chanda, Ratnagiri, Senari etc.

Note:
• India is 2nd largest producer of cement in world.
• Cement Industry has been completely decentralized in the year 1989 AD.
• Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh alone contributing 22.5% of total
cement production in India.
• Highest production capacity installed in Andhra Pradesh. But M.P. is the
highest producer of cement.
• Andhra Pradesh has largest number of cement plants.

Chemical Fertilizer Industry

• There are 3 types of fertilizers produced under chemical fertilizers –
Nitrogen, Phosphatic and Potash fertilizer.
• Alluvial soil of India lacks nitrogen, that’s why nitrogenous fertilizers is
the most consumed and most produced fertilizer in India.
• First Chemical Fertilizer Plant was established in 1906 AD in Ranipet
(Tamil Nadu).
• Raw material is the main localization factor for chemical fertilizer industry.

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Chemical Fertilizer Plants based on Various Raw material

1. Naphtha based Plant: Nitrogen fertilizer producing most of the plants (70%)
based of Naphtha. Naphtha is a byproduct of Petroleum industry. e.g. Vadodara
plant (getting naphtha from Koyali oil refinery). Most of the coastal fertilizer
production plants are based on Naphtha except Tutikorin.
2. Coke based Plant: Talcher (Odisha), Korba (Chhattisgarh), Naveli (Tamil
Nadu)
3. Coke Oven based Plant: Sindari (Jharkhand), Jamshedpur, Raurkela, Bhilai
and Durgapur.
4. Electric Hydrogen decomposition-based Plant: Nangal (Punjab), Hirakund
(Odisha).
5. Sulphuric Acid based Plant: Khetari (Rajasthan), Kochi and Albai (Kerala).
6. Ammonium Sulphate (Gypsum) based Plant: Sindari (Jharkhand), Udaipur
(Rajasthan).
7. Natural Gas based Plant: Vijaypur (Madhya Pradesh), Sawai Madhopur
(Rajasthan), Jagdishpur (Uttar Pradesh), Sahjahanpur (Uttar Pradesh), Amla,
Babrala (Uttar Pradesh).
8. Rock Phosphate based Plant: Khetari (Rajasthan), Udaipur (Rajasthan).

Important Chemical Fertilizer Companies and their Units

• Fertilizer Corporation of India Limited (FCI): Sindari, Gorakhpur,
Talcher and Rama Gundam.
• National Chemical and Fertilizers Limited (NCF): Trombay and Thal
(Maharashtra).
• Indian Farmers Fertilizers Cooperative Limited (IFFCO): Kalol
(Gujarat), Kandla (Gujarat), Phulpur (Uttar Pradesh) and Amla (Uttar
Pradesh).
• Krishak Bharti Cooperative Limited (KRIBHCO): Hazira (Gujarat).

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Petro-Chemical Industry
This is divided in four sub industries-
1. Polymer
2. Synthetic fiber
3. Electromers
4. Surfactant Intermediate

1. Polymers
• Polymer is manufactured from ethylene and propylene which is by product
of oil refining.
• National Armonic Chemical Ltd. (NOCIL) was country’s first Naptha
based chemical factory established in 1961 in Mumbai.
• Plastic is made of polymers. Important centers of plastic manufacturing in
INDIA are – Mumbai, Barauni, Maittur, Pimpari (Pune), Risra (W.B.).

2. Synthetic Fiber
• Synthetic Fiber is used in textile industry. Nylon and Polyesters are
important synthetic fibers.
• Nylon and Polyesters Factories in India- Kota, Pimpari, Mumbai, Pune,
Ujjain and Nagpur etc.
• Acrylic and staple fiber factory: Kota and Vadodara.
• Polyester staple fiber factory: Kota, Vadodara, Thane, Ghaziabad and
Manali etc.

3. Electromers and synthetic detergent factory: Haldia (West Bengal)

4. Surfactant Intermediate or crackers industry: Auraiya (Uttar
Pradesh), Jamnagar, Gandhi Nagar, Hazira (Gujarat), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra),
Shivakashi (Tamil Nadu), Vishakhapatnam (A.P.), Haldia (W.B.) etc.

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Cotton Textile Industry

• First successful cotton factory was established in Mumbai in 1854 AD by
Kawas Ji Dabur.
• Cotton textile industry is pure raw material-based industry. So, it’s
localization can be in raw material availability zone or near to the market.

Distribution of Cotton Textile Industry:

1. Maharashtra and Gujarat:
• Maharashtra has 122 cotton textile mills and Gujarat have 130 cotton
textile mills.
• Mumbai in Maharashtra and Ahmedabad in Gujarat are most important
cotton textile producing centers.
• Mumbai is called “the capital of cotton textile industry” or “cotton polis
of India’.
• Ahmedabad is known as “Boston of East”
• Surat is famous embroidery.

2. Tamil Nadu:
• Tamil Nadu has highest number of cotton mills.
• Here almost 45% of mill produced cotton is produced.
• Coimbatore is the most important center of cotton production, that’s why
it is called “Manchester of South’.
• Other centers of cotton production are – Chennai, Madurai, Tuticorin,
Selam and Thanjavur.

3. West Bengal: Here 55 cotton mills are located.

4. Uttar Pradesh: there are almost 50 cotton textile mills. Kanpur is one of the
most important cotton textile centre.

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Sugar Industry
• In India most of the sugar in produced from sugarcane.
• First successful sugar mill was established in Madhaura (Bihar) by British
in 1903 AD. After that a large number of sugar mills established in Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar.
• Sugar Industry is a weight losing industry that’s why it is located near raw
material zone i.e., sugarcane producing region so that transportation cost
on raw material can be minimized.

Important sugarcane producing state – Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Bihar etc.
1. Uttar Pradesh: there are two zone of sugarcane producing regions –
• West zone or Ganga-Yamuna doab – Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar,
Meerut, Ghaziabad etc.
• East zone or Terai zone: Gorakhpur, Basti, Deoria, Gonda, Ayodhya,
Sitapur etc.

2. Maharashtra:
• Black soil land irrigated by Godavari, Krishna, Pravara and Neera rivers
are good sugarcane producing region.
• Ahmed Nagar, Kolhapur, Pune, Nasik, Sholapur and Satara are main
sugarcane producing districts in Maharashtra.

3. Tamil Nadu:
• Tamil Nadu has highest per hectare sugarcane yield and highest sugar
content in sugarcane. Main reason for this is humid coastal climate.
• Coimbatore, Tiruchirappalli, Vellore and Arcot are main sugar producing
centers.

4. Other centers of sugar production: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,

Gujarat, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan etc.

Reason for centralization of sugar industry in Southern India

• Black soil of Deccan plateau which the most water retentive soil is the best
soil for sugarcane, because it will require less irrigation.

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• Humid marine climate prevents loss of sugar content and increasing

perishing duration of sugarcane. These factors ultimately increasing sugar
yield in southern India.
• In Southern India sugar mills are most of them are cooperative owned
rather public sectors holding it increasing working efficiency and
production ultimately.
• Sugar juice is also greater in southern sugarcane crop.
• Electricity resources are easily available in southern India.

Jute Industry
• This is agro based weight losing industry. So, the localization of Jute
industry is in raw material availability region.
• Before the partition of India, India having monopoly over Jute production.
Partition affected jute industry badly, because most of the jute producing
regions became part of east Pakistan (present day Bangladesh) but jute
mills remained in West Bengal (India).
• Presently concentration of jute industry in West Bengal state of India.

Paper Industry
• First paper mill was established in Nepa Nagar (Shahdol, Madhya Pradesh)
during British era.
• First successful paper mill was established in 1879 in Lucknow and
reestablished in 1881 in Titagarh (West Bengal). This is considered as
beginning of modern paper industry.
• Paper industry is a weight losing industry. So, this industry is located in
raw material availability region.

Raw material used in Paper Industry

• Soft wood or Pulp: This is mostly obtained from coniferous trees of
Himalayas. 7% of paper industry in India using soft wood or pulp as main
raw material.
• Bamboo: 70% of paper industry in India using Bamboo as main raw
material. Karnataka and north-east India have largest bamboo cultivation.
• Savai Grass: 15% of Paper Industry using savai grass as main raw
material. Madhya Pradesh has largest savai grass production.

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• Baggasse: This is obtained from waste of sugarcane crop. This is left over
waste after perishing in sugarcane. This is the 7% of raw material for paper
industry in India.
• Rax: This is obtained from discarded clothes and papers after use. This is
called pulp, this raw material used in handmade paper industry.

Important paper producing regions:

• West Bengal is traditional paper producing region.
• Ballarpur, Maharashtra has the largest paper industry.
• Karnataka (bamboo-based production), Andhra Pradesh (bamboo and
savai grass-based production), Odisha and Madhya Pradesh (savai grass
based), Haryana, Bihar, Kerala and Tamil Nadu etc.
• Newspaper producing center: Nepa Nagar (Madhya Pradesh), Ballarpur
(Maharashtra), Sangli (Maharashtra), Bhadravati (Karnataka), Vellore
(Tamil Nadu), and Pugalur (Tamil Nadu).
• Hoshangabad (Madhya Pradesh) is famous for bank notes.

Silk Industry
Silk industry is depending upon two stages first is harvesting of silk worms and
getting silk fiber from them. Second stage is production of silk textiles from silk
fiber.
Silk worm rearing:
• Silk worm production and rearing is called “sericulture”.
• Silk worm rearing is mostly done on mulberry trees.

Types of silk produced in India:

• Mulberry silk: This silk is produced from silk worms found on Sahtoosh
or mulberry trees. This is mainly produced in Karnataka, Kerala, West
Bengal and Jammu & Kashmir. This is the finest quality of silk produced
in India.
• Muga silk: This silk is also harvested from silk worms found on mulberry
trees. This is produced in Assam, West Bengal and J&K.
• Tussar silk: This is obtained from silk worms found on wild mulberry
trees. This is mainly produced in Jharkhand, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh.

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• Eri silk: This silk is produced from insects found on Eri trees. This is the
lowest quality of silk.

Silk textile industry: Silk textile centers mostly concentrated in Mysore,

Bengaluru, Coimbatore, Varanasi, Tirupati, Madurai, Kanjivaram, Bhagalpur,
Chennai and Mumbai.
Contribution of variety of silks in total silk production
Mulberry 79%, Eri Silk 13.5%, Tussar silk 5.7%, Muga Silk 0.6%.

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Chapter 12: Important tribes of India

States Tribes
Nagaland Naga, Nabui Naga, Konyak
Manipur Kuki, Maithi
Mizoram Lakhar, Pavi, Mizo
Meghalaya Khasi, Garo, Mikir, Jaintia
Tripura Riyang, Tripuri
Arunachal Mopa, Dafla, Aapatani, Mishmi, Minyong
Pradesh
Assam Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Diyara, Bodo, Abor, Lushai, Miri
West Bengal Lodha, Bhumij, Santhal, Leptcha Toto
Sikkim Leptcha, Bhutia
Andaman & Andamanese, Nicobari, Sentinelese, Onges, Jarwas, Jarna
Nicobar
Lakshadweep Wasi
Tamil Nadu Badga, Toda, Todkota
Andhra Chenchu, Kaudhas, Savara, Gadhwa, Bahurupa, Banjara, Lanbada
Pradesh
Telangana Koya, Konda, Chenchu, Kulia, Thoti
Kerala Karad, Mopla, Nair, Dafar, Urali
Karnataka Naikada, Yarava, Bharati
Gujarat Bhil, Banjara, Koli, Dabla, Khari
Maharashtra Barli, Banjara, Koli
Rajasthan Bhil, Meena, Garasia, Banjara, Koli, Khari, Kalbelia, Saansi
Himachal Gaddi, Kinnaur, Jadda, Bakarwal
Pradesh
Jammu & Bakarwal, Gujjar, Chaupan
Kashmir
Uttarakhand Tharu, Bhotia, Buxa, Jaunsari
Uttar Pradesh Tharu, Bhotia
Odisha Muang, Ho, Santhal, Bhuia, Munda, Oran, Kharia, Kol, Kariya
Jharkhand Santhal, Munda, Ho, Birhor, Korba, Gond, Bhuia
Madhya Bhil, Muriya, Baiga, Munda, Kol, Kamar, Lambadi
Pradesh
Chattisgarh Kavardha, Muriya
Punjab Sansi

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Chapter 13: Important Ports of India

Kandla Port (Deen Dayal Port)
• This is situated on west coast in Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat. This is mainly an
import port. This is famous for import of Sulphur, Petroleum and Fertilizer.
• This is a Tidal Port. This is the biggest port to facilitate the supply to north
India.
• This also has been declared Free Trade Zone.

Mumbai Port
• This is a natural Port. This is the largest port of India also.

Mormugao Port
• This port is situated on western coast in Goa, on the estuary of Juari River.
• This is also a natural port. This port is famous for iron ore export to Iran
and middle east.

New Mangalore Port

• This is situated on Karnataka coast. It is also famous for iron ore export
from Kudremukh.

Nhava Sheva Port (Jawahar Lal Nehru Port)

• This port is situated on Mumbai coast. This is the India’s largest artificial
port. Technically it is India’s most modern and advanced port.
• This port has been constructed to assist and reducing burden on Mumbai
Port.

Tuticorin Port
• This port is situated in Tamil Nadu and is famous for fishery.

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Kochi Port
• This is a natural port situated on Kerala coast. This port is situated on
lagoon lake.

Chennai Port
• This is also an east coast port situated on Tamil Nadu coast. This is India’s
oldest and second biggest port of India.

Visakhapatnam Port
• This port is also situated on east coast in Andhra Pradesh. This the deepest
port of India. This is famous for export of iron ore.

Paradip Port
• This port is situated on mouth of Mahanadi River. This is also a deep-water
port.
• This port looks like a lagoon. This port is famous for export and import of
coal and iron ore. It also handles dry cargo.

Ennore Port
• This port situated on southern tip of Tamil Nadu. This is India’s first and
largest computerized port. This is also a cooperative owned port of India.
• It was developed with the aid of ADB (Asian Development Bank).
• This port has been developed to help and assist Chennai port.

Kolkata Port
• This is a river port situated on western bank of Hugali River.
• This port provides its services to not only West Bengal but also to inland
territories of Gangetic plains i.e., Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Assam and two inland neighboring countries Nepal
and Bhutan.
• Haldia port assists Kolkata Port to reduce its burden.

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