CICOSAT COLLEGES

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

Lingsat, City of San Fernando, La Union
SHORT TERM
S.Y. 2024-2025

Quest
ioned
Docu
Course Code: FORENSIC 4
Descriptive Title: QUESTIONED DOCUMENT____ Course: BS
ment
Criminology III
Name:_________________________________________ Year and Section:
ALPHA
Exami
natio
n
Course Title: QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
Course Credits: 3 units
Contact Hours/Weeks: 3 hours
Prerequisite: CDI1

Course Description: The course covers the scientific methods of identification and
examination of questionable documents, handwriting examination, detection of
forgery, falsification and counterfeiting of documents which stress the procedures of
restoring and deciphering erasures and obliterations; examination of documents by
means of visible light, ultra-violet light and ultra-red radiation and coloured
powders; recognition and selection of standards; and examination of questionable
typewriting, computerized documents and other forms of modern printing.

Course Outcomes: At the end of the trimester, the students are expected to have:

1. In-depth knowledge and understanding of the

a. application of Questioned Document Examination in the service of justice
b. important terminologies in questioned document examination
c. legal definitions and implications of documents as evidence
d. historical development of handwriting, forgery, writing instrument and
writing materials
e. different fields in Questioned Document Examination

2. Applied in practical exercises with competency in the

a. collection of requested standards
b. examination of questioned document examination
c. identification of forged and genuine signatures and handwriting
d. identification of counterfeited paper bills and genuine paper bills
e. proper presentation in court as expert witness involving QDE cases

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Understanding the Fundamentals of Questioned Document Examination
2. Explain the basic principles and scope of questioned document examination,
including its role within forensic science and its applications in legal contexts.
3. Students will be able to define what constitutes a questioned document and
describe the various types of documents that may be subject to forensic
analysis.
4. Identify and describe different types of examinations performed on
questioned documents, such as handwriting analysis, ink analysis, and paper
analysis.
5. Learn the techniques for analyzing handwriting and signatures to determine
authorship and detect forgery.
6. Students will be able to perform basic handwriting comparisons, recognize
common characteristics used in handwriting analysis, and identify signs of
forgery or alteration.
 7. Apply the knowledge and techniques of questioned document examination to
real-world scenarios, including the preparation and presentation of findings in
a legal setting.

INTRODUCTION TO QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

Document
~ It is any material that contains mark, symbols, or signs; either visible,
partially visible, or invisible; that may ultimately convey a meaning or
message to someone (Brenner,2004).

~ Applies to writings: to words printed, lithographed, or photographed; to

maps or plans, to seals, plates, or even stones on which inscriptions are
cut or engraved.
In its PLURAL form, documents may mean: deeds, agreements, title,
letters, receipts, and other written instruments used to prove a fact.

The term document came from the Latin word “documentum”, which
means “lesson or example” (in Medieval Latin “instruction or official paper”).
It may have been derived also from the French word “docere”, means “to
teach”.

Questioned
~ Any material which some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.

Questioned Document
~ One in which the facts appearing therein may not be true, and are
contested either in whole or part with the respect to its authenticity,
identity, or origin. It may be a deed, contract, will, election ballots,
marriage contract, check, visas, application form, check writer,
certificates, etc.

Disputed Document
~ A term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the
document, and strictly speaking this is true meaning. In this text, as well
as through prior usage, however, “disputed document” and “question
document” are used interchangeably to signify a document that is under
special scrutiny.

Standard a.k.a. Standard Document

~ Are condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which, if
adequate and proper, should contain a cross section of the material from
a known source. They are used by the document examiner as the basis
for his identification or non- identification of the questioned document, as
for example the known hand writing which serves to establish who wrote
the disputed letter.

KINDS OF DOCUMENT

1. Public Documents – any instrument notarized by a notary public or

competent public official with solemnities required by law. (Cacnio
vs.Baens,5 Phil.742)

2. Official Documents – any instrument issued by the government or its

agents or its officers having the authority to do so and the offices, which
in accordance with their creation, they are authorized to issue and to be
issue in the performance of their duties.

3. Private Documents-every deed or instrument executed by a private

person without the intervention of a notary public or of any person legally
authorized, by which the documents, some disposition or agreement is
proved, evidence or set forth (US vs. ORERA, 11 Phil. 596).

4. Commercial Documents – any instrument executed in accordance with

the code of Commerce or any Mercantile Law, containing disposition of
commercial rights or obligations.

5. Electronic Document – electronic media content (other than computer

programs or system) that is intended to be used in either an electronic
form or as printed output. The R.A.8792 also known as the E-commerce
Act of 2000, establishes the legality of electronic documents.

CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS:

1. Documents with questioned signatures.

2. Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent
alterations.
3. Questioned or disputed holographic will
a. Holographic Will - will entirely written in the handwriting of the
testator and signed by him
b. Notarial Will – signed by the testator acknowledge before a notary
public with 3 witnesses
4. Document investigated on the question of typewriting.
a. With a view of ascertaining their resources
b. With a view of ascertaining their dates
 c. With a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent
alterations or substituted pages.
5. Questioned documents on issues of their age or date.
6. Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their production.
7. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify
some persons through handwriting.
a. Anonymous and disputed letters, and
b. Superscriptions, registrations and miscellaneous writings.

Eight (8) different areas of Questioned Document Examination:

 Questioned Document Examiners – a document examiner analyzes any

questioned document and is capable of more than just questions of
authorship limited only by their access to laboratory equipment.
 Historical Dating – these is work involving the verification of age and
worth of a document or object, sometimes done by a document
examiner, and can get as complicated as Carbon-14 dating.
 Fraud Investigators – this is work that often overlaps with that of the
document examiner and focuses on the money trail and criminal
intent.
 Paper & Ink Specialists – these are public or private experts who date,
type, source, and/or catalogue various types of paper, watermarks, ink,
printing/copy/fax machines, computer cartridges, etc. using chemical
methods.
 Forgery Specialists – these are public or private experts who analyze
altered, obliterated, changed, or doctored documents and photos using
infrared lighting, expensive spectrography equipment, or digital
enhancement techniques.
 Handwriting Analysts – these are usually psychology experts who
assess personality traits from handwriting samples, also called
“graphologists” or “graphoanalysts”. Forensic Stylistic refers to the
same purpose but by looking at semantics, spelling, word choice,
syntax, and phraseology.
 Typewriting Analysts – these are experts on the origin, make and
model used in typewritten material.

FORMS/ASPECTS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

1. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graph analysis)
2. Examination of signatures and initials
3. Examination of anonymous letters
4. Hand printing examination
5. Examination of Typewriting and Type prints
6. Examination of Inks
 7. Examination of Erasures, Alterations or Obliterations, etc.
8. Detection of alteration
9. Decipherment of erased writings
10. Restoration of obliterated writings
11. Counterfeiting
a. Examination of currency bills and coins and the like
b. Examination of fake documents
1. Miscellaneous Aspects
a. Determination of age of documents
b. Identification of stamps
c. Examinations of seal and other authenticating devices

PRINCIPLES OF HANDWRITING ANALYSIS

1. No two writers write exactly alike
2. The physical writing condition and position of the person including his
writing
instrument may affect the handwriting characteristics but they do not
confine all
its identifying elements.
3. A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious
effort
and training applied over a period of time.
4. The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derived
from form
and writing movements are essential elements of identification.
5. Individuality in handwriting can only be determined through comparative
examination with the standard written or prepared under comparable
condition
6. Similarity does not mean identity
7. Complete identity means definite forgery
8. A writing was written by one person when there is a sufficient number of
identical
writing habits and identical primary controlling characteristics and addition,
the
absence of divergent characteristics.
9. A writing was not written by one person when there is a sufficient number
of
divergent writing characteristics and the absence of identical primary
controlling
characteristics.

THE FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINER

A Forensic Document Examiner (FDE)

-
A forensic document examiner (FDE) is a specialist who scientifically
analyzes documents to determine their authenticity, origin, and any
alterations they may have undergone. Their work often involves the
examination of handwriting, signatures, typewriting, printing processes, inks,
papers, and other materials to resolve questions about documents in legal
and investigative contexts.
- is someone who has received proper training and analyzes documentary
evidence to determine origin or authenticity. They are an essential part of
the success of the forensic science community. Their main responsibility is
examining written, typed, or printed documents using a scientific
methodology and equipment.
Forensic Document Examiner may conduct the following :
• Examining signatures to determine if they have been forged or altered
Comparing handwriting similarities and differences to determine the
source of the handwriting from potential suspects.
• Inspecting printed documents to determine the type of printing
processes Examining documents that may have been destroyed or
altered Comparing different varieties of paper and writing instruments
• Examining documents for indented writing Using alternate light
sources to determine non-destructive ink discrimination, alterations, or
enhancements that have been made to the documents

The Difference Between Forensic Document Examiners and

Graphologists.

• Forensic Document examiners are not the same as graphologists,

although many people confuse the two professions.
• Graphologists analyze an individual’s personality through their
handwriting alone. Forensic document examiners are highly skilled
individuals who cover both handwriting analysis and the full aspects of
document examination: determining the printing process, obliterated
writing, indentations and much more.

Forensic Document Examiner

Purpose: To analyze and authenticate documents for legal purposes.
Methods: Uses scientific techniques to examine handwriting, inks, papers,
and other aspects of documents to determine authenticity, identify forgeries,
and compare handwriting samples.
Scientific Basis: Relies on empirical and validated methods; findings must
be reproducible and withstand scrutiny in a court of law.
Outcome: Produces detailed reports and may testify as an expert witness in
court.

Graphologist
Purpose: To analyze handwriting to infer personality traits and
psychological states. Methods: Uses interpretive techniques to assess
handwriting characteristics like slant, pressure, spacing, and letter shapes to
make conclusions about an individual's personality.
Applications: Commonly used in personal assessments, career counseling,
and sometimes in business settings for employee evaluations. Not used in
legal contexts due to the lack of scientific validation.
Outcome: Produces personality profiles and assessments based on
handwriting analysis.

PERSONALITIES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

Albert S. Osborn (1858–1946)

Contribution Known as the "father" of questioned document examination,

Osborn wrote an important book called "Questioned Documents" in 1910. He
created many of the basic rules and methods used in the field today.
Legacy: His work has been crucial in many famous cases, and he helped
start the American Society of Questioned Document Examiners.

Ordway Hilton (1913–1998)

Contribution: Hilton wrote "Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents"

in 1956. He focused on studying handwriting, typewriting, and figuring out
the age of documents.
Legacy: Hilton's work helped make the methods of document examination
more scientific and reliable.

Wilson R. Harrison (1911–1995)

Contribution: Harrison's book, "Suspect Documents: Their Scientific

Examination" from 1958, is a key resource. He did a lot of research on inks
and papers used in documents.
Legacy: His studies improved the techniques for identifying and dating inks
and papers, which helps in verifying documents' authenticity.

James V.P. Conway (1923–2013)

Contribution: Conway wrote "Evidential Documents" in 1959. He was an

expert in examining handwriting and typewriting.
Legacy: He developed systematic methods for examining documents and
trained many future document examiners.

David Ellen
Contribution: Ellen wrote several important books, including "The Scientific
Examination of Documents: Methods and Techniques" in 1997. His work
covers modern techniques used in the field.
Legacy: Ellen's contributions include incorporating new technologies and
methods into document examination, making the field more advanced.

LESSON 2.2 HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

HANDWRITING
It is the result of a very complicated series of facts, being used as a whole,
and combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits
acquired along, continued painstaking effort. Some defined handwriting as
“visible speech”.

Stages of Handwriting Development

1. Pre-Writing Stage (0-3 years) – Drawing Stage
Young children begin by making random marks on paper, often using a fist
grip. This stage helps develop basic motor skills and hand-eye coordination.
As control improves, children start to draw simple shapes and lines, which
are precursors to letter formation.
2.Emergent Writing Stage (3-5 years) Letter-Like Forms Stage
Children start to create shapes that resemble letters but are not yet
conventional. They often experiment with different strokes and patterns.
Children begin to recognize that letters and numbers represent specific
sounds and quantities.
3.Early Writing Stage or Manner of Execution
Children practice forming letters more consistently and begin to use
lowercase letters. They learn proper spacing between letters and words.
Sentence Construction: Writing simple sentences becomes more common,
and children start to pay attention to punctuation and capitalization.
4.Proficient Writing Stage or Stage of degeneration
Handwriting becomes more fluent and automatic, allowing for increased
writing speed. Children can focus more on the content of their writing rather
than the act of writing itself. they learn cursive writing, which further refines
their motor skills and allows for faster, more fluid writing. Their writing
becomes more consistent and adaptable to different contexts (e.g., note-
taking vs. formal writing) Handwriting becomes a tool for expressing
complex ideas and emotions effectively.

MOVEMENTS IN HANDWRITING
● Finger Movement – The thumb, the first, the second and slightly the third
finger
are in actual motion.
● Hand Movement – Produced by the movement or action of the whole hand
with the wrist as the center of attraction.
● Forearm Movement – the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with
the
support of the table.
● Whole-arm Movement – action of the entire arm without resting.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Addition – a part of the document after its original preparation may be
referred to as addition.
2. Conclusion - a scientific conclusion results from relating observed facts
by logical, common sense reasoning in accordance with established rules
of laws. The document examiner’s conclusion, I legal terms is referred to
as “opinion”.
3. Document Examiner - One who studies scientifically the details and
elements of the documents in order to identify their source or to discover
other facts concerning them. Document examiners are often referred to
as handwriting identification experts, but today the works has outgrown
this latter title and involves other problems than merely examination of
handwriting.
4. Erasure - The removal of writings, typewriting or printing from a
document is an erasure. It may be accomplished by either of two means.
A chemical agents (e.g. liquid ink eradicator), and an abrasive erasures is
where rubbing with rubber eraser or scratching out with knife or other
sharp with implement effaces the writing.
5. Examination - It is the act of making a close and critical study of any
material and with questioned documents, it is the process necessary to
discover the facts about them. Various types are undertaken, including
microscopic, visual photographic, chemical, ultraviolet and infrared
examination.
6. Expert Witness - A legal term used to describe a witness who by reason
of his special training or experience is permitted to express an opinion
regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the issue, which is involved in a
court action. This purpose is to interpret technical information in his
particular specialty in order to assist the court in administering justice.
The document examiner testifies in court as expert witness.
7. Handwriting Identification Expert - A common name for the document
examiner.
8. Identification (identity) - as used in this text it is the state of being
identical or absolutely the same as in similarity of source or authorship of
the questioned documents and the standard documents.
9. Insertion or Interlineation - The term insertion and interlineations
include the addition of writing and other material between lines or
paragraphs or the addition of whole page to a document.
10. Non-Identification (Non-identity) - as used in this text it means
that the sources or authorship of the compared questioned and standard
specimens is different.
11. Obliteration - the blotting out or shearing over the writing to make
the original invisible to as an addition.
12. Opinion - In legal language, it refers to the document Examiner’s
conclusion. Actually in court, he not only expresses an opinion and
conclusion is used synonymously.
13. Qualification - The professional experience, education, and ability of
a document examiner. Before he is permitted to testify as an expert
witness, the court must rule that he is qualified in his field.

DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

1. Criminalistics Examination – this involves the detection of forgery,
erasure, alteration or obliteration of documents. The criminalistics
examination of documents similar to the other kinds of laboratory works.
DR. WILSON HARRISON - a noted British Examiner of
questioned documents said that an intelligent police investigator
can detect almost 75% of all forgeries by careful inspection of a
document with simple magnifiers and measuring tools.

2. Handwriting Investigation/Analysis – this is more determining the

author or writing it is more difficult procedure and requires long study and
experience.

FORERUNNERS OF WRITING

Paleography – from the Greek words “palaios”, “old” and

“graphein”, “to write” the study of early writing, it embraces ancient
and medieval scripts, primarily in Greek and Latin and the languages
that derived from them.

Calligraphy – the art of handwriting.

Jean Mabillon – a French monk, originated Latin paleography in 1861,

when he published De re Diplomatica, a study of forms of official
documents.

Bernard de Montfaucon – laid the foundation for Greek studies with

PaleographicaGraeca (1708). The oldest surviving Greek literary papyri
date to 300 earlier.

Petrograms – if drawn or printed on the surface of rocks and

“petroglyphs” if cut into rock, primitive drawings like those on the
 ceiling of the cave of Altamira, Spain, or on the walls of barrier Canyon,
Utah.

Graffiti (singular graffito) – from the Italian “graffito” meaning “a

scratch” refers to handwriting or images on the walls or surfaces of a
public area, such as buildings, parks, toilets, and trains, etc.. The word
was originally, used by archaeologist to describe drawings and
inscriptions scratched on walls and other surfaces in ancient Pompeii
and Rome.

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION

HANDWRITING
~ It is the result of a very complicated series of facts, being used as a
whole, and combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular
habits acquired along, continued painstaking effort. Some defined
handwriting as “visible speech”.
According to Huber, Handwriting is an acquired skill and clearly one
that is a complex perceptual motor task, sometimes referred to as the
neuro-muscular task. That our hand contains 27 bones controlled by more
than 40 muscles.
The rate of speed writing increases and is greatest between the ages 7
and 9 years, it tapers off to 13 years, when there is little further increase.

EARLY FORMS OF WRITINGS:

Neolithic man began written communication as long as 20, 000 years
ago when he graphically represented objects and ideas in drawings on cave
walls known as ICONOGRAPHS. Later people made their pictures simpler
and simpler. The pictures gradually became signs called PICTOGRAPHS.
And each stood for a word or idea. This kind of picture writing probably
reached its highest point about 3, 000 B.C. in Egypt. The Egyptians used a
kind of picture writing called HIEROGLYPHICS.

At about the same time, the Sumerians invented a system of writing

that used wedge-shaped symbols called CUNEIFORM.

About 1500 B.C., Semitic people in the Middle East invented the
ALPHABET. In the alphabet, a written sign stands for a sound in the spoken
language.

Phoenicians developed the alphabet further. The Greeks took it over

from the Phoenicians, and the Romans borrowed it from the Greeks.

In ancient times, few people knew how to write. Most of the people
who wanted to send letters dictated them to people called SCRIBES, who
made their living writing for the public.
 Both manuscript and cursive writing come from the Roman alphabet.
In fact, we write a number of letters almost exactly as the Romans wrote
them.

In printing, Roman refers to straight up-and-down letters similar to

those used in the manuscript writing.

Printers use term Italic, for the letter that slant to the right, similar to
those used in cursive writing. Printing in Italic began in Venice Italy, during
the 1500’s. Several of cursive writing developed at this time.

Kinds of Writings:
1. Cursive - most used by adults; means running; connected; writing in
which one letter is joined to the next.
2. Scripts - separated or printed writings.
3. Block - all capital letters.
ILLNESSES THAT MAY AFFECT HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL:
1. Agraphia- refers to the inability to write in an orderly fashion, but can
still be able to manipulate writing materials. This may be due to brain
lesions such as tumors, brain infections, injuries or head injuries.

2. Aphasia - refers to the impairment of the power to use and understand

words in communicating.
3. Dyslexia - refers to the disability to read and mis-spell words (example,
from Read to Red)

4. Paragraphia - the inability to write the correct words, but ability to copy
text is retained.

5. Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease - Alzheimer is due to

old age, a person who is above 60 years of age, due to senility he reverts
to childhood and loses memory and ability to read and write.
Parkinson’s is due to old age as well but uncontrolled tremor is present.

6. ALS (Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis) - or LOU GEHRIG DISEASE, which

includes weakening of muscles.

7. Arthritis - affects the CNS which includes muscles, ligaments and joints
or writing hand.

8. Cerebral Palsy - an abnormal alteration of movement or motor function

arising from defect, injury or disease of the nerve tissues in the cranial
cavity.
 ***Hypnosis – a trance-like condition or an induced state that resembles
sleep in which the subject experiences diminished will power and very
responsive to the suggestions of the hypnotizer.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT HANDWRITING

Many factors combine to affect handwriting. These include the writer’s
mental illness, emotional states or mood; the level of education attained by
the writer, and so many others; an illiterate writer makes clumsy. As writing
skill increases the writing smoothly and becomes well executed. Likewise an
adult who writes frequently, such as a white-collar workers, will exhibit more
skills than a blue-collar worker who does little or no writing in his or her job.
1. Mechanical factors – such as the writing instrument, the quality of
the paper the writing surface, the position of the writer when writing
(standing, sitting, or trying to write under adverse conditions) poor
lighting and other unsatisfactory conditions.
2. Time Span – the child’s handwriting changes dramatically upon
reaching adolescence; adults to continue to gradually change their
handwriting over the course of his life; the elderly’s handwriting skill
may decline due to impaired coordination and loss of muscle control
3. Health- such as illness and injuries, medication, substance, abuse,
physical handicaps, severe stress and long-term debilitating illness
4. Blindness – poor eyesight can interfere with ones handwriting ability
5. Mental health – writing of mentally ill people may deteriorate into
illegibility; mental depression affects the handwriting but does not
diminish or destroy the habitual characteristics
6. Drugs and Medication – undesirable side effects can distort
handwriting
7. Alcohol and drug abuse – alcohol reduces inhibitions causing larger,
more rapid and slurred handwriting; alcoholism causes uncontrolled
muscular movement, jerking, and tremor; drug abuse can alter
handwriting
8. Accidental strokes – aberrations that occur as the result of a
transitory incident, such as someone bumping the writer’s arm or a
crumb on the table under the writing paper.
9. Guided Hand – occurs when the writer gets support from another
person when attempting to write, rare and usually involves the infirm
10. Tremor in handwriting – involuntary, rhythmic and recurrent
movement of the pen from side to side; instantly changes from the
desired direction of the pen lines, attributed to nervous impulses
affecting the muscles indicating loss of control to the pen.

VARIATIONS IN HANDWRITING
A more or less definite pattern for each is stored away in the subjective
mind but the hand does not always produce a stereo type of the pattern. The
hand ordinarily is not an instrument of precision and therefore we may not
expect every habitual manual operation to be absolutely uniform. The
greater this skill in the art of penmanship, the less the variations there will
be in the form of individualize letters as well as in the writing as a whole.

Causes of Variations
1. Function of some external i.e. influence of the available space.
2. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects, inebriation’s,
emotion, and deception.
3. Position of letter-all the letters are to be found initially, medially, and
finally.

The fact of the different position, especially in combination with another and
particular letter, may modify any of them in some way or another.

Importance of Variation
1. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is also
a highly important element of identification. The qualities of personal
variation include both its nature and its extent. It becomes necessary to
determine the amount, extent, and exact quality of the variations.
2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in
handwriting will be exactly duplicated in two individuals that such a
coincidence becomes practically impossible and this multitude of
possible variations when combined is what constitutes individuality in
handwriting.
3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal
divergence in size, lateral spacing and proportions actually indicate
genuineness. Variation in genuine writing is ordinarily in superficial
parts and in size, proportions, degree of the care given to the act,
design, stunt, shading, vigor, angularity, roundness and direction of the
stroke.

DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

1. Children learn writing by following the school copy or model.
2. After acquiring some degree of skill the children no longer follow school
model.
3. As speed increases, conscious design and regularity begins to break
down.
4. In courses of trial and error, modifications are made, simplification and
elaborations, addition and omission occur.
The writing pattern of each child embodies unique combinations of such
deviation from the standard letter forms or school model, and becomes his
personal habits.
5. Although thousands learn the system and that the natural result is
identity, but facts show that it is not because those who were taught
the same system or school copy a class of writers, but such impairs
does not by means produce a slavish uniformity.
 6. Variation begins as soon as writing begins and continuous until each
writer in the way that seems best and easiest to him.

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND

EXAMINATIONS:

1. Alignment - is the relation of parts of the whole of writing or line of

individual letters in words to the basement. It is the alignment of words.
The relative alignment of letters.
2. Angular Forms - sharp, straight strokes that are made by stopping the
pen and changing direction before continuing.
3. Arcade Forms - forms that look like arches rounded on the top and
open at the bottom.
4. Collation - side by side comparison; the critical comparison side by side
examination.
5. Comparison - the act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh
their identifying qualities; it refers not only a visual but also the mental
act in which the element of one item are related to the counterparts of
the other.
6. Disguised Writing - a writer may deliberately try to alter his usual
writing habits of hiding his identity. The results, regardless of their
effectiveness are termed disguised writing.
7. Down Strokes - the movement of the pen towards the writer.
8. Form - the writer chosen writing style. The way the writing looks
whether it is a copybook, elaborated simplified or printed.
9. Garland Forms - a cup-like connected form that is open at the top and
rounded on the bottom.
10. Gestalt - German word that means “complete” or “whole”. A good
gestalt needs nothing added or taken away to make it “look right”. Also
a school of handwriting analysis that looks at handwriting as a whole
picture.
11. Graphoanalysis- the study of handwriting based on the two
fundamental strokes, the curve and the straight strokes.
12. Graphometry- analysis by comparison and measurement.
13. Graphology - the art of determining character disposition and
amplitude of a person from the study of handwriting. It also means the
scientific study and analysis of handwriting, especially with reference to
the forgeness and questioned documents.
14. Hand Lettering - any disconnected style of writing in which each
letter is written separately; also called hand printing.
15. Left-Handed Writing - also known as the wrong handwriting.
Sinistral.
16. Letter Space - the amount of space left between letters.
17. Line Direction - movement of the baseline. May slant up, down, or
straight across the page.
18. Line Quality - the overall character of the ink lines from the beginning
to the ending strokes. There are two classes: a. Good line quality b. Poor
line quality
19. Line Space - the amount of space left between lines.
20. Manuscript Writing - a disconnected form of script or semi-script
writing. This type of writing is taught in young children in elementary
schools as the first step in learning to write.
21. Margins - the amount of space left around the writing on all four
sides.
22. Movement - it is important element in hand writing. It embraces all
the factors which are related to the motion of writing instrument skills,
speed freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, tremors and the like. The
manners in which the writing instrument is move that is finger, hand,
forearm or whole arm.
23. Natural Writing - any specimen of writing executed normally without
any attempt to control or alter its identifying habits and its usual quality
or execution.
24. Natural Variation - these are normal or usual deviations found
between repeated specimens of any individual handwriting.
25. Pen Emphasis - the act of the intermittently forcing the pain against
the barrel of the pen and the angle at which he holds it.
26. Pen Hold - the place where the writer grasp the barrel of the pen and
the angle at which he holds it.
27. Pen Position - Relationship between the pan point and the paper. The
orientation of the writing instrument.
28. Pen Pressure - the average force with which the pen contacts the
paper. Pen pressure as opposed to pen emphasis deals with the usual of
average force involves in the writing rather than the period increases.
29. Print Script - a creative combination of printing and cursive writing.
30. Proportion or Ratio - the relation between the tall and the short
letters is preferred as the ratio of writing.
31. Quality - a distinct or peculiar character. Also; qualify’ is used in
describing handwriting to refer to any identifying factor that is related to
the writing movement itself.
32. Rhythm - the element of the writing movement, which is marked by
regular or periodic recurrences. It may be classed as smooth,
intermittent or jerky in its quality; the flourishing succession of motion
which are recorded in a written record. Periodicity alteration of
movement.
33. Shading - is the widening of the ink strokes due to the added pressure
of a flexible pen point or to use of stab pen.
34. Significant Writing Habit - any characteristic of handwriting that is
sufficiently uncommon and well-fixed to serve as a fundamental point in
the identification.
35. Simplification - eliminating extra or superfluous strokes from the
copybook model.
36. Size - may refer to the overall size of the writing or the proportions
between zones
37. Skill - in any set there are relative degrees or ability or skill and a
specimen of handwriting usually contain evidences of the writer
proficiency; degree, ability, or skill of a write proficiency.
38. Slope or Slant - the angle or inclination of the axis the letters relative
to the baseline.
39. Speed of Writing - the personal pace at which the writer’s pen
moves across the paper.
40. Speed (speedy) Writing - not everyone writes at the same rate so
that consideration of the speed writing may be significant identifying
element. Writing speed can be measured precisely from the finished
handwriting but can be interpreted in broad terms of slow, moderate, or
rapid.
41. System - the combination of basic design of letters and the writing
movement as taught in the school make up the writing system. Writing
through use diverges from the system, but generally retains some
influence of the basic training.
42. Tension - the degree of force exerted o the pen compared to the
degree of relaxation.
43. Thready Form - an indefinite connective form that looks flat and
wavy.
44. Variability - the degree to which the writing varies from the copybook
model.
45. Variation - the act o process of changing.
46. Word Space - the amount of space left between words.
47. Writing Conditions - both the circumstances under which the writing
was prepared and the factors influencing the writer’s ability to write at
the time to execution. It includes the writer’s position (sitting, standing,
abed, etc.), the paper support and backing, and the writing instrument;
writing ability may be modified by the conditions of the writer’s health,
nervous state, or degree of intoxication.
48. Wrong-Handed Writing - any writing executed with the opposite
hand that normally used; aka…as “with the awkward hand “it is one
means of disguised thus, the writing of a right-handed person, which has
been executed with his left hand, accounts for the common terminology
for his class of disguised as left-hand writing.
49. Writing Impulse - the result of pen touching down o the paper and
moving across the page, until it is raised from the paper.
50. Reprographic Examination - thus refers to examination of
documents which includes photocopies facsimile, photographs and the
like.

MOVEMENT IN HANDWRITING

Kinds of Movement:
1. Finger movement - the thumb, the first, the second ad slightly the third
finger are in actual motion. Most usually employed by children and
illiterates.
2. Hand movement - produced by the movement of action of the whole
hand with the wrist is the centre of action.
3. Forearm Movement - the movement of the shoulder, hand, and arm
with the support of the table.
4. Whole arm Movement - action of the entire arm without resting i.e.,
blackboard writing

SPEED - slow and drawn; deliberate; average; and rapid

RHYTHM IN HANDWRITING- rhythm is succession of connected, uniform

strokes working in full coordination. This manifested by clear-cut
accentuated strokes which increase and decrease in which like perfect
cones, pressure is always in the state of changes moving from light to heavy
or from heavy to light.
1. Lack of Rhythm - characterized by succession of awkward, independent
poorly directed and disconnected motion.
2. Importance of Rhythm - by studying the rhythm of succession of
strokes, one can determine if the writer normally and spontaneously or
write with hesitation as if he is attempting to for another signature.
3. Letter of Connection - determine the essential expression of the writing
pattern. It is a mean indicator of the neuromuscular function. Words are
formed by connection of letters to one another. Even letters are formed
by the joining of the upward and the downward strokes. These types of
connection are:
a. Arcade - a rounded the stroke shaped like an arched. It is a slow mode
of connection resulting from contoured movements.
b. Garland - links the downward stroke to the up strokes with a flowing
curve swinging from left to right.
c. Angular connective form - when the downward stroke and the
upward stroke meet directly, angular connection s formed. This type of
connection imposes a check o the continuity of movement which is
characterized by an abrupt stop and start in its turning point.
d. The thread-like connective form – the joining of the downward and
upward strokes slurred to thread-like tracing or where rounded turns
used at both top and bottom a double curve. These forms appear both
in the shaping of letters within the word.

STROKE – is the path followed by the pen in the paper. It is considered as

the basis handwriting element. Technically, it is termed as “DUCTUS” which
means, “the actual line of the ink left by the pen”.
 Doctor Rudolf Pophal – introduced the concept of stroke picture
Terminologies Concerning Stroke Characteristics:

1. Arc - a curved formed inside the top curve of loop as in small letters “h”,
“m”, “n”, & “p”.
2. Arch - any arcade form in the body of a letter found in small letters which
contains arches.
3. Ascender - is the top portion of a letter or upper loop.
4. Baseline - maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be imaginary
alignment of writing; it is the ruled or imaginary line upon which the
writing rests.
5. Beaded - preliminary embellished initial stroke which usually occurs in a
capital letters.
6. Beard - is the rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter.
7. Blunts - the beginning and ending stroke of a letter (without hesitation).
8. Body - the main portion of the letter, minus the initial of the strokes,
terminal stroke and the diacritic, of any. Ex.: The oval of the letter “o” is
the body, minus the downward stroke and the loop.
9. Bowl - a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete into “o”.
10. Buckle/Buckleknot- a loop made as a flourished which is added to
the letters, as in small letters “k” and “b” or in a capital letters “A”, ”K”,
”P”; the horizontal end loop stroke that are often used to complete a
letter.
11. Cacography - a bad writing.
12. Calligraphy - the art of a beautiful writing.
13. Descender- opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter.
14. Diacritic - “t” crossing and dots of the letter “i” and “j”. The matters
of the Indian script are also known as a diacritic sign; an element added
to complete a certain letter, either across bar or dot.
15. Ending/Terminatestroke of a toe - the end stroke of a letter.
16. Eye/Eyelet/Eyeloop- small loop or a curved formed inside the letters.
This may occur inside the oval of the letters “a”, “d”, “o”; the small loop
form by the stroke that extend in divergent direction as in small letters.
17. Foot - lower part which rest on the baseline. The small letter “m” has
three feet, and the small letter “n” has two feet.
18. Habits - any repeated elements or details, which may serve to
individualize writing.
19. Hesitation - the term applied to the irregular thickening of ink which
is found when writing slows down or stop while the pen take a stock of the
position.
20. Hiatus/Pen Jump - a gap occurring between a continuous stroke
without lifting the pen. Such as occurrence usually occurs due to the
speed; may be regarded also as a special form of pen lift distinguished in
a ball gaps and appear in the writing.
21. Hook - it is a minute curve or ankle which often occurs at the end of a
terminal stroke. It also sometimes occurs at the beginning of initial stroke.
The terminal curves of a letters “a”, “d”, “n”, “m”, “p”, “u” is the hook. In
small letter “u” the initial curve is a hook; the minute involuntary talon
like formation found at the commencement of an initial stroke or the end
terminal stroke.
22. Hump - upper portion of its letters “m”, ”n”, ”h”, ”k”; the rounded
outside of the top of the bend stroke or curve in a small letter.
23. Knob - the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke due to
slow withdrawal of the pen from the paper (usually applicable to the
fountain pen)
24. Ligature/Connection – the stoke which connects two stroke of the
letter; characterized by connected stroke between letters.
25. Long Letter - those letters with both upper and lower loops
26. Loop - a oblong curve such as found on the small letter “f” “g” “l” and
letter stoke has two. A loop maybe blind or open. A blind loop is usually
the result of the ink having filled the open space.
27. Majuscule - a capital letter
28. Minuscule - small letter
29. Movement Impulses - this refers to the continuality of strokes.
Forged writing usually produced by disconnected and broken movements
and more motion and movement impulses than in genuine writing
30. Patching - retouching or going back over a defective portion of a
stroke. Careful patching is common defect on forgeries.
31. Pen Lift - an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing
instrument from the paper.
32. Retrace/Retracing - any part of a stroke which is super imposed upon
the original stroke.
33. Shoulder - outside portion of the top curve, small letter “’m” has
three shoulders and the small letter ”n” has to, the small letter “”h”” has
one shoulder.
34. Spur - a short initial or terminal stroke.
35. Staff - any major long downward stroke of a letter that is a long
downward stroke of the letter “b”, “g”.
36. Stem or Shank - the upright long downward stroke that is the trunk
or stalk, normally seen in capital letters.
37. Tick/Hitch - any short stroke, which usually occurs at the top of the
letter.
38. Tremor - a writing weakness portrayed by irregular shaky stokes is
described as writing tremor.
39. Whirl – the up stroke of looping ascender.
40. Linear Letters - lower case letters having no ascending loops or
stems or descending loops or stems sometimes called minuscules. No
capital letters.
41. Supra Linear - letters that extend a distance vertically above the
linear letters, (b, d, h, k, l, and t)
42. Infralinear- letters are those that extend a distance vertically below
the baseline of the writing or of the linear letters (g, j, p, q, y, z).
43. Double-Length letters - are those few letters that extend a distance
vertically both above and below the linear letters (f, y, z, p)

Other Terminologies Concerning Strokes:

1. Air Stroke - the movement of the pen as it is raised from the paper and
continues in the same direction.
2. Covering Stroke - a stroke that unnecessarily covers another stroke in a
concealing action.
3. Final - the ending stroke of a letter when it is at the end of a word.
4. Upstroke - movement of the pen away from the letter.
5. Sequence of Strokes - the order in which writing strokes are placed on
the paper is referred to as their sequence.
6. Supported Strokes - upstroke partially covering the previous down
strokes. Originally taught in European schools.
7. Trait Stroke - a school of handwriting analysis that assign personality
trait manners to individual writing strokes.

Qualities of Stroke
Expansion - whether the movement is extended or limited in its range
with respect to both vertical and horizontal dimension. ”e” & “i” is also form
and design of letters. This group of habits is also called general
characteristics.

TWO CHARACTERISTICS OF HANDWRITING

1. General (Class) Characteristics - these characteristics refer to those
habits that are part of basic writing system or which are modification of
the system of writing found among so large of writer that have only slight
identification value.
a. National Characteristics - this refers to the extent that writing
system within a country share common features and induce class
characteristics in the writing of its people, different from the other
countries.
b. Accidental Characteristics - are isolated, brief or temporary
digression from normal writing practice. Observed in writing standards.
2. Individual Characteristics - they are characteristics which are the
result of the writer’s muscular control, coordination, age, health, nervous,
temperament, frequency, personality, and character. They are found in
the following:
a. Writing movement
b. Form and design of letters
c. Muscular control or motor control

POINTS IN IDENTIFICATION
1. Writing movement
2. Form and design of letters
3. Muscular control and motor control
Loose Writing
Restrained Writing
4. Motor coordination
5. Shading
6. Alignment
7. Pen Pressure
8. Connection
9. Pen Hold
10. Skill
11. Rhythm
12. Disconnections or pen lifts between letters
13. Speed
14. Slant as a writing habits
15. Proportion of letters as an individual characteristics or habit
16. Quality of strokes/Line quality
17. Variation

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN EXAMINING EXTENTED WRITING

EXTENDED WRITINGS - are any writing by an individual other than their

signature or initial. Signatures are just that the name of a person or
something representing his/her name.
Signature of an individual may become stylized over time because the
person tends to write his/her name over and over. Therefore, often it is not
possible to use the extended writing of a person to identify a signature of
that individual.
To identify questioned signature it is best to have contemporaneous
signatures of the subject for comparison:

1. Uniformity - does the questioned writing have smooth, rhythmic and

free flowing appearance?
2. Irregularities - does the questioned writing appear awkward, ill-
formed slowly drawn?
3. Size and proportion - determine the height of the over-all writing as
well as the height of the individual strokes in proportion to each other.
4. Alignment - are they horizontal aligned, or curving, uphill or downhill.
5. Spacing - determines the general spacing between letters, spacing
between words. Width of the left and right margins, paragraph
indentations.
6. Degree slant - determines the general spacing between letters,
spacing between words. Width of the left and right margins, paragraph
indentations.
7. Degree slant - are they uniform or not.
 8. Formation and design of the letters - “t”, (-) bars, “i” dots, loops,
circle formation.
9. Initial connecting and final strokes.

STANDARDS OR EXEMPLAR
DEFINITION
1. Standard - They are known writings which indicate how a person
writes. A write manifests fixed habits in his writing that identify him.
This fact provides the basis for an opinion or conclusion regarding any
writing identification problem.

2. Exemplar - specimen of the writing of suspects are commonly known

as exemplars. The term standards is a general term referring to all
authenticated writings of the suspects while exemplars refers more
especially to a specimens of standard writing offered in evidence or
obtained or request for comparison with the questioned writing.

3. Sample - a selected representative portion of the whole is known as a

sample. In this text, the term “sample” follows closely the statistical
usage.

TYPES OF HANDWRITING “STANDARDS” according to Albert Osborn

1. Collected Standards –these are known (genuine) handwriting of an

individual such as signature and endorsement on cancelled checks,
legal papers, letters, commercial, official, public, and private document
and other handwriting such as letters, memoranda, etc. written in the
course of daily life, both business and socials.
2. Request Standards –these are signatures or other handwritings (or
hand printings) written by an individual upon request for the purpose
of comparison with other handwriting or for specimen purposes.
3. Post Litem-motam Exemplars - writings produce by the subject
after evidential writings have come into dispute and solely for the
purpose of establishing his contentions.
4. Contemporaneous Writings – documents which are below 5 years
old

HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS

Factors to consider in the selection of standards

1. THE AMOUNT OF STANDARD WRITTEN. Good writing standards

should be sufficient to define accurately the identifying habits as well
as the kind and extent of variation typical of the writer’s handwriting
under any specific writing condition. (Hilton)
a. At least ten to twenty five signatures
b. Writing - usually four or five pages of natural writing.
 2. SIMILARITY OF SUBJECT MATTER. The style of writing contained in
the standard or exemplars should be similar to the style of the
questioned writings. If the questioned writings are hand printed, then
get hand printed standard or exemplar.
a. Compare conventional copy book from conventional to the copy
book form of standard; and compare highly individualized
questioned signature with highly individualized standard
signatures.
b. Extended writing-determined whether the questioned writing is
purely cursive, are script or block or combination of three or two
styles of writing.

3. RELATIVE DATES OF THE QUESTIONED AND THE STANDARD -

writing standard signatures or writing must be those written five years
before or five years after the date of the questioned signature or
writing. The ideal standards are those before, on and after the date of
the questioned writing. The interval of years between the questioned
and standard should not exceed more than five years.
Importance of Contemporaneous Standards:
1. Helps to determine or trace gradual changes on one’s
handwriting or signature.
2. Aids in tracing the development of any writing variation

4. CONDITION UNDER WHICH BOTH THE QUESTIONED AND THE

STANDARD ARE PREPARED. If the questioned handwriting is
executed under abnormal conditions, it is necessary to look for
standards prepared under comparable circumstances such as: paper
rested on the knee, standing, lying down, and/or while on moving
vehicle.

5. WRITING INSTRUMENT AND PAPER. Same instrument used in the

preparation of the questioned document must be obtained in the
standards. If signature was written by ballpen in ruled paper and above
a type written name, standard prepared under similar conditions
should be selected. If the questioned handwriting was written by a
pencil, then standard written should be contemporaneous with the
standard exemplars.

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING

1. Physical and Mental Effects. Intoxication affects the physiological
being of an individual; the manner of handwriting is also affected.
2. Evidence of Alcohol Intoxication in Handwriting
a. Bizarre letter forms
b. Greatly enlarge writing
c. Illegible forms and writing generally
 d. Uneven baseline
e. Meaningless blobs or extraneous strokes in handwriting
f. Inconsistency in slant writing
g. Inconsistency in the form of repeated letters

INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES

SIGNATURE - It is the name of a person written by him/her in a document

as a sign of acknowledgement Or, it is a name or a mark that a person puts
at the end of a document to attest that he is its author or that he ratified its
contents.
- a signature is a distinctive handwritten mark that serves as a unique
identifier of an individual. Its analysis involves detailed scrutiny of
various handwriting characteristics to authenticate the signature or
detect forgery. This process requires the comparison of the questioned
signature with known genuine samples to identify consistent traits and
variations.
- A signature, within the context of forensic document examination, is a
person's handwritten name or mark that is intended to authenticate a
document, serve as a legal endorsement, or represent the individual's
identity. It is characterized by distinctive features that are unique to
the individual, including but not limited to the shape, slant, pressure,
and stroke order of the handwriting.
**Many persons who have done a lot of writing transform their name. Letters
become simplified or condensed, complex movements appear. This is now a
signature.

**It is mark but this mark is now personal. It is a personal combination of

strokes in which it is possible to recognize the writer.

Signatures should be considered not just from the point of view

whether there is any difference whatever. The problem is to form a judgment
first about the normal range of variation in the standard and then to consider
whether the questioned signature has significant similarity and whether any
difference you observe is within the range of normal variation established by
standards or whether variations shown by several signature.

(Mid-16th century) directly or via French from

Medieval Latin “signatura”, from Latin
“signare”.

OTHER SIGNIFICANT TERMS

1. Cross Mark. Historical, many who could write signed with a cross mark
or crude X. this authenticating is still used today by illiterates, and if
properly witnessed, it can legally stand for a signature. Ballot marks are
 also referred to as cross marks because of the common practice of
marking with an X.

2. Evidential Signature. Is not simply signature – it is a signature, signed

at a particular time and place, under particular conditions, while the
signer was at particular age, in a particular physical and mental condition,
using particular implements, and with a particular reason and purpose for
recording his name.

3. Fraudulent Signature. A forged signature. It involves the writing of a

name as signature by someone other than a person himself, without his
permission, often with some degree of imitation.

4. Free-Hand Signature. A fraudulent signature that was executed purely

by simulation rather than by tracing the outline of a genuine signature.

5. Guided Signature. A signature that is executed while the writer’s hand

or arm is steadied in any way. That the writer requested the assistance.
Guided signatures are most commonly written during a serious illness or
on a deathbed.
Types:
a. Inert hand - refers to completely involuntary; incapability of motor
activity and signatory may be conscious or even unconscious. (illiterate
person).
b. Guided - hand-situation is one in which the person providing the
guidance usually dominates the writing process and provides greater
portion of control. (Partial incapacitation).
c. Forced hand - signatory is forced against his will, by threats,
constraints and the like.
d. Assisted-hand - one in which the person assisting (co-adjutant)
provides help to a lesser degree, perhaps only to the point of steadying
a tremulous arm or hand, without actually directing the movement of
the writing instrument.

6. Imitated Signature. Synonymous with freehand forgery.

7. Model Signature. A genuine signature that has been used prepares an

imitated or traced forgery.

8. Theory or Comparison. The act of setting two or more signature in an

inverted position to weight their identifying significance, the reason being
that those we fail to see under the normal comparison may readily be
seen under this theory.

TYPES OF SIGNATURES
 1. FORMAL (a.k.a. CONVENTIONAL or COPYBOOK FORM) - complete
correct signature for an important documents such as will.
2. INFORMAL (CURSORY) - usually for routine documents and personal
correspondence.
a. Personalized
b. Semi-personalized
3. CARELESS SCRIBBLE - for the male carrier, delivery or the autograph
collector or used for jotting quick notes.

FORGERY- Forgery is, strictly speaking, a legal term which involves not only
a non-genuine document but also and intent to fraud. However, it is also
used synonymously with fraudulent signature or spurious document.

CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES (CATEGORY OF FORGERY OF

SIGNATURES)

1. SIMULATED OR FREEHAND IMITATION FORGERY. It is a fraudulent

signature which was executed purely stimulation rather than by tracing
the outline of a genuine signature can be referred as freehand
imitation or stimulated forgery. Or it refers to the free-hand drawing in
imitation of model signature.

a. Simulated with the Model before the Forger - the forger

makes an effort to obtain a reproduction of the model signature.
He works slowly, stroke after stroke.
i. Direct Technique - forger works directly with ink.
ii. Indirect - forger works first with pencil and afterwards
covers the pencil strokes with ink.

b. Simulated Free Hand Forgery (Technique) - used by forgers

who have a certain skill in writing after some practice, the forger
tried to write a copy of the model quickly.

2. TRACED FORGERY (TRACED SIGNATURE). Any fraudulent signature

which was executed by actually following the outline of a genuine
signature with a writing instrument.
a. Direct Tracing - tracing is made by transmitted light.

b. Indirect Tracing - forger uses a carbon paper and place

document on which he will trace the forged signature under the
document bearing the model signature with a carbon paper
between the two.

Types of Traced Signature

 Carbon Process - the forger places the document to be
forged on the bottom, inter-leaves a piece of carbon paper
 and places on top a document containing the genuine
signature. The forger then traces over the genuine
signature with the pencil, pen stylus, or other sharp
pointed instrument. The pressure of this over-tracing
against the carbon paper imprints the signature outline in
carbon on the bottom of the document. This type could be
easily detected by the smattering of carbon remnants on
the forged documents.

 Indented Process - The documents containing the model

signature is place on the top of the forged document. The
forger traces with considerable pressure over the genuine
signature using pencil, pen stylus or similar sharp pointed
instrument and creates an indented signature outline on
the documents being forged. Later, this impression outline
is over written using pencil, or directly with a fountain pen
or any other similar writing instrument.

 Transmitted Light Process - The documents to be

forged is placed on the top of the document containing the
genuine signature. The two documents are superimposed
over a light source on a transparent flat surface. The forger
traces the signature outline, with their pencil or fountain
pen following the design (outline) of the genuine signature
set in bold relief by the light in back of it.

3. SPURIOUS SIGNATURE (SIMPLE FORGERY). A fraudulent signature

in which there was no apparent attempt of stimulation or
limitation. Forger does NOT try to copy a model BUT writes
something resembling what we ordinarily call a signature. For this,
he uses a false (spurious) name and makes a rapid stroke, disturbing
his usual writing by adopting a camouflage called disguise.
a. This kind of forgery is easily detected as fraudulent in view of the
fact that it is widely different from the other genuine signature
even in general appearance alone. The only question is to tackle
the determination probably writer of the forgery. Seldom are
these fraudulent signature disguised.
b. Further, in this type of forgery, the forger having a writing habit of
his own can be identified through handwriting comparison.

4. FORGERY BY MEANS OF A STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE

OR MODEL. Some individuals very often used a stamped facsimile
of their signature.

5. FORGERY BY COMPUTER SCANNING

CHARACTERISTICS PRINCIPLES THAT SUPPLY MOST CASES:

1. Pen pressure
2. Movement
3. Proportion
4. Unusual distortion of the forms of letters
5. Inconspicuous characteristics
6. Repeated characteristics
7. Characteristics written with speed

INDICATION OF GENUINENESS

1. Carelessness
2. Spontaneity
3. Alternation of thick and thin strokes
4. Speed
5. Simplification
6. Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
7. The upward strokes to a threadlike tracing
8. Rhythm
9. Good line quality
10. Variation

Indications of Simulated (Direct and Indirect Techniques) and

Traced Forgeries

1. Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters, indicating

points at which the writers have temporarily struck.
2. No rhythm
3. Carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
4. No contrast between upward and downward strokes
5. Slow writing-angular writing
6. Blunt beginning and endings
7. Placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of letters
8. Absence of spontaneity- lack of smoothness of letters
9. Restrained writing- there is lack of freedom r: inhibited” movements. It
gives the impression that every stroke is made with great difficulty.
This writing is small.
10. No variation

GENUINE SIGNATURE

Genuine signatures are normally smoothly written and executed with at least, moderate
speed containing an occasional uncertain stroke or signs of an occasional slow writing
movement.
Pen lifts and interruptions in genuine signatures may be perfectly natural. It may writers
have fixed habits of taking the pen from the paper and starting a new.

Some do it spasmodically, joining the letter combinations in some signatures and writing
them separately in others. The ending is free; the start if free. They may connect or they
may not.

GENUINESS OF WRITING

When a forgery established?

> A forgery is established when it can be shown that the signature is unnatural either in the
way that it is written or in its form. Most frequently, both types of faults are present.
Signature written under abnormal condition

> Signatures written under abnormal such as when the writer is standing, reclining, riding or
writing upon an uneven surface are not completely characteristics.

The written document or signatures is not his natural writing, but that does not mean is
signatures are not genuine; they are merely variable.

FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION

In forgery, every person who, with intent to defraud, signs the name of another
person, or of fictitious person, knowing that he has no authority to do so, or
falsely makes, alters, forges or counterfeits any-checks, drag-due bill for the
payment of money or property-or counterfeits or forges the seal forged,
counterfeited, with intent the same to be fake, altered forged, or counterfeited,
with intent to prejudice, damage or defraud any person…. Is quality of forgery

1. Falsemaking: Definition: The act of creating a document that is entirely

fake or contains forged elements. This involves producing a document that
purports to be something it is not, such as a fake ID, passport, or financial
document.

Context: In the context of questioned documents, falsemaking refers to

the creation of a completely fraudulent document with the intention to
deceive or mislead.

Falsification: Definition: The act of altering a genuine document to

mislead. This can include adding, removing, or changing information in a
document to give a false impression.

Context: In questioned documents, falsification pertains to modifying an

existing legitimate document. Examples include changing dates, amounts,
or names on legal or financial documents to achieve some fraudulent gain.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. FALSEMAKING
a. The creation of fraudulent writing on a document or the alteration of an
existing document.
2. FALSIFICATION
a. In Q.D. context, it pertains to the act of adding and substituting, erasing
and obliterating an original entry, be it punctuation marks, signs,
symbols, numerals, characters and or letters in a document
3. COUNTERFEITING
a. The crime of making, circulating, uttering false coins and bank notes
4. FORGERY
a. The act of falsely making and materially altering, with intent to defraud,
any writing which if genuine, might be legal efficacy or the foundation
of a legal liability.
TYPES AND METHODS OF FORGERY
1. Simple Forgery
2. Simulated Forgery
3. Traced Forgery
4. Optical Forgery
5. Auto Forgery
INDICATORS OF FORGERY
1. Tremors
2. No rhythm
3. Carefulness or unusual care
4. No contrast between thin and thick stroke
5. Slow writing
6. Blunt ending and beginning
7. Absence of spontaneity
8. Restrained writing
9. No variation
INDICATIONS OF SIMULATED AND TRACED FORGERIES
1. Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters, indicating points at
which the writer has temporary struck
2. No rhythm
3. Carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
4. No contrast between upward and downward strokes
5. Slow writing – angular writing
6. Blunt beginning and endings
7. Placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of the letters
8. Absence of spontaneity – lack of smoothness of letters
9. Restrained writing
10. No variation
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF ALTERATION

If a document is under suspicion, it should in all cases be thoroughly

examined for the purpose of discovering any suspicious erasures or
alterations that it may contain. Fraudulent changes are made in such way
as to avoid detection and may not be discovered if attention is not
directed to this particular subject.

Alteration

Alteration is defined as any change to a document which gives it a different

effect from that it originally possessed. If change is made after execution of
a document and without the consent of the other party or concerned person,
then such change is called fraudulent alteration.

The alteration can be done by:

 Addition
 Interlineations Overwriting
In addition alteration the examination can be done to identify the
characteristic features of handwriting:

· size of letter,
· spacing and pen-strokes
· Colour ink should be made.

KINDS OF ALTERATIONS

1. Interlineations
Interlineations defined as the writing between the lines of any instrument for
the purpose of adding to it or correcting what has been written. In examining
interlineations, the tint or color of ink, quality of pen, size of letters,
sequence of crossing strokes and the parts of letters which come in contact
with the originally written letters should be minutely studied. The fraudulent
entries are likely to differ from the original or adjacent writing in size, slant
and spacing and the shade of ink etc.

2. SHEET INSERTION
Sheet insertion It is generally found that the public documents and accounts
books, are changes by insertion of extra or substituted pages. The removal
of a page from any document and substituting another in its place containing
matter having different meaning from that of the page removed is a kind of
fraud.

3. OBLITERATION
Is the process of writing over text with the intention of hiding or destroying
the original information, any area of a document that has been purposely
covered, usually by other writing, to attempt to mask the markings that lay
underneath.

4. OVERWRITING
The overwriting may be genuine or fraudulent. Sometimes in order to correct
a spelling mistake, to make writing or figures more legible or to
correct/change some writing, the same writer may overwrite the strokes or
lines. Such overwriting are generally made boldly and no attempt is made to
conceal the overwritten or overwriting is the habit of a writer, the strokes are
drawn carelessly. The fraudulent overwriting to change the contents of
documents are usually made in a careful manner and every effort is made by
the preparator to conceal such changes made by him.

5. Cancellation
An act done upon changing or hiding the words, letters, numbers, etc. by
which it’s meaning or language.

6. Erasure
Documents may be altered in an attempt to hide the original meaning
or contents of document. This most commonly done by erasing
individual letters, or numbers

Erasure can be divided into two basic group

1. Physical/Mechanical Erasures- Physical removal of writing,

impressions or parts thereof may be accomplished by the abrasion of
the surface of paper with the help of rubber erasure or sharp
instruments such as razor, blades, scalper, knife, etc. This method
damages and disrupts the fibers in the upper layer of a paper. Such
damage can usually be detected easily using a microscope and oblique
lighting.
2. Chemical Erasures – are those in which some chemicals are used to
erase part of the document, the chemical applications are usually
using strong oxidizing agents that conceal the ink by changing the
properties of the colored substance. These may include acids or alkali
 as oxalic acid. Microscopic Examination of chemical erasures may show
discoloration or staining through ultraviolet lighting and Infrared
lighting.
METHODS OF ALTERATION

1. ERASURE
A. MECHANICAL
B. CHEMICAL
2. Addition – words/figures

3. Substitution – on pages

4. Interlineations – between lines

5. Superimposition – Overwriting/ overlapping

6. Obliteration – masking, smeared

7. Cancellation- to remove by cutting out or stamping lines

LESSON: COUNTERFEITING PHILIPPINE MONEY

Steps in recognizing genuine Bangko Central ng Pilipinas

This study is to familiarize yourself with the characteristics, designs

and distinct features of BSP bank notes by the following:

PAPER – feel the paper – the genuine note is printed on a special

kind of paper which is rough when you run your fingers thru it. It
does not glow under the ultraviolet light. During paper
manufacture, the watermark, security fibers, security threads and
iridescent are included.

Special Paper made of : Cotton – 80% Abaca – 20%

WATERMARK
Examine the watermark on the unprinted portion of the note. The
watermark is silhouette of the portrait appearing on the face of the
note.
SECURITY FIBERS
Inspect the security fibers. Embedded red and blue visible fibers are
scattered at random on both surfaces of a genuine note and can be
readily picked.

EMBEDDED SECURITY THREAD

View the embedded security thread. The embedded security thread
is a special thread vertically implanted off center of the note during
paper manufacture.

NGC – NEW GENERATION CURRENCY

NDS – NEW DESIGN SERIES

WINDOWED SECURITY THREAD

On the surface of the paper where this thread is located are patterns of short
vertical lines.

IRIDESCENT BAND
Find the iridescent band on the improve version of 1000’s, 500’s,
and 1000 notes and the new 200 notes. A wide glistening gold
vertical stripe with the numerical value printed series.

Portrait
Recognize the portrait. Appears life-alike. The eyes “sparkle”.
Shadings are formed by the facial expression which is extremely
difficult to replicate.

Serial Numbers
The prefix letters & numbers (six of them except on replacement note)
are clearly printed.
Spacing of the numbers is uniform & alignment is even, and ascending.

VALUED PANEL
Check the numerals found at the four corners of the front and back of the
note.

FLOURESCENT PRINTING
Look for the presence of fluorescent print when the note is exposed under
the ultra-violet light.
MICROPRINTING
Verify under the lens the presence of the micro-printing on the
denominations 50,100,200,500, and 1000

VIGNETTE
Verify the vignette. The lines and dashes composing the vignette are fine,
distinct and sharp; the varying color tone gives a vivid look to the picture

OPTICALLY VARIABLE DEVICE

A reflective foil that bears the image and BSP Logo.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GENUINE AND COUNTERFEIT PAPER NOTE/BILL

GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
A. MAIN PRINT Generally smooth
1. The fingers will readily feel the 1. The fingers will hardly fell the
main point on the front and back main prints of the front and back
on fairly new notes. even on new notes.
2. This is due to the measurable 2. This is brought about by offset
thickness of the ink deposited on print the most common process
the paper which gives the prints employed by counterfeiters.
an embossed effect. 3. The prints are mere stains on the
coating of the sensitized paper
which is glossy.

B. PORTRAIT
1. Appears life-like 1. It appears dead.
2. The eyes sparkle. 2. The ayes do not sparkle.
3. The tiny dots and lines (Vignette) 3. It appears blurred, dull, smudgy
forming the details of the face; and poorly.
hair, etc. are clear, sharp, and 4. Hair is lifeless.
well-defined. 5. The face and/or forehead are
4. Each portrait stands out distinctly often naturally white or pale due
from background. This is to absence of most of the details.
noticeable along the shoulders. 6. The concentrate lines depicting
5. The background is composed of the eyes often merged into solid
multi-colored fine pattern online printed areas.
is varying tones and shades 7. The background often blends with
interfacing with each other. the portrait and is usually
These shading or toning are “scratchy”.
intricately printed in such a way 8. The lines are thick with rough
that the contrast or shifting of edges.
 colors creates the impression of 9. The multi-colored prints on
life and vividness to the notes. genuine notes are extremely
difficult to duplicate and as a
result, counterfeit notes are
usually off-color and not to the
right shade or tone.

C. WATERMARK
1. The water mark underneath the 1. This is imitated by printing white
security lacework on the right ink or dry black on the finished
hand side of the note is the same paper.
on the colored portrait. 2. Sometimes wax or other oily
2. The design is placed by means of medium is stamped to give
dandy roll during the transparency to the portion
manufacture of the paper. where the designing appears.
3. Sharp details of the outline or the 3. Printed outline is placed on the
light and shadow effect inner sheet where merely a paper
dissemble when viewed with the cut out is placed inside. As a
aid of transmitted light. result coursed or harsh and
occasional irregular lines and
sometimes opaque areas are very
obvious.

GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
C. METALLIC THREAD
1. This is special thread placed 1. Counterfeit by means of printing
vertically on the paper during at the back of the note, on the
manufacture. inner side of the paper, insertion
2. On the surface of the paper where of twin thread or simply folding
this thread is located are patterns the note vertically where the
of short vertical lines. thread appears on the genuine
bill.
D. COLORED FIBERS OR SECURITY FIBERS
1. These fibers are scattered on the 1. On counterfeit, this is simulated
surface of the paper (front and by printed lines, cannot be picked
back) at random readily picked off, but can easily erase with
off by means of any pointed ordinary rubber or by agitating
instrument. with wet fingers.
2. 2. The colors of these fibers are
red and blue.

E. LACEWORK DESIGN
1. The geometric pattern which 1. On counterfeit, this is simulated
 looks like a delicate lacework by printed lines, cannot be picked
along the border on both off, but can easily erase with
surfaces, embellishing the ordinary rubber or by agitating
portraits, value panel and with wet fingers.
vignettes are multi-colored able
composed of harp lines which are
continuous and traceable even at
the joints.

F. COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION

Genuine notes have polychrome background with one predominant color of

its denomination. You should know whose portrait is/are printed on each bill.

DENOMINATION COLOR NAME

Php 1,000.00 Blue Jose Abad Santos, JosefaLlanesEscoda, &
Vicente Lim
500.00 Yellow Benigno S. Aquino
200.00 Green DiosdadoMacapagal
100.00 Mauve Manuel L. Roxas
50.00 Red Sergio Osmena
20.00 Orange Manuel L. Quezon
10.00 Brown ApolinarioMabini&- AndressBonifacio
5.00 Green Emilio Aguinaldo

Generally, in counterfeit, there is an irregular

sputtering of white spots caused by non-registry or
breaks of the background tint. Most often, counterfeits
of this type of notes lack the vividness of color
inherent I genuine bills.

GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
G. SERIAL NUMBERS
1. The prefix letters & numbers (six 1. On counterfeited, the letters &
of them except on replacement numbers are poorly printed. They
note) are clearly printed. are usually of different style.
2. They have peculiar style % are 2. Most often, they are evenly
uniform in size & thickness. spaced & poorly aligned.
3. Spacing of the numbers is 3. The numbers are too big or too
uniform & alignment is even. small, too thick or too thin and in
certain cases shaded on the
curves.
H. VIGNETTE
1. The lines and dots composing the 1. Usually dull and poorly printed.
vignettes are fine, distinct and 2. It appears dirty.
sharp. 3. The lines are comparatively
2. The varying color tone gives a thicker with rough edges.
bold look to the picture that 4. There is no variation in color toe
makes it stands out of the paper. so that the picture areas flat.
I. CLEARNESS OF PRINT
1. The registry of the different 1. In general, a spurious not
printed features is perfect. The exhibits a secondhand look. It is
lines are very clear and sharp. dirty due to sputtering of ink of
There are no bums clinging to the interior area. Over inked
the sides. areas are visible instantly. The
shadings and ornamentations of
the letters and figures are thick
and usually merge.
COINS
~ These are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for use as
money or collectively referring to metal currency.

MAKING OF COINS
1. Casting – is the most common method of making gold coins. Plaster
molds bearing an image of gold coins are filled (within a low
temperature) with alloy made with lead or tin. Some molds are used
for high temperature metal such as copper or silver alloy.
2. Striking or Stamping – is the marking of an impression of a coin or
metal blank by pressure.

CHARACTERISTICS
1. Genuine coins show an even flow of metallic grains. The details of the
profile, the seal of the Republic of the Philippines, letterings and
numerals are of high relief, so that it can be readily felt distinct by
running the fingers on these features. The beadings are regular & the
riddling is deep & even.
2. Counterfeit coins fell greasy & appear slimy. The beading composed of
tiny round dots surrounding the genuine coin appear irregular and
elongated depression and are not sharp & prominent as in the readings
are uneven & show sign of filing.
COUNTERFEIT METAL MONEY OR COIN
Coin made of gold was to widely use but are not now often see. The
government kept their gold in the form of heavy bars called bullions and
then issue papers for the value of gold.
Metal coins issued nowadays are mostly in amount for less than its
face value. In most countries, the possession of gold coins is now forbidden
except for coin collectors.
 MAKING OF PAPER MONEY

1. Engraving - it is the process by which the line to be printed are cut

into pieces of metal by hand or with a machine. Ink is rubber over the
plate to fill the cuts in the metal and extra ink wiped-off the top. The
pressure of the paper on the plate caused the ink in the holes to be
lifted on the surface of the paper. The ink lines will be felt to be raised
above the surface. The engraving process is used for the production of
all genuine bank notes.

2. Letterpress Printing - is the most common form of printing books,

magazines, letterheads and the usual printing in common uses. In the
process, the letters are made on raised pieces of metal which covered
with ink and then impressed upon the paper in the same form as a
rubber stamp or cliché. The serial numbers of a bank note are usually
added by this letterpress process after the note has been produced by
an engraving.

3. Offset Printing - is the method a photograph is taken of the desire

material and a print is made on a specially prepared aluminum plate.
The plate is kept wet with water. When ink is applied, it sticks only
these parts of the plate where printing is desired. The aluminum plate
is then put in contact with rubber roller which transfers the ink to the
papers. The offset process is quite in small printing plants. Because it
was photographic process, it is the most common modern used by
counterfeiter to make false paper money.

BANK NOTE PAPER

Paper bank notes get a lot of handling. If good grade of paper is not
used, they would soon wear out and have to be replaced. Even with the best
paper, the old two pesos bill usually wears out and has to be replaced at the
end of thirty days. Government buys the very best grade of paper they can
get, in order that the paper will last as long as possible. Special paper also
makes it difficult for the counterfeiter to duplicate it. It is usually the use of
wrong paper that causes the counterfeited bank note to be detected by
ultraviolet light.

NOTE: In most modern printing, papers have chemicals added to make look whiter.
These chemicals cause brilliant fluorescence under ultraviolet light. Bank notes
paper does not have this filler and does not show.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GENUINE AND COUNTERFEIT PAPER NOTE/BILL

GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
B. MAIN PRINT Generally smooth
3. The fingers will readily feel the 4. The fingers will hardly fell the
main point on the front and back main prints of the front and back
on fairly new notes. even on new notes.
4. This is due to the measurable 5. This is brought about by offset
thickness of the ink deposited on print the most common process
the paper which gives the prints employed by counterfeiters.
an embossed effect. 6. The prints are mere stains on the
coating of the sensitized paper
which is glossy.

C. PORTRAIT
6. Appears life-like 10. It appears dead.
7. The eyes sparkle. 11. The ayes do not sparkle.
8. The tiny dots and lines (Vignette) 12. It appears blurred, dull,
forming the details of the face; smudgy and poorly.
hair, etc. are clear, sharp, and 13. Hair is lifeless.
well-defined. 14. The face and/or forehead are
9. Each portrait stands out distinctly often naturally white or pale due
from background. This is to absence of most of the details.
noticeable along the shoulders. 15. The concentrate lines
10. The background is composed depicting the eyes often merged
of multi-colored fine pattern into solid printed areas.
online is varying tones and 16. The background often blends
shades interfacing with each with the portrait and is usually
other. These shading or toning “scratchy”.
are intricately printed in such a 17. The lines are thick with rough
way that the contrast or shifting edges.
of colors creates the impression 18. The multi-colored prints on
of life and vividness to the notes. genuine notes are extremely
difficult to duplicate and as a
result, counterfeit notes are
usually off-color and not to the
right shade or tone.

D. WATERMARK
4. The water mark underneath the 4. This is imitated by printing white
security lacework on the right ink or dry black on the finished
hand side of the note is the same paper.
 on the colored portrait. 5. Sometimes wax or other oily
5. The design is placed by means of medium is stamped to give
dandy roll during the transparency to the portion
manufacture of the paper. where the designing appears.
6. Sharp details of the outline or the 6. Printed outline is placed on the
light and shadow effect inner sheet where merely a paper
dissemble when viewed with the cut out is placed inside. As a
aid of transmitted light. result coursed or harsh and
occasional irregular lines and
sometimes opaque areas are very
obvious.

GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
D. METALLIC THREAD
3. This is special thread placed 2. Counterfeit by means of printing
vertically on the paper during at the back of the note, on the
manufacture. inner side of the paper, insertion
4. On the surface of the paper where of twin thread or simply folding
this thread is located are patterns the note vertically where the
of short vertical lines. thread appears on the genuine
bill.
E. COLORED FIBERS OR SECURITY FIBERS
3. These fibers are scattered on the 2. On counterfeit, this is simulated
surface of the paper (front and by printed lines, cannot be picked
back) at random readily picked off, but can easily erase with
off by means of any pointed ordinary rubber or by agitating
instrument. with wet fingers.
4. 2. The colors of these fibers are
red and blue.

F. LACEWORK DESIGN
2. The geometric pattern which 2. On counterfeit, this is simulated
looks like a delicate lacework by printed lines, cannot be picked
along the border on both off, but can easily erase with
surfaces, embellishing the ordinary rubber or by agitating
portraits, value panel and with wet fingers.
vignettes are multi-colored able
composed of harp lines which are
continuous and traceable even at
the joints.
J. COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION

Genuine notes have polychrome background with one predominant color of

its denomination. You should know whose portrait is/are printed on each bill.

DENOMINATION COLOR NAME

Php 1,000.00 Blue Jose Abad Santos, JosefaLlanesEscoda, &
Vicente Lim
500.00 Yellow Benigno S. Aquino
200.00 Green DiosdadoMacapagal
100.00 Mauve Manuel L. Roxas
50.00 Red Sergio Osmena
20.00 Orange Manuel L. Quezon
10.00 Brown ApolinarioMabini&- AndressBonifacio
5.00 Green Emilio Aguinaldo

Generally, in counterfeit, there is an irregular

sputtering of white spots caused by non-registry or
breaks of the background tint. Most often, counterfeits
of this type of notes lack the vividness of color
inherent I genuine bills.

GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
K. SERIAL NUMBERS
4. The prefix letters & numbers (six 4. On counterfeited, the letters &
of them except on replacement numbers are poorly printed. They
note) are clearly printed. are usually of different style.
5. They have peculiar style % are 5. Most often, they are evenly
uniform in size & thickness. spaced & poorly aligned.
6. Spacing of the numbers is 6. The numbers are too big or too
uniform & alignment is even. small, too thick or too thin and in
certain cases shaded on the
curves.
L. VIGNETTE
3. The lines and dots composing the 5. Usually dull and poorly printed.
vignettes are fine, distinct and 6. It appears dirty.
sharp. 7. The lines are comparatively
4. The varying color tone gives a thicker with rough edges.
bold look to the picture that 8. There is no variation in color toe
makes it stands out of the paper. so that the picture areas flat.
M. CLEARNESS OF PRINT
2. The registry of the different 2. In general, a spurious not
printed features is perfect. The exhibits a secondhand look. It is
lines are very clear and sharp. dirty due to sputtering of ink of
 There are no bums clinging to the interior area. Over inked
the sides. areas are visible instantly. The
shadings and ornamentations of
the letters and figures are thick
and usually merge.
COINS
~ These are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for use as
money or collectively referring to metal currency.

MAKING OF COINS
3. Casting – is the most common method of making gold coins. Plaster
molds bearing an image of gold coins are filled (within a low
temperature) with alloy made with lead or tin. Some molds are used
for high temperature metal such as copper or silver alloy.
4. Striking or Stamping – is the marking of an impression of a coin or
metal blank by pressure.
CHARACTERISTICS
3. Genuine coins show an even flow of metallic grains. The details of the
profile, the seal of the Republic of the Philippines, letterings and
numerals are of high relief, so that it can be readily felt distinct by
running the fingers on these features. The beadings are regular & the
riddling is deep & even.
4. Counterfeit coins fell greasy & appear slimy. The beading composed of
tiny round dots surrounding the genuine coin appear irregular and
elongated depression and are not sharp & prominent as in the readings
are uneven & show sign of filing.
COUNTERFEIT METAL MONEY OR COIN
Coin made of gold was to widely use but are not now often see. The
government kept their gold in the form of heavy bars called bullions and
then issue papers for the value of gold.
Metal coins issued nowadays are mostly in amount for less than its
face value. In most countries, the possession of gold coins is now forbidden
except for coin collectors.

LEGAL ASPECT OF FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION

(Pursuant to Title Four, Chapter One of the Revised Penal Code - Crimes
against public interest)

FORGERIES –WHAT ARE CRIMES CALLED FORGERIES?

1. Forgeries the seal of the government signature or the stamp of the
executive (Art.161)
2. Counterfeiting coins (Art. 163)
3. Mutilation of coins (Art. 164)
4. Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to bearer
(Art. 166)
5. Counterfeiting instrument not payable to the bearer (Art. 167)
 6. Falsification of legislative document (Art.170)
7. Falsification by public officer, employee or notary or ecclesiastical
minister (Art. 171)
8. Falsification by private individual (Art. 172)
9. Falsification of wireless, Cable, and Telephone messages (Art. 173)
10. Falsification of medical certificate, certificates of merit of service
(Art. 174)

ACTS PUNISHABLE UNDER ART.161:

1. Forging the great seal of the government of the Philippines.
2. Forging the signature of the government.
3. Forging the stamp of the president.

What are the crimes under counterfeiting coins? They are:

1. Making and importing and uttering false coins (Art.163);
2. Mutilation of coins importance and utterance of mutilated coins
(Art.164); and
3. Selling of false or mutilated con without connivance. (Art. 165)

When is a coin false or counterfeited?

A coin is false or counterfeited, it is forged or if is not authorized
by the government as legal tender. Regardless of its intrinsic value

Counterfeiting means that the imitation of a legal or genuine coin. It

contains more silver than the ordinary coin. There is counterfeiting when
spurious con is made. There must be an imitation of the peculiar design of a
genuine coin. (U.S. vs. Basco, 6 Phil. 110).

DEFINITION
1. “Import” means to bring them into part. The importation is complete
before entry at the customs house. (U.S. vs. Lyman.26Fed Cas.1024)

2. “Utter” means to pass counterfeited coins. It includes their delivery or

the act of giving them a way a counterfeited coin is uttered when it is
paid, when the offender is caught is counting the counterfeited coins
preparatory to the act of delivering them. Even though the ulterior may
not obtain the gain he intended. (Decision of the supreme court of
Spain of Jan.11, 1913; Jan.4, 1893 ;) Nov.12, 1888; and Dec. 24, 1885)
Hence damage to other necessary.

3. “Mutilation” means to take off part of the metal either by filling it or

substitution it for another metal inferior quality.

ACTS PENALZED UNDER ART. 166

 1. Forging or falsification or treasury or bank notes or other documents
payable to bearer.
2. Importation a false or forged obligation or notes.
3. Uttering of such false or forged obligation or notes in connivance with
the forgers or importers.

Reason for Punishing Forgery

Forgery of currency is punished so as to maintain the integrity of the
currency and thus insure the credit standing of the government and prevent
the imposition on the public of the government of worthless notes of
obligation.

ACTS OF FALSIFICATION (Art.171 & 172)

1. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature, or rubric:
2. Causing it to appear that persons have participated in any act or
proceeding when they did not in fact so participate;
3. Attributing to persons who have participated in an act or proceeding
statements Other than those in fact made by them;
4. Making untruthful statements in a narration of fats;
5. Altering true dates;
6. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document which
changes its meaning.
7. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be a copy of
an original document when no such original exists, or including in such
copy a statement contrary to, or different from, that of the genuine
original; or
8. Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance thereof in
a protocol registry, or official book.
9. Including a copy different statement, there must be a genuine
document that is falsified.

Requisites of counterfeiting of signature (Art. 171)

Imitation of another s signature need not be perfect. It is necessary
only:
1. That there be an intent to imitate, or attempt to imitate, and
2. That the two signature or handwritings, the genuine and the forged,
bare some resemblance o each other.(U.S>vs.Rampas,26 phil.189)

IMITATING (FEIGNING)

The Spanish text of Art.171 Uses “fingiendo” (for imitation). In

feigning, there is no original signature, handwriting or rubric that does not
exist. To feign means represent by false appearance; to give a mental
existence.
 EXAMINATION OF WRITING MATERIALS

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Anachronism - it refers to something wrong in time and in place. This

means that the forger has trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing
materials to the exact date it was supposed to have been written.

2. Paper - these are sheets of interlaced fibers- usually cellulose fibers from
plants, but sometimes from cloth rags or other fibrous materials, that is
formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or mat, to form a solid
surface.

3. Watermark - certain papers are marked with a translucent design, a

watermarks impressed in them during the course of their manufacture.
4. Writing Materials in Questioned Documents - one of the subjects of
inquiry in questioned documents is the writing material used. The
common (probable) questioned document.

WRITING MATERIALS IN QUESTIOND DOCUMENTS

One of the subjects of inquiry in questioned on paper is its age,
whether the actual age of the paper corresponds with the alleged date of
preparation of the questioned document.
To fully understand the principles of tracing the age of the writing
materials used in questioned documents, it is imperative for a questioned
documents examiner to be aware of the evolution and development of
papers. When such papers was first introduced or used, physical changes on
papers and the importance of water-marks, are some of the valuable things
that an investigator should know to come up with a more conclusive opinion.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
The evolution of writing materials culminated in the development of
paper. The oldest written records still surviving are the Sumerian clay tablets
dating back from the 4th millennium B.C.

1. Papyrus - This came into use about 3,500 B.C.-people of Egypt. Palestine,
Syria, and southern Europe used the pith (soft spongy tissue of the stem)
of the sedge (grass like herb) CYPERUS PAPYRUS to make a writing
material known as PAPYRUS.

2. Parchment - writing material made from skin of animals primarily of

sheep, calves or goats – was probably developed in the Middle East more
or less contemporaneously with papyrus. It came into wide use only in the
2nd century B.C. in the city of PERGMUM in ANATOLIA.
3. Vellum - writing materials from fine skins from young calves or kids and
the term (name) was often used for all kind of parchment manuscript, it
became the most important writing material for bookmaking, while
parchment continued for special manuscripts.

DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING

1. It is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to a
Chinese court official, CAL LUN (TSAI LUN), in about A.D. 105. He is the
first to succeed in making paper from vegetables fibers, tree barks
(mulberry tree), rags, old fish nettings.

2. The art of paper making was kept secret for 500 years the Japanese
acquired in the 7th century A.D.

3. In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was attack by marauding

Chinese and some Chinese taken as prisoners will and Samarkand soon
become the paper making center of the Arab world.

4. Knowledge of papermaking travelled westward, spreading throughout

the Middle East, the Moorish invasion of Spain led to the invention
(A.D. 1150) erection of the first Europe paper mill, at JATIVA, province
of VALENCIA.

5. Knowledge of the technology spread quickly and by 16 th century, paper

was manufactured throughout most Europe.

6. The first paper mill in England was established in 1495.

7. The first such mill in America was established in 1690.

8. The first practical machine was made in 1798 by the French inventor
Nicholas Louis Robert. The machine reduce the cost of paper it
supplants the hand-molding process in paper manufacture.

9. Roberts’ machine was improved by the British stationers and brothers

Henry Fourdrinier and Sealy Fourdrinier, who in 1830 produced the first
of the machine, which bear their name.

10. The solution of problem of making paper from cheap raw

materials was achieved by the introduction of the ground wood process
of pulp making about 1840 and the first of the chemical pulp process
approximately ten years later.

11. CHLORINE - this was introduced in the 19 th century for bleaching

and colored and linen could already be manufactured for paper.
 12. ESPARTO - this is a grass grown in Libya, also in Spain and
North Africa was first introduced in England in 1861.

13. STRAW - this was used to make paper in 1800.

14. SULPHITE - this paper from wood was not attempted until 1869
and paper could sulphite (modern type) was first used between 1880
and 1890.

15. OLDEST MANUSCRIPT – LETTERS DATED a.d.874 HAVE BEEN

FOUND IN EGYPT and the oldest manuscript in England on cotton paper
dated AD 1890 .

TRACING THE AGE OF PAPER DOCUMENT (DOCUMENT).

The age of the document may be estimated from paper. Four cases
were reported by Lucas where the age of document was established from the
compositor/composition of paper.
In one these cases; a document dated 1213 A.H(A.D 1798) was found
to be written on paper composed entirely of chemically prepared wood
cellulose. Considering that this type of paper was not introduced not until
about 60 years later, the document is obviously fake one.
WATERMARKS
Is a term of figure or design incorporated into paper during its
manufacture and appearing lighter than rest of the sheet viewed in
transmitted light. The earliest way of identifying the date of manufactures.

DISCOLORATION
One of tracing the age of the paper is through the observance of the
changes on its physical characteristics particularly DISCOLORATION.
Naturally, a paper will discolor after the passage of time due to numerous
environmental factors such as moistures, temperature, dust, etc. in case of
papers out of wood pulp; they start to discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years.
While RUG-SHIP QUALITY papers, they are very old discoloration starts.

CAUSES OF DISCOLARATION
Discoloration is highly influenced by storage of the papers or documents
and conditions like the following:
1. Due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means.
2. Brown spots due to mold that is very obvious characteristics both in
appearance and distribution.
 3. Exposure to dust and dirt
4. Occasional staining of fruit juice, grease.
5. May also due to heat, partial burning, etc.

Methods of Heating:
a. Heating
b. Sunlight
c. Abuse
d. Chemical Treatment

LEGAL ASPECT OF FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION

(Pursuant to Title Four, Chapter One of the Revised Penal Code - Crimes
against public interest)

FORGERIES –WHAT ARE CRIMES CALLED FORGERIES?

11. Forgeries the seal of the government signature or the stamp of
the executive (Art.161)
12. Counterfeiting coins (Art. 163)
13. Mutilation of coins (Art. 164)
14. Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to
bearer (Art. 166)
15. Counterfeiting instrument not payable to the bearer (Art. 167)
16. Falsification of legislative document (Art.170)
17. Falsification by public officer, employee or notary or
ecclesiastical minister (Art. 171)
18. Falsification by private individual (Art. 172)
19. Falsification of wireless, Cable, and Telephone messages (Art.
173)
20. Falsification of medical certificate, certificates of merit of service
(Art. 174)

ACTS PUNISHABLE UNDER ART.161:

4. Forging the great seal of the government of the Philippines.
5. Forging the signature of the government.
6. Forging the stamp of the president.

What are the crimes under counterfeiting coins? They are:

4. Making and importing and uttering false coins (Art.163);
5. Mutilation of coins importance and utterance of mutilated coins
(Art.164); and
6. Selling of false or mutilated con without connivance. (Art. 165)

When is a coin false or counterfeited?

 A coin is false or counterfeited, it is forged or if is not authorized
by the government as legal tender. Regardless of its intrinsic value

Counterfeiting means that the imitation of a legal or genuine coin. It

contains more silver than the ordinary coin. There is counterfeiting when
spurious con is made. There must be an imitation of the peculiar design of a
genuine coin. (U.S. vs. Basco, 6 Phil. 110).

DEFINITION
4. “Import” means to bring them into part. The importation is complete
before entry at the customs house. (U.S. vs. Lyman.26Fed Cas.1024)

5. “Utter” means to pass counterfeited coins. It includes their delivery or

the act of giving them a way a counterfeited coin is uttered when it is
paid, when the offender is caught is counting the counterfeited coins
preparatory to the act of delivering them. Even though the ulterior may
not obtain the gain he intended. (Decision of the supreme court of
Spain of Jan.11, 1913; Jan.4, 1893 ;) Nov.12, 1888; and Dec. 24, 1885)
Hence damage to other necessary.

6. “Mutilation” means to take off part of the metal either by filling it or

substitution it for another metal inferior quality.

ACTS PENALZED UNDER ART. 166

4. Forging or falsification or treasury or bank notes or other documents
payable to bearer.
5. Importation a false or forged obligation or notes.
6. Uttering of such false or forged obligation or notes in connivance with
the forgers or importers.

Reason for Punishing Forgery

Forgery of currency is punished so as to maintain the integrity of the
currency and thus insure the credit standing of the government and prevent
the imposition on the public of the government of worthless notes of
obligation.

ACTS OF FALSIFICATION (Art.171 & 172)

10. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature, or rubric:
11. Causing it to appear that persons have participated in any act or
proceeding when they did not in fact so participate;
12. Attributing to persons who have participated in an act or
proceeding statements Other than those in fact made by them;
13. Making untruthful statements in a narration of fats;
14. Altering true dates;
 15. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document
which changes its meaning.
16. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be a
copy of an original document when no such original exists, or including
in such copy a statement contrary to, or different from, that of the
genuine original; or
17. Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance
thereof in a protocol registry, or official book.
18. Including a copy different statement, there must be a genuine
document that is falsified.

Requisites of counterfeiting of signature (Art. 171)

Imitation of another s signature need not be perfect. It is necessary
only:
3. That there be an intent to imitate, or attempt to imitate, and
4. That the two signature or handwritings, the genuine and the forged,
bare some resemblance o each other.(U.S>vs.Rampas,26 phil.189)

IMITATING (FEIGNING)

The Spanish text of Art.171 Uses “fingiendo” (for imitation). In

feigning, there is no original signature, handwriting or rubric that does not
exist. To feign means represent by false appearance; to give a mental
existence.