International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 4 No.
6 June 2016
The influence of boarding school to young children: A case of two boarding schools in Hai
District in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
Sophia Laiser (Corresponding Author)
laisersophia@gmail.com
University of Eastern Africa, Baraton
Prof. Lazarus Ndiku Makewa
ndikul@gmail.com
University of Eastern Africa, Baraton
Abstract
This study aimed at determining the influence of boarding schools to the very young learners. It
intended to investigate how boarding school life influences young learners’ social life, how
boarding school life influences young learners’ academic performance, teachers' views on young
children in boarding schools and parents’ views on the young children in boarding schools. The
study used analysis of covariance where the influence of independent variable i. e boarding school
life over the dependent variable of very younger children‘s school life. Pearson correlation was run
to determine the relationship between boarding schools and the younger children’s academic and
social life. The study also used a common critical value of Alpha denoted by α = .05. The findings
of this study revealed that there is a significant relationship between school life and younger
children’s academic and social life because the P value was .001. However, participating parents
reiterated many reasons enforcing boarding schools for the younger children, including broken
families, long illness of the parents, orphans and sponsorships among them. This study recommends
the government interventions for quality and improvement purposes.
Keywords: Influence, Boarding, young Children, Hai District, Kilimanjaro
Introduction
A boarding school is a school in which most or all of the students live during the part of the year
that they go to lessons. The word 'boarding' is used in the sense of "bed and board," i.e., lodging and
meals (Moris, 2013). The first boarding schools were established in the United States during the late
19th and early 20th centuries to educate Native American children and youths according to Euro-
American standards. They were first established by Christian missionaries of various
denominations, who often started schools on reservations and founded boarding schools to provide
opportunities for children who did not have schools nearby, especially in the lightly populated areas
of the West (Moris, 2013). Therefore, the government paid religious societies to provide education
to Native American children on reservations. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Bureau of
Indian Affairs (BIA) founded additional boarding schools based on the assimilation model of the
Carlisle Indian Industrial School (Moris, 2013).
73
ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com
Children were usually immersed in European-American culture through appearance changes with
haircuts, children were forbidden to speak their native languages, and traditional names were
replaced by new European-American names for the purpose of both civilize and
Christianize(Gardner, 2015).
Although boarding schools were established in 1949 to look after war orphans of the civil war, as
well as the children of new Communist Party leaders who suddenly found themselves too busy for
childcare (Luc Behaghely, 2015). Many countries, including African countries, later joined and
concurred with this idea of boarding schools with many reasons, differing from family to family and
probably country to country.
Morris noticed the experience of the schools was often harsh, especially for the younger children
who were separated from their families. This study therefore, seeks to explore the influence of
boarding schools to young children. That is the effect boarding schools on young children’s social
life, academic performance, psychological development, and the views of the teachers and parents
on boarding schools.
The Theory of the Study
This study was guided by Erickson’s child development theory which he proposes that personality
development follows a generically pre-programmed sequence. He places a considerable emphasis
on the role of family, culture, and society in the development of individual’s personality. Erickson
recognized that the social environment in which children grow, develop, and learn can influence
significantly the outcomes of personality development (Puckett & Diffily, 2004).
Erickson identified a series of eight stages, in which a healthy developing individual should pass
through from infancy to late adulthood. Erickson proposed that these critical steps constitute turning
points in human personality development in which progress or regression occurs and integration of
favorable resolutions of the crises into one’s personality lead to human strength. These stages
determine the types of interactions and guidance that support healthy personality development and
social and moral competence (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998; Puckett & Diffily, 2004).
Conceptualistic theories also provide comprehensive perspectives on social and cultural influence
on growth, development and learning. That is, the interactive process between individuals and the
environment provides cognitive development (Puckett & Diffily, 2004; Hagedorn, Tibbetts,
Matsumoto, Moon, & Makuakane-Lundin, 2003). It is argued that the early social environment the
child interacts with it in their early age from infant to ten years influenced personality development
and reflected much in their life (The Studio Publishing Service Ltd, 2009). Therefore, the school
environment influenced their personality development as well as academic performance.
The focus of this study therefore, is towards the theory of psychosocial and its influence on the
learners’ social and academic life at their tender age in boarding school environment. It is also
paramount to determine the life of the day scholars’ verses boarding scholars towards life
experiences and personality development.
74
International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 4 No. 6 June 2016
Literature Review
The boarding schools changed through the decades with legal and social change from different
countries, governments and of course family wise (Stout, 2012). This reveals that boarding schools
for young children developed from nations/countries and keep on changing accordingly. It is from
this point of view that younger boarders are a system in almost all parts of the world to serve some
purposes which cannot be circumvented.
The new emphasis for boarding schools for younger children is as a result of the working mothers.
However, the care and love of the mothers for younger children influenced even boarding schools
for young children to employ more teacher mothers to take care of the young boarders (Baynton,
1996). This is because women were seen as being suited to this newly defined role of the teacher in
caring the younger children from three (3) years of age as compared to men because of the very
young children who are taken to boarding school. Ellen G. White was of the view that the suitable
age for the children to boarding school is that of ten (10) years of age. She said, “… that the
children could not go to school till they were ten years old, I wanted to tell you that… when the
light was given to me that the children should not attend school until they were old enough to be
instructed (p. 17)”. Also, Kenya parliament insisted that the proper age for boarding school should
be twelve years of age when children are old enough to be in a boarding school (Official Report,
2002).
These boarding schools have both advantages and disadvantages on the young children. Behaghely
(2015) states, boarders enjoy better studying conditions than control students. However, they start
beating control students in mathematics, only two years after admission, and this effect mostly
comes from strong students. He adds that after one year levels of well-being are lower among
boarders, but in their second year, students adjust; the well-being catches-up. This suggests that
substituting school to home is disruptive; only strong students benefit from the boarding schools,
once they have managed to adapt to their new environment. But also aged students who understand
themselves, from 12 years of age can manage to be in boarding schools.
Although boarding schools have their advantages and disadvantages in the child’s life experience
towards personality development, parents provide many reasons as to why they have to send their
children to boarding school at their tender age. One of the parents Xu Jing, in Maris’s (2013) study
says: - “I think it’s good for the children because it helps promote self-independence. Other parents
don’t have time or energy to look after their kids”. Moris (2013) adds that it is a very different
business as China’s wealthy business elite send off their babies in an attempt to establish their
independence earlier than most, hoping to set them up with life skills from a very tender age.
However, other parents values the time they have with their children at home. They think it is
inhuman having children and then, not taking the responsibility of raising them up that the biggest
loser in the end is the child (Michael, 2014). The child was thus in the position of infant Oedipus; as
shown in Paton (2011). This shows that children may develop a traumatic situation which might
affect his/her personality and develop mistrust to the parents, which is felt as inhuman to the
growing child.
75
ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com
Reasons for Boarding Schools
Amongst the reasons for boarding schools for young learners during the first world war was
increased orphans due the death of the parents and prolonged illness (Piccard, 2013, Paton, 2011;
Kamerman, 2007; Luc Behaghely, 2015 and Reparations and American Indian Boarding Schools:,
2010). Other reasons are the communities that did not have a primary school nearby, children were
sent away to boarding school from as early as age 5 (Luc Behaghely, 2015). Additionally, the
Wrangell Institute enrolled children roughly from ages 5 to 15. While Wrangell served children who
were orphans or who had been removed from families due to problems, it also served many children
who were taken away from healthy families living in communities that did not have primary schools
(Sharp & Hirshberg, 2005).
With few exceptions, students were forced to go away to school to have space and enjoy; this would
encourage developing traumatic situations in the child to feel neglected by the parents where
Oedipus developed (Michael, 2014; Grier, 2013). In this view, Michael insisted that the parents
should understand their roles which cannot be replaced by boarding schools. Zirima (2012) argues
that as much as what boarding schools might provide as solutions to unsettled families, as stated by
Damon and Lerner (2006), child abuse in home and change in behavior when they are left with
relatives; they may not completely replace the role of parents, especially at this tender age.
Sometimes, the child’s family may be dealing with complex situations such as severe mental illness,
physical disability, illness, drug or alcohol problems, domestic violence, homelessness, acute
financial hardship, instability, and may be on the verge of breakdown (Roby, 2011; Cameron, 2014;
Grier, 2013). On the other hand, the child may be cared for by siblings, grandparents, aunties or
uncles, or other extended family members because of the death of their parents, or the inability of
their own parents to care well and safely for them. Some other reasons cited are divorce, single
parents, mistreatment of babysitters and lack of the same people in home; as significant for the
boarding schools for younger children (Stout, 2012; Adams & DeLuzio, 2012; Yuli, Haningsih, &
Adikrishna, 2011). Further, Coleman (1988, 1990) has argued that the negative effects of moving
for children may be due to the loss of social capital in the short-term after moving.
Social and Psychological Effect of boarding schools on Small Children
Various authors have written about the effect of being sent away to boarding school on the
development of the child (Lonetree (Ho-Chunk), 2011, Cameron, 2014, Schaverien, 2015, and
Paton, 2011). Children develop their social skills from their very younger age, as they interact with
parents, relatives, teachers and other fellows. This interaction plays a major role in personality
development of the child. As in traditional Chinese culture, many grandparents live with the family,
and because of China's one child policy, sometimes there are four grandparents, two parents and just
one child in a home. Some parents worry that the grandparents will spoil the child, so they send
them to boarding schools (Paton, 2011, Moris, 2013).
In contrary, Duffell, (2000) observes that children who board are forced to survive psychologically
to their great cost. Duffell insists that “in order to cope with their loss of family and to adapt to their
school environment, children unconsciously construct a strategic survival personality and that such
personality structure invariably becomes counter-productive in adult life” (p. 51).
76
International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 4 No. 6 June 2016
Also, these younger children experience bullying and sexual abuse from the grown up children. As
Piccard (2013), Smith (2004) and Duffell (2000) emphasize “sexual abuse is the jewel in the crown
of double-binding the message the abuser implicitly imparts to his victim: You are special to me but
you are nothing, your reality doesn’t count. As usual, such double messages are crazy-making”
(Duffell, 2000. P. 177). This shows a bad experience that boarding schools bring to the life of these
younger children.
However, the boarding school experience is not uniform; it is multidimensional and students who
lived through boarding schools tell astonishing stories of courage, resistance and adaptation (Stout,
2012). Further, boarding offers opportunities to form, and explore in depth, a wide variety of social
networks and relationships. Friendship, civility, fairness, justice, loyalty, and cooperation
(McGinley & Varchevker, 2013). One parent gave this narrative of her child:
At first we missed her so much , but we think the world is more global, sooner or
later she will leave us, so we have taken her to the boarding for trial; after few weeks
she liked her space and said she want to stay at boarding. (Moris, 2013)
Another testimony in the study by Cameron (2014) , one of the respondents said this:- "At the
beginning I missed home, but the food was very good, and the environment was lovely, with lots of
trees," she says. Similarly, another child says; “I think that now, compared to other people of my
age, I am more independent and more responsible; but I also cherish my relationship with my
parents more than my peers do" (Adams & DeLuzio, 2012). These sentiments suggest that although
the food, environment, peer interaction and freedom help the child to stay in the boarding school, it
will never replace the parental love and relationship to the child.
Academic Performance of young Boarders
The experiences of boarding scholars and day scholars differ depending on each individual and the
school attached to it. Where by the influence of the school for young learners is a vehicle to
reflecting the future personality of an individual which includes mental, physical, social and
emotional.
Boarding schools seem to have varied benefits for the learners’ future life, like improving
academically as they have all the time available to immerse in an education environment, extra-
curricular opportunities to get involved in new hobbies as they interact with others in the evening
and weekends, built-in social life, where children will be living with friends for fun, fostering
independence for self-reliance, and also appropriate place for busy parents against hostile life at
home. Boarding schools still influence various traumatic experiences which affect learners’
personality (Perveen & Kazmi, 2011; Zirima, 2012).
Kazmi and Perveen (2011) from their cross sectional study found out that the environment affects
personality development as a result of lack of emotional expression. However, the respondents were
of the view that sending children to boarding schools can help in easing the psychological and
educational challenges of absent parenting (Schaverien, 2015). It is also emphasized by Moris
(2013) and Cameron (2014) that boarding schools offer many opportunities for all children,
including an extended range of education, supervised homework time (“prep”), before and after
school activities and high quality pastoral care. This is particularly important for vulnerable children
77
ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com
coming from chaotic homes or homes where they are not supported to make the most of their
educational opportunities.
Further, boarding schools can bring stability to children’s lives, they can also reduce education
barriers and improve educational outcomes. As Fryer and Curtoy (2011) state, boarding can be one
way of meeting the needs of young people in difficult situations to prevent family breakdown or a
formal move into the care system. It can also help to raise the aspirations of the child and everyone
around them (Henderson, Kunitz, Gabriel, McCright, & Levy, 2014).
Furthermore, involvement in the church activities at age 8 was associated with higher endorsement
of not only church but also school, good grades, and especially for boys community activities
(Damon & Lerner, 2006). Damon and Lerner (2006) state that the extent to which parents are
involved in school-related activities, is positively related to children’s academic outcomes at
elementary school. Similarly, the experience of boarding is seen by some parents as a way for a
toddler to get ahead from boarding kindergarten and they are likely to win a place at a good
university, which is their hope.
Methodology
This study used a descriptive survey. The participants were 20; 13 teachers and 7 parents. Random
sampling was done to select the respondents from two boarding schools in Hai District in
Kilimanjaro region in Tanzania. To collect data both questionnaires and interviews were used.
Thirteen (13) questionnaires were administered to teachers from the two boarding schools and 7
interviews were conducted to parents to get their views on the boarding schools to the young
learners.
The analysis of the data was done using ANCOVA, whereby Pearson correlation was run to find:
the relationship between boarding school and young learners’ social life and academic performance.
Also, transcription of the interview was done to get the views of the parents and teachers about
boarding schools and the young learners. Their views were categorized according to major reasons
for parents to send their younger ones to boarding school, the boarders’ academic performance,
social life and psychological influence.
The purpose of the study was to determine if boarding schools have any effect on the young
children’s social life and academic performance. A critical value used to determine the level of
significance is the common value of = 0.05. This value is used to determine the level of
significant of the factors given and their influence on the child’s social life and academic
performance. Cronbach’s Alpha was also used to determine the level consistence of the statements
to measure the variables (factors used to influence) reliability and being realistic.
Results of the Findings
This research aimed at assessing the influence of boarding school to young children’s social life and
academic performance in the two selected boarding schools in Hai District in Kilimanjaro region in
Tanzania.
To determining the consistence of the statements, Cronbach’s Alpha was used with a reliability of
87.5 % which was deemed reliable for the study.
78
International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 4 No. 6 June 2016
Demographic Information of the Participants
The number of teachers and parents who were involved in this study were 20. The charts below
give the details of the age, gender, experience and educational level differences of the teachers who
participated in the study.
Table1. Teachers’ Age
Frequency Percent
25-35 Years 10 76.9
36-44Years 3 23.1
Total 13 100.00
Table2.The Teachers’ Gender
Frequency Percent
Male 4 30.8
Female 9 69.2
Total 13 100.0
Table3. Experience of teachers in the teaching
Frequency Percent
1-5 Years 5 38.5
6-10 Years 5 38.5
11-15Years 3 23.1
Total 13 100.0
Table 4. Education level of the Teachers
Frequency Percent
Certificate 8 61.5
Diploma 5 38.5
Total 13 100.0
Objectives Analysis
The Relationship between Boarding School and Young Learners’ Social Life
One of the objectives in this study was to assess the influence of boarding school to the young
learners’ social life behavior. A Likert scale of four levels was used to measure the relationship
between variables of boarding school and the social life characteristics that the students develop as a
result of being in boarding school. In achieving this kind of relationship, the results of Pearson
correlation show that there is a significant relationship between boarding school and
social/psychological life of young children in their tender age.
79
ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com
Table 5. Pearson Correlations
SOCIAL APE
**
Pearson Correlation 1 .821
Sig. (2-tailed) .001
N 13 13
**
Pearson Correlation .821 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .001
N 13 13
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
According to the above analysis, the social behavior of the young learners is significantly
influenced by the boarding school life because the sig is .001, which is less than .05. Also, the
relationship is direct and very strong because the Pearson correlation is .821.
The Relationship between Boarding School and Young Learners’ Academic Performance
The second objective was to assess the relationship between boarding school and the young
learners’ academic performance. A Pearson correlation shows that the boarding school influences
the academic performance of the young learners. This is because the sig is .001, which is less than a
critical value of .05. The Pearson correlation of .821 shows that the relationship is direct and very
strong.
The Teachers’ Views on Young Children’s Boarding School
Almost all the teachers interviewed reiterated that there are various reasons for the parents to take
their younger ones to boarding schools. Some of the reasons teachers identified are like; single
parent’s issues, broken families, business and working in busy schedules, abuse from relatives due
to extended families, parents suffering from long illness, orphans due to the death of the parents,
baby sitters are not available and are not trusted, sponsorship of the young learners.
The Parents Views on Young Children’s Boarding School
Parents interviewed were of the view that, boarding school for toddlers is not totally good, but there
are different issues that force parents to send their young kids to boarding school, thinking that the
boarding school is better sometimes than the situation that the child goes through. Participating
parents regretted also for some schools that allow bad habits, including child abuse, to happen to
their younger children.
Parents also reiterated that governments should intervene to provide the necessary requirements
rather than just leaving the whole burden to the Donnas and sponsors. Especially to the orphan
centers where most of the kids have totally no parents to think even about them. Also children in the
orphan centers are very young compared to those in just normal boarding schools.
80
International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 4 No. 6 June 2016
Discussion and Interpretation of the Analysis of the Findings
The preceding analysis shows that all teachers and parents reiterated boarding schools are not
totally hundred percent places for the young children. However, there are circumstances that cannot
be circumvented in taking the young child to boarding schools. It’s obvious from the analysis that
there is a significant relationship between boarding school and social/psychological life of younger
children in their tender age. This is because the sig is .001, which is less than a critical common
value of α =0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis which states ‘the boarding school is good for the
younger children academically and socially’ is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted.
The Ho which is rejected is that boarding schools help young children to achieve better academic
performance and develop positive social life to influence personality development. It is believed
that boarding schools can be a better place for the younger children’s academic performance and
social life. Because children have all the time available to immerse in an education environment,
extra-curricular opportunities to get involved in new hobbies as they interact with others in the
evening and weekends, built-in social life, where children will be living with friends for fun,
fostering independence for self-reliance, and also appropriate place for busy parents against hostile
life at home (Perveen & Kazmi, 2011; Zirima, 2012). However, the analysis from this study found
out that boarding school is not a better place for the younger children. That, boarding schools still
influences various traumatic experiences which affect learners’ personality.
For example, one of the parents involved in the study said:- “ the child grows very well when the
balanced food is given to them, that balanced diet helps the child in mental development and
healthy body, which help the child perform better and interact well with social environment”
(Interview with T1 March 9, 2016). T1 emphasized that when the child does not get good results,
which is not the case in many boarding schools; the child becomes weak to perform school
activities and to interact with others. Zirima (2012) presented similar findings suggesting that health
food, environment and aspects of a boarding school have an effect on the adjustment skills and
ability as a result of being alone; therefore, emotional instability and academic performance are
significantly related with boarding school life.
Other participating teachers’ argued that they receive very younger children as young as 4 to 5
years. At this age the child needs the parent and because the parents are not there, the child tends to
cry all the time; sometimes older students in the absence of the teachers abuse the young child.
They said abusing the child at this age may make him/her develop psychological torture, which may
lower his or her personality. These findings are similar to the findings of Piccard, (2013), and
Duffell (2000) who emphasize that “sexual abuse is the jewel in the crown of double-binding the
message the abuser implicitly imparts to his victim”. This means that when the child is abused, it
leaves a mark to his or her entire life. Kazmi and Perveen (2011) from their cross sectional study
found out that environment affect personality development as a result of lack of emotional
expression. The study proves that children feels distraught full which later on results into adaptation
of phony personality. It is also similar to Schaverien (2004) findings who found, personality of
hostlers and non-hostlers to be “significantly different on major dimensions of the personality such
as neuroticism, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness and extraversion.
Participating parents and teachers were of the view that although boarding schools are not reliable
for the young children, it is still the first choice for vulnerable children. Furthermore, participating
81
ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com
teachers stated that when parents bring their children to boarding schools, the child lives hostile life
until they adapt to the new environment where teachers help them to attend the library and
supervise their homework during prep time. Sometimes children watch cartoon videos under
controlled environment of the teacher; as one of the ways in developing children’s academic
performance.
Recommendations
This study made the following recommendations:-
First and foremost, the schools should try to make their boarding schools appropriate for the
younger children in order to reduce the hostility situation. Where good food, friendly/ caring and
committed teachers are found. Available resources for the children and everything deemed
important to the kids.
Also the government should come in the situation of boarding schools for the young children, rather
than leaving everything to the owners. The government to make policies that guide the situations in
boarding schools for the purpose of improvement rather than leaving everything to the school
owners. There should be standard and qualities to be met before one establishes a boarding school
for the young children.
This study dealt with the influence of boarding school to young learners’ academic and social
development. The population was very small therefore; it is recommended that a larger sample
should be carried out on the same study.
REFERENCES
Adams, D. W., & DeLuzio, C. (Eds.). (2012). On the borders of love and power: families and
kinship in the intercultural American Southwest. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Baynton, D. C. (1996). Forbidden signs: American culture and the campaign against sign
language. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cameron, D. (2014). Boarding schools: An opportunity to improve outcomes for vulnerable
children. Retrieved from www.boarding.org.uk, www.sbsa.org.uk
Damon, W., & Lerner, R. M. (2006). Handbook of child psychology. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley &
Sons. Retrieved from http://www.123library.org/book_details/?id=5544
Duffell, N. (2000). The making of Them. In The British Attitude to Children and the Boarding
School System. Lone Arrow Press London.
Fryer, R. G., & Curtoy, V. E. (2011). The Potential of Urban Boarding Schools for the Poor:
Evidence from SEED. Harvard University,.
Gardner, S. O. /. (2015). The Complete Guide to Pregnancy and Child Care - The Baby Manual -
PART TWO. SO Inspire publications.
82
International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 4 No. 6 June 2016
Grier, F. (2013). Trauma and the Couple. In E. McGinley & A. Varchevker (Eds.), Enduring
Trauma Through the Life Cycle (p. 280). Karmac books. Retrieved from
https://books.google.co.tz/books?id=DwmF_nfNL4gC&pg=PA148&dq=Effect+of+boardin
g+schools+to+young+children&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiH-
_KQ6YzLAhVCWhQKHXByBI4Q6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=Effect%20of%20boarding
%20schools%20to%20young%20children&f=false
Hagedorn, L. S., Tibbetts, K., Matsumoto, D. H. K., Moon, H. S., & Makuakane-Lundin, G. (2003).
The Academic and Occupational Outcomes of Residential High School Student Instruction.
Kamehameha Schools and the Center for Higher Education Policy Analysis at the Rossier
School of Education of the University of Southern California.
Henderson, E., Kunitz, J. S., Gabriel, R., McCright, A., & Levy, E. J. (2014). Boarding and public
schools: Navajo Educational Attainment, Conduct Disooder, and alcohol Dependency.
American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research. Retrieved from
www.ucdenver.edu/caianh
Kamerman, B. S. (2007). A global history of early childhood education and care. Columbia
University School of Social Work and Director, Institute for Child and Family Policy.
Lonetree, A. (2011). American Indian Boarding Schoos: An Exploration of Global Ethnic and
Cultural Cleansing. Ziibiwing Center of Anishinabe Culture & Lifeways. Retrieved from
www.sagchip.org/ziibiwing
Luc Behaghely. (2015). Ready for boarding? The effects of a boarding school for disadvantaged
students.
Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and
unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American
Psychologist, 53(2), 205–220. http://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.205
McGinley, E., & Varchevker, A. (Eds.). (2013). Enduring Trauma Through the life Cycle. Karmac
books.
Michael, M. (2014). Some Parents need to wake up [blog.chinadaily.com.cn]. Retrieved from
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/opinion/2014-06/19/content_17600516.htm
Moris, M. (2013). Why children as young as three are sent to boarding school in China. BBC World
Services, Shanghai.
Official Report. (2002, July 18). Kenya National Assembly official Record (Hansard).
Paton, G. (2011). More parents ’enrolling young children in boarding schools. Retrieved from
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/primaryeducation/8870199/More-parents-enrolling-
young-children-in-boarding-schools.html
Perveen, S., & Kazmi, S. F. (2011). Personality Dynamic of Boarders and day Scholars who belong
to Madrassah and Public School. SAVAP International, (1), 157–172.
Piccard, A. (2013). Death by Boarding School: “The Last Acceptable Racism” and the United
States’ Genocide of Native Americans (pp. 137–183). Gonzaga University New York:
Gonzaga University’s.
83
ISSN: 2411-5681 www.ijern.com
Puckett, M. B., & Diffily, D. (2004). Teaching young children: an introduction to the early
childhood profession (2nd ed). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning.
Reparations and American Indian Boarding Schools: (2010). Reparations and American Indian
Boarding Schools: A Critical Appraisal by The Boarding School Healing Project (Critical
Appraisal of Reparations Meeting Attendees 33).
Roby, L. J. (2011). Children in Informal Alternative Care. United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF), Child Protection Section, New York, 2011, New York,.
Schaverien, J. (2015). Boarding school syndrome: the psychological trauma of the “privileged”
child. London ; New York, NY: Routledge, is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group.
Sharp, S., & Hirshberg, D. (2005). THTherty Years Later: The long-term Effect of Boarding Schools
on Alaska Natives and their Communities. Research Report, Institute of Social and
Economic Research University of Alaska Anchorage. Retrieved from
hirshberg@uaa.alaska.edu http://iser.uaa.alaska.edu
Smith, A. (2004). Boarding School Abuses, Human Rights, and Reparations. University of
Michigan.
Stout, M. (2012). Native American boarding schools. Santa Barbara: Greenwood.
The Studio Publishing Service Ltd (Ed.). (2009). Attachment: New Directions in Psychotherapy and
Relational Psychoanalysis (Vol. 3). London Finchley Road: Karnac Books.
Yuli, N. G., Haningsih, S., & Adikrishna, R. (2011). The Common Room Design of Islamic
Boarding School: A Preliminary Research in Yogyakarta Islamic Boarding School. Islamic
University of Indonesia, 11(04).
Zirima, H. (2012). Double Jeopardy: The Psycho-Educational Effects of Absent Parenting on
Children with Specific Learning Disabilities. Florida: BocaRaton.
84
