Secure Synopsis compilation for January-2025

General Studies-2
Table of contents

Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments,

significant provisions and basic structure................................................................................ 5
Q. “The exclusion of the creamy layer from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
reservation is essential to achieve real equality”. Critically analyze. (10 M) ............................ 5
Q. Analyze the broader implications of the Supreme Court’s ruling that maintenance
proceedings and restitution of conjugal rights are independent. How does this strengthen the
legal protections for women in matrimonial disputes? (10 M) ................................................. 6
Q. Examine the legal and constitutional framework governing enemy property in India and
analyze its implications for property rights under the Constitution. (10 M) ............................ 8
Q. “Individuals should have the freedom to choose secular inheritance laws”. Analyze this in
the context of Article 25 and its implications for personal laws in India. (10 M) ..................... 9
Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges
pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of powers and finances up to local levels and
challenges therein. .................................................................................................................. 12
Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal mechanisms and
institutions. .............................................................................................................................. 12
Q. “The independence of the judiciary is the cornerstone of a vibrant democracy”. Evaluate
the factors impacting judicial autonomy in India and suggest measures to restore public
confidence in the justice delivery system. (15 M) ................................................................... 12
Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries. ................... 14
Parliament and State legislatures—structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers &
privileges and issues arising out of these. .............................................................................. 14
Q. “Hate speech against women in politics erodes their representation and participation in
democracy”. Analyze its impact and propose actionable solutions to combat this challenge.
(15 M) ................................................................................................................................... 14
Q. “A structured Parliamentary calendar is vital to strengthen democracy and legislative
oversight”. Discuss the merits and challenges of implementing an annual schedule for the
Indian Parliament. (15 M) ..................................................................................................... 16
Q. Should India provide parliamentary representation to Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) to
address their unique concerns, or are existing institutional mechanisms sufficient? (10 M) .. 18

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Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary—Ministries
and Departments of the Government; pressure groups and formal/informal associations
and their role in the Polity. ..................................................................................................... 21
Q. “India’s transition from Planning Commission to NITI Aayog reflects a shift from
centralized planning to cooperative federalism”. Evaluate the success and shortcomings of
NITI Aayog in fostering cooperative federalism. (15 M) ....................................................... 21
Q. Examine the evolving role of the Governor and Lieutenant Governor in Indian polity. How
does the perceived deviation from constitutional norms by these offices affect democratic
governance and the principles of federalism? (15 M) ............................................................ 23
Q. What are the constitutional and institutional mechanisms to ensure accountability of
judges in India? Analyze their effectiveness in dealing with instances of controversial public
remarks by judges. (15 M) .................................................................................................... 25
Q. “Despite the constitutional provisions, the appointment of ad-hoc judges has remained
largely underutilized.” Analyze the reasons for this underutilization and suggest reforms to
enhance judicial capacity through this mechanism................................................................ 28
Q. “The governance of higher education institutions should be free from political influence to
ensure academic excellence”. Discuss the challenges and possible reforms in the context of the
Governor's role as Chancellor. (15 M) .................................................................................. 30
Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act. ........................................................ 32
Q. “The narrowing gender gap in voter turnout is a sign of India's maturing democracy”. Do
you agree? Substantiate your view. (15 M) ............................................................................ 32
Q. “The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) is a vital instrumentality for ensuring free and fair
elections”. Critically examine the implications of frequent MCC imposition on governance
and development. (15 M) ....................................................................................................... 34
Q. “Fake narratives and disinformation pose a significant threat to electoral processes”.
Discuss the strategies that Election Management Bodies can adopt to counter the growing
menace of misinformation in elections. (10 M) ...................................................................... 36
Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of
various Constitutional Bodies................................................................................................. 38
Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies. ....................................................... 38
Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues
arising out of their design and implementation. .................................................................... 38
Q. “The Right to Education Act focuses on inclusivity and the right to a fear-free learning
environment”. Critically analyze the current challenges in realizing these provisions on the
ground. (15 M) ...................................................................................................................... 38
Development processes and the development industry —the role of NGOs, SHGs, various
groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders. ............... 41
Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the
performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for
the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections................................................... 41
Q. “India’s legal framework on medical negligence focuses more on punishment than
systemic reform, undermining patient safety”. Examine. (10 M) ........................................... 41

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Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to
Health, Education, Human Resources................................................................................... 43
Q. Analyze the disparity in access to digital infrastructure between government and private
schools. Suggest measures to bridge this gap effectively. (10 M) ............................................ 43
Q. “Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is crucial to bridging the healthcare gaps in rural
India”. Critically analyze the role of PPPs in addressing healthcare inequities and suggest
measures to enhance their effectiveness. (15 M) .................................................................... 45
Q. “Brain drain versus brain circulation is a defining challenge for emerging economies”.
Discuss the socio-economic implications of India's brain drain and suggest policy measures to
retain and attract talent. (15 M) ............................................................................................ 47
Q. “A robust industry-academia collaboration is critical for addressing the employability
challenges of Indian graduates”. Discuss in light of the UGC’s recent skill-oriented education
initiatives. (15 M) .................................................................................................................. 49
Q. “A holistic approach is essential to address the ecology of trauma surrounding survivors of
sexual violence”. Examine the need for inclusive mental health interventions. (10 M)........... 51
Q. To what extent has the National Health Mission contributed to India's achievement of
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) related to health? Illustrate with examples. (10 M) . 53
Q. Despite being a demand-driven scheme, MGNREGS faces persistent budgetary
constraints. Discuss the impact of underfunding on its implementation and suggest measures
to address these challenges. (10 M) ........................................................................................ 55
Q. “Game-based learning is increasingly being recognized as an alternative pedagogical” tool.
Critically evaluate its impact on enhancing cognitive development in students. (15 M) ......... 56
Q. Despite consistent policy efforts, India's foundational literacy and numeracy levels remain
a concern. Critically analyze the shortcomings in India’s primary education system and
suggest reforms based on global best practices. (10 M) ......................................................... 58
Q. “Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) represent not only a health challenge but also a
governance failure”. Critically examine India's approach to combating NTDs and suggest
policy reforms for their effective elimination. (15 M) ............................................................ 60
Issues relating to poverty and hunger. ................................................................................... 63
Q. How can India balance the dual challenge of undernutrition in vulnerable populations and
rising overnutrition in affluent groups through targeted policy interventions? (10 M) .......... 63
Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability, e-governance-
applications, models, successes, limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency
& accountability and institutional and other measures. ....................................................... 64
Q. Examine how the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, strengthens the legal
framework for data governance in India. What are the broader implications for individual
privacy and state accountability? (10 M)............................................................................... 64
Q. “Digital health initiatives are transforming governance in the public health sector”.
Analyze how interoperability and standardization can enhance the effectiveness of health
services and governance in India. (15 M) .............................................................................. 66
Q. Why is transparency crucial for effective revenue management in state governments?
Suggest policy-level interventions to enhance accountability. (10 M)..................................... 69

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Role of civil services in a democracy. ..................................................................................... 70
India and its neighborhood- relations. ................................................................................... 70
Q. Examine the impact of cross-border terrorism on the India-Pakistan peace process. What
measures can India adopt to counter this challenge diplomatically? (10 M) .......................... 70
Q. Analyze the strategic importance of Afghanistan for India in the context of its location and
regional dynamics. Examine the challenges posed by the Taliban regime and suggest
measures to strengthen India’s role in Afghanistan’s stability and reconstruction. (15 M).... 72
Q. Analyze the implications of India’s border management policies on its bilateral relations
with Bangladesh, considering recent developments. (10 M)................................................... 74
Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting
India’s interests. ...................................................................................................................... 75
Q. Analyze the potential implications of U.S.-Iran tensions on India’s energy security and
strategic interests in the West Asian region. (10 M) .............................................................. 75
Q. “The lack of a multilateral mechanism in South Asia is a major hindrance in countering
China’s influence”. Suggest a framework for regional cooperation to address common
security concerns. (15 M) ...................................................................................................... 77
Q. “India’s Act East Policy integrates cultural diplomacy, connectivity, and strategic
interests”. Discuss. (15 M) ..................................................................................................... 79
Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests,
Indian diaspora. ...................................................................................................................... 81
Q. How do current climate governance mechanisms fail to reflect the socio-economic
priorities of the Global South? Suggest alternatives to make these mechanisms more inclusive.
(10 M) ................................................................................................................................... 81
Q. Analyze the role of the Indo-US nuclear deal in countering China’s increasing dominance
in the global nuclear technology space. How can this collaboration contribute to India’s
diplomatic outreach? (10 M) ................................................................................................. 83
Q. How does Pravasi Bharatiya Divas serve as a platform to engage the Indian diaspora?
Examine its impact on India's global soft power. (10 M) ....................................................... 85
Q. “The Russia-Ukraine war poses new challenges to India-Russia relations, especially in
protecting Indian nationals”. Discuss the diplomatic steps India can take to address such
concerns. (10 M) .................................................................................................................... 86
Q. What are the key areas of cooperation between India and the European Union in trade
and technology, and how do they contribute to strengthening bilateral economic ties? (10 M)
.............................................................................................................................................. 88
Q. BRICS nations have initiated discussions on alternatives to the US dollar in global trade.
Discuss the opportunities and challenges this poses for India’s foreign policy. (15 M)........... 89
Q. “ASEAN’s centrality is crucial for maintaining regional stability in the Indo-
Pacific”.Analyze the challenges ASEAN faces in sustaining its centrality amidst US-China
rivalry and suggest how India can support ASEAN in this regard. (15 M) ............................ 91
Important International institutions, agencies and fora - their structure, mandate. ........... 93

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 Q. Analyze the financial and structural challenges that the WHO is likely to face following the
US withdrawal. How can emerging economies, including India, play a more proactive role in
bridging these gaps? (15 M) .................................................................................................. 93

Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution,

features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure.
Q. “The exclusion of the creamy layer from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes reservation is essential to achieve real equality”. Critically analyze. (10 M)

Introduction
India’s reservation policy aims to address historical injustices and uplift the marginalized.
However, growing disparities within Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs)
highlight the need to exclude the creamy layer, ensuring the benefits reach the most
deserving.

Body

Relevance of excluding the creamy layer

1. Equitable distribution of benefits: Ensures that socio-economically weaker

SCs/STs, who face greater systemic barriers, receive reservation benefits.
o Eg: A 2023 Ministry of Social Justice report indicated that urban SCs/STs
dominate education and employment benefits compared to their rural
counterparts.
2. Addressing intra-group inequality: Creamy layer exclusion reduces concentration
of benefits among wealthier SCs/STs, fostering equality within the community.
o Eg: The Supreme Court in Jarnail Singh vs. Lachhmi Narain Gupta
(2018) highlighted the need to address such disparities to achieve substantive
equality.
3. Alignment with constitutional equality: Articles 14 (equality before law) and 16
(equal opportunity) advocate fair distribution of affirmative action benefits.
o Eg: The principle of equity was upheld in the Indra Sawhney (1992)
judgment, which introduced the creamy layer for OBCs.
4. Prevention of privilege perpetuation: Creamy layer exclusion ensures that a small
elite within SCs/STs does not monopolize benefits.
o Eg: Studies (NITI Aayog, 2022) found that reservation benefits in
government jobs were largely cornered by second-generation beneficiaries.
5. Promoting grassroots development: Targets the most deprived and brings real
upliftment at the community level.
o Eg: The Tamil Nadu sub-classification policy (2021) ensured equitable
representation of marginalized sub-castes within SCs.

Challenges in excluding the creamy layer

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 1. Complex criteria formulation: Unlike OBCs, socio-economic advancement in
SCs/STs is harder to assess due to persistent caste-based discrimination.
o Eg: Justice Gavai (2024) emphasized that SC/ST creamy layer criteria must
differ from OBC frameworks to reflect historical and social realities.
2. Potential socio-political backlash: Excluding the creamy layer may lead to
resistance from upwardly mobile sections within SCs/STs.
o Eg: Protests in Bihar (2023) against the creamy layer concept for SC/ST
reservations reflected fears of losing benefits.
3. Administrative challenges: Implementing exclusion in rural and tribal areas is
difficult due to lack of updated socio-economic data.
o Eg: The 2022 Ministry of Tribal Affairs report highlighted the absence of
granular data on tribal incomes and education levels.
4. Persistence of social stigma: Even economically advanced SCs/STs may face caste-
based discrimination, limiting their opportunities.
o Eg: Discrimination against SC/ST candidates in IITs and IIMs was reported
as recently as 2023.
5. Dilution of affirmative action goals: Excluding the creamy layer may weaken the
broader intent of reservation, which addresses structural inequities.
o Eg: Scholars argue that caste remains a stronger marker of disadvantage
than income, unlike other categories.

Conclusion

Excluding the creamy layer within SCs/STs is a critical step toward achieving substantive
equality while aligning with constitutional principles of justice. Moving forward, a clear
framework, robust data collection, and inclusive policymaking will be essential to balance
historical injustices with equitable distribution of benefits.

Q. Analyze the broader implications of the Supreme Court’s ruling that

maintenance proceedings and restitution of conjugal rights are independent.
How does this strengthen the legal protections for women in matrimonial
disputes? (10 M)

Introduction
The Supreme Court’s ruling that maintenance proceedings and restitution of conjugal rights
(RCR) are independent ensures financial autonomy for women and prevents the misuse of
legal provisions to coerce them into unwanted marital obligations. This landmark
interpretation reinforces the principles of gender justice and constitutional equality.

Body

Broader implications of the ruling

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 1. Financial independence safeguarded: Women can secure maintenance without
being compelled to comply with RCR decrees, preventing destitution.
o Eg: The SC ruling (2025) upheld a woman’s right to maintenance under
Section 125 CrPC, emphasizing its independence from RCR compliance.
2. Protects against coercion: Women are not forced to return to potentially abusive or
unfavorable marital conditions for financial survival.
o Eg: Tripura HC (2017) held that restrictions under Section 125(4) CrPC
have been substantially diluted to protect women’s dignity.
3. Empowers autonomy and dignity: By separating financial rights from marital
obligations, the ruling upholds personal autonomy and the right to live with dignity.
o Eg: In Saroj Rani v. Sudarshan Kumar Chadha (1984), the SC ruled that
RCR should not undermine individual liberty and freedom.
4. Challenges patriarchal misuse: Discourages the use of RCR as a tool for harassment
or control by spouses, ensuring fair legal recourse for women.
o Eg: The 2023 SC interpretations clarified that maintenance cannot be denied
merely based on non-compliance with RCR.
5. Aligns with constitutional principles: Reinforces Articles 14 (Equality), 15 (Non-
discrimination), and 21 (Right to Life and Dignity), ensuring protection against
arbitrary denial of maintenance.
o Eg: The SC’s reliance on Article 21 in the 2025 ruling guarantees the right to
financial support independent of marital compliance.

Strengthening legal protections for women

1. Recognizes maintenance as a statutory right: Maintenance is treated as an

unconditional statutory entitlement under Section 125 CrPC, distinct from other
marital disputes.
o Eg: The Shah Bano Case (1985) reinforced the obligation of maintenance as
a fundamental right to ensure a dignified life.
2. Prevents economic exploitation: Women gain access to resources irrespective of
their marital choices, reducing dependence on husbands.
o Eg: In the 2025 SC judgment, maintenance was upheld as independent of
compliance with RCR decrees to safeguard women’s financial security.
3. Strengthens judicial sensitivity: Courts prioritize women’s welfare and rights over
procedural technicalities, ensuring equitable justice in matrimonial disputes.
o Eg: The Jharkhand HC’s 2023 decision, which denied maintenance, was
overturned by the SC for giving undue weightage to RCR decrees.
4. Promotes gender-sensitive legal frameworks: Shifts focus from marital obligations
to individual rights, ensuring fairer matrimonial dispute resolution mechanisms.
o Eg: The National Commission for Women (2022) highlighted the
importance of judicial reforms to safeguard women’s financial and personal
rights.
5. Prevents misuse of RCR provisions: Addresses potential misuse of RCR to control
or harass women, protecting their legal and personal rights.

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 o Eg: The SC emphasized in 2025 that courts must examine "just cause" for a
woman’s refusal to return, ensuring fairness in maintenance rulings.

Conclusion
The Supreme Court’s ruling marks a progressive step toward ensuring financial
independence and personal dignity for women in marital disputes. By safeguarding
maintenance as a statutory right, it strengthens gender-sensitive legal protections, aligning
with constitutional values and promoting social justice.

Q. Examine the legal and constitutional framework governing enemy property in

India and analyze its implications for property rights under the Constitution. (10
M)

Introduction

Enemy property refers to the assets left behind by individuals who migrated to enemy nations
during conflicts. The legal and constitutional framework governing such properties reflects a
delicate balance between national security interests and property rights, raising critical
legal and human rights considerations.

Body

Legal and constitutional framework governing enemy property

1. Enemy Property Act, 1968: This act provides for the vesting, preservation, and
control of enemy properties by the Custodian of Enemy Property for India (CEPI),
prohibiting inheritance or transfer.
o Eg: Properties belonging to individuals who migrated to Pakistan and China
after the wars of 1962, 1965, and 1971.
2. Enemy Property (Amendment and Validation) Act, 2017: This amendment
expanded the definition of "enemy" to include legal heirs and successors, ensuring
continued government control and restricting transfer of such properties.
o Eg: The amendment barred Indian legal heirs from claiming ownership of
enemy properties.
3. Defence of India Act, 1962: Initially empowered the government to seize enemy
properties during wartime for national security purposes.
o Eg: The act was invoked after the Sino-Indian War of 1962, resulting in
property confiscation.
4. Constitutional basis under Article 300A: Post the 44th Constitutional
Amendment Act, 1978, the right to property became a constitutional right rather than
a fundamental right, allowing the state to acquire property through lawful means.
o Eg: The K.T. Plantation Case (2011) reaffirmed that deprivation of property
must follow due process.

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 5. Judicial interpretations: Courts have upheld the government's power to control
enemy properties, emphasizing the need to balance public interest with individual
rights.
o Eg: The Supreme Court in Raja M.A. Amir Mohammad Khan v. Union of
India (2005) upheld the validity of enemy property laws.

Implications for property rights under the Constitution

1. Erosion of inheritance rights: The 2017 amendment denies legal heirs of former
owners their right to inherit enemy properties, raising concerns over the right to
equality (Article 14).
o Eg: Several legal heirs have challenged the denial of their inheritance rights in
courts.
2. Impact on Article 300A: Though the right to property is protected under this article,
enemy property laws override it, allowing the state to take possession without
compensation.
o Eg: In Union of India v. Raja Mohammed Amir (2018), the SC upheld the
government's authority under the Enemy Property Act.
3. Principle of Eminent Domain: The government’s ability to seize enemy properties
without compensation contradicts the broader principle of public purpose with fair
compensation.
o Eg: Unlike land acquisition laws, no compensation is provided to erstwhile
owners.
4. Rule of law concerns: The indefinite vesting of enemy property with the custodian
raises concerns about arbitrary state action and potential misuse.
o Eg: Critics argue that the long-standing confiscation contradicts the intent of
temporary wartime measures.
5. Legal uncertainty and economic impact: The lack of clarity in ownership rights
discourages investments and affects property transactions, impacting the broader
economy.
o Eg: The estimated value of enemy properties in India stands at ₹1 lakh crore
(2023), with many under legal disputes.

Conclusion

While the enemy property laws are justified in terms of national security, a balance must be
maintained to ensure due process, transparency, and adherence to constitutional
principles to prevent infringement on individual rights and enhance trust in governance.

Q. “Individuals should have the freedom to choose secular inheritance laws”.

Analyze this in the context of Article 25 and its implications for personal laws in
India. (10 M)

Introduction

9
Freedom to choose secular inheritance laws aligns with the principles of individual
autonomy, equality, and the constitutional commitment to secularism. Article 25 of the
Constitution guarantees freedom of conscience and protects the right to choose or not follow
any religion, making the case for such legal flexibility.

Body

Significance of allowing freedom to choose secular inheritance laws

1. Ensures equality: Secular inheritance laws provide a gender-neutral and religion-

neutral approach, upholding equality before law under Article 14.
o Eg: The Indian Succession Act, 1925, ensures equal inheritance rights, unlike
personal laws that may prioritize certain genders.
2. Protects individual autonomy: Empowering individuals to choose secular laws
enhances their freedom of conscience, safeguarded under Article 25.
o Eg: A petitioner like Safiya P.M. (2025) who rejects religious inheritance
norms can ensure her rights through secular statutes.
3. Reinforces secularism: By allowing individuals to opt for secular laws, the state
strengthens its commitment to the basic structure doctrine of secularism.
o Eg: The Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) upheld secularism as an essential
feature of the Constitution.

Balancing religious freedom and constitutional rights

1. Freedom of conscience: Article 25 ensures the right to believe or not believe,

enabling individuals to reject personal laws in favor of secular ones.
o Eg: The court in Shayara Bano v. Union of India (2017) ruled against
practices like instant triple talaq that violated individual rights.
2. Reasonable restrictions: Article 25 permits religious freedom, subject to public
order, morality, and health, justifying the need for secular alternatives in areas like
inheritance.
o Eg: This principle was applied in Bijoe Emmanuel v. State of Kerala (1986)
to protect individual conscience.
3. Gender equality under Article 15: Many personal laws, like Sharia inheritance
laws, discriminate against women, which secular statutes like the Indian Succession
Act can address.
o Eg: Women inherit only one-third of a property under Sharia law but are
entitled to equal shares under secular laws.
4. Judicial precedents for reform: Courts have expanded the scope of personal laws to
ensure they align with constitutional values.
o Eg: Vineeta Sharma v. Rakesh Sharma (2020) upheld daughters’ rights to
Hindu joint family property.

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 5. Administrative reforms: The adoption of secular inheritance laws requires
provisions in official forms for individuals to declare "no religion" or "secular
choice."
o Eg: The judiciary may recommend changes similar to those suggested in
Safiya P.M.’s petition (2025).

Implications for personal laws in India

1. Uniformity in inheritance laws: Secular laws promote uniformity, reducing

disparities across communities.
o Eg: Article 44’s Uniform Civil Code (UCC) envisions a legal framework
applicable to all citizens.
2. Challenges to traditional norms: Religious groups may resist reforms as
interference in faith-based practices, complicating implementation.
3. Social justice for vulnerable groups: Secular laws ensure equitable inheritance
rights for marginalized sections, including women and non-believers.
o Eg: Petitioners like Safiya P.M. seek secular laws to ensure equitable property
division despite religious constraints.
4. Judicial role in reform: Courts need to actively interpret personal laws in alignment
with constitutional values to fill legislative gaps.
o Eg: Judicial activism in cases like Daniel Latifi v. Union of India (2001)
upheld fair treatment under the Muslim Women Act.
5. Strengthening secularism: Adoption of secular laws reinforces the secular character
of the state, ensuring fairness and inclusivity in civil rights.

Conclusion

Allowing individuals to choose secular inheritance laws aligns with constitutional values of
equality, gender justice, and secularism. Legislative reforms, coupled with judicial
oversight and administrative changes, can bridge gaps in personal laws and uphold the rights
of citizens, ensuring a more inclusive and equitable legal framework

11
Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues
and challenges pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of
powers and finances up to local levels and challenges therein.
Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal
mechanisms and institutions.
Q. “The independence of the judiciary is the cornerstone of a vibrant
democracy”. Evaluate the factors impacting judicial autonomy in India and
suggest measures to restore public confidence in the justice delivery system. (15
M)

Introduction

An independent judiciary is fundamental to a vibrant democracy as it ensures impartial

justice, checks and balances, and the protection of constitutional rights. It upholds the
rule of law and acts as a safeguard against the arbitrary use of power by the executive and
legislature.

Body

The independence of the judiciary as the cornerstone of a vibrant democracy

1. Upholding constitutional supremacy: The judiciary ensures that all laws and actions
comply with the Constitution, maintaining democratic integrity.
o Eg: In the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973), the Supreme Court upheld the
basic structure doctrine, reinforcing judicial independence.
2. Ensuring checks and balances: It acts as a check on the executive and legislature,
preventing overreach and protecting citizens' rights.
o Eg: In the Maneka Gandhi case (1978), the court expanded the interpretation
of Article 21 to safeguard personal liberty.
3. Protection of fundamental rights: The judiciary acts as the guardian of fundamental
rights, ensuring equal treatment and justice for all.
o Eg: The Navtej Singh Johar case (2018) decriminalized homosexuality,
strengthening personal freedoms.
4. Dispute resolution and public trust: A fair and impartial judiciary fosters public
confidence, ensuring disputes are resolved without bias.
o Eg: The Supreme Court's intervention in the Ayodhya verdict (2019) was
crucial in maintaining social harmony.
5. Promoting democratic values: Judicial decisions reinforce democratic values such
as secularism, equality, and justice, contributing to societal progress.
o Eg: The Supreme Court’s ruling in the Shayara Bano case (2017) abolished
instant triple talaq, ensuring gender justice.

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Factors impacting judicial autonomy in India

1. Executive interference: Excessive influence by the executive in judicial

appointments and transfers affects impartiality.
o Eg: The controversy surrounding the delay in judicial appointments despite
recommendations by the Collegium system (2024).
2. Lack of transparency in appointments: The opaque Collegium system has raised
concerns about favouritism and lack of accountability.
o Eg: The National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) was struck
down by the Supreme Court in 2015, citing judicial independence concerns.
3. Judicial overburden and pendency: A massive backlog of cases limits the
judiciary’s effectiveness, impacting public trust.
o Eg: As per National Judicial Data Grid (2024), over 4.5 crore cases are
pending across all courts in India.
4. Political pressures and populist influences: Courts sometimes face indirect political
pressures in sensitive cases, affecting their neutrality.
o Eg: The delay in adjudicating politically sensitive cases such as electoral
bond transparency (2023).
5. Inadequate infrastructure and resources: Poor court infrastructure, lack of
technological advancement, and manpower shortages hinder judicial efficiency.
o Eg: The Justice B.N. Srikrishna Committee (2019) highlighted the need for
financial autonomy and better resource allocation in courts.

Measures to restore public confidence in the justice delivery system

1. Judicial accountability and transparency: Implementing a structured mechanism to

ensure transparency in appointments and judicial conduct.
o Eg: The Law Commission of India recommended a Judicial Standards and
Accountability Bill to regulate judicial ethics.
2. Strengthening the appointment process: A reformed NJAC-like mechanism with a
balanced role for judiciary, executive, and civil society to ensure merit-based
appointments.
o Eg: The 2nd ARC Report recommended a more inclusive and transparent
judicial appointment process.
3. Reducing judicial backlog: Expediting case disposal through alternate dispute
resolution (ADR) mechanisms and digitization of court processes.
o Eg: The government’s E-Courts Project Phase III (2023) aims to enhance
digitization and ease access to justice.
4. Ensuring financial independence: Granting financial autonomy to the judiciary to
enable better management of resources without executive dependence.
o Eg: Recommendations of the 14th Finance Commission suggested greater
budgetary allocation to improve judicial efficiency.
5. Strengthening lower judiciary: Enhancing training, infrastructure, and recruitment
processes at the district and subordinate court levels to improve judicial efficiency.

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 o Eg: The All India Judicial Service (AIJS) proposal aims to create a merit-
based selection system for lower judiciary appointments.

Conclusion

Judicial independence is the bedrock of democracy, ensuring fair governance and citizen
rights. Strengthening institutional frameworks through reforms, transparency, and
resource augmentation is essential to restoring public faith in the judiciary and reinforcing
democratic values.

Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other

countries.
Parliament and State legislatures—structure, functioning,
conduct of business, powers & privileges and issues arising out of
these.
Q. “Hate speech against women in politics erodes their representation and
participation in democracy”. Analyze its impact and propose actionable solutions
to combat this challenge. (15 M)

Introduction

Hate speech targeting women in politics reflects deep-rooted gender biases, creating a
hostile environment that deters their participation in public life. This undermines both gender
equality and the democratic principle of inclusive representation, eroding trust in
institutions and leadership.

Body

Hate speech against women in politics and its effects on democracy

1. Discourages political participation: Persistent abuse creates a hostile political

environment, deterring women from entering politics.
o Eg: Amnesty International report (2022) highlights that Indian women
politicians receive, on average, 113 abusive tweets daily.
2. Reinforces gender stereotypes: Misogynistic remarks question women’s competence
and leadership, perpetuating patriarchal norms.
o Eg: Remarks like “dented-painted protestors” (2012) trivialized women’s
participation in political protests.
3. Erodes leadership credibility: Hate speech delegitimizes women leaders,
undermining their public image and decision-making authority.

14
 o Eg: Ramesh Bidhuri’s remarks on Atishi Marlena demeaned her
professional standing and credibility.
4. Undermines inclusive democracy: By excluding women, hate speech reduces
diversity and equity in political representation.
o Eg: Despite electoral progress, women’s representation in the 17th Lok
Sabha stands at only 14.94% (2024 Election Commission data).
5. Increases vulnerability to violence: Online and offline threats escalate to physical
violence, making women feel unsafe in public roles.
o Eg: The Kathua rape case-related hate speech (2018) targeted women
activists with threats of violence.

Impact on democracy

1. Weakens democratic debate: Hate speech shifts political discourse from policy
issues to personal attacks, trivializing governance discussions.
o Eg: 2022 UP Assembly elections saw debates dominated by misogynistic
remarks rather than developmental issues.
2. Reduces diversity in policymaking: Fewer women in politics limit diverse
perspectives, especially on social and gender-sensitive issues.
o Eg: Increased women’s representation in Panchayati Raj Institutions led to
better focus on education and sanitation (World Bank report, 2021).
3. Normalizes intolerance: The absence of accountability for hate speech creates
societal acceptance of discrimination.
o Eg: Institutional inaction on misogynistic comments like “temptress”
remarks during election rallies emboldens offenders.
4. Undermines electoral fairness: Hate speech disrupts free and fair elections,
especially by influencing public perception of female candidates.
o Eg: Character assassinations during the 2019 Indian general elections
highlighted systemic gender biases.
5. Erodes trust in institutions: Public perception of institutional silence on hate speech
reduces confidence in their impartiality.
o Eg: Criticism of lack of strict action on misogynistic online abuse by the
NCW (2023) reflects gaps in institutional response.

Actionable solutions

1. Strengthening legal provisions: Amend laws like the Indian Penal Code to include
gender-specific hate speech provisions.
o Eg: Implement the 267th Law Commission Report (2017) to criminalize hate
speech based on gender and sexual identity.
2. Enforcing party-level accountability: Mandate political parties to penalize
candidates for hate speech during campaigns.
o Eg: Norway’s model of party-led disciplinary mechanisms ensures
accountability for gender-based hate speech.

15
 3. Regulating digital platforms: Collaborate with tech companies to implement AI-
driven tools for detecting and moderating hate speech.
o Eg: Twitter’s updated moderation policies (2023) have shown success in
curbing abusive language online.
4. Public awareness campaigns: Educate citizens about the societal harms of
misogynistic hate speech through mass media initiatives.
o Eg: Google’s #SheLeads campaign encourages gender-sensitive online
behavior and counteracts abuse.
5. Empowering women politicians: Provide legal, technical, and emotional support to
women leaders to combat hate speech.
o Eg: UN Women’s capacity-building workshops include strategies for
managing online abuse and advocating gender equity.

Conclusion

Hate speech against women in politics undermines democracy, inclusivity, and governance.
A holistic approach combining legal, institutional, and societal efforts is essential to protect
women leaders and uphold the ideals of democratic participation.

Q. “A structured Parliamentary calendar is vital to strengthen democracy and

legislative oversight”. Discuss the merits and challenges of implementing an
annual schedule for the Indian Parliament. (15 M)

Introduction
A predictable parliamentary calendar is crucial for ensuring legislative efficiency,
accountability, and public trust in a democracy. With the declining number of sittings,
institutionalizing a structured schedule can enhance oversight and policy scrutiny.

Body

Structured parliamentary calendar strengthens democracy and legislative oversight

1. Enhanced accountability: A fixed schedule allows MPs to plan better, scrutinize

government actions, and ensure regular questioning of the executive.
o Eg: The decline in Parliament sittings from 125 days in the 1950s to around
60 days now (PRS Legislative Research, 2023) has weakened government
accountability.
2. Effective legislative scrutiny: A structured calendar ensures bills undergo thorough
examination rather than being rushed through limited sittings.
o Eg: The Farm Laws (2020) were passed without adequate discussion, leading
to widespread protests and eventual repeal.
3. Strengthening parliamentary committees: A predictable schedule allows
committees to meet consistently and perform in-depth analysis of policies.

16
 o Eg: The Standing Committee on Defence (2021) flagged underutilization
of funds, citing lack of legislative oversight.
4. Boosting public engagement: Citizens can anticipate and participate in democratic
processes better with a known legislative calendar.
o Eg: Increased viewership of Sansad TV has shown greater public interest in
parliamentary debates.
5. Resource optimization: Ministries and stakeholders can align their inputs efficiently,
improving governance and policy outcomes.
o Eg: The Ministry of Finance can better prepare for pre-budget discussions,
ensuring a more responsive fiscal policy.

Merits of implementing an annual parliamentary calendar

1. Improved legislative quality: More preparation time enables MPs to study bills,
consult stakeholders, and provide well-informed inputs.
o Eg: The Data Protection Bill, 2023, was re-drafted multiple times due to
feedback from stakeholders and MPs.
2. Balanced workload: Distribution of business across the year prevents last-minute
rushes and enhances policy focus.
o Eg: In 2023, the Monsoon Session passed 20 bills in 10 days, raising
concerns over superficial scrutiny.
3. Alignment with fiscal cycles: A fixed schedule allows better alignment with budget
cycles, ensuring deeper scrutiny of government expenditures.
o Eg: The CAG reports can be discussed more comprehensively, improving
financial accountability.
4. Timely debate on national issues: Dedicated time ensures regular debates on crucial
issues like climate change, healthcare, and economic reforms.
o Eg: The COVID-19 crisis response was delayed due to irregular
parliamentary sittings.
5. Reduced disruptions: Predictability may reduce adjournments and walkouts,
fostering better legislative engagement.
o Eg: The lack of a pre-decided calendar led to disruptions during the 2022
Winter Session, affecting productivity.
6. Encourages constructive opposition: A structured schedule helps opposition parties
prepare better, ensuring meaningful debates rather than political posturing.
o Eg: The opposition had inadequate time to scrutinize the Citizenship
Amendment Act (2019) before its passage.
7. Harmonization with state legislatures: A fixed national schedule can help in better
synchronization with state legislative sessions.
o Eg: Many MPs are also state legislators, leading to scheduling conflicts.

Challenges in implementing an annual parliamentary calendar

17
 1. Flexibility issues: A rigid calendar may hinder the Parliament's ability to respond to
urgent national and global crises.
o Eg: The sudden enactment of emergency COVID-19 relief laws in 2020
required flexibility in session planning.
2. Political unwillingness: Governments may resist structured sittings to avoid
prolonged scrutiny and public debates.
o Eg: The opposition often accuses the ruling party of adjourning Parliament to
avoid discussions on sensitive issues such as price rise and unemployment.
3. Coordination challenges: Synchronizing the legislative agenda with government
policy decisions and committee schedules may prove difficult.
o Eg: The delay in presenting the Personal Data Protection Bill (2022) due to
policy recalibrations highlights this challenge.
4. Administrative feasibility: Logistical challenges in organizing multiple sessions,
including security, staff coordination, and infrastructure requirements.
o Eg: Security arrangements during the Winter Session 2023 strained
administrative resources.
5. Executive prerogative: Article 85 of the Constitution provides the executive
discretion to summon sessions, making legal enforcement of a fixed calendar
challenging.
o Eg: The President summons sessions on the advice of the Council of
Ministers, making it an executive prerogative.
6. Increased financial burden: More sittings could lead to higher operational costs and
administrative expenditures for Parliament.
o Eg: The budget allocation for Parliament infrastructure may need significant
enhancement.
7. Diverse legislative priorities: The varying nature of legislative demands across
different sectors may not align with a fixed schedule.
o Eg: Urgent issues such as natural disasters or geopolitical tensions require
dynamic legislative responses.

Conclusion
A structured parliamentary calendar can enhance governance, policy scrutiny, and democratic
accountability. However, its implementation should balance predictability with flexibility,
ensuring that Parliament remains responsive to evolving national needs while upholding its
constitutional responsibilities.

Q. Should India provide parliamentary representation to Non-Resident Indians

(NRIs) to address their unique concerns, or are existing institutional mechanisms
sufficient? (10 M)

Introduction
With over 32 million NRIs contributing to India’s economy and global influence, the
demand for parliamentary representation has gained momentum. However, such a move must
align with constitutional provisions and practical realities.

18
Body

Should India provide parliamentary representation to Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) to

address their unique concerns?

Arguments For Arguments Against

1. Democratic inclusion: NRIs
1. Constitutional challenge: Representation in
contribute significantly to India's
Parliament is based on territoriality under Article
economy and should have a say in
81, which excludes non-residents.
governance.
- Eg: NRIs contributed over $107 billion - Eg: In Mohinder Singh Gill vs. Chief Election
in remittances in 2022, the highest Commissioner the Supreme Court dealt with the
globally (World Bank). territorial principle for Rajya Sabha elections.
2. Diaspora engagement: 2. Dual allegiances: NRIs may have conflicting
Representation can enhance India's interests due to their citizenship in foreign
global outreach and soft power. countries.
- Eg: The Pravasi Bharatiya Divas - Eg: The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA)
helps connect NRIs with India's stated in 2024 that dual citizenship concerns pose
development goals. governance challenges.
3. Successful global models: Countries 3. Operational challenges: Conducting elections
like Italy and France provide legislative across multiple countries is logistically
seats to their diaspora. challenging.
- Eg: Italy reserves 12 seats in
- Eg: India has over 5 million NRIs in the Gulf
Parliament for overseas citizens under its
region, making electoral logistics complex.
1988 reform.
4. Protection of rights: NRIs face
4. Existing provisions: Government bodies such
property disputes, legal issues, and
as MEA and state NRI departments already
taxation problems needing legislative
address grievances.
backing.
- Eg: The Kerala government’s NORKA - Eg: The MADAD Portal of MEA provides
Roots resolves NRI property disputes. legal assistance and grievance redressal for NRIs.
5. Political engagement: Encourages 5. Voting rights exist: NRIs can vote in home
emotional and political connectivity with constituencies under the Representation of the
their homeland. People Act, 1950.
- Eg: NRI participation in Indian - Eg: In 2021, the Election Commission proposed
elections increased by 30% in 2019, e-postal ballots for NRIs to enhance
reflecting their interest. participation.

Are existing institutional mechanisms sufficient?

19
 Yes, they are sufficient No, they are not sufficient
1. Grievance redressal: Institutions like
1. Limited policy influence: NRIs lack a direct
the MEA and Indian embassies provide
say in shaping policies affecting their interests.
robust support to NRIs.
- Eg: Over 50,000 cases have been - Eg: The 2023 Standing Committee on External
resolved via the MADAD portal since Affairs recommended enhanced diaspora
2015. consultation.
2. Voting rights exist: NRIs can vote in 2. Geographical barriers: Many NRIs cannot
their native constituencies, ensuring travel to India to vote, limiting electoral
political participation. participation.
- Eg: The Representation of the People
- Eg: In 2019, only 25,000 NRIs exercised their
(Amendment) Act, 2010, granted voting
voting rights out of 1.1 million eligible voters.
rights to NRIs.
3. Dedicated NRI institutions: State- 3. Rising diaspora challenges: Increasing cases
level bodies cater to their unique concerns of fraud, exploitation, and passport issues require
and needs. legislative intervention.
- Eg: Punjab NRI Commission handles - Eg: NORKA in Kerala reported a 20%
cases related to fraud and land disputes. increase in legal disputes in 2024.
4. Diplomatic channels: Embassies and 4. Lack of legislative voice: Existing
missions regularly engage with the mechanisms focus on redressal but lack formal
diaspora to resolve issues. representation in policymaking.
- Eg: The Indian Embassy in UAE has an - Eg: Countries like France and Portugal allow
NRI helpdesk handling employment diaspora MPs to contribute to legislative
grievances. processes.
5. Economic contributions recognized: 5. Contribution deserves representation: NRIs
Government schemes and investment contribute significantly to the economy and
policies cater to NRIs. should have a voice in governance.
- Eg: The Indian government offers - Eg: In 2022, the UAE-based Indian Business
investment schemes such as NRE/FCNR Council requested NRI representation in
deposits for NRIs. economic policy forums.

Conclusion
Instead of direct parliamentary representation, India should focus on strengthening
institutional mechanisms, such as improving digital voting options, creating advisory
diaspora councils, and enhancing grievance redressal frameworks. A balanced approach
will ensure diaspora concerns are addressed while maintaining constitutional integrity.

20
Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the
Judiciary—Ministries and Departments of the Government;
pressure groups and formal/informal associations and their role
in the Polity.
Q. “India’s transition from Planning Commission to NITI Aayog reflects a shift
from centralized planning to cooperative federalism”. Evaluate the success and
shortcomings of NITI Aayog in fostering cooperative federalism. (15 M)

Introduction

The transition from the Planning Commission (1950-2014) to NITI Aayog (2015) signified
a paradigm shift from centralized, top-down planning to a participatory model of cooperative
federalism. This change aimed to empower states, foster competitive governance, and
enhance data-driven policymaking.

Body

India’s transition from Planning Commission to NITI Aayog

1. Increased state participation: Unlike the Planning Commission, NITI Aayog

integrates states into policymaking through its Governing Council, promoting a
collaborative approach.
o Eg: The Governing Council meetings involve Chief Ministers and
Lieutenant Governors to address national and state-level issues
collaboratively.
2. Focus on competitive federalism: Encourages healthy competition among states to
improve governance outcomes and foster innovation.
o Eg: Ease of Doing Business rankings incentivize states like Andhra
Pradesh and Gujarat to implement pro-investment policies.
3. Decentralized fiscal autonomy: The abolition of the Planning Commission's fund
allocation role has allowed states to prioritize their developmental needs.
o Eg: Post 14th Finance Commission, states’ share in central taxes increased
from 32% to 42%, giving them more fiscal flexibility.
4. Agility in planning: Transition to shorter planning cycles and outcome-based
governance enables dynamic responses to emerging challenges.
o Eg: Three-year action plans were introduced to replace rigid five-year plans,
ensuring adaptability to policy needs.
5. Knowledge-driven governance: Acts as a think tank, leveraging data and technology
to inform decision-making and policy formulation.
o Eg: India Innovation Index provides actionable insights for states to
strengthen innovation ecosystems.

Successes of NITI Aayog in fostering cooperative federalism

21
 1. Collaborative policymaking: Promotes joint ownership of policies by engaging
states in national initiatives.
o Eg: The formulation of the National Education Policy (2020) involved
consultations with all states and stakeholders.
2. Reducing regional disparities: Targets backward regions through initiatives like the
Aspirational Districts Programme, focusing on education, health, and
infrastructure.
o Eg: Dahod district in Gujarat saw a 30% improvement in institutional
deliveries due to this program.
3. Promoting competitive governance: Develops indices and rankings to motivate
states toward better performance and reforms.
o Eg: SDG Index (2023) highlighted Kerala as the top performer, encouraging
others to emulate its strategies.
4. Facilitating crisis response: Coordinates Centre-state actions during emergencies
like the COVID-19 pandemic.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s COVID-19 task force played a key role in managing
vaccine distribution and healthcare logistics.
5. Localized policy interventions: Customizes solutions to state-specific challenges
through focused programs.
o Eg: The SATH-Education initiative helped transform school education in
states like Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh.

Shortcomings of NITI Aayog in fostering cooperative federalism

1. Absence of financial authority: Lacks fund allocation powers, reducing its influence
on state-level development projects.
o Eg: States often disregard recommendations like the agriculture reforms
agenda, citing lack of financial incentives.
2. Over-centralization of planning: Concentration of financial planning in the Ministry
of Finance undermines the consultative spirit of cooperative federalism.
o Eg: Critics argue that the National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP) lacks
adequate state representation in its formulation.
3. Inadequate institutional capacity: Dependence on temporary consultants and lateral
hires weakens institutional memory and long-term vision.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s 26 verticals operate with limited permanent professional
staff, affecting policy depth and continuity.
4. Tokenistic state consultations: Allegations of insufficient engagement with states
undermine trust and ownership.
o Eg: The demands for special status by Andhra Pradesh remain unresolved
despite repeated consultations.
5. Gap in long-term vision: Absence of structured long-term plans hampers coherence
in achieving national goals.
o Eg: The promised 15-year vision document remains unpublished, reducing
clarity on India’s development roadmap.

22
 6. Limited impact in addressing inequalities: Despite initiatives, inter-state disparities
in income, healthcare, and education persist.
o Eg: Bihar and Uttar Pradesh continue to rank low on indices like SDG
performance, highlighting persistent regional imbalances.

Conclusion

NITI Aayog has contributed significantly to fostering cooperative and competitive

federalism through policy innovation and collaboration. However, addressing its
operational and structural limitations—such as enhancing financial authority, institutional
capacity, and long-term planning—will be vital to achieving India’s developmental
aspirations for 2047.

Q. Examine the evolving role of the Governor and Lieutenant Governor in

Indian polity. How does the perceived deviation from constitutional norms by
these offices affect democratic governance and the principles of federalism? (15
M)

Introduction

The offices of Governor and Lieutenant Governor (LG) were established under the
Constitution to act as neutral and apolitical constitutional authorities, ensuring federal balance
and supporting democratic governance. However, instances of perceived overreach or
partisanship have raised concerns about their role in fostering trust and harmony in Centre-
State relations.

Body

Evolving role of Governor and LG in Indian polity

1. Constitutional framework: Governors and LGs are mandated to act as bridges

between the Centre and the States/UTs, with their powers and functions enshrined in
Articles 154, 163, 164, 239, and 239AA.
o Eg: The Sarkaria Commission (1988) emphasized neutrality and suggested
that Governors be selected from outside active political circles.
2. Expanded discretionary powers: The use of discretionary powers, such as
withholding assent to bills or delaying Assembly sessions, has grown, often seen as
exceeding constitutional intent.
o Eg: In Tamil Nadu (2023), the Governor delayed assent to critical bills,
leading to political tensions.
3. Role in Union Territories: LGs in UTs like Delhi have significant executive powers,
often leading to friction with elected governments due to overlapping jurisdictions.
o Eg: The Government of NCT of Delhi v. Union of India (2018) judgment
clarified the limited discretionary powers of the LG.

23
 4. Shifts in political dynamics: With increasing political polarization, Governors are
often perceived as aligning with the ruling party at the Centre, impacting their
impartiality.
o Eg: Allegations of bias in handling political crises, such as in Maharashtra
(2022), have been widely debated.
5. Judicial interventions: Courts frequently step in to resolve disputes arising from
perceived deviations in the Governor’s role, leading to a constitutional burden.
o Eg: The Madras High Court (2023) had to intervene in the Governor’s delay
in acting on Assembly resolutions.

Impact of perceived deviation on democratic governance

1. Erosion of institutional neutrality: Alleged partisanship undermines the

constitutional authority of Governors and LGs, reducing public trust in these offices.
o Eg: The West Bengal Governor-CM conflicts (2022) exemplified this
erosion, impacting the state’s governance.
2. Disruption of legislative processes: Delays in assenting to bills or summoning
sessions hinder the functioning of elected governments.
o Eg: Delays in clearing the Kerala Lok Ayukta Amendment Bill (2023)
affected timely governance.
3. Undermining democratic values: Excessive intervention in state politics diminishes
the authority of elected governments, undermining the people's mandate.
o Eg: The Karnataka Speaker controversy (2023) showcased disruptions
caused by gubernatorial interventions.
4. Increased political polarization: The perceived bias of Governors fosters political
tension, making cooperative governance difficult.
o Eg: Frequent clashes between the LG and Delhi government have hindered
administrative efficiency.
5. Diminished federal spirit: Centralized control through Governors weakens federal
principles and collaborative policymaking.
o Eg: The Punjab Governor-CM disputes (2023) led to delays in critical
Centre-State cooperative programs.

Impact on federalism

1. Strained Centre-State relations: Persistent conflicts over gubernatorial actions

create mistrust and friction between the Centre and opposition-ruled States.
o Eg: The Rajasthan political crisis (2020) highlighted the challenges in
federal relations.
2. Weakened cooperative federalism: The perception of partisanship limits effective
collaboration between Centre and States, crucial for national development.
o Eg: Disputes in water-sharing agreements, like the Cauvery water issue,
reflect the lack of facilitation by Governors.

24
 3. Overlapping roles: The dual responsibility of LGs in Union Territories creates
administrative bottlenecks.
o Eg: Conflicts in Puducherry (2019) showcased the challenges in LG-CM
coordination.
4. Increased judicial dependency: Regular disputes involving Governors lead to over-
reliance on courts for conflict resolution, diverting judicial focus from core issues.
o Eg: Frequent petitions from state governments regarding gubernatorial
actions.
5. Partisan narratives in governance: Overreach fosters political narratives that may
overshadow developmental goals, disrupting federal objectives.
o Eg: The Manipur governance issues (2023) highlighted selective
gubernatorial attention.

Way Forward

1. Transparent appointment process: Implementing Punchhi Commission (2010)

recommendations for a consultative mechanism in Governor appointments to ensure
impartiality.
2. Codifying roles and responsibilities: Clearly defining the discretionary powers of
Governors and LGs to avoid ambiguities and reduce overreach.
3. Judicial review mechanism: Establishing a specialized body to address disputes
between Governors/LGs and state governments to reduce judicial burden.
4. Strengthening cooperative federalism: Encouraging dialogue-based mechanisms
like the Inter-State Council to resolve Centre-State conflicts amicably.
5. Ensuring accountability: Introducing regular performance reviews and public
disclosures of gubernatorial actions to uphold transparency and neutrality.

Conclusion

The role of Governors and LGs must align with the constitutional mandate to serve as
facilitators of democracy and custodians of federalism. Ensuring neutrality, accountability,
and collaborative governance will uphold the sanctity of these offices and strengthen India's
federal structure. Institutional reforms and adherence to constitutional norms are key to
restoring public trust.

Q. What are the constitutional and institutional mechanisms to ensure

accountability of judges in India? Analyze their effectiveness in dealing with
instances of controversial public remarks by judges. (15 M)

Introduction

Judicial accountability ensures that judges uphold constitutional values and maintain public
trust in the judiciary. However, instances of controversial remarks by judges expose gaps in
the effectiveness of current accountability mechanisms.

25
Body

Constitutional and institutional mechanisms for judicial accountability

1. Impeachment under Article 124(4): Provides for the removal of judges for proven
misbehavior or incapacity through a two-thirds majority in Parliament.
o Eg: Justice V. Ramaswami (1993) was the first judge against whom
impeachment proceedings were initiated, though it failed due to lack of
consensus.
2. In-house procedure: The judiciary’s internal mechanism allows senior judges to
investigate complaints against their peers.
o Eg: Justice P.D. Dinakaran was investigated for alleged corruption under this
mechanism, though he resigned before any conclusive action.
3. Supreme Court Collegium: Oversees appointments, transfers, and ethical conduct,
which includes counseling judges for inappropriate behavior.
o Eg: The Collegium counselled Justice Shekhar Yadav following his
controversial public remarks.
4. Restatement of Values of Judicial Life (1997): Serves as a code of conduct for
judges, ensuring their actions reflect dignity and impartiality.
o Eg: These values were cited when Justice C.S. Karnan was held guilty of
contempt by the Supreme Court in 2017.
5. Judicial privilege under law: Protects judges’ remarks during judicial functions,
safeguarding their independence but limiting external accountability.
o Eg: Remarks by judges during proceedings in the Babri Masjid-Ram
Janmabhoomi case were shielded from external scrutiny.

Effectiveness of these mechanisms

Successes:

1. Preserving judicial independence: Internal mechanisms prevent political

interference in judicial matters.
o Eg: In the Justice C.S. Karnan case, the judiciary acted independently to
hold him accountable for contempt of court.
2. Timely Collegium interventions: In cases of controversial conduct, the Collegium
has acted to mitigate damage to public trust.
o Eg: The Collegium intervened in Justice Shekhar Yadav’s case,
emphasizing the need for restraint in public remarks.
3. Prevention of external pressure: Mechanisms like in-house procedures uphold
judicial autonomy while addressing ethical breaches.
o Eg: The resignation of Justice Soumitra Sen in 2011 before impeachment
demonstrated judicial autonomy.

Challenges:

26
 1. Ineffectiveness of impeachment: High thresholds make impeachment rare and
politically influenced.
o Eg: The impeachment motion against Justice V. Ramaswami failed despite
evidence, as political differences influenced the outcome.
2. Opaque in-house procedures: Internal reviews often lack transparency, leading to
skepticism about fairness.
o Eg: In the Justice Dinakaran case, the lack of disclosure about the inquiry
created doubts about impartiality.
3. Limited enforceability of ethical codes: The Restatement of Values of Judicial
Life is advisory, not legally binding, limiting its impact.
o Eg: Despite ethical guidelines, remarks by judges like Justice Markandey
Katju have drawn criticism without accountability.
4. Insufficient focus on extra-judicial conduct: Mechanisms focus on judicial
performance, not non-judicial actions like controversial speeches.
o Eg: Justice Shekhar Yadav’s comments on Uniform Civil Code revealed the
lack of a robust framework for handling such actions.
5. Lack of independent oversight: Accountability largely depends on self-regulation,
which can appear biased or ineffective.
o Eg: In cases like Justice Arun Mishra’s praise of the executive, public
perception of bias weakened trust in judicial impartiality.

Way forward

1. Codify judicial ethics: Transform the Restatement of Values into enforceable

guidelines with clear consequences for violations.
o Eg: The Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct (adopted globally) could
serve as a model for India.
2. Enhance transparency in in-house mechanisms: Make inquiry outcomes public to
build trust, as done by the UK Judicial Conduct Investigations Office.
o Eg: UK’s transparency in reporting judicial complaints ensures public
confidence.
3. Establish an independent oversight body: Create a National Judicial
Accountability Commission with representation from judiciary, legislature, and civil
society.
o Eg: Canada’s Canadian Judicial Council handles complaints independently,
balancing independence with accountability.
4. Reform the impeachment process: Streamline procedures to make impeachment
less politicized and more efficient.
o Eg: The US Senate process for judicial impeachment ensures a clear and
impartial procedure.
5. Regular training for judges: Conduct workshops on constitutional ethics,
secularism, and the implications of public remarks to reinforce judicial impartiality.
o Eg: The National Judicial Academy can develop courses on public conduct
for judges.

27
 6. Strengthen Collegium transparency: Publish reasons for appointments, transfers,
and disciplinary actions to improve public confidence.
o Eg: The Supreme Court’s 2019 decision to publish Collegium resolutions is
a step toward greater transparency.

Conclusion

Existing mechanisms have upheld judicial independence but require reforms to address
contemporary challenges like extra-judicial conduct. Strengthening transparency,
codifying ethics, and introducing independent oversight will ensure accountability while
preserving judicial integrity and public trust.

Q. “Despite the constitutional provisions, the appointment of ad-hoc judges has

remained largely underutilized.” Analyze the reasons for this underutilization
and suggest reforms to enhance judicial capacity through this mechanism.

Introduction
The provision of Article 224A of the Constitution, which allows the appointment of retired
High Court judges on an ad-hoc basis, remains underutilized despite mounting judicial
pendency. Strengthening its implementation can help alleviate the burden on the judiciary
and improve access to justice.

Body

Underutilization of ad-hoc appointment provisions

1. Limited past implementation: Despite being a constitutional provision, ad-hoc

judges have been appointed only on rare occasions.
o Eg: Justice Suraj Bhan was appointed to the Madhya Pradesh High Court
in 1972 to hear election petitions, but no significant appointments followed.
2. Judicial reluctance: High Courts hesitate to invoke Article 224A, fearing it might be
viewed as a stopgap rather than a long-term solution.
o Eg: The Supreme Court's 2021 ruling emphasized its use only when regular
vacancies exceed 20%, discouraging frequent reliance.
3. Bureaucratic delays: The complex multi-tiered approval process delays timely
appointments.
o Eg: Approval requires the President’s consent, routing through the Chief
Minister, Union Law Minister, and Supreme Court collegium, leading to
prolonged delays.
4. Concerns over judicial independence: There is apprehension that frequent ad-hoc
appointments might compromise judicial impartiality.
o Eg: Former judges may face conflicts of interest, particularly if they
presided over politically sensitive cases earlier.

28
 5. Preference for arbitration and tribunals: Retired judges often opt for more
lucrative opportunities in tribunals and arbitration panels.
o Eg: The International Arbitration Market attracts many retired judges,
offering better remuneration and flexible working hours.

Reasons for underutilization

1. Lack of institutional framework: Absence of structured processes for monitoring

and evaluating the efficiency of ad-hoc judges.
o Eg: The 2021 Supreme Court guidelines recommended a panel of retired
judges, but implementation remains patchy across states.
2. Resistance from bar associations: Lawyers often resist temporary appointments,
fearing inconsistency in decision-making.
o Eg: Bar Councils in states like Uttar Pradesh have raised concerns about
disrupting the continuity of cases.
3. Ambiguity in tenure and jurisdiction: Unclear guidelines on duration and
responsibilities discourage potential candidates.
o Eg: Judges appointed under Article 224A lack clarity on the types of cases
they can preside over and the duration of their tenure.
4. Financial constraints: State governments often hesitate to allocate funds for
additional judicial appointments.
o Eg: In several states, budget constraints have limited infrastructure support
for newly appointed ad-hoc judges.
5. Political considerations: Delays in appointments due to potential political influence
or reluctance to appoint judges perceived to be unfavourable.
o Eg: Concerns of favouritism and bias have delayed appointments in
sensitive cases, as seen in high-profile corruption cases.

Reforms to enhance judicial capacity through ad-hoc appointments

1. Simplification of the appointment process: Streamlining procedures by reducing

bureaucratic delays and enhancing coordination among stakeholders.
o Eg: A dedicated nodal agency under the Supreme Court could oversee the
quick processing of such appointments.
2. Incentives for retired judges: Offering better financial packages and professional
benefits to attract qualified retired judges.
o Eg: Enhanced pension benefits and access to research support can
encourage participation.
3. Fixed tenure and structured responsibilities: Clearly defining the roles and
duration of service for ad-hoc judges.
o Eg: A standard tenure of 2-3 years with specific case categories to ensure
clarity and accountability.
4. Capacity-building initiatives: Training programs to familiarize retired judges with
the latest legal developments and digital courtroom procedures.

29
 o Eg: The National Judicial Academy can conduct refresher courses on
evolving legal frameworks.
5. Periodic review mechanism: Setting up committees to monitor and assess the impact
of ad-hoc appointments regularly.
o Eg: Judicial audit mechanisms can review their effectiveness in clearing
case backlogs annually.
6. Increased public awareness: Sensitizing stakeholders about the potential benefits of
utilizing ad-hoc judges to strengthen the justice delivery system.
o Eg: Public outreach initiatives through judicial conferences and legal
awareness programs.

Conclusion
Effective utilization of ad-hoc judges requires procedural reforms, better incentives, and
active engagement with stakeholders. If implemented efficiently, Article 224A can play a
significant role in ensuring access to timely justice and reducing the pendency of cases in
Indian courts.

Q. “The governance of higher education institutions should be free from political

influence to ensure academic excellence”. Discuss the challenges and possible
reforms in the context of the Governor's role as Chancellor. (15 M)

Introduction
Higher education institutions play a crucial role in fostering innovation, critical thinking,
and national development. However, political interference in their governance affects their
autonomy, quality, and credibility, necessitating reforms to safeguard academic excellence.

Body

Need for political neutrality in higher education governance

1. Academic autonomy: Political interference undermines the freedom of institutions to

frame their own policies and academic agenda.
o Eg: The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 emphasizes institutional
autonomy as a key pillar of academic excellence.
2. Merit-based leadership: Freeing governance from political influence ensures
appointments based on qualifications rather than political affiliations.
o Eg: The University Grants Commission (UGC) guidelines stress the
importance of merit in appointing Vice-Chancellors.
3. Research and innovation: An apolitical environment fosters independent research
and innovation without fear of ideological bias.
o Eg: Countries like Germany and the UK have independent university
governance models promoting innovation-driven research.
4. Global competitiveness: Politicization hinders global collaborations and rankings,
affecting India’s standing in higher education indices.

30
 o Eg: India ranks low in the QS World University Rankings, with a need for
improved governance practices.
5. Financial autonomy: Political interference often leads to fund misallocation and
delays, impacting infrastructure and research capabilities.
o Eg: Delays in fund disbursal under centrally-sponsored schemes due to
political conflicts between Center and State governments.

Challenges in the context of the Governor's role as Chancellor

1. Conflict with state governments: Governors, appointed by the Centre, often clash
with State governments on appointments and policy matters.
o Eg: Delays in the appointment of Vice-Chancellors in opposition-ruled States
such as West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.
2. Lack of accountability: Despite wielding significant powers, Governors are not
directly accountable to the public or State Legislatures.
o Eg: Governors' unilateral actions in universities without State consultation,
leading to administrative paralysis.
3. Bureaucratic inefficiencies: Lack of coordination between the Chancellor
(Governor) and State higher education departments creates inefficiencies.
o Eg: Redundant bureaucratic layers in implementing higher education
policies at the State level.
4. Political appointments: Governors often appoint individuals with political
affiliations rather than academic credentials, compromising quality.
o Eg: The Sarkaria Commission highlighted the politicization of the
Governor’s office in non-constitutional functions.
5. Erosion of federalism: Central control over State universities undermines the
principles of cooperative federalism and decentralization.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu and Kerala governments have introduced Bills to remove
the Governor as Chancellor, pending Presidential assent.

Possible reforms

1. Decentralized governance model: State universities should have greater autonomy

with eminent academicians as Chancellors instead of Governors.
o Eg: Telangana's model of appointing distinguished scholars as Chancellors.
2. Clear delineation of roles: Defining statutory and constitutional roles of Governors
to prevent overreach into university affairs.
o Eg: Recommendations of the M.M. Punchhi Commission (2010) on limiting
the Governor’s discretionary powers.
3. Strengthening legislative oversight: State university laws should mandate
legislative scrutiny of key appointments and regulations.
o Eg: The President’s role in Central universities involves parliamentary
oversight over university policies.

31
 4. Transparent appointment processes: Instituting independent selection committees
to ensure merit-based appointments.
o Eg: The National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution
(2002) advocated for a neutral appointment process.
5. Greater stakeholder participation: Enhancing the role of faculty, students, and
alumni in decision-making processes for improved governance.
o Eg: UK’s university councils involve student and faculty representation in
governance.

Conclusion
Ensuring the political neutrality of higher education governance requires structural reforms,
greater transparency, and stakeholder participation to foster academic excellence and
institutional integrity. Moving towards a decentralized and academic-driven governance
model can align India's higher education system with global best practices

Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act.

Q. “The narrowing gender gap in voter turnout is a sign of India's maturing
democracy”. Do you agree? Substantiate your view. (15 M)

Introduction

The narrowing gender gap in voter turnout in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections highlights India’s
progress in fostering inclusivity in its democratic processes. Yet, deeper analysis reveals both
the potential and limitations of this trend in achieving true democratic maturity.

Body

The narrowing gender gap as a sign of India’s maturing democracy

1. Increased voter awareness and participation: Higher female turnout demonstrates

increased political awareness and agency among women, challenging patriarchal
norms.
o Eg: In 2024, 15 out of 28 States and UTs, including Bihar, Jharkhand, and
Uttarakhand, reported higher female voter turnout than males.
2. Impact of women-centric welfare policies: Government initiatives targeting
women’s welfare have incentivized their political participation.
o Eg: Schemes like Ujjwala Yojana (LPG connections) and Jan Dhan Yojana
(financial inclusion) directly empowered over 200 million women, motivating
them to vote.
3. Enhanced voter outreach initiatives: The Election Commission’s campaigns have
bridged gender gaps, particularly in underrepresented regions.
o Eg: SVEEP programs in tribal areas of Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand saw
significant increases in women’s voter turnout during the 2024 elections.

32
 4. Judicial and constitutional mandates: Legal provisions like Article 325 ensure non-
discriminatory voter registration, fostering inclusivity.
o Eg: Judicial interventions like the Lily Thomas case (2013) strengthened
mechanisms for equitable participation.
5. Global alignment with democratic norms: India is progressing toward global trends
of gender parity in voter turnout, strengthening its democratic image.
o Eg: The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) data shows that countries with
higher female voter turnout also witness greater policy inclusivity.

Counterview: Factors limiting maturity in democracy

1. Low representation in legislatures: Higher female turnout has not translated into
proportional representation in legislative bodies.
o Eg: In 2024, women constituted only 13.6% of Lok Sabha MPs, compared
to the global average of 26.7% .
2. Structural distortions from migration: Male out-migration for work skews turnout
data, making high female turnout more a result of absenteeism than empowerment.
o Eg: States like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh face high out-migration, with
Bihar’s male turnout dropping significantly in 2024.
3. Cultural and urban disparities: Urban areas still see lower female participation due
to mobility and societal constraints.
o Eg: States like Gujarat and Maharashtra reported male-dominant turnout
patterns, reflecting urban gender disparities.
4. Lack of decision-making autonomy: Patriarchal norms continue to limit women’s
independent decision-making in voting.
o Eg: According to NFHS-5 (2020-21), nearly 40% of women in rural areas
lack autonomy in household decisions, including voting.
5. Policy gaps in inclusivity: Women with disabilities, migrant workers, and first-time
voters face systemic barriers in accessing electoral processes.
o Eg: Only 32% of polling booths in 2024 met full accessibility guidelines for
disabled voters, as per Election Commission data.

What needs to be done

1. Legislative reforms for representation: Implement 33% reservation for women in

legislatures to convert participation into representation.
o Eg: The Women’s Reservation Bill aims to ensure gender balance in
parliamentary representation.
2. Migration-sensitive voting mechanisms: Develop systems like remote voting or
proxy voting to ensure equitable participation.
o Eg: The Election Commission’s pilot on remote voting machines in 2024
shows promise for migrant inclusivity.
3. Targeted voter education campaigns: Focus on promoting autonomy and informed
decision-making among women.

33
 o Eg: SVEEP 2024 saw localized campaigns in tribal regions, increasing
women’s turnout significantly.
4. Socio-economic empowerment: Strengthen policies that address education, health,
and employment disparities for women.
o Eg: Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao combined with vocational training for
women can create long-term empowerment.
5. Enhanced electoral infrastructure: Improve voting facilities for marginalized
women, including those with disabilities and in remote areas.
o Eg: The EC’s Accessible Elections Guidelines 2024 aim to address these
barriers systematically.

Conclusion

While the narrowing gender gap in voter turnout signifies India’s democratic progress,
sustained efforts are essential to address structural inequalities and ensure that
increased participation leads to true representation and empowerment, thereby fulfilling the
ideals of a mature democracy.

Q. “The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) is a vital instrumentality for ensuring

free and fair elections”. Critically examine the implications of frequent MCC
imposition on governance and development. (15 M)

Introduction

The Model Code of Conduct (MCC), formulated by the Election Commission of India
(ECI), plays a crucial role in ensuring free, fair, and transparent elections by maintaining a
level playing field for all stakeholders.

Body

Model Code of Conduct (MCC) is a vital instrumentality for ensuring free and fair
elections

1. Ensures electoral fairness: Prevents misuse of government machinery by prohibiting

partisan use of resources.
o Eg: 2019 General Elections, actions against violations by political leaders for
misuse of public platforms.
2. Promotes transparency: Encourages ethical behavior by political parties and
candidates during campaigns.
o Eg: Social media guidelines issued by the ECI to regulate online campaign
practices.
3. Minimizes undue influence: Restricts announcement of new schemes, laying of
foundation stones, or other populist measures during elections.
o Eg: Stay on budgetary announcements during elections as seen in state
elections of 2022.
34
 4. Prevents hate speech: Curtails divisive rhetoric and hate speech during campaigns.
o Eg: Actions under MCC led to warnings against communal statements by
political leaders in Bihar Assembly Elections 2020.
5. Enhances voter confidence: Ensures that elections are conducted impartially,
strengthening public faith in democracy.
o Eg: Voter confidence survey by ADR 2023 highlighted MCC as a significant
factor for credible elections.

Implications of frequent MCC imposition on governance and development

On governance

1. Policy paralysis: Halts new policies or welfare scheme announcements, delaying

decision-making.
o Eg: Pending implementation of development projects in poll-bound states
like Karnataka (2023) due to MCC.
2. Administrative inefficiency: Diverts administrative personnel and resources to
election duties, reducing efficiency in core governance.
o Eg: Reports by CAG highlighted delays in ongoing projects due to manpower
reallocation.
3. Impact on service delivery: Routine government functions like healthcare or
education delivery may get disrupted.
o Eg: Postponement of state health campaigns in poll-bound Uttar Pradesh
(2022) due to MCC restrictions.
4. Budget implementation delays: Impacts execution of fiscal policies and disrupts
financial planning cycles.
o Eg: Delays in state budgets during elections in Punjab (2022).

On development

1. Stalled developmental projects: Prohibition of new project launches or

inaugurations hampers progress.
o Eg: Halt on major road infrastructure projects in Rajasthan (2023) during
elections.
2. Uncertainty in economic activities: MCC-induced delays may affect investor
sentiment and disrupt economic cycles.
o Eg: Industrial investments in Andhra Pradesh witnessed slowdown during
simultaneous local body and general elections.
3. Inequitable resource distribution: Ongoing schemes face scrutiny, delaying fund
releases in poll-bound areas.
o Eg: Allocation under PMAY-G scheme (2022) halted in certain districts
during elections.
4. Disruption in public engagement: MCC’s restrictions on government interactions
hinder responsiveness to citizen demands.

35
 o Eg: Denial of urgent municipal approvals in Delhi Municipal Elections 2022.

What can be done

1. Rationalizing MCC duration: Minimize the duration of MCC by streamlining the

election process.
o Eg: Law Commission recommendations (2018) advocate for staggered
elections within a fixed time frame.
2. Strengthening digital governance: Use technology to maintain essential service
delivery during MCC enforcement.
o Eg: Implementation of e-Governance platforms like UMANG to ensure
uninterrupted citizen services.
3. Differentiated approach: Allow ongoing developmental activities and essential
schemes with strict monitoring mechanisms.
o Eg: Standing Committee on Personnel and Public Grievances (2022)
recommended differentiated MCC rules for welfare programs.
4. Clear exemptions for critical sectors: Essential projects like healthcare, education,
and disaster management should have automatic exemptions under MCC.
o Eg: COVID-19 vaccination drive (2021) continued uninterrupted during
election periods.

Conclusion

While MCC ensures fairness in elections, its frequent imposition necessitates reforms to
minimize disruptions to governance and development. Balancing democratic integrity with
administrative efficiency is key to sustaining India’s democratic framework and
developmental trajectory.

Q. “Fake narratives and disinformation pose a significant threat to electoral

processes”. Discuss the strategies that Election Management Bodies can adopt to
counter the growing menace of misinformation in elections. (10 M)

Introduction
Fake narratives and disinformation weaken electoral democracy by manipulating public
perception, influencing voter behaviour, and undermining trust in institutions.

Body

Threats posed by fake narratives and disinformation to electoral processes

1. Erosion of public trust: False narratives create doubts about election integrity,
leading to reduced faith in democratic institutions.
o Eg: In the 2020 US Presidential elections, widespread disinformation
regarding mail-in ballots led to public distrust and protests (Source: Pew
Research, 2021).

36
 2. Voter suppression: Misinformation misguiding voters on election dates and
procedures results in reduced participation.
o Eg: During the 2019 Indian General Elections, fake WhatsApp messages
falsely claimed that voting machines were faulty, discouraging participation
(Source: ECI Report, 2020).
3. Incitement of electoral violence: Disinformation targeting communities can escalate
tensions and provoke violence.
o Eg: In the 2017 Kenyan elections, fake news spread on social media led to
violent clashes between ethnic groups (Source: UNDP, 2018).
4. Foreign interference: External actors manipulate electoral narratives to influence
outcomes and weaken democracies.
o Eg: Russia used social media disinformation to influence the 2016 US
elections, shaping voter perceptions (Source: US Intelligence Report, 2017).
5. Distortion of voter choices: Misleading content about candidates or parties can
misinform voters and polarize electorates.
o Eg: In the 2022 Brazilian elections, viral WhatsApp messages spread false
corruption allegations against candidates (Source: BBC, 2022).
6. Challenges to EMB credibility: Persistent disinformation undermines the neutrality
and effectiveness of electoral institutions.
o Eg: During the 2020 Bihar Assembly elections, fake news regarding EVM
tampering eroded public trust despite ECI clarifications (Source: ECI, 2021).

Strategies to counter the menace of misinformation

1. Strengthening legal frameworks: Enforcing stringent laws to combat

misinformation and penalize offenders.
o Eg: India’s IT Rules 2021 require social media platforms to take down
harmful election-related content within 36 hours (Source: MeitY).
2. Collaboration with social media platforms: Coordinating with platforms to identify
and remove false election-related content.
o Eg: During the 2019 Indian elections, ECI worked with Facebook and
Twitter to tackle viral fake news (Source: ECI Annual Report, 2020).
3. Voter education initiatives: Public awareness campaigns to help citizens recognize
and report fake news.
o Eg: The ‘Check the Facts’ campaign in Indonesia educated voters on
verifying election-related news (Source: Indonesian Election Commission).
4. Use of AI and data analytics: Leveraging AI to track and curb disinformation
campaigns before they spread.
o Eg: The EU used AI tools to monitor social media and detect misinformation
in the 2019 European Parliament elections (Source: European Commission).
5. Fact-checking units: Establishing dedicated EMB fact-checking teams to counter
false claims proactively.
o Eg: India’s PIB Fact Check Unit collaborates with ECI to debunk viral
election-related misinformation (Source: PIB, 2023).

37
 6. Rapid response helplines: Creating dedicated portals and helplines for citizens to
report election-related fake news.
o Eg: ECI’s cVIGIL app enables citizens to report fake news and violations in
real time (Source: ECI Annual Report, 2022).

Conclusion
Election Management Bodies must adopt a multi-dimensional strategy involving legal,
technological, and educational interventions to safeguard electoral integrity and enhance
public trust in democratic processes.

Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions

and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies.
Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.
Government policies and interventions for development in
various sectors and issues arising out of their design and
implementation.
Q. “The Right to Education Act focuses on inclusivity and the right to a fear-free
learning environment”. Critically analyze the current challenges in realizing
these provisions on the ground. (15 M)

Introduction

The Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009, is a landmark legislation aimed at promoting
inclusive education and a fear-free learning environment for children aged 6-14.
However, its effective realization is hindered by systemic and operational challenges.

Body

The Right to Education Act focuses on inclusivity and the right to a fear-free learning
environment

1. 25% reservation for weaker sections: Provides economically weaker sections

(EWS) and disadvantaged groups access to private schools.
o Eg: Bombay High Court (2024) struck down Maharashtra’s exemption for
private schools from providing RTE quota admissions as unconstitutional.
2. Prohibition of discrimination: Ensures no denial of admission based on caste,
gender, or disability.
o Eg: Section 9 of the Act mandates schools to admit children even without age
proof or other documentation.

38
 3. Child-friendly pedagogy: Promotes holistic learning through activities, exploration,
and discovery.
o Eg: Chapter V of the Act prescribes teaching in the mother tongue and
discourages rote learning.
4. Fear-free environment: Mandates a safe and supportive atmosphere free from
punishment or harassment.
o Eg: Section 17 prohibits corporal punishment and mental harassment, aiming
to reduce dropout rates.
5. Infrastructure inclusivity: Requires schools to ensure barrier-free access for children
with disabilities.
o Eg: As per the 2010 RTE Rules, all schools must provide ramps, assistive
devices, and inclusive seating arrangements.

Challenges in realizing these provisions

1. Inconsistent implementation of neighborhood schools: Poor establishment and

operational issues hinder accessibility.
o Eg: Karnataka RTE Report (2024) highlights the closure of 2,500
government schools in the past decade due to low enrollment.
2. Teacher shortages: High vacancies and lack of qualified teachers impact education
quality.
o Eg: According to the 2024 ASER Report, 30% of sanctioned teacher posts
remain vacant in government schools nationwide.
3. Complex application processes: Procedural hurdles and lack of awareness among
marginalized families.
o Eg: Chandrasekaran’s study in Tamil Nadu (2024) found 50% of
applications rejected due to minor technical errors like address mismatches.
4. Delayed reimbursements for private schools: Government delays discourage
private institutions from admitting EWS students.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu private schools (2024) reported pending reimbursements for
over two academic years.
5. Exclusionary amendments: Exemptions for religious institutions weaken the Act’s
universal applicability.
o Eg: The 2012 Amendment excluded madrasas and pathshalas from RTE
provisions under Articles 29 and 30.
6. Fear of detention policy: Amendments enabling detention in Classes 5 and 8 create
stress and increase dropouts.
o Eg: Delhi Government (2024) amended rules to detain low-performing
students, reducing promotion rates.

What can be done?

1. Strengthen neighbourhood schools: Address teacher shortages, enhance

infrastructure, and improve resource allocation.

39
 o Eg: Kerala’s government schools, which maintain high-quality infrastructure
and sufficient teachers, serve as a successful model.
2. Simplify admission processes: Use technology and awareness campaigns to reduce
procedural barriers.
o Eg: Maharashtra’s online RTE portal (2024) streamlined applications,
reducing rejection rates by 20%.
3. Ensure timely reimbursements: Establish strict timelines for compensating private
schools for EWS admissions.
o Eg: Budget 2024-25 increased RTE reimbursements by 15%, aiming to
resolve delays in states like Tamil Nadu.
4. Expand coverage to excluded institutions: Amend the Act to remove exemptions
for religious and other schools.
o Eg: The RTE Forum’s 2023 recommendations advocated universal
application of the Act to all educational institutions.
5. Enhance teacher training and quality: Focus on inclusive teaching methods and
professional development.
o Eg: NIPUN Bharat Mission (2021) prioritizes teacher capacity-building for
foundational learning.
6. Increase public awareness and community participation: Educate parents and
local bodies about RTE provisions.
o Eg: UNICEF’s awareness drive in Jharkhand (2023) led to a 30% rise in
EWS enrollments under RTE.

Conclusion

While the RTE Act has established a framework for equitable and inclusive education,
challenges in implementation persist. With robust reforms, accountability mechanisms,
and universal access, it can fulfill its promise of ensuring quality education for all children.

40
Development processes and the development industry —the role
of NGOs, SHGs, various groups and associations, donors,
charities, institutional and other stakeholders.
Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the
Centre and States and the performance of these schemes;
mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the
protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections.
Q. “India’s legal framework on medical negligence focuses more on punishment
than systemic reform, undermining patient safety”. Examine. (10 M)

Introduction

India’s approach to medical negligence prioritizes punitive measures over systemic reforms,
as reflected in Section 106 of the Bhartiya Nyaya Samhita (BNS), which focuses on
imprisonment and penalties. This undermines patient safety by discouraging transparency,
systemic learning, and preventive measures in healthcare.

Body

Punitive focus in India’s legal framework

1. Criminalization of professional lapses: Medical negligence is treated on par with

criminal acts, ignoring intent or systemic failures.
o Eg: Section 304A of the IPC and Section 106 of the BNS penalize
negligence with imprisonment, creating a fear-driven environment.
2. Judicial emphasis on deterrence: Courts often focus on assigning blame rather than
exploring systemic gaps.
o Eg: The Dr. Jacob Mathew v. State of Punjab (2005) judgment emphasized
restraint in criminal prosecution but did not emphasize systemic reform.
3. Neglect of root cause analysis: The absence of mechanisms like mandatory root
cause analysis (RCA) shifts the focus from learning to blame.
o Eg: The National Patient Safety Implementation Framework (2018-2025)
remains underfunded and poorly executed.
4. Underdeveloped patient safety infrastructure: Limited implementation of
initiatives like Kayakalp and NQAS reflects a lack of focus on building systemic
safeguards.
o Eg: The ICMR’s exclusion of patient safety in priority research areas
highlights systemic neglect.

41
 5. Insurance-based safety nets for doctors: Instead of systemic reforms, measures like
the PPLSSS by the Indian Medical Association focus on mitigating penalties for
doctors rather than preventing errors.

Impact on patient safety

1. Discourages reporting of medical errors: Fear of punishment prevents healthcare

professionals from reporting adverse events, hindering transparency.
o Eg: A study by the World Health Organization (2020) highlighted that
punitive environments lead to significant underreporting.
2. Failure to address systemic challenges: Issues like understaffing, poor
infrastructure, and inadequate training remain unaddressed, perpetuating errors.
o Eg: Rural hospitals face diagnostic delays due to resource constraints,
leading to unintended errors.
3. Erodes trust in healthcare: The punitive focus undermines the doctor-patient
relationship, reducing public trust in the healthcare system.
o Eg: Instances of mob violence against doctors have increased due to
perceived negligence.
4. Stifles innovation in care delivery: Fear of litigation limits experimentation and
adoption of new medical practices, impacting healthcare quality.
o Eg: Resistance to robotic surgeries due to concerns about accountability in
case of errors.
5. Overburdened legal system: The focus on litigation increases the judiciary’s
workload without resolving core patient safety issues.
o Eg: The Consumer Protection Act (CPA) sees thousands of pending medical
negligence cases, as per 2023 NCRB data.

What needs to be done

1. Implement mandatory root cause analysis (RCA): Introduce a legal mandate for
RCA in every case of medical error to identify systemic gaps and improve patient
safety.
o Eg: The United Kingdom’s NHS Patient Safety Framework mandates RCA
for adverse events.
2. Strengthen patient safety frameworks: Expand funding and integration for
initiatives like National Patient Safety Implementation Framework (2018–2025)
and include patient safety research in ICMR’s priority areas.
o Eg: Increase the adoption of Kayakalp and NQAS standards with rigorous
monitoring.
3. Establish cross-disciplinary expertise: Allow dual-professional qualifications
(medical and legal) to enable better adjudication of negligence cases and promote fair
justice.
o Eg: Revisit the Dr. Haniraj L. Chulani v. Bar Council of Maharashtra and
Goa (1996) judgment.

42
 4. Encourage a no-fault compensation system: Introduce a no-fault compensation
model where patients receive timely compensation without attributing personal
blame, promoting transparency in reporting errors.
o Eg: New Zealand’s Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) provides
compensation while focusing on systemic improvements.

Conclusion

India must shift its focus from punitive measures to systemic reforms, emphasizing root
cause analysis, patient safety frameworks, and dual-professional expertise. Moving forward,
adopting a preventive and learning-oriented model will ensure a safer and more transparent
healthcare system while restoring public trust.

Issues relating to development and management of Social

Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.
Q. Analyze the disparity in access to digital infrastructure between government
and private schools. Suggest measures to bridge this gap effectively. (10 M)

Introduction

The disparity in digital infrastructure between government and private schools reflects
systemic inequities in India’s education sector. While private schools have adapted to
technological advances, government schools often lack the resources to meet the demands
of digital learning, especially post-COVID-19.

Body

The disparity in access to digital infrastructure

1. Limited access to computers and Internet: A significant proportion of government

schools lack digital facilities, unlike private schools.
o Eg: Only 43.5% of government schools have functional computers compared
to 70.9% of private schools, as per UDISE+ 2024.
2. Urban-rural digital divide: Rural government schools are disproportionately
affected by poor Internet connectivity and inconsistent electricity supply.
o Eg: In Chhattisgarh, less than 20% of rural government schools have
Internet access, whereas most private schools in urban Raipur are fully
equipped.
3. Budgetary constraints: Government schools face funding gaps for ICT (Information
and Communication Technology) facilities, unlike private schools that rely on higher
fees.

43
 o Eg: The Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan allocated only ₹1,000 crore for ICT
infrastructure in 2024, insufficient to meet the needs of over 10 lakh
government schools.
4. Lack of assistive technologies: Government schools rarely cater to differently-abled
students, while private schools offer specialized tools.
o Eg: Only 30% of government schools have assistive technologies for
visually impaired students, as per the UNESCO Report, 2023, compared to
60% in private schools in states like Kerala.

Impact of the disparity

1. Learning outcome gaps: Private schools outperform government schools due to

better access to digital tools.
o Eg: ASER 2022 found that students in private schools scored 45% higher
in digital literacy tests than those in government schools.
2. Increased dropouts: Lack of access to online resources leads to disengagement and
dropouts, especially among marginalized students.
o Eg: In Odisha, dropout rates in government schools rose by 35% during
the pandemic, as online classes were inaccessible to most students.
3. Inequality in competitive opportunities: Government school students are
disadvantaged in tech-based assessments and career opportunities.
o Eg: Over 80% of students qualifying for coding competitions in 2024 came
from private schools with strong digital programs (Source: NITI Aayog).
4. Widening socio-economic divides: The digital disparity reinforces structural
inequalities, hindering upward mobility for students in government schools.
o Eg: Students in private schools in Delhi NCR access virtual labs, while
many government schools still lack basic computers.

Measures to bridge this gap effectively

1. Enhanced public investment: Increase funding for digital infrastructure under

programs like Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan to meet ICT needs.
o Eg: Kerala’s Hi-Tech School Project equipped 45,000 classrooms with
laptops, projectors, and high-speed Internet, significantly improving learning
outcomes.
2. Public-private partnerships (PPPs): Collaborate with private firms for resources,
expertise, and training.
o Eg: Microsoft’s Project Sangam partnered with the Andhra Pradesh
government to train 10,000 teachers in digital tools, benefiting over 1 lakh
students.
3. Broadband expansion for rural schools: Ensure high-speed Internet access under
the BharatNet project for all government schools.
o Eg: By 2024, 75,000 rural schools were connected to broadband through
BharatNet, enabling digital classrooms in remote areas.

44
 4. Inclusive digital policies: Provide assistive technologies for differently-abled
students and subsidized devices for underprivileged learners.
o Eg: Under the Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan, Tamil Nadu introduced braille-
enabled devices and screen readers in government schools for visually
impaired students.

Conclusion

Bridging the digital divide between government and private schools requires targeted
funding, innovative partnerships, and inclusive policies. A robust digital education
ecosystem can empower students across socio-economic strata, ensuring equitable access
to quality education in India.

Q. “Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is crucial to bridging the healthcare gaps

in rural India”. Critically analyze the role of PPPs in addressing healthcare
inequities and suggest measures to enhance their effectiveness. (15 M)

Introduction:
India’s rural healthcare faces a critical gap, with a shortage of 83% specialist doctors at
Community Health Centres (NITI Aayog, 2023). PPPs provide an opportunity to combine
public funding with private expertise to improve accessibility and quality.

Body

Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is crucial to bridging the healthcare gaps in rural

India

1. Improved healthcare infrastructure: PPPs enable the establishment of hospitals,

diagnostic centers, and clinics in underserved regions.
o Eg: The National Dialysis Program under PPP ensures affordable dialysis
services in district hospitals.
2. Affordable access to specialized care: Through subsidized private services, rural
populations gain access to specialized healthcare.
o Eg: Chiranjeevi Yojana (Gujarat) reduced maternal mortality by involving
private doctors in childbirth services.
3. Training and capacity building: PPPs train local healthcare workers, enhancing
rural healthcare delivery.
o Eg: Apollo Telehealth partnered with state governments to train healthcare
workers in telemedicine technology.

The role of PPPs in addressing healthcare inequities

Positive aspects:

45
 1. Efficient resource utilization: PPPs combine public funds with private sector
efficiency, ensuring cost-effective services.
o Eg: Maharashtra's Hirkani Project improved neonatal care in tribal regions
through private collaboration.
2. Expanded healthcare coverage: Private partnerships extend quality care to
previously inaccessible rural areas.
o Eg: Karuna Trust operates over 30 PHCs in Karnataka through PPP,
ensuring primary care access.
3. Reduction in out-of-pocket expenditure: Subsidized services in PPP models reduce
the financial burden on rural households.
o Eg: Health services under Ayushman Bharat in PPP hospitals have reduced
costs for beneficiaries.
4. Introduction of innovative solutions: PPPs bring in advanced technology and
innovation to address rural challenges.
o Eg: AI-driven diagnostics by Niramai Health Analytics (PPP with Karnataka
Govt.) detect breast cancer early.
5. Boost to public healthcare system: PPPs strengthen existing government
infrastructure by filling skill and resource gaps.
o Eg: Private sector-managed CT scan facilities in government hospitals across
Rajasthan.

Negative aspects

1. Profit-driven motives: Private entities often prioritize profitability over inclusivity

and service quality.
o Eg: Overcharging under PPP hospitals in Rajasthan highlighted by CAG
Report (2021).
2. Limited rural focus: Private investments tend to favor semi-urban areas, neglecting
remote and tribal regions.
o Eg: NITI Aayog (2022) reported low PPP penetration in northeastern states.
3. Accountability concerns: Weak monitoring systems allow deviations from service
agreements.
o Eg: Poor management in PPP-run PHCs in Madhya Pradesh, flagged by
local audits (2020).
4. Unequal partnerships: Private dominance often marginalizes public objectives,
leading to inequities.
o Eg: Limited public oversight in the Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana
(RSBY) implementation.
5. Affordability issues: Costs of advanced diagnostics and procedures under PPPs can
still be unaffordable for marginalized communities.
o Eg: High costs reported for PPP dialysis services in Odisha (2021).

Measures to enhance the effectiveness of PPPs

46
 1. Robust monitoring mechanisms: Establish clear accountability frameworks and
regular audits.
o Eg: Adopt a performance-based funding model, similar to UK's NHS
PPPs.
2. Incentivizing rural focus: Provide tax breaks and subsidies to encourage private
investment in underserved regions.
o Eg: Tax incentives under National Health Policy (2017) for rural healthcare
investments.
3. Affordability through regulation: Cap prices for services and drugs provided under
PPP schemes.
o Eg: Implement Ayushman Bharat pricing ceilings in all PPP healthcare
facilities.
4. Capacity building of rural healthcare workers: Train mid-level healthcare
providers and paramedics to support PPP initiatives.
o Eg: Bridge Program in Healthcare (2023) for rural nurses in PPP-operated
PHCs.
5. Leverage technology: Promote AI, telemedicine, and digital health records to
improve efficiency.
o Eg: Scale up the National Digital Health Mission, integrating private
providers.

Conclusion
Public-Private Partnerships, when aligned with equity and inclusivity, can be transformative
for India’s rural healthcare. By addressing governance gaps, expanding rural outreach, and
leveraging technology, PPPs can fulfill the National Health Policy (2017) vision of
universal healthcare for all by 2030.

Q. “Brain drain versus brain circulation is a defining challenge for emerging

economies”. Discuss the socio-economic implications of India's brain drain and
suggest policy measures to retain and attract talent. (15 M)

Introduction

The migration of skilled professionals, often termed brain drain, limits the potential of
emerging economies to harness local talent. However, brain circulation, where professionals
return with global expertise and capital, offers a pathway to economic transformation.

Body

Brain drain versus brain circulation as a defining challenge

1. Loss of intellectual capital: Emerging economies lose their brightest minds to

developed nations offering better opportunities.

47
 o Eg: Over 5,60,000 skilled Indians migrated to OECD countries in 2022
(International Migration Outlook, 2022).
2. Global competition for talent: Developed nations, such as the U.S. and Canada,
attract top talent with high salaries, research opportunities, and quality living
conditions.
o Eg: Canada granted 2,26,000 permanent residencies to Indians in the past
decade.
3. Brain circulation advantage: Nations like China experience a return of emigrants
with capital and expertise, boosting innovation.
o Eg: China's Shenzhen region witnessed a surge in returnees contributing to
quantum computing advancements (Michio Kaku, 2024).

Socio-economic implications of India’s brain drain

1. Loss of innovation and patents: The outflow of skilled talent reduces India’s ability
to contribute to original ideas and global patents.
o Eg: India files fewer patents per capita compared to nations like South Korea
and the U.S. (World Intellectual Property Organization, 2023).
2. Dependence on remittances: While remittances boost foreign reserves, they cannot
substitute the innovation-driven economy lost due to brain drain.
o Eg: India received $100 billion in remittances in 2022, the highest globally
(World Bank, 2022).
3. Imbalance in workforce quality: The exodus of skilled professionals leads to a
domestic talent gap, especially in advanced fields like AI and biotechnology.
o Eg: India faces a shortage of 1.5 million AI professionals, according to the
NASSCOM Report, 2024.
4. Widening inequality: Regions with higher migration rates, like Kerala, benefit from
remittances, while others lag in economic gains.
o Eg: Over 2 million Malayalis work in the Gulf, creating disparities in
regional development (Economic Survey of Kerala, 2023).
5. Impact on research and academia: Top researchers migrating abroad weakens
India's global academic standing and innovation capabilities.
o Eg: Over 50% of IIT graduates settle abroad, contributing to foreign
institutions.

Policy measures to retain and attract talent

1. Improved research funding: Increase funding for R&D, creating opportunities for
innovation.
o Eg: Establish national innovation hubs similar to China’s Zhongguancun
Science Park to boost local entrepreneurship.
2. Tax and regulatory incentives: Offer tax breaks and simplified regulations to attract
start-ups and entrepreneurs.

48
 o Eg: The Startup India Initiative has incentivized over 80,000 registered
startups (Ministry of Commerce, 2023).
3. Quality of life improvements: Enhance urban infrastructure, healthcare, and housing
to retain skilled professionals.
o Eg: Programs like Smart Cities Mission must integrate work-life balance
initiatives for professionals.
4. Global collaboration opportunities: Foster collaborations between Indian
institutions and global universities to enable talent exchange.
o Eg: The GIAN Initiative facilitates academic exchanges with leading global
faculty.
5. Reintegration schemes: Introduce policies to encourage expatriates to return with
expertise and investments.
o Eg: China's Thousand Talents Plan has attracted 7,000+ expatriates with
global experience.
6. Focus on innovation-driven education: Modernize higher education to align with
global standards and reduce the urge to migrate for studies.
o Eg: Reform engineering curricula to match MIT and Stanford-level
research opportunities.

Conclusion

Addressing the challenge of brain drain requires a shift from remittance dependency to
creating a knowledge and innovation-based economy. By fostering policies that attract,
retain, and circulate talent, India can ensure sustainable growth and global competitiveness

Q. “A robust industry-academia collaboration is critical for addressing the

employability challenges of Indian graduates”. Discuss in light of the UGC’s
recent skill-oriented education initiatives. (15 M)

Introduction

India, with its youth population of over 600 million, faces an employability challenge, as
only 51.25% of graduates are deemed employable (Economic Survey 2023-24).
Strengthening industry-academia collaboration can bridge this gap, aligning education with
the dynamic needs of the job market.

Body

Industry-academia collaboration is critical for employability

1. Skill alignment with market needs: Industry partnerships ensure curricula are
relevant to the skills demanded by employers.
o Eg: Collaboration with TCS and Infosys has enhanced IT skills in
universities.

49
 2. Real-time application of knowledge: Internships, live projects, and apprenticeships
expose students to practical challenges.
o Eg: AICTE’s internship portal facilitates industry placements for engineering
students.
3. Promoting innovation and entrepreneurship: Joint research initiatives foster a
culture of innovation among students.
o Eg: The Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) has promoted industry-driven start-
ups from HEIs.
4. Reducing skill gaps: Regular interaction with industry experts helps in identifying
gaps and upgrading academic programs.
o Eg: Partnerships under NEP 2020 have initiated curriculum overhauls for
emerging fields like AI and green energy.
5. Global employability: Collaborations with multinational corporations prepare
graduates for global standards.
o Eg: Wheebox India Skills Report 2025 highlighted India’s growing global
talent pool in technology and healthcare.

UGC’s recent skill-oriented education initiatives

1. Skill-based programs in HEIs: Introduction of modular and multidisciplinary

courses focusing on industry-relevant skills.
o Eg: Skill-oriented certificates and diplomas launched in fields like renewable
energy and data science.
2. Micro-credentials for niche expertise: Short, stackable courses allow targeted
learning for specific skills.
o Eg: UGC’s guidelines propose credit-based modular certifications aligned
with industry needs.
3. Industry collaboration for curricula design: Courses co-created with industry to
ensure alignment with job market requirements.
o Eg: Tie-ups with Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) for advanced
manufacturing programs.
4. Internships and apprenticeships: Focus on experiential learning through industry-
linked opportunities.
o Eg: AICTE's apprenticeship initiative connects HEI students with over 500+
companies.
5. Credit-based lifelong learning: Flexible credit systems enable working professionals
to upskill.
o Eg: Integration with NEP 2020’s Academic Bank of Credits (ABC) for skill
enhancement.

Pros and cons of UGC’s initiatives

50
 Pros Cons
1. Increased employability: Industry-
relevant skills prepare graduates for diverse 1. Lack of trained faculty: Educators often
sectors. lack the industry exposure needed to impart
Eg: IT and healthcare graduates reported practical skills.
higher employability indices (Wheebox, Eg: Rural HEIs face acute faculty skill gaps.
2025).
2. Lifelong learning opportunities: Micro- 2. Infrastructure challenges: Many HEIs
credentials encourage professionals to lack modern labs and facilities for hands-on
upskill. learning.
Eg: Credit-based certifications in data Eg: Semi-urban institutions struggle with
analytics are in high demand. outdated equipment.
3. Multidisciplinary approach: Integration
of skills across disciplines enhances 3. Unequal access: Rural and marginalized
adaptability. students face barriers to participation in high-
Eg: Renewable energy courses blend cost programs.
engineering and management skills.
4. Industry involvement: Collaborative
design ensures alignment with emerging 4. Resistance to change: Traditional
technologies. universities may resist shifting from theory-
Eg: AICTE collaborations with tech heavy curricula to skill-based systems.
companies for robotics courses.
5. Global competitiveness: Enhanced
employability positions Indian graduates for 5. Rapid obsolescence: Fast-changing
international opportunities. technologies may render some skill courses
Eg: Indian tech talent is increasingly outdated.
absorbed by Gulf and EU nations.

Conclusion

To achieve global workforce integration by 2035, India must prioritize industry-academia

collaboration, strengthen faculty training, and improve infrastructure. A dynamic
curriculum, equitable access, and sustained investments will transform India’s graduates
into globally competitive professionals, realizing the true potential of the demographic
dividend.

Q. “A holistic approach is essential to address the ecology of trauma surrounding

survivors of sexual violence”. Examine the need for inclusive mental health
interventions. (10 M)

Introduction

51
Sexual violence impacts survivors at multiple levels—psychological, social, and systemic.
Addressing the “ecology of trauma” requires a holistic and inclusive approach that caters to
the survivor's immediate and long-term needs while addressing societal and institutional
barriers.

Body

Holistic approach is essential to address trauma surrounding survivors of sexual

violence

1. Interpersonal trauma and support systems: Survivors require support to rebuild

trust and relationships, often disrupted by the trauma.
o Eg: National Mental Health Survey (2015-16) highlighted the role of family
support in trauma recovery.
2. Community engagement: Trauma interventions must include sensitizing
communities to reduce stigma and encourage survivors to seek help.
o Eg: Tulir NGO works on raising awareness about child sexual abuse to create
safe community spaces.
3. Institutional sensitivity: Police, healthcare, and judicial systems must adopt trauma-
informed approaches to reduce secondary victimization.
o Eg: The Justice Verma Committee (2013) emphasized reforms in police
behavior towards sexual assault survivors.
4. Cultural and context-specific interventions: Addressing unique cultural and social
barriers faced by survivors is critical to fostering recovery.
o Eg: In rural India, survivors face ostracism, necessitating community
reintegration programs tailored to local contexts.

The need for inclusive mental health interventions

1. Access to trauma-informed care: Survivors need mental health professionals trained

in rape trauma syndrome and PTSD.
o Eg: Chennai’s Sneha NGO provides trauma-informed therapy to survivors of
sexual violence.
2. Intersectionality in care: Inclusive policies must address the needs of marginalized
groups like Dalits, LGBTQ+ persons, and children.
o Eg: The POCSO Act (2012) ensures child-specific protections, though
implementation gaps persist.
3. Integrated helplines and outreach: A national helpline offering psychological
support can provide immediate intervention.
o Eg: Similar to Cyber Crime Helpline, a dedicated sexual violence counseling
helpline can aid survivors.
4. Public-private partnerships (PPPs): Collaborations with NGOs and private entities
can scale counseling services and awareness programs.

52
 o Eg: The One-Stop Centre Scheme (2015), run by the government,
coordinates with NGOs for survivor assistance.
5. Long-term rehabilitation programs: Mental health interventions must extend
beyond immediate care to long-term support for recovery.
o Eg: Psychotherapy for PTSD survivors often requires years of follow-up care
for full rehabilitation.
6. Integration with legal and social services: Counselling must complement legal aid
and vocational training to ensure holistic recovery.
o Eg: The Nirbhaya Fund supports such integrative survivor services but
requires enhanced implementation.

Conclusion

A trauma-informed, inclusive mental health framework is not only critical for survivors’
recovery but also essential for creating a society where survivors feel safe and
empowered. Building this framework demands sustained collaboration across stakeholders,
backed by robust institutional reforms.

Q. To what extent has the National Health Mission contributed to India's

achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) related to health?
Illustrate with examples. (10 M)

Introduction

The National Health Mission (NHM) has significantly contributed to India's health-related
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG-3) by improving healthcare accessibility, reducing
mortality rates, and addressing communicable and non-communicable diseases through
targeted interventions.

Body

Success of NHM in Achieving SDGs

1. Reduction in maternal and child mortality: NHM initiatives have helped in

reducing Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) and Under-5 Mortality Rate (U5MR).
o Eg: MMR declined from 130 (2014-16) to 97 (2018-20) per lakh live births
(Source: Sample Registration System).
2. Expansion of healthcare workforce: NHM facilitated a significant increase in
healthcare professionals, ensuring better service delivery.
o Eg: Over 12 lakh additional healthcare workers engaged between 2021-24,
including ASHAs, ANMs, and CHOs.
3. Universal immunization coverage: NHM initiatives have improved vaccination
rates, reducing vaccine-preventable diseases.
o Eg: 97.98% Measles-Rubella vaccination coverage under Intensified
Mission Indradhanush (IMI) 5.0.
53
 4. Tackling communicable diseases: NHM has been instrumental in reducing TB and
malaria incidences.
o Eg: TB incidence reduced from 237 per lakh (2015) to 195 (2023) under the
National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP).
5. Strengthening primary healthcare: NHM has expanded health infrastructure,
especially at the grassroots level.
o Eg: Establishment of 1.72 lakh Ayushman Arogya Mandirs (AAMs) by FY
2023-24.
6. Digital health interventions: NHM has integrated digital solutions to ensure better
healthcare tracking and delivery.
o Eg: The U-WIN platform launched in 2023 for real-time vaccination tracking
across 65 districts.
7. Focus on non-communicable diseases (NCDs): NHM addresses rising NCDs
through targeted screening and treatment programs.
o Eg: 2.61 crore individuals screened under the National Sickle Cell
Anaemia Elimination Mission.

Challenges in Achieving SDGs

1. Inadequate healthcare infrastructure: Despite progress, gaps remain in healthcare

facilities, particularly in rural areas.
o Eg: Rural areas face a shortage of specialists at district hospitals, impacting
service delivery.
2. Shortage of skilled healthcare workforce: High vacancy rates persist in specialist
positions, affecting quality healthcare delivery.
o Eg: 30% shortfall in specialist doctors in CHCs (Source: RHS 2022).
3. Financial constraints: NHM relies heavily on public funding, often facing budgetary
shortfalls and irregular fund flow.
o Eg: The NHM budget allocation remains below the recommended 2.5% of
GDP target by the National Health Policy, 2017.
4. Disease burden persistence: Non-communicable diseases and emerging infections
continue to challenge healthcare systems.
o Eg: Rising cases of diabetes and hypertension despite screening initiatives.
5. Regional disparities: Healthcare outcomes vary significantly across states, with
poorer states lagging in key indicators.
o Eg: MMR in Assam (195) remains high, compared to the national average of
97.

Conclusion

The NHM has made substantial progress in advancing India's health-related SDGs through
targeted interventions and improved healthcare access. However, addressing infrastructure
gaps, financial sustainability, and workforce shortages will be key to ensuring long-term
success and equitable healthcare for all.

54
Q. Despite being a demand-driven scheme, MGNREGS faces persistent
budgetary constraints. Discuss the impact of underfunding on its implementation
and suggest measures to address these challenges. (10 M)

Introduction
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), aimed
at providing guaranteed wage employment to rural households, is facing persistent
budgetary shortfalls, affecting its core objectives of poverty alleviation and rural
development. In Financial year 2024-25 the government had allocated ₹86000 crore for
the programme, despite facing a deficit, no additional funds have been allocated for this
“demand driven” scheme.

Body

Impact of underfunding on MGNREGS implementation

1. Delayed wage payments: Budget shortfalls result in delayed wage disbursements,

violating the statutory provision of timely payment under Section 3(3) of the
MGNREGA Act.
o Eg: As of January 2025, the Union Rural Development Ministry reported
pending wages worth ₹4,315 crore, causing hardship to rural workers.
2. Artificial suppression of demand: Inadequate fund allocation discourages proactive
demand registration by workers, undermining the scheme's core principle of being
demand-driven.
o Eg: The Parliamentary Standing Committee (2024) observed that low
allocation leads to a cascading effect on employment opportunities.
3. Project disruptions: Shortages in funds for material components delay infrastructure
projects, hampering local development and asset creation.
o Eg: A delay of ₹5,715 crore in material payments has led to reluctance among
vendors, impacting project completion rates.
4. Erosion of worker trust: Frequent funding shortages erode confidence among
beneficiaries, leading to a decline in participation and affecting rural livelihoods.
o Eg: A recent survey by Azim Premji University found that wage payment
delays forced many rural workers to seek alternative employment.
5. Increased liabilities on states: Budgetary constraints force state governments to
bridge financial gaps, straining their fiscal capacity and limiting the scheme's
effectiveness.
o Eg: In FY 2023-24, states had to cover delayed payments, leading to fiscal
imbalances in rural development budgets.

Measures to address budgetary challenges in MGNREGS

1. Timely supplementary allocations: Introduce an automatic fund release mechanism

based on real-time demand to ensure continuous financial flow.

55
 o Eg: In FY 2020-21, the allocation was revised from ₹61,500 crore to
₹1,11,500 crore, addressing increased demand due to reverse migration.
2. Decentralized fund planning: Empower Gram Panchayats to plan and allocate
resources effectively based on actual demand patterns.
o Eg: The CAG report (2023) highlighted the need for better financial
autonomy at local levels to improve fund utilization.
3. Utilization audits: Implement robust monitoring systems to track fund usage, prevent
leakages, and ensure accountability in expenditures.
o Eg: The Social Audit Mechanism under Section 17 of MGNREGA Act
should be strengthened for better oversight.
4. Integration with financial inclusion schemes: Leverage digital platforms such as
Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) and Aadhaar-linked payments to ensure faster wage
disbursal.
o Eg: The introduction of Bharat Bill Payment System (BBPS) for
MGNREGS wages has reduced transaction delays.
5. Increased budgetary allocation: A demand-driven scheme like MGNREGS requires
dynamic budgeting that adjusts to economic conditions and seasonal variations.
o Eg: Experts recommend an annual allocation of at least ₹1.2 lakh crore,
considering inflation and rising rural distress.

Conclusion
Ensuring the effective functioning of MGNREGS requires adequate and timely funding,
improved planning, and greater transparency to uphold its objective of providing livelihood
security to rural households. A strategic approach to financial sustainability and
decentralized governance can make the scheme more robust and impactful.

Q. “Game-based learning is increasingly being recognized as an alternative

pedagogical” tool. Critically evaluate its impact on enhancing cognitive
development in students. (15 M)

Introduction

Game-based learning integrates interactive, problem-solving, and experiential elements into

education, making learning more engaging and effective. It is increasingly seen as an
alternative pedagogical tool that enhances conceptual understanding and skill
development.

Body

Game-based learning as an alternative pedagogical tool

1. Active learning over passive learning: Unlike traditional rote learning, game-based
methods promote engagement and participation.

56
 o Eg: Pralay board game (India Science Festival 2025) uses climate-related
scenarios to teach environmental policy.
2. Personalized and adaptive learning: Games adjust difficulty levels based on a
student’s progress, catering to individual learning speeds.
o Eg: Khan Academy’s adaptive game modules help students grasp math
concepts at their own pace.
3. Experiential and scenario-based learning: Games simulate real-life situations,
enhancing practical understanding of abstract subjects.
o Eg: Assassin’s Creed used in history lessons to teach ancient civilizations
and battles.
4. Encourages interdisciplinary learning: Many educational games integrate multiple
subjects, bridging gaps between disciplines.
o Eg: Microscopya game (University of California, 2024) combines biology,
chemistry, and physics for cell biology learning.
5. Enhances student motivation and retention: Game-based formats increase
curiosity and competition, leading to higher knowledge retention.
o Eg: A 2021 study (Digital Learning Innovations Journal) found 56%
higher retention rates in students using game-based learning over traditional
methods.

Positive impact of game-based learning on cognitive development

1. Improves problem-solving and critical thinking: Games require strategic decision-

making, fostering higher-order cognitive skills.
o Eg: Climaze (Inspired by Monopoly, 2025) helps students analyze climate
change solutions through decision-based learning.
2. Develops decision-making and adaptability: Players assess risks and rewards,
enhancing their ability to make informed choices.
o Eg: PaGamO learning model showed a 20% improvement in student
decision-making speed (Digital Learning Journal, 2021).
3. Enhances memory and recall: Interactive gameplay helps students retain complex
information better than passive learning.
o Eg: Students playing cell biology games performed 30% better in recall
tests than those using textbooks (2023 study, UC San Diego).
4. Encourages social interaction and teamwork: Multiplayer and cooperative games
develop communication, leadership, and collaboration skills.
o Eg: Turtle Survival Alliance’s biodiversity game promotes team-based
conservation strategies.
5. Reduces learning anxiety and boosts engagement: Game-based learning creates a
low-pressure environment, encouraging risk-taking and experimentation.
o Eg: Delhi-based biodiversity educator Peeyush Sekhsaria found that
interactive snake awareness board games led to better learning outcomes
than traditional lectures.

57
Negative impact on cognitive development

1. Reduces deep analytical thinking: Over-reliance on gamified learning can lead to

quick thinking but weaker deep analytical skills.
o Eg: CBSE’s AI curriculum (2024) found students using game-based
learning struggled more with complex, multi-layered questions.
2. Creates dependency on instant rewards: Frequent in-game rewards may reduce
intrinsic motivation, making students reliant on external validation.
o Eg: Duolingo’s gamified learning model has been criticized for focusing on
streaks and points rather than deep language mastery.
3. May promote rote learning in disguised forms: Some games focus more on speed
than conceptual depth, limiting deeper cognitive engagement.
o Eg: Multiple-choice question-based game models often lead to guesswork
rather than critical reasoning (UNESCO Report, 2023).
4. Cognitive overload and distraction: Excessive gaming bombards students with too
much information, affecting retention and focus.
o Eg: A 2023 study (National Institute of Mental Health, USA) found
students using hyper-stimulating educational games struggled with
sustained attention in traditional classrooms.
5. Limited transferability of skills: Skills learned in game environments do not always
translate well into real-world applications.
o Eg: A study by Harvard Education Review (2023) found that students
excelling in finance simulation games often failed to apply budgeting
principles in real life.

Conclusion

Game-based learning enhances cognitive development, but digital accessibility, curriculum

alignment, and implementation challenges must be addressed. A balanced approach,
integrating traditional and game-based methods, is crucial to maximizing its educational
potential.

Q. Despite consistent policy efforts, India's foundational literacy and numeracy

levels remain a concern. Critically analyze the shortcomings in India’s primary
education system and suggest reforms based on global best practices. (10 M)

Introduction

Despite initiatives like NEP 2020 and NIPUN Bharat Mission, ASER 2024 reveals
persistent gaps in foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN). These gaps hinder long-
term learning and widen socio-economic inequalities, necessitating systemic reforms.

Body

Shortcomings in India’s primary education system

58
 1. Overemphasis on rote learning: Curriculum prioritizes memorization over
conceptual understanding, stunting problem-solving skills.
o Eg: ASER 2024 highlights that only 52.5% of Class 5 students in Tamil
Nadu can read Class 2 level text.
2. Inadequate teacher training: Teachers lack exposure to modern pedagogical
techniques, affecting student engagement and comprehension.
o Eg: Justice J.S. Verma Committee (2012) flagged poor teacher education
as a key issue in India’s schooling system.
3. High student-teacher ratio: Overcrowded classrooms reduce individual attention,
impacting learning outcomes.
o Eg: RTE Act, 2009 prescribes 30:1 for primary schools, but Bihar reports
50:1 (UDISE+, 2023).
4. Learning losses due to COVID-19: The pandemic exacerbated existing gaps in
foundational skills, especially in rural areas.
o Eg: Maharashtra's reading level in Class 5 fell to 56.8% in 2022 but has
only slightly recovered (ASER 2024).
5. Digital divide and lack of infrastructure: Unequal access to technology limits
learning opportunities, particularly in rural areas.
o Eg: NITI Aayog (2023) found only 26% of rural households have internet
access for digital learning.
6. Poor assessment techniques: Standardized exams fail to test critical thinking and
application-based learning.
o Eg: Finland’s education system uses continuous assessment rather than one-
time exams.
7. Gap between private and government schools: Private schools outperform
government schools, widening inequality in learning outcomes.
o Eg: ASER 2024 shows private school students in Tamil Nadu surpass
government peers in FLN.

Reforms Based on Global Best Practices

1. Shift from rote learning to conceptual understanding: Introduce project-based

and experiential learning methods.
o Eg: Finland’s education model emphasizes creativity and problem-solving
over rote memorization.
2. Enhanced teacher training programs: Implement continuous, in-service teacher
training with emphasis on modern pedagogy.
o Eg: Japan’s Lesson Study model allows teachers to collaborate and refine
teaching methods.
3. Improved student-teacher ratio: Increase recruitment and retention of quality
educators to improve learning outcomes.
o Eg: Cuba maintains a 20:1 ratio, ensuring personalized instruction for
students.

59
 4. Strengthening digital infrastructure: Expand EdTech solutions and provide
subsidized internet access in rural areas.
o Eg: Singapore’s Smart Nation initiative integrates technology in early
education.
5. Adopting skill-based assessments: Replace high-stakes exams with continuous
skill-based assessments.
o Eg: Finland’s sampling-based national assessment evaluates policy
effectiveness, not student ranking.
6. Encouraging early childhood education: Strengthen pre-primary education to
build strong FLN skills from an early age.
o Eg: OECD reports show countries with universal pre-school access (like
Sweden) have higher literacy rates.
7. Public-private partnerships (PPP) for school improvement: Engage private
entities to enhance learning resources and teaching methods.
o Eg: Delhi Model Schools have improved infrastructure and learning
outcomes through PPP models.

Conclusion

Addressing India’s FLN crisis requires a systemic shift from rote learning to conceptual
education, teacher capacity building, and digital inclusivity. Leveraging global best
practices can ensure equitable, high-quality primary education, setting the foundation for
India’s long-term human capital growth.

Q. “Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) represent not only a health challenge

but also a governance failure”. Critically examine India's approach to combating
NTDs and suggest policy reforms for their effective elimination. (15 M)

Introduction

Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) continue to persist due to weak healthcare

infrastructure, poor surveillance, and low community participation. While India has
made progress in eliminating some NTDs, several others remain endemic, indicating
governance lapses in disease control, policy implementation, and funding.

Body

NTDs represent not only a health challenge but also a governance failure

1. Inadequate healthcare access: Marginalized communities lack primary healthcare

facilities, delaying diagnosis and treatment.
o Eg: Lymphatic Filariasis remains endemic in 345 districts across 20 states
despite multiple elimination deadlines (MoHFW, 2024).
2. Poor disease surveillance and data accuracy: Weak tracking systems lead to
underreporting and misdiagnosis.
60
 o Eg: Kala-azar Post-Kala-Azar Dermal Leishmaniasis (PKDL) cases are
often missed, leading to disease recurrence (DNDi, 2024).
3. Fragmented policy implementation: Multiple agencies work in silos, affecting
coordination and efficiency.
o Eg: NVBDCP oversees vector-borne diseases, while rabies is managed under
animal health policies, leading to gaps.
4. Low public awareness and community participation: Many affected populations
do not seek timely treatment due to stigma and misinformation.
o Eg: Leprosy cases continue to be reported, despite India declaring elimination
in 2005 (MoHFW, 2023).
5. Funding constraints and policy inconsistency: Public health spending on
preventive care remains low (<2% of GDP).
o Eg: WHO’s NTD Roadmap 2030 requires sustained investment, but India’s
Mass Drug Administration (MDA) faces poor compliance.

India’s approach to combating NTDs: Successes and failures

Successes Failures
1. Leprosy cases persist despite
1. Elimination of some NTDs
elimination claims
Eg- 1.2 lakh cases of leprosy were
Eg- India eradicated yaws (2015), guinea worm
reported in 2022 (MoHFW, 2023),
(2000), and trachoma (2017) (MoHFW, 2017).
showing continued transmission.
2. Significant reduction in Kala-azar cases 2. Incomplete elimination of Kala-azar
Eg- Bihar still reported 242 cases in
Eg- Kala-azar cases reduced from 44,533 (2007)
2024, indicating poor post-treatment
to 438 (2024) (MoHFW, 2024).
surveillance (ICMR, 2024).
3. Expansion of Mass Drug Administration 3. Low community participation in
(MDA) for Lymphatic Filariasis MDA programs
Eg- WHO reported poor compliance and
Eg- Lymphatic Filariasis MDA covered 130+
drug acceptance rates in endemic
districts in 2023 (MoHFW, 2023).
districts (WHO, 2024).
4. Rising dengue cases despite control
4. Introduction of dengue vaccine
measures
Eg- Takeda’s Dengue vaccine approved, and Eg- Dengue cases increased from 1.6
Indian vaccines (Bharat Biotech, Serum lakh (2019) to 2.9 lakh (2023), deaths
Institute) are in the pipeline (ICMR, 2024). tripled (MoHFW, 2024).
5. Strengthening of rabies prevention 5. High rabies mortality due to lack of
programs post-exposure treatment

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 Successes Failures
Eg- Expanded animal vaccination efforts Eg- India still records 20,000+ rabies
under National Rabies Control Program deaths annually due to lack of access to
(MoHFW, 2023). post-bite vaccines (WHO, 2023).
6. Digital surveillance initiatives 6. Weak post-treatment monitoring
Eg- E-Nikshay platform strengthened TB Eg- Lack of active follow-up for
tracking, similar models planned for NTDs Lymphatic Filariasis and Kala-azar
(MoHFW, 2023). (ICMR, 2024).

Policy reforms for effective elimination

1. Strengthening primary healthcare systems: Expand diagnostic facilities and

trained workforce in endemic areas.
o Eg: Strengthen Health and Wellness Centers (HWCs) under Ayushman
Bharat to include NTD screening.
2. Enhancing disease surveillance and data accuracy: Implement AI-driven real-
time monitoring of NTD cases.
o Eg: Use digital platforms like Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme
(IDSP) to track outbreaks.
3. Community-led interventions: Increase awareness and behavioral change programs
to improve treatment-seeking behavior.
o Eg: Strengthen ASHA workers’ role in identifying and reporting cases in
rural areas.
4. Integrated vector control strategy: Strengthen inter-agency coordination for vector
management and public health interventions.
o Eg: Link animal vaccination programs with human disease surveillance
for better rabies control.
5. Sustained financial investment: Increase funding for preventive healthcare and
vaccine research.
o Eg: Allocate dedicated NTD funds under National Health Mission (NHM) to
support elimination efforts.

Conclusion

India’s NTD elimination targets can be met with robust governance, sustained funding,
and community participation. Strengthening surveillance, vaccination programs, and
health infrastructure is key to achieving WHO’s 2030 elimination roadmap and ensuring
NTD-free India.

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Issues relating to poverty and hunger.
Q. How can India balance the dual challenge of undernutrition in vulnerable
populations and rising overnutrition in affluent groups through targeted policy
interventions? (10 M)

Introduction

India faces a dual burden of malnutrition, with undernutrition persisting among vulnerable
populations and overnutrition rising among affluent groups. Addressing this requires
targeted, evidence-based interventions to ensure nutritional equity and sustainable
health outcomes.

Body

Addressing undernutrition among vulnerable populations

1. Strengthening food-based social security programs: Expand and improve ICDS,

Poshan Abhiyaan, and PM-POSHAN with increased dairy and protein-based
supplementation.
o Eg: Telangana’s Arogya Lakshmi scheme provides pregnant women with
milk, eggs, and nutritious meals.
2. Expanding direct nutrition supplementation: Enhance access to fortified foods,
micronutrient supplementation, and biofortified crops for malnourished children and
women.
o Eg: FSSAI’s Eat Right India movement (2023) promotes fortified staples
like iron-fortified rice and iodized salt.
3. Improving affordability and access to nutritious food: Subsidize essential protein-
rich foods like milk, eggs, and pulses for low-income households through PDS and
state-level nutrition schemes.
o Eg: Gujarat and Karnataka provide milk powder through ICDS and
mid-day meals.
4. Leveraging community-based nutrition awareness programs: Mobilize
Anganwadi workers, SHGs, and civil society organizations to promote balanced diets
and nutritional awareness.
o Eg: Maharashtra’s Poshan Maah (2024) targeted maternal nutrition through
village-level campaigns.
5. Ensuring targeted maternal and child nutrition: Strengthen maternal and child
health programs to break the intergenerational cycle of malnutrition.
o Eg: National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5, 2021) revealed that 35.5%
of children under five in India are stunted, necessitating urgent interventions.

Tackling overnutrition and unhealthy dietary patterns in affluent groups

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 1. Regulating high-fat, high-sugar processed foods: Introduce front-of-pack warning
labels, higher taxation on unhealthy foods, and restrict junk food marketing targeting
children.
o Eg: Chile’s food labeling law (2016) reduced the purchase of sugary drinks
by 24% within a year.
2. Encouraging balanced dietary habits through public campaigns: Use media,
social influencers, and school-based nutrition programs to promote healthier food
choices.
o Eg: UK’s Change4Life campaign successfully reduced sugar and fat
consumption among children.
3. Promoting dietary diversity and moderation: Educate households about portion
control, mindful eating, and balanced meals through nutrition literacy programs.
o Eg: India’s Food Safety and Standards Authority (FSSAI) campaigns
emphasize "Eat Right India" and "Thoda Kam Namak, Thoda Kam
Cheeni".
4. Integrating lifestyle modifications in healthcare policies: Encourage preventive
healthcare, fitness programs, and dietary counseling in urban areas.
o Eg: National Programme for Prevention and Control of Non-
Communicable Diseases (NPCDCS) focuses on lifestyle diseases caused by
overnutrition.
5. Regulating school and workplace nutrition: Implement healthy canteen policies,
workplace nutrition awareness, and incentives for healthy eating habits.
o Eg: Delhi’s 2023 school policy bans junk food near school premises,
encouraging nutritious alternatives.

Conclusion

India’s nutrition strategy must bridge the gap between undernutrition and overnutrition
through policy-driven, behaviorally informed interventions. A comprehensive, multi-
sectoral approach is essential to achieving a nutritionally secure India.

Important aspects of governance, transparency and

accountability, e-governance- applications, models, successes,
limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency &
accountability and institutional and other measures.
Q. Examine how the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, strengthens the
legal framework for data governance in India. What are the broader
implications for individual privacy and state accountability? (10 M)

Introduction

64
The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, is a landmark legislation aimed at ensuring
robust data governance in India, striking a balance between safeguarding individual privacy,
fostering innovation, and ensuring state accountability.

Body

Strengthening the legal framework for data governance

1. Explicit roles for data fiduciaries and principals: Clearly defines responsibilities of
entities collecting data (fiduciaries) and rights of individuals (principals).
o Eg: Data fiduciaries are required to provide notices in 22 Indian languages to
ensure informed consent (DPDP Rules, 2025).
2. Mandating consent-based data processing: Requires verifiable, revocable, and
informed consent for all data collection and processing.
o Eg: Citizens can withdraw consent or request data correction through
multilingual platforms, enhancing accessibility for all.
3. Data Protection Board as a digital-first institution: Establishes a grievance
redressal mechanism accessible digitally to all citizens.
o Eg: The ‘born digital’ Data Protection Board enables complaint
adjudication without requiring citizens' physical presence.
4. Proportional financial penalties: Introduces graded penalties to ensure fairness
while fostering compliance across entities.
o Eg: A ₹250 crore penalty cap for significant fiduciaries deters non-
compliance (Section 25 of the Act).

Implications for individual privacy

1. Strengthened Right to Privacy: Aligns with the Puttaswamy v. Union of India

(2017) judgment, recognizing privacy as a fundamental right.
o Eg: Citizens can withdraw consent, update, or erase their data under Section
7, ensuring their privacy is upheld.
2. Protection of children’s data: Mandates verifiable parental consent and safeguards
for minors.
o Eg: Fiduciaries must use parental consent mechanisms for processing
children’s data, as per Section 9 of the Act.
3. Prevention of misuse and breaches: Requires data fiduciaries to report breaches
within 72 hours to the Data Protection Board.
o Eg: Technical safeguards mandated by the DPDP Rules, 2025, help mitigate
the risks of data theft and breaches.
4. Increased citizen autonomy: Empowers individuals to exercise data rights like
access, withdrawal, and correction in their preferred language.
o Eg: Online links provided by fiduciaries allow individuals to exercise these
rights effectively, enhancing digital empowerment.

65
Implications for state accountability

1. Responsible state data handling: Limits the state's discretion in data usage while
ensuring proportional collection.
o Eg: Data collection for welfare schemes follows Justice B.N. Srikrishna
Committee recommendations for minimal and lawful data usage.
2. Transparent cross-border data transfer: Regulates sensitive data transfers to
balance national interests with global competitiveness.
o Eg: Restrictions on sensitive data exports under the Act ensure national
security priorities are met.
3. Accountable grievance mechanisms: Ensures transparent and efficient handling of
complaints via the Data Protection Board.
o Eg: Citizens can submit grievances using the MyGov platform, fostering
trust and accessibility.
4. Promoting innovation with minimal compliance burdens: Supports startups with
reduced operational hurdles while imposing stricter norms on significant fiduciaries.
o Eg: Simplified compliance processes for startups as outlined in the
Economic Survey, 2024-25, promote ease of doing business.

Conclusion

The DPDP Act, 2023, sets a strong foundation for protecting privacy, enabling ethical data
practices, and fostering a transparent digital ecosystem. By aligning individual rights,
innovation, and state responsibility, it positions India as a leader in digital democracy
while ensuring inclusivity, security, and accountability for its citizens.

Q. “Digital health initiatives are transforming governance in the public health

sector”. Analyze how interoperability and standardization can enhance the
effectiveness of health services and governance in India. (15 M)

Introduction
India's digital health initiatives are revolutionizing public health governance by leveraging
technology to enhance accessibility, efficiency, and accountability, ensuring better healthcare
outcomes for all.

Body

Digital health initiatives transforming governance in the public health sector

1. Decentralized healthcare governance: Digital health platforms empower local

governments to monitor and address healthcare challenges at the grassroots level.
o Eg: The integration of e-Sanjeevani with Health & Wellness Centers
(HWCs) under the National Health Mission enables local-level
teleconsultation services, strengthening primary healthcare.

66
 2. Enhanced policy monitoring and evaluation: Digital dashboards provide real-time
data analytics for better policy formulation and targeted interventions.
o Eg: The Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) portal tracks maternal and
child health indicators, helping policymakers monitor progress towards SDG 3
targets.
3. Streamlined beneficiary identification and targeting: Digital records ensure
accurate identification and targeted healthcare service delivery to beneficiaries,
reducing leakages and fraud.
o Eg: The Ayushman Bharat Health Account (ABHA) ID helps authenticate
patients and track health services utilized across states.
4. Reduced administrative burden: Automation of healthcare processes reduces
paperwork, speeds up service delivery, and enhances coordination between
stakeholders.
o Eg: The Online Registration System (ORS) under ABDM facilitates online
appointment booking and electronic medical record storage in public hospitals.
5. Strengthened emergency response mechanisms: Digital systems improve
preparedness and response to health emergencies through better data availability and
resource mobilization.
o Eg: The Aarogya Setu app played a critical role in contact tracing and health
advisories during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Interoperability can enhance the effectiveness of health services and governance in

India

1. Continuity of patient care: Seamless exchange of patient data across different

healthcare facilities ensures uninterrupted treatment and improved clinical outcomes.
o Eg: The Unified Health Interface (UHI) enables interoperability across
hospitals, diagnostic centers, and pharmacies, ensuring patients can access
their health data nationwide.
2. Integrated health service delivery: Connecting various healthcare services across
the public and private sectors allows for coordinated and comprehensive patient care.
o Eg: The National Digital Health Mission (NDHM) integrates Ayushman
Bharat with private hospitals and insurance providers for efficient healthcare
delivery.
3. Optimized resource allocation: Interoperability enables better tracking of resources
such as hospital beds, medical equipment, and workforce availability, improving
efficiency in crisis management.
o Eg: The CoWIN platform integrated vaccination data across states and
private healthcare providers, ensuring efficient vaccine distribution and
tracking.
4. Facilitation of health insurance claims: A standardized interoperable system
enables smoother processing of claims by integrating insurers, hospitals, and
regulatory bodies.

67
 o Eg: The PM-JAY scheme uses interoperable health records to expedite the
settlement of insurance claims, reducing turnaround time for beneficiaries.
5. Public health surveillance and disease tracking: Interoperability between
laboratories, hospitals, and government agencies enhances early detection and
containment of diseases.
o Eg: The Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) leverages
interoperable data from various health sources to monitor outbreaks and trends
effectively.

Standardization can enhance the effectiveness of health services and governance in

India

1. Uniformity in medical records management: Standardized formats for health data

ensure consistency across healthcare providers, improving efficiency in diagnosis and
treatment.
o Eg: The adoption of Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR)
standards under ABDM ensures structured and uniform storage of medical
records.
2. Enhanced regulatory compliance: Standardized protocols help enforce uniform
healthcare delivery standards, improving quality and patient safety across public and
private institutions.
o Eg: The Clinical Establishments (Registration and Regulation) Act, 2010,
mandates uniform standards for healthcare facilities to ensure minimum
service quality.
3. Benchmarking and performance evaluation: Standardized health data collection
allows for objective performance evaluation of healthcare institutions and programs.
o Eg: The NITI Aayog Health Index ranks states based on standardized
indicators, enabling targeted interventions and policy corrections.
4. Simplified data exchange and analytics: Standardization facilitates seamless data
analysis and reporting, supporting evidence-based policymaking and targeted
healthcare interventions.
o Eg: The use of standardized ICD-10 coding system in health records helps
track disease patterns and improve epidemiological research.
5. Increased efficiency in procurement and supply chain management: Standardized
healthcare processes and protocols improve supply chain efficiency, ensuring timely
availability of medicines and equipment.
o Eg: The Government e-Marketplace (GeM) portal standardizes procurement
processes for healthcare equipment across government hospitals, enhancing
transparency and cost-efficiency.

Conclusion
Interoperability and standardization are vital in building a robust, efficient, and inclusive
digital healthcare ecosystem, ensuring equitable access, enhanced governance, and
improved health outcomes for all citizens. Their successful implementation will propel

68
India towards achieving Universal Health Coverage (UHC) and strengthen its position as a
leader in digital healthcare innovation.

Q. Why is transparency crucial for effective revenue management in state

governments? Suggest policy-level interventions to enhance accountability. (10
M)

Introduction
Transparency in revenue management is essential to ensure fiscal prudence, prevent
corruption, and enhance public trust, ultimately leading to effective governance and
optimal resource utilization.

Body

Importance of transparency in revenue management

1. Prevention of revenue leakages: Transparent processes help track revenue flows and
curb corruption.
o Eg: The Chhattisgarh liquor scam highlighted revenue losses due to opaque
financial dealings (ED, 2025).
2. Enhanced fiscal discipline: Clear financial reporting ensures responsible budgeting
and expenditure management.
o Eg: The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act,
2003, mandates transparent fiscal planning.
3. Improved public trust and participation: Transparency enables citizens to hold the
government accountable for revenue utilization.
o Eg: The Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005, empowers citizens to seek
details of government revenues.
4. Better intergovernmental fiscal relations: Transparency fosters cooperative
federalism by ensuring clarity in revenue-sharing mechanisms.
o Eg: The 15th Finance Commission Report (2021) emphasized transparent
fiscal transfers to states.
5. Efficient resource allocation: Transparent revenue management ensures funds are
directed toward priority sectors efficiently.
o Eg: The use of Public Financial Management System (PFMS) has
improved fund tracking in welfare schemes.

Policy-level interventions to enhance accountability

1. Strengthening digital governance: Implementing AI-based tracking and blockchain

for real-time monitoring of revenue collection.
o Eg: The adoption of GSTN (Goods and Services Tax Network) improved
tax compliance and reduced evasion.

69
 2. Legislative reforms: Strengthening financial accountability laws to include stringent
penalties for mismanagement.
o Eg: Amendment to the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013, to cover revenue-
related misconduct more effectively.
3. Capacity building and training: Enhancing skills of officials in revenue
administration to promote efficiency and ethical governance.
o Eg: The Mission Karmayogi initiative focuses on skill enhancement of public
servants in financial management.
4. Social audits and citizen engagement: Institutionalizing public audits to foster
accountability and participatory governance.
o Eg: The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA) mandates social audits to ensure transparency in fund
allocation.
5. Independent oversight mechanisms: Strengthening institutions like the Comptroller
and Auditor General (CAG) to conduct real-time audits.
o Eg: The CAG’s audit of the Uttar Pradesh Excise Department (2023)
uncovered revenue shortfalls due to irregularities.

Conclusion
Ensuring transparency in revenue management through technological, legal, and
participatory approaches can lead to efficient governance and fiscal sustainability, paving
the way for inclusive economic development.

Role of civil services in a democracy.

India and its neighborhood- relations.

Q. Examine the impact of cross-border terrorism on the India-Pakistan peace
process. What measures can India adopt to counter this challenge
diplomatically? (10 M)

Introduction

Cross-border terrorism is a key destabilizing factor in India-Pakistan relations, consistently

undermining peace efforts, trust, and regional stability. Its implications span security,
diplomacy, and development, necessitating a calibrated response.

Body

Impact of cross-border terrorism on the India-Pakistan peace process

1. Erosion of trust in diplomacy: Terror attacks fuel mistrust and derail confidence-
building measures.

70
 o Eg: The Mumbai attacks (2008) led to a breakdown of the Composite
Dialogue Process, halting bilateral discussions.
2. Disruption of regional stability: Cross-border terrorism heightens tensions and risks
escalation into military conflict.
o Eg: The Pulwama attack (2019) led to the Balakot airstrikes, escalating
military tensions between the two nuclear-armed nations.
3. Global scrutiny and isolation: Terror incidents spotlight South Asia as an unstable
region, affecting foreign investments and global partnerships.
o Eg: Pakistan was placed on the FATF grey list for financing terror groups
like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM).
4. Economic implications: The security focus drains financial resources, hindering
socio-economic development in both nations.
o Eg: Increased defense spending after the Uri attack (2016) diverted funds
from critical infrastructure projects.
5. Undermining people-to-people ties: Terrorism stalls cultural and social exchanges,
vital for reducing hostility and building goodwill.
o Eg: Post the Pulwama attack, cross-border initiatives like the Kartarpur
Corridor faced delays in progress.

Measures India can adopt to counter this challenge diplomatically

1. Strengthening international alliances: Use platforms like the UN, FATF, and
Interpol to hold Pakistan accountable for harboring terror groups.
o Eg: India’s diplomacy led to the UN designation of Masood Azhar (2019) as
a global terrorist, isolating Pakistan internationally.
2. Engaging key global players: Partner with influential nations to apply diplomatic
pressure on Pakistan.
o Eg: India’s strategic partnership with the US under the 2+2 dialogue
framework includes counterterrorism as a core pillar.
3. Using regional forums: Advocate for collective counterterrorism strategies through
platforms like SAARC, SCO, and ASEAN.
o Eg: At the SCO Summit (2023), India emphasized the need for regional
cooperation against terrorism.
4. Exposing Pakistan’s role with evidence: Share intelligence and evidence of state-
sponsored terrorism with global institutions to build pressure.
o Eg: India submitted dossiers at the UNGA (2019) detailing Pakistan’s
involvement in the Pulwama and Uri attacks.
5. Exploring backchannel diplomacy: Maintain covert communication channels to
address specific issues and reduce escalations.
o Eg: The LoC ceasefire agreement (2021) was achieved through sustained
backchannel efforts despite public hostility.

Conclusion

71
Cross-border terrorism remains a significant hurdle in India-Pakistan relations. A dual
strategy of global pressure and regional engagement, coupled with evidence-based
diplomacy, can help India counter this challenge effectively. Long-term peace depends on
sustained efforts to ensure accountability and reduce regional instability.

Q. Analyze the strategic importance of Afghanistan for India in the context of its
location and regional dynamics. Examine the challenges posed by the Taliban
regime and suggest measures to strengthen India’s role in Afghanistan’s stability
and reconstruction. (15 M)

Introduction

Afghanistan's geopolitical significance as a gateway to Central Asia and its shared history
with India make it pivotal for India's security and regional aspirations. However, the Taliban
regime poses new challenges to this strategic relationship.

Body

Strategic importance of Afghanistan for India

1. Gateway to Central Asia: Afghanistan provides access to energy-rich Central Asia

and trade routes bypassing Pakistan.
o Eg: India’s investments in Chabahar Port aim to connect to Afghanistan via
the Zaranj-Delaram Highway.
2. Regional stability and counterterrorism: A stable Afghanistan is critical to India’s
security to prevent the spread of terrorism.
o Eg: The rise of ISIS-K and support for terror groups like LeT and JeM poses
a threat to Indian interests.
3. Energy and connectivity projects: Afghanistan is a key player in regional energy
projects like TAPI (Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India Pipeline).
o Eg: India has invested in Afghanistan’s energy infrastructure, including the
Salma Dam.
4. Soft power and cultural ties: Afghanistan has historically been a recipient of India’s
educational, cultural, and medical assistance.
o Eg: The construction of Afghanistan’s Parliament building in 2015 is a
symbol of India’s goodwill.

Challenges posed by the Taliban regime

1. Terrorism and security threats: Taliban’s ties with Pakistan’s ISI and extremist
groups jeopardize India’s national security.
o Eg: The Kandahar IC814 hijacking in 1999 demonstrated risks of Taliban-
backed operations.

72
 2. Growing influence of China and Pakistan: Taliban's reliance on Chinese
investments and Pakistan's strategic depth undermine India's position.
o Eg: China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in Afghanistan gives Beijing
leverage in the region.
3. Humanitarian and governance crisis: The Taliban’s inability to provide governance
leads to instability, impacting India’s developmental projects.
o Eg: India suspended its projects in Afghanistan post-2021 due to security
concerns.
4. Loss of democratic progress: Taliban’s regressive policies towards women and
minorities counter India’s advocacy for democracy.
o Eg: India emphasized inclusive governance during its UN Security Council
engagements on Afghanistan.

Measures to strengthen India’s role

1. Rebuild developmental projects: Restart infrastructure, education, and healthcare

initiatives to retain goodwill.
o Eg: Reopening projects like Indira Gandhi Institute of Child Health can
strengthen ties.
2. Enhanced diplomatic engagement: Maintain dialogue with Taliban leaders while
pushing for an inclusive government.
o Eg: Meetings between Indian officials and Taliban representatives since
2021 reflect cautious engagement.
3. Leverage multilateral forums: Collaborate with organizations like UN, SCO, and
regional partners to address shared concerns.
o Eg: Joint efforts with Iran and Central Asian countries can counterbalance
Chinese influence.
4. Counterterrorism cooperation: Push for strict actions against terror groups
operating from Afghan soil.
o Eg: India’s focus on counterterrorism was reiterated during its presidency at
the UN Security Council in 2021.
5. Invest in people-centric programs: Increase scholarships, cultural exchanges, and
medical aid to foster strong ties with the Afghan populace.
o Eg: India continues to offer scholarships under the ICCR program for
Afghan students.

Conclusion

A stable Afghanistan is crucial for India’s security and regional aspirations. By balancing
diplomatic engagement with developmental and security measures, India can not only
safeguard its interests but also contribute to a peaceful and prosperous Afghanistan.

73
Q. Analyze the implications of India’s border management policies on its
bilateral relations with Bangladesh, considering recent developments. (10 M)

Introduction

India's border management policies aim to address cross-border issues such as security,
smuggling, and trafficking. However, their implementation often creates diplomatic
challenges, particularly with Bangladesh, a critical neighbor in India's foreign policy.

Body

Positive implications on bilateral relations

1. Enhanced border security cooperation: Initiatives like joint patrolling by BSF

and BGB ensure better coordination and reduced cross-border crimes.
o Eg: BGB-BSF DG-Level Talks (2024) discussed joint strategies against
trafficking and smuggling.
2. Crime reduction through fencing: Fencing construction along sensitive areas
minimizes illegal activities like cattle smuggling.
o Eg: Tripura sector fencing projects (2022) led to a decline in cross-border
crimes by 40%, as per the Ministry of Home Affairs.
3. Strengthening institutional frameworks: Regular engagement through bilateral
agreements fosters trust and dialogue between the two nations.
o Eg: Land Boundary Agreement (2015) resolved the long-standing enclave
issue and promoted better relations.

Negative implications on bilateral relations

1. Tensions over unauthorized fencing: Lack of consultation on border projects

creates mistrust and opposition from Bangladesh.
o Eg: Allegations of unauthorized construction at five locations by BSF
(January 2025).
2. Civilian casualties: Incidents of cross-border killings by BSF escalate tensions and
damage goodwill.
o Eg: Killing of a Bangladeshi citizen at Sunamganj (2025) led to diplomatic
protests.
3. Perceived inequality in agreements: Claims of unequal border agreements
undermine the spirit of cooperation.
o Eg: Bangladesh criticized past border agreements (2010–2023) as biased
during the January 2025 diplomatic exchange.
4. Impact on local communities: Resistance from border residents to fencing
projects affects bilateral trust and implementation.
o Eg: Protests by locals in Sylhet against fencing initiatives (December 2024).

What can be done

74
 1. Improved consultation mechanisms: Enhance bilateral communication to avoid
unilateral actions like unauthorized fencing.
o Eg: Institutionalizing pre-construction dialogue under the BGB-BSF
framework.
2. Minimizing civilian casualties: Adopt non-lethal methods and stricter SOPs for
BSF personnel to prevent cross-border violence.
o Eg: Deployment of non-lethal weapons along sensitive border areas as per
ECI recommendations.
3. Community engagement: Actively involve local communities in border
management to address grievances and build trust.
o Eg: Use of community liaison groups under India-Bangladesh border area
programs.
4. Strengthen bilateral agreements: Address perceived inequalities through updates
and inclusivity in future border pacts.
o Eg: Revisiting terms of the Land Boundary Agreement to address current
challenges.

Conclusion

India’s border management policies must align with the principles of security, diplomacy,
and inclusivity to maintain strong bilateral ties with Bangladesh. A cooperative and
consultative approach is essential to foster mutual trust and regional stability.

Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving

India and/or affecting India’s interests.
Q. Analyze the potential implications of U.S.-Iran tensions on India’s energy
security and strategic interests in the West Asian region. (10 M)

Introduction

The escalating U.S.-Iran tensions, marked by sanctions and regional instability, profoundly
impact India’s energy security and strategic interests in West Asia, a region vital for
India’s economy and geopolitical strategy.

Body

Implications on India’s energy security

1. Reduction in affordable oil supplies: Iran was a key supplier of cheap crude, but
U.S. sanctions have forced India to rely on costlier alternatives.
o Eg: In 2018, India imported 10% of its oil from Iran, which fell to zero in
2019 due to sanctions.

75
 2. Increased vulnerability to price shocks: Instability in the Gulf, especially in the
Strait of Hormuz, raises global crude prices, directly impacting India.
o Eg: 17.5 million barrels of oil per day, constituting 30% of global oil trade,
transit through the Strait of Hormuz.
3. Shift in trade patterns: India is diversifying its energy partners but faces logistical
and cost challenges.
o Eg: India’s agreement with Russia in 2023 for increased oil imports faced
logistical hurdles, making Iranian supplies more viable.
4. Delay in energy projects: Sanctions have slowed progress on crucial energy
investments.
o Eg: The Farzad-B gas field project, signed in 2000, has yet to be
operationalized due to U.S.-Iran conflicts.

Strategic implications in West Asia

1. Challenges for Chabahar port: Sanctions impede development of the Chabahar

port, a critical project for India’s connectivity to Afghanistan and Central Asia.
o Eg: Despite sanctions exemptions for Chabahar (2020), financial
restrictions delay full operationalization.
2. Strained regional diplomacy: India must balance ties with Iran and U.S.-aligned
nations like Israel and Saudi Arabia.
o Eg: India maintained neutrality during Israel-Hamas tensions (2024) while
pursuing engagements with Iran.
3. Diaspora safety concerns: Regional instability endangers 8 million Indians in Gulf
nations and their $40 billion in remittances annually.
o Eg: Indian evacuation operations (2020) during Gulf conflicts showcased
the risks to expatriates.
4. Geopolitical ramifications: Escalating conflicts in the region disrupt India’s
investments and energy security strategies.
o Eg: Yemen’s Houthi conflict has threatened oil infrastructure critical for
India’s imports.

Way forward

1. Diversify energy sources: Expand partnerships with nations like Saudi Arabia, UAE,
and Russia to reduce dependency.
o Eg: India-UAE energy MoU (2023) focuses on renewable and conventional
energy cooperation.
2. Strengthen regional partnerships: Leverage multilateral frameworks like the
International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) for trade and
connectivity.
o Eg: INSTC ensures access to Central Asia via Iran, reducing reliance on
Gulf transit routes.

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 3. Expand energy storage and renewables: Enhance strategic petroleum reserves and
focus on renewable energy development.
o Eg: India’s strategic petroleum reserves (SPR) capacity rose to 5.33 million
tonnes (2024), providing buffer against price shocks.
4. Engage in regional diplomacy: Use platforms like the India-UAE-France trilateral
dialogue to mediate and ensure regional stability.
o Eg: India’s balanced role in Yemen peace talks (2023) showcased its
diplomatic credibility in the Gulf.

Conclusion

Navigating U.S.-Iran tensions requires India to adopt a multi-pronged approach that

ensures energy diversification, strengthens regional partnerships, and bolsters strategic
autonomy to safeguard its interests amidst shifting geopolitics.

Q. “The lack of a multilateral mechanism in South Asia is a major hindrance in

countering China’s influence”. Suggest a framework for regional cooperation to
address common security concerns. (15 M)

Introduction
South Asia’s absence of a cohesive multilateral mechanism limits its capacity to collectively
counter China's strategic and economic advances, leaving individual nations to navigate
challenges alone.

Body

The lack of a multilateral mechanism in South Asia

1. Political fragmentation: Deep-seated rivalries, especially India-Pakistan conflicts,

prevent the region from forming a unified front.
o Eg: The suspension of SAARC summits since 2014 due to unresolved
political disputes.
2. Bilateral over regional engagement: Nations prefer bilateral agreements with China,
weakening their collective bargaining power.
o Eg: Nepal-China Trade and Transit Agreement (2016) and similar pacts
bypass regional consensus.
3. Economic asymmetry: Smaller nations rely on China for economic assistance,
further discouraging regional collaboration.
o Eg: Sri Lanka’s Hambantota Port deal (2017) demonstrated China's
financial leverage in South Asia.
4. Institutional vacuum: Unlike Southeast Asia’s ASEAN or Mekong River
Commission, South Asia lacks robust institutions for shared challenges like water and
trade.

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 o Eg: Absence of regional mechanisms to address China's hydropower projects
on the Brahmaputra.

A major hindrance in countering China’s influence

1. Strategic encirclement: China's String of Pearls strategy places India under

geopolitical pressure, controlling critical maritime infrastructure.
o Eg: Chinese-operated Gwadar Port (Pakistan) and Hambantota Port (Sri
Lanka) enhance its Indian Ocean presence.
2. Unilateral control over resources: China’s upstream projects on transboundary
rivers create strategic vulnerabilities for downstream countries.
o Eg: The Yarlung Zangbo dam project could disrupt water and silt flow to
India and Bangladesh.
3. Economic dependency: Nations increasingly depend on China’s Belt and Road
Initiative (BRI) for infrastructure funding, reducing regional autonomy.
o Eg: CPEC (China-Pakistan Economic Corridor) strengthens China’s
foothold in South Asia.
4. Weak collective response: Lack of a unified platform hampers South Asia's ability to
counter China’s actions diplomatically or strategically.
o Eg: ASEAN’s joint stance on the South China Sea contrasts with South
Asia’s disunity.

Framework for regional cooperation to address common security concerns

A. Strengthening regional institutions

1. Revive and reform SAARC: Focus SAARC on non-political areas like water
sharing, disaster management, and trade.
o Eg: SAARC Disaster Management Centre (2016) is a successful model for
collaborative action.
2. Establish a South Asia Security Council: Create a dedicated forum to address
regional security issues, including border disputes and maritime security.
o Eg: Inspired by ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) for conflict resolution.

B. Economic integration

3. South Asia Development Bank: Set up a regional bank to fund infrastructure

projects, reducing dependency on Chinese investments.
o Eg: Similar to the Asian Development Bank (ADB) model.
4. Boost regional connectivity: Expedite projects like the BBIN Motor Vehicle
Agreement for seamless trade and transport.
o Eg: The Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal initiative is key to countering
China’s economic corridors.

C. Resource and water management

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 5. Transboundary water commission: Form a South Asia River Management
Commission to manage shared rivers and counter China’s unilateral projects.
o Eg: Modelled after the Mekong River Commission, ensuring equitable water
use.
6. Joint flood mitigation strategies: Establish regional early warning systems for
disasters caused by Chinese dam activities.
o Eg: India’s National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) expertise
can be scaled regionally.

D. Maritime and border security cooperation

7. South Asian Maritime Alliance: Create a regional pact for maritime security,
monitoring Chinese naval activities in the Indian Ocean.
o Eg: Align with the Quad framework for enhanced security coordination.
8. Joint military exercises: Conduct regular regional military drills to build
interoperability and trust.
o Eg: Expand participation in Milan Naval Exercises (2023).

E. Diplomatic coordination

9. Track-II diplomacy and confidence building: Engage civil society and think tanks
to foster regional trust and address political challenges.
o Eg: Initiatives by the Observer Research Foundation (ORF) in Track-II
dialogues.

Conclusion

South Asia must transcend its bilateral focus and adopt a collaborative framework to counter
China’s influence effectively. Strengthened regional institutions, integrated economic
initiatives, and coordinated security mechanisms are vital for a resilient and unified South
Asia.

Q. “India’s Act East Policy integrates cultural diplomacy, connectivity, and

strategic interests”. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s Act East Policy (AEP), launched in 1991, goes beyond economic integration to
incorporate cultural diplomacy, strategic partnerships, and connectivity projects aimed
at fostering ties with Southeast Asia and the Indo-Pacific.

Body

Cultural diplomacy

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 1. Promotion of shared heritage: India emphasizes its shared civilizational linkages
with Southeast Asia through Buddhism, Hinduism, and ancient trade routes.
o Eg: ASEAN-India Cultural Exchange Program promotes mutual
understanding through arts, language, and festivals.
2. Soft power initiatives: Institutions like the Nalanda University act as academic
bridges, reflecting India’s historical influence.
o Eg: Nalanda’s collaboration with ASEAN countries in academic exchanges.
3. Diaspora engagement: Over 9 million people of Indian origin in ASEAN serve as
cultural ambassadors strengthening ties.
o Eg: Regular Pravasi Bharatiya Divas hosted in ASEAN nations.

Connectivity

1. Physical infrastructure projects: India focuses on connecting with ASEAN through

road, rail, and maritime projects.
o Eg: India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway, expected to be fully
operational by 2027.
2. Maritime connectivity: Developing the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport
Project to facilitate trade via Myanmar.
o Eg: Sittwe Port in Myanmar, operationalized in 2023, enhances India’s
access to ASEAN markets.
3. Digital connectivity: Collaborations in technology and fintech under the ASEAN-
India ICT Cooperation Program.
o Eg: India’s Digital India program aiding Southeast Asian nations in e-
governance.

Strategic interests

1. Countering China’s influence: India’s engagement strengthens its presence in

Southeast Asia, providing a counterbalance to China’s Belt and Road Initiative
(BRI).
o Eg: India’s free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific vision aligns with
ASEAN’s outlook on the Indo-Pacific.
2. Defence collaboration: Regular joint military exercises and defense agreements
bolster strategic ties.
o Eg: SIMBEX naval exercise with Singapore.
3. Energy security: India collaborates with ASEAN for sustainable energy and reducing
dependence on fossil fuels.
o Eg: Investments in renewable energy projects in ASEAN under the
International Solar Alliance.

Challenges associated

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 1. Slow implementation of projects: Delays in executing critical projects like the
Trilateral Highway hinder progress.
2. China’s geopolitical pressure: India faces competition from China’s economic and
military influence in the region.
3. Funding constraints: High costs and resource constraints limit India’s ability to meet
ASEAN’s infrastructure needs.
4. Differing priorities: ASEAN nations’ varied strategic priorities sometimes dilute
collective engagement.

Way forward

1. Prioritize project execution: Streamline and fast-track connectivity projects to

strengthen physical and economic integration.
o Eg: Early completion of the Trilateral Highway by ensuring multi-
stakeholder collaboration.
2. Enhance maritime cooperation: Leverage SAGAR (Security and Growth for All
in the Region) vision to bolster maritime security and trade.
o Eg: Joint development of blue economy projects with ASEAN.
3. Strengthen multilateral forums: Enhance India’s participation in ASEAN-led
platforms like the East Asia Summit and RCEP negotiations.
o Eg: Utilize ASEAN-India Strategic Partnership to push trade reforms.
4. Expand cultural outreach: Boost people-to-people ties through education and
tourism exchange programs.
o Eg: Increase ASEAN scholarships under the Indian Council for Cultural
Relations (ICCR).

Conclusion

India’s Act East Policy holds transformative potential to foster regional stability, economic
prosperity, and cultural harmony. By addressing challenges and enhancing partnerships, it
can serve as a cornerstone of India’s Indo-Pacific vision, driving global peace and
development.

Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing

countries on India’s interests, Indian diaspora.
Q. How do current climate governance mechanisms fail to reflect the socio-
economic priorities of the Global South? Suggest alternatives to make these
mechanisms more inclusive. (10 M)

Introduction

Global climate governance has often favoured developed nations, sidelining the socio-
economic needs of the Global South, which faces immediate threats from climate change.
This imbalance has perpetuated inequality and hindered sustainable development.

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Body

Failures of current climate governance mechanisms

1. Mitigation focus over adaptation: Policies emphasize reducing emissions over

funding adaptation measures, neglecting the immediate needs of vulnerable nations.
o Eg: The Global South, like Small Island States, struggles with rising sea
levels, while adaptation funding remains only 21% of total climate finance
(UNEP Adaptation Gap Report 2023).
2. Inadequate climate finance: Developed nations have failed to deliver the promised
$100 billion annually, delaying key projects in developing nations.
o Eg: Only $83 billion was mobilized in 2020, leading to stalled climate action
in resource-constrained regions (OECD Climate Finance Report 2022).
3. Inequitable carbon pricing: Policies like carbon taxes disproportionately affect
fossil fuel-dependent economies in the Global South, increasing trade barriers.
o Eg: The EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism negatively impacts
exports from countries like India and Brazil.
4. Technology transfer barriers: High costs and restrictive patents prevent developing
nations from accessing critical clean energy technologies.
o Eg: African nations face delays in deploying solar and wind energy
technologies due to prohibitive licensing costs.
5. Dominance of G7 in governance: The agenda is dictated by developed nations,
limiting the voice of the Global South in decision-making.
o Eg: The Paris Agreement rules were finalized without adequately addressing
the needs of vulnerable countries.

Alternatives for making mechanisms more inclusive

1. Binding climate finance commitments: Mandate predictable and adequate funding

from developed nations to bridge the existing financial gap.
o Eg: Proposals at COP29 (2024) called for a $300 billion facility to support
adaptation projects in vulnerable regions.
2. Localized adaptation frameworks: Empower regional solutions tailored to address
unique vulnerabilities in the Global South.
o Eg: India’s State Action Plans on Climate Change under the NAPCC focus
on specific regional needs like water and agriculture.
3. Focus on just transition: Integrate equity and economic justice into climate policies
to balance development needs with environmental goals.
o Eg: The Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) of 72 countries now
emphasize just transition as a core principle.
4. Affordable technology transfer: Simplify global patent regulations to ensure the
availability of low-cost, clean energy technologies.
o Eg: The International Solar Alliance (ISA) promotes affordable solar energy
solutions in developing nations.

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 5. Equitable representation in decision-making: Rebalance global platforms to give
greater influence to the Global South in climate negotiations.
o Eg: Strengthen forums like BRICS to counter G7-dominated narratives and
prioritize sustainable development in emerging economies.
6. Dedicated adaptation funds: Establish robust funding mechanisms specifically for
adaptation projects in the most vulnerable regions.
o Eg: Scaling up the Adaptation Fund, which has supported projects in South
Asia and Africa, can address urgent needs.

Conclusion

To ensure inclusive and equitable climate governance, mechanisms must prioritize the
realities of the Global South by focusing on justice, representation, and access to
resources. A collaborative framework led by emerging economies can drive sustainable
global progress.

Q. Analyze the role of the Indo-US nuclear deal in countering China’s increasing
dominance in the global nuclear technology space. How can this collaboration
contribute to India’s diplomatic outreach? (10 M)

Introduction

The Indo-US nuclear deal (2008) marked a turning point in India’s global integration in
civil nuclear technology. As China aggressively advances its nuclear exports, particularly in
small modular reactors (SMRs), the Indo-US nuclear partnership offers India a strategic
pathway to counter Beijing’s dominance while strengthening its own global influence.

Body

Role of Indo-US nuclear deal in countering China’s dominance

1. Access to advanced nuclear technologies: The deal grants India access to light
water reactor (LWR) technology, addressing its technological limitations and
enabling global competitiveness.
o Eg: The planned construction of six Westinghouse reactors in Andhra
Pradesh enhances India’s global standing in nuclear energy.
2. Competitive manufacturing of nuclear components: Joint Indo-US ventures
empower India to co-produce critical nuclear components, including small modular
reactors (SMRs), at cost-effective scales.
o Eg: Collaboration under the iCET initiative focuses on SMR production,
countering China’s leadership in this space.
3. Boosting global clean energy leadership: The deal supports India’s clean energy
transition, offering a counter-narrative to China’s coal-heavy energy diplomacy.

83
 o Eg: India’s goal of 22 GW nuclear capacity by 2031 underscores its
commitment to clean energy solutions (Source: Department of Atomic
Energy).
4. Countering China in the Global South: India can leverage its partnership with the
US to offer cost-efficient nuclear solutions to developing nations, challenging China’s
SMR exports.
o Eg: China’s Hualong One reactors have been exported to Kenya and
Pakistan, necessitating India’s competitive presence.
5. Strategic alignment with democracies: The deal strengthens India’s alignment with
democratic powers like the US, enhancing its role in multilateral frameworks like
Quad and G7.
o Eg: The 2024 Quad Summit prioritized nuclear collaboration to
counterbalance China’s regional ambitions.

How the collaboration contributes to India’s diplomatic outreach

1. Enhancing nuclear credibility: The partnership bolsters India’s reputation as a

responsible nuclear power, aligning with IAEA standards and advancing its case for
NSG membership.
o Eg: India’s involvement in the IAEA SMR Development Initiative (2023)
highlights its growing leadership in nuclear diplomacy.
2. Strengthening energy partnerships with the Global South: By offering affordable
nuclear solutions, India can deepen its ties with developing nations, strengthening
South-South Cooperation.
o Eg: Plans to export SMRs to Bangladesh and Sri Lanka boost India’s
regional influence.
3. Providing alternatives to Chinese projects: Indo-US collaboration allows India to
present itself as a viable alternative to China’s nuclear exports in Africa and Southeast
Asia.
o Eg: Proposed nuclear energy projects in Vietnam and Indonesia enhance
India’s diplomatic outreach.
4. Promoting sustainable energy leadership: By leveraging nuclear collaboration,
India can position itself as a leader in global energy transition efforts, addressing
climate challenges.
o Eg: India’s clean energy leadership was showcased at COP28, emphasizing
nuclear energy’s role in reducing carbon emissions.
5. Deepening Indo-US strategic ties: The partnership strengthens India’s position as a
key US ally, showcasing its ability to counter China’s influence globally.
o Eg: The US-India iCET initiative has prioritized nuclear energy as a core
area of cooperation.

Conclusion

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The Indo-US nuclear deal is more than an energy agreement; it is a strategic tool to counter
China’s growing nuclear dominance while bolstering India’s global leadership. By
leveraging this partnership, India can enhance its technological prowess, deepen ties with the
Global South, and emerge as a key player in the clean energy revolution and global
diplomacy.

Q. How does Pravasi Bharatiya Divas serve as a platform to engage the Indian
diaspora? Examine its impact on India's global soft power. (10 M)

Introduction

The Indian diaspora, at 32 million strong (MEA, 2022), acts as a bridge between India and
the world. Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD) honors this connection and strengthens diaspora
engagement for India’s growth.

Body

Pravasi Bharatiya Divas as a platform to engage the Indian diaspora

1. Policy dialogue and feedback mechanisms: Provides a direct platform for the
diaspora to voice concerns and offer insights into policies impacting them.
o Eg: 2023 PBD in Indore saw discussions on global trade and India's role in
the "Amrit Kaal" vision.
2. Recognition of contributions: The Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Awards highlight
achievements in diverse sectors, motivating more diaspora involvement.
o Eg: Awardees in 2023 included global contributors in education, healthcare,
and philanthropy.
3. Investment and entrepreneurship opportunities: PBD invites the diaspora to
contribute to India's economic growth through investment summits and business
networking.
o Eg: The 2025 PBD in Bhubaneswar highlighted Odisha's industrial potential
and NRIs' involvement in the Odisha Startup Policy.
4. Youth engagement for future collaboration: Dedicated sessions like Youth
Pravasi Bharatiya Divas focus on reconnecting diaspora youth with Indian culture
and policies.
o Eg: The 2025 PBD encouraged youth to explore heritage through the Pravasi
Bharatiya Express initiative.
5. Showcasing cultural and historical connections: Curated exhibitions and cultural
events deepen the diaspora’s sense of belonging.
o Eg: The Mandvi to Muscat exhibition (2025) depicted historical migration
and its impact on global connections.

Impact on India's global soft power

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 1. Cultural diplomacy through heritage promotion: PBD strengthens India’s image
as a cultural powerhouse by celebrating its diversity and historical contributions.
o Eg: The Vishwaroop Ram - Legacy of Ramayana exhibition (2025)
attracted international attention to India’s shared cultural ethos.
2. Diaspora as goodwill ambassadors: Diaspora members act as informal
representatives of India, strengthening bilateral and multilateral ties.
o Eg: Gulf nations' engagement with Indian-origin business leaders supports
economic ties and cultural exchanges.
3. Strengthening technological leadership: The diaspora contributes to innovation and
India's global reputation as a technology hub.
o Eg: Indian-origin CEOs like Sundar Pichai (Google) and Satya Nadella
(Microsoft) exemplify this leadership.
4. Boosting sustainable development initiatives: The diaspora aids in achieving
India’s SDG commitments, particularly in climate resilience and green energy.
o Eg: Collaborative green projects with diaspora-driven organizations under the
Pravasi Teertha Darshan Yojana.
5. Elevating India’s image as an inclusive nation: PBD projects India as a nation that
values its diaspora, reinforcing the idea of shared progress.
o Eg: Launch of Pravasi Bharatiya Express (2025) for cultural and religious
tourism strengthens ties with diaspora communities.

Conclusion

Pravasi Bharatiya Divas is not just a celebration of heritage but a strategic initiative to
harness diaspora potential. It exemplifies India's vision for a globalized yet rooted identity
in its quest for becoming a Viksit Bharat.

Q. “The Russia-Ukraine war poses new challenges to India-Russia relations,

especially in protecting Indian nationals”. Discuss the diplomatic steps India can
take to address such concerns. (10 M)

Introduction

The Russia-Ukraine war has presented new challenges for India-Russia relations, requiring
careful balancing of historical ties with Russia and the safety of Indian nationals. The
recruitment and casualties of Indians in the Russian military highlight this growing concern.

Body

Challenges to India-Russia relations due to the Russia-Ukraine war

1. Safety concerns for Indian nationals: Recruitment of Indian nationals into the
Russian military exposes them to physical harm and diplomatic complexities.
o Eg: The death of a Kerala youth in January 2025 in the Russian military and
injuries to another.
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 2. Pressure on India’s neutral stance: Protecting Indian nationals in Russia while
maintaining a neutral stance on the war increases diplomatic tensions.
o Eg: India’s abstentions at the UN General Assembly on resolutions
condemning Russia faced global scrutiny.
3. Erosion of diaspora security: Indians residing in conflict zones face risks,
complicating evacuation and support.
o Eg: The Operation Ganga evacuation (2022) showed the challenges of
ensuring diaspora safety during crises.
4. Risk to bilateral goodwill: Persistent demands for Indian nationals' discharge from
the Russian military could strain long-standing strategic ties.
o Eg: India’s diplomatic requests to Russia for the safe return of Indian
nationals.
5. Economic and strategic complications: The war affects India’s dependence on
Russian energy imports while navigating Western sanctions.
o Eg: India’s purchase of discounted Russian oil was criticized by Western
countries.

Diplomatic steps India can take to address these concerns

1. Strengthened consular engagement: Proactively engage with Russian authorities to

ensure safe repatriation and support for affected Indian nationals.
o Eg: The Indian embassy in Moscow facilitated communication with families
of the deceased and injured in 2025.
2. Awareness campaigns for nationals abroad: Issue targeted advisories to Indian
citizens about the risks of foreign military recruitment.
o Eg: Advisories issued during the Middle East conflicts to prevent similar
challenges.
3. Utilizing bilateral mechanisms: Leverage historic ties to address citizen safety
concerns without straining diplomatic goodwill.
o Eg: India-Russia Inter-Governmental Commission (2024) could include
citizen safety in discussions.
4. Humanitarian advocacy: Advocate the use of international humanitarian law to
protect civilians in war zones, including Indian nationals.
o Eg: Referencing the Geneva Conventions to demand non-combatant
protections.
5. Regional multilateral engagement: Propose mechanisms in organizations like SCO
for coordinated diaspora safety measures during conflicts.
o Eg: Using India’s influence in SCO to create frameworks for citizen safety
in conflict zones.

Conclusion

India’s approach to the Russia-Ukraine war must prioritize the safety of its nationals while
maintaining its long-standing strategic ties with Russia. Proactive diplomacy, leveraging

87
international platforms, and strengthening consular mechanisms are essential to navigate
these emerging challenges effectively.

Q. What are the key areas of cooperation between India and the European Union
in trade and technology, and how do they contribute to strengthening bilateral
economic ties? (10 M)

Introduction
India and the European Union (EU) share a strategic economic partnership aimed at
enhancing trade and technology cooperation. Strengthening these ties is crucial to achieving
sustainable development, securing supply chains, and driving innovation in both
economies.

Body

Key areas of cooperation between India and the EU

1. Free Trade Agreement (FTA) negotiations: Ongoing discussions aim to remove

trade barriers, enhance market access, and create a level playing field.
o Eg: India and the EU resumed FTA negotiations in 2022, focusing on sectors
such as pharmaceuticals and services (Ministry of Commerce, 2024).
2. Critical raw materials partnership: Collaboration to ensure a stable supply of
essential minerals for key industries like electronics and renewable energy.
o Eg: India and the EU signed a Critical Raw Materials Partnership in 2023,
focusing on securing lithium and rare earth elements.
3. Green energy and sustainability: Joint efforts in renewable energy, circular
economy, and climate-resilient infrastructure to achieve carbon neutrality.
o Eg: India's National Hydrogen Mission and the EU's Green Deal align to
promote clean energy solutions.
4. Digital transformation: Cooperation in cybersecurity, artificial intelligence, and data
governance to harness the potential of emerging technologies.
o Eg: The establishment of the India-EU Trade and Technology Council
(TTC) in 2022 to facilitate digital policy alignment.
5. Standards harmonization: Alignment of regulatory standards to ease trade
facilitation and promote seamless business operations.
o Eg: Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and European Committee for
Standardization (CEN) are working on mutual recognition agreements.
6. Investment and innovation collaboration: Encouraging EU investments in India's
priority sectors, including healthcare, manufacturing, and infrastructure.
o Eg: The EU is India's third-largest trading partner, with bilateral trade
reaching €120 billion in 2023 (DGFT, 2024).

Contribution to strengthening bilateral economic ties

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 1. Trade diversification: Expanding economic opportunities for Indian businesses
while offering the EU a reliable alternative manufacturing hub.
o Eg: India’s expanding textile and pharmaceutical exports to the EU have
increased by 18% in 2023.
2. Supply chain resilience: Joint efforts help reduce dependency on other economies,
ensuring stable and diversified supply chains.
o Eg: Collaboration in semi-conductor production aims to make both
economies more self-reliant.
3. Employment generation: Enhanced cooperation leads to the creation of skilled jobs
and facilitates capacity building for India's workforce.
o Eg: The EU-India Skill Partnership Initiative supports skill development in
high-demand sectors.
4. Technological advancement: Partnerships foster the transfer of cutting-edge
technology, boosting innovation in key sectors.
o Eg: India's tech startups benefit from collaborations in AI and blockchain
technologies with European firms.
5. Sustainable economic growth: Joint initiatives support long-term economic
development through investment in green technologies and digital infrastructure.
o Eg: The India-EU partnership in renewable energy projects promotes
sustainable urban development.
6. Geopolitical alignment: Closer trade and technology cooperation enhance India's
strategic positioning in global trade negotiations and economic diplomacy.
o Eg: India's engagement with the EU strengthens its influence in multilateral
forums like the WTO and G20.

Conclusion
India-EU cooperation in trade and technology presents vast opportunities to strengthen
economic ties, boost innovation, and enhance global competitiveness. A balanced
approach focusing on mutual growth, sustainability, and strategic partnerships will
further solidify this relationship.

Q. BRICS nations have initiated discussions on alternatives to the US dollar in

global trade. Discuss the opportunities and challenges this poses for India’s
foreign policy. (15 M)

Introduction
BRICS countries, comprising over 40% of the global population and 25% of global GDP,
are exploring alternatives to the US dollar to reduce reliance on a dollar-dominated financial
system. These efforts are driven by geopolitical compulsions and the need for economic
sovereignty.

Body

BRICS discussions on alternatives to the US dollar in global trade

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 1. Local currency trade settlements: Initiatives to settle international trade in national
currencies aim to bypass the dollar.
o Eg: In 2022, India and Russia began settling bilateral trade in INR and rubles
via Vostro accounts, enabling smoother payments amid Western sanctions on
Russia.
2. BRICS currency proposal: Discussions for a common currency aim to reduce trade
vulnerabilities.
o Eg: At the 2023 BRICS Summit in Johannesburg, Brazilian President Lula
proposed creating a BRICS currency to enhance trade flexibility and reduce
dollar dependence.
3. New financial mechanisms: BRICS has created institutions to support trade
diversification and reduce reliance on dollar-based financial systems.
o Eg: The New Development Bank (NDB), headquartered in Shanghai, funds
development projects using alternative currencies to the USD.
4. Curbing dollar dominance: US sanctions have amplified efforts to diversify global
trade mechanisms.
o Eg: After the US removed Russia from SWIFT in 2022, Russia and China
increased trade settlements in yuan, influencing BRICS discussions.

Opportunities this poses for India’s foreign policy

1. Economic sovereignty: Reducing dollar reliance mitigates vulnerabilities to sanctions

and global currency fluctuations.
o Eg: US sanctions on Iran and Russia disrupted energy imports; trade in INR
helped India secure critical oil supplies.
2. Internationalization of the rupee: Trading in INR can bolster the rupee’s global
standing, reducing forex volatility.
o Eg: In 2022, RBI permitted 17 countries, including Germany and UAE, to
settle trade in INR, promoting rupee acceptance.
3. Geopolitical flexibility: Diversifying trade mechanisms strengthens India’s
negotiating power in a multipolar financial order.
o Eg: At the 2024 Kazan Summit, India supported BRICS financial integration
while clarifying its non-confrontational stance toward the US.
4. Strengthening South-South cooperation: Promoting financial alternatives aligns
with India's leadership in the Global South.
o Eg: BRICS-Africa partnerships on trade mechanisms showcase India's
commitment to empowering developing nations.
5. Reduced US policy impact: Shielding trade from Federal Reserve policies helps
stabilize domestic markets.
o Eg: US interest rate hikes in 2023 led to capital outflows, emphasizing the
need for diversified trade currencies.

Challenges this poses for India’s foreign policy

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 1. Geopolitical pressure from the West: De-dollarisation could strain India’s relations
with Western allies like the US.
o Eg: In 2025, President Donald Trump threatened 100% tariffs on BRICS
nations discussing alternative currencies, complicating India’s economic ties
with the US.
2. Dominance of the Chinese yuan: China’s economic power could skew BRICS
initiatives in its favor, undermining India's financial autonomy.
o Eg: 90% of Russia-China trade is settled in yuan, highlighting concerns
over China’s growing influence.
3. Low global rupee acceptance: Limited adoption of INR in global trade challenges its
role as a reliable currency.
o Eg: As of 2024, INR constitutes less than 1% of global forex reserves,
compared to 60% for USD (IMF data).
4. Economic asymmetry in BRICS: Disparities in economic size and financial policies
among members complicate consensus.
o Eg: China’s GDP is nearly 5 times larger than India’s, influencing its
dominance in BRICS financial frameworks.
5. Logistical and technical barriers: Building robust alternatives to the dollar requires
significant infrastructure and coordination.
o Eg: The proposed BRICS Payment System to bypass SWIFT is still under
discussion, limiting its immediate impact.
6. Risk of trade instability: Transitioning to new financial mechanisms without
established trust could disrupt existing trade flows.
o Eg: Global exporters still prefer USD due to its stability and liquidity,
making alternatives less viable.

Conclusion
India must pursue a pragmatic foreign policy by supporting BRICS initiatives to enhance
financial resilience while maintaining constructive ties with the US and Western economies.
Strengthening INR-backed trade and investing in robust payment infrastructure will ensure
strategic autonomy and economic security in a multipolar financial world.

Q. “ASEAN’s centrality is crucial for maintaining regional stability in the Indo-

Pacific”.Analyze the challenges ASEAN faces in sustaining its centrality amidst
US-China rivalry and suggest how India can support ASEAN in this regard. (15
M)

Introduction

ASEAN, as a cornerstone of regional multilateralism, plays a pivotal role in maintaining

peace, stability, and inclusivity in the Indo-Pacific amidst intensifying geopolitical rivalries.

Body

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ASEAN’s centrality is crucial for maintaining regional stability in the Indo-Pacific

1. Platform for multilateral dialogue: ASEAN serves as a neutral ground for dialogue
among major powers, mitigating tensions and promoting diplomacy.
o Eg: The East Asia Summit and ASEAN Regional Forum facilitate
engagement among the US, China, and other stakeholders.
2. Economic integration: Through initiatives like the ASEAN Economic Community
(AEC), ASEAN drives regional trade and economic stability.
o Eg: ASEAN accounted for 7.4% of global GDP in 2022 (World Bank).
3. Rule-based regional order: ASEAN’s emphasis on international law ensures
stability and deters unilateralism in the region.
o Eg: ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific (AOIP) advocates respect for
UNCLOS in the South China Sea.
4. Balancing power rivalries: ASEAN's centrality ensures a balanced approach to US-
China competition without alienating either power.
o Eg: ASEAN’s dialogue partnerships with both the US and China facilitate
balanced engagement.
5. Humanitarian and environmental leadership: ASEAN addresses transnational
issues like disaster management and climate change, crucial for regional resilience.
o Eg: The ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency
Response (AADMER) has been instrumental in addressing crises.

Challenges ASEAN faces in sustaining its centrality amidst US-China rivalry

1. Geopolitical polarization: The intensifying rivalry between the US and China

pressures ASEAN to take sides, threatening its neutrality.
o Eg: China’s assertiveness in the South China Sea and US’s Indo-Pacific
strategy often divide ASEAN members.
2. Internal divisions: Differing national priorities among member states hinder
consensus-building and collective action.
o Eg: Cambodia’s pro-China stance has impeded ASEAN’s unified response on
maritime disputes.
3. Economic vulnerabilities: Heavy economic dependence on both the US and China
exposes ASEAN to trade disruptions and coercive policies.
o Eg: US-China trade war affected ASEAN’s export markets, particularly in
Vietnam and Thailand.
4. Erosion of multilateral processes: Reduced US commitment to ASEAN-centric
platforms, especially during Trump’s tenure, undermines ASEAN’s influence.
o Eg: The US did not appoint an ASEAN ambassador during Trump’s
administration (2016–2020).
5. Non-traditional security threats: Issues like climate change, cyber threats, and
pandemics require multilateral responses, straining ASEAN’s limited institutional
capacity.

92
 o Eg: COVID-19 exposed gaps in ASEAN Comprehensive Recovery
Framework implementation.

How India can support ASEAN in sustaining its centrality

1. Strengthening regional connectivity: India can boost infrastructure and digital

connectivity through initiatives like the India-ASEAN Connectivity Plan.
o Eg: The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway facilitates better
integration with ASEAN.
2. Defending a rules-based order: India’s commitment to UNCLOS aligns with
ASEAN’s principles for a stable Indo-Pacific.
o Eg: India’s support for ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific reinforces its
maritime policies.
3. Expanding economic engagement: India can deepen trade ties by enhancing the
ASEAN-India Free Trade Agreement (AIFTA).
o Eg: ASEAN is India’s fourth-largest trading partner, with bilateral trade
reaching $100 billion in 2022.
4. Strengthening defence cooperation: India can enhance joint military exercises and
defence dialogues with ASEAN.
o Eg: MILAN naval exercises and the India-ASEAN Defence Ministers’
Meeting bolster security cooperation.
5. Promoting multilateralism: India’s active participation in ASEAN-led platforms like
the East Asia Summit and ADMM-Plus strengthens ASEAN’s centrality.
o Eg: India’s role in the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF)
complements ASEAN’s economic recovery goals.

Conclusion

ASEAN’s centrality is indispensable for a peaceful and stable Indo-Pacific, but sustaining it
requires greater collective resilience and balanced engagement with major powers. India,
with its Act East Policy and shared commitment to multilateralism, can play a key role in
ensuring ASEAN remains a vital player in shaping the region’s future amidst growing global
complexities.

Important International institutions, agencies and fora - their

structure, mandate.
Q. Analyze the financial and structural challenges that the WHO is likely to face
following the US withdrawal. How can emerging economies, including India, play
a more proactive role in bridging these gaps? (15 M)

Introduction

The withdrawal of the United States from the World Health Organization (WHO) poses
significant financial and structural challenges, impacting global health programs and

93
multilateral cooperation. Emerging economies, including India, have a crucial role in
ensuring continuity and equitable health governance.

Body

Financial Challenges Following the US Withdrawal

1. Funding shortfall: The loss of US contributions significantly affects WHO’s budget,

reducing its operational capacity.
o Eg: The US accounted for 22.5% of assessed contributions and 13% of
voluntary contributions, totaling around USD 494 million in 2023 (WHO
Report, 2024).
2. Increased dependence on unpredictable voluntary funding: With assessed
contributions stagnant, WHO may have to rely more on voluntary funding from
uncertain sources.
o Eg: Private donors like the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation now
contribute nearly 10% of WHO's budget, raising concerns over undue
influence.
3. Resource allocation challenges: Reduced funding can impact the equitable
distribution of resources, especially in low-income countries.
o Eg: Cuts to WHO programs could affect malaria control efforts in Sub-
Saharan Africa, where WHO plays a vital role in providing medicines and
diagnostics.
4. Disruptions in pandemic preparedness funding: WHO’s ability to finance future
health emergencies may weaken, delaying rapid response capabilities.
o Eg: The US exit could stall the development of the Pandemic Treaty, aimed
at strengthening global cooperation on outbreak response.
5. Impact on ongoing health programs: Reduced funding could hinder progress in
combating communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria.
o Eg: WHO’s Global TB Program, which receives significant US funding, may
face setbacks in achieving its targets for 2030 under SDG-3.

Structural Challenges Following the US Withdrawal

1. Loss of technical expertise: US institutions like the CDC provided crucial technical
assistance in disease surveillance and outbreak response.
o Eg: The withdrawal could impact WHO’s ability to monitor emerging
infectious diseases, such as avian influenza and antimicrobial resistance.
2. Weakened global coordination: The absence of US leadership may affect global
policy coordination and hinder multilateral decision-making.
o Eg: The absence of the US in the Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA)
could slow down international response to health threats.
3. Shift in geopolitical influence: The exit of the US may allow other powers,
particularly China, to exert greater influence over WHO's policy decisions.

94
 o Eg: China’s increased financial contributions could steer focus towards Asia-
centric health priorities, potentially sidelining African and Latin American
needs.
4. Operational disruptions: Programs relying heavily on US funding and expertise may
face implementation challenges, affecting healthcare delivery.
o Eg: WHO's Essential Medicines Program, which guides procurement
policies in developing countries, may experience gaps in execution.
5. Challenges in research collaborations: Reduced participation of US institutions
could slow progress in medical research and innovation.
o Eg: Collaborations between WHO and top US universities, such as Harvard
and Johns Hopkins, in vaccine development may be affected.

Emerging Economies, Including India, Can Bridge These Gaps

1. Increased financial contributions: India and other emerging economies can enhance
their funding commitments to support WHO’s initiatives.
o Eg: India recently increased its contribution to WHO by 25% in 2023,
focusing on universal immunization programs under Mission Indradhanush.
2. Leveraging multilateral platforms: Countries can utilize forums like G20 and
BRICS to collectively address health funding and policy challenges.
o Eg: India led discussions on global health financing at the G20 Health
Working Group in 2023.
3. Expanding South-South cooperation: Strengthening regional health collaborations
to share resources and expertise can mitigate the impact.
o Eg: India's Vaccine Maitri initiative provided COVID-19 vaccines to over
90 countries, strengthening global health ties.
4. Promoting indigenous healthcare models: Emerging economies can offer cost-
effective and scalable healthcare solutions to WHO.
o Eg: India’s AYUSH system provides affordable preventive care models that
WHO can adopt in low-resource settings.
5. Public-private partnerships: Governments can collaborate with the private sector to
bridge financial and technological gaps.
o Eg: India’s partnership with Serum Institute of India, a leading vaccine
producer, can support WHO’s global immunization goals.

Conclusion

The US withdrawal from WHO presents financial and structural challenges, but it also
offers an opportunity for emerging economies to assume a leadership role in global
health governance by increasing financial contributions, fostering partnerships, and
advocating for equitable health policies.

95
 Secure Synopsis compilation for February-2025
General Studies-2
Table of contents

Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments,

significant provisions and basic structure. ----------------------------------------------------------- 5
Q. Analyze the implications of arbitrary police actions on freedom of speech and expression
in India. What measures can be taken to safeguard democratic rights? (10 M) ------------------- 5
Q. Discuss how the philosophical foundations of the Indian Constitution reflect a synthesis of
diverse historical and ideological influences. (10 M) -------------------------------------------------------- 6
Q. Examine the legal and constitutional implications of the recent High Court ruling that
extends marital rape immunity to Section 377. How does this judgment affect the legal
recourse available to women against non-consensual sexual acts within marriage? (15 M) ---- 8
Q. “The imposition of gag orders as a condition for bail amounts to a prior restraint on free
speech”. Discuss the constitutional validity of such restrictions in light of judicial
pronouncements. (15 M)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
Q. “The power to impose Internet shutdowns must be exercised with caution, as it directly
impacts the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression”. Comment. (10 M) ----- 12
Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges
pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of powers and finances up to local levels and
challenges therein.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
Q. President’s Rule is often criticized for weakening the principles of cooperative federalism.
Do you agree? Substantiate your answer with relevant examples. (10 M) -------------------------- 14
Q. Discuss the historical context and rationale behind the creation of Zonal Councils in India.
How have they contributed to mitigating linguistic and inter-state tensions?(15 M) ------------ 15
Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal mechanisms and
institutions.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
Q. Discuss the impact of the Governor’s role in legislative matters on the doctrine of
parliamentary sovereignty. Should Governors have a fixed time limit for granting or
withholding assent? Justify your answer. (15 M)------------------------------------------------------------ 17
Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries. --------------20
Parliament and State legislatures—structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers &
privileges and issues arising out of these. -----------------------------------------------------------20

1
 Q. “The Motion of Thanks is not merely a parliamentary formality but a vital tool for
ensuring executive accountability”. Critically analyze its role in enhancing democratic
governance in India. (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Q. Discuss the structural barriers within India’s political framework that hinder meaningful
youth participation. Analyze how enhanced youth involvement in politics can contribute to
addressing emerging governance challenges in the country. (10 M) ---------------------------------- 22
Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary—Ministries
and Departments of the Government; pressure groups and formal/informal associations
and their role in the Polity. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------23
Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act. -------------------------------------------23
Q. Should India enact a law to regulate electoral promises involving freebies? Critically
evaluate the need for such a legal framework. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------- 23
Q. “Elections in India are free, but fairness remains a question”. In light of this statement,
critically evaluate the systemic flaws in India’s electoral process and suggest comprehensive
reforms. (15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
Q. Critically evaluate the argument that delimitation based on recent census data
disproportionately benefits northern states at the cost of southern states. (15 M) ---------------- 27
Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of
various Constitutional Bodies.-------------------------------------------------------------------------29
Q. Judicial pronouncements have played a crucial role in shaping the autonomy of the
Election Commission of India. Examine whether the legislature’s response to these rulings
strengthens or weakens institutional independence. (15 M) --------------------------------------------- 29
Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.------------------------------------------32
Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues
arising out of their design and implementation. ---------------------------------------------------32
Development processes and the development industry —the role of NGOs, SHGs, various
groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders. -----------32
Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the
performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for
the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections. --------------------------------------32
Q. The death penalty is often seen as a deterrent to crimes, yet global and national studies
indicate otherwise. Assess the effectiveness of capital punishment in addressing violent crimes
and suggest alternative policy measures. (15 M)------------------------------------------------------------- 32
Q. Evaluate the implementation of the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 in India. Examine the
legal and administrative hurdles faced in its enforcement. Suggest institutional reforms to
strengthen the recognition of Community Forest Resource (CFR) rights. (15 M) ---------------- 34
Q. Evaluate the role of remission in reducing the burden on the criminal justice system.
Examine the possible risks of arbitrary or en masse remission. Suggest measures to ensure a
fair and transparent remission process. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------------- 36
Q. Human smuggling is a major governance challenge that requires robust legal and
institutional mechanisms. Analyze the lacunae in India’s existing legal framework and
suggest measures to strengthen anti-human smuggling laws. (15 M) --------------------------------- 39

2
 Q. “Reducing the age of consent will weaken the safeguards against child trafficking and
child marriage”. Discuss. (10 M)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41
Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to
Health, Education, Human Resources. --------------------------------------------------------------42
Q. “Teachers play a pivotal role in shaping learning outcomes and the overall quality of
education”. Examine the key challenges faced by school teachers in India and suggest
measures to enhance their effectiveness. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------- 42
Q. Analyze the effectiveness of the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) in
promoting quality assurance in higher education. Examine the loopholes in the current
system and suggest policy interventions for robust accreditation mechanisms. (15 M) --------- 45
Q. Despite being the fifth-largest economy, India’s private sector investment in R&D remains
significantly lower than global peers. Analyze the structural challenges inhibiting private
sector-led research and innovation. (10 M)-------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
Q. “A National Skill Census is not just a data collection exercise but a crucial policy tool for
governance”. Comment. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49
Q. What are the key factors contributing to the decline in school enrolment in India over the
past decade? Analyze the socio-economic implications of this trend. (10 M) ----------------------- 50
Q. The increasing participation of women in the teaching workforce is not just about gender
equity but a fundamental reform in education. Comment. (15 M) ------------------------------------ 52
Q. The transition from learning outcomes to curricular outputs is not just a pedagogical shift
but a socio-economic imperative for India. Discuss with reference to employment generation,
social mobility, and educational equity. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------------- 54
Issues relating to poverty and hunger. ---------------------------------------------------------------56
Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability, e-governance-
applications, models, successes, limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency
& accountability and institutional and other measures. ------------------------------------------56
Q. Despite legislative and institutional reforms, India continues to struggle with systemic
corruption. Identify the key structural issues in India’s anti-corruption mechanisms and
propose a roadmap for holistic reforms. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------- 56
Role of civil services in a democracy. ----------------------------------------------------------------59
India and its neighborhood- relations. ---------------------------------------------------------------59
Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting
India’s interests. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------59
Q. “The robust and time-tested friendship between India and Russia serves as a shining
example of cooperation and diplomacy for the world to emulate”. Discuss. (15 M) ------------- 59
Q. Analyze the significance of India-Qatar upgrading their ties to a strategic partnership.
How does it impact India’s energy security? What are the geopolitical implications of this
development? (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61
Q. Examine how the US–India COMPACT fits into the broader Indo-Pacific strategic
framework and its implications for regional power dynamics. (10 M) ------------------------------- 63

3
Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests,
Indian diaspora.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------64
Q. “India-Indonesia ties are no longer just bilateral; they are strategic anchors for Indo-
Pacific stability”. Critically analyze the evolving nature of their partnership in the current
geopolitical context. (15 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Q. “The India-EFTA Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) is more than a
trade deal; it is a step toward a long-term strategic partnership”.Analyze in the context of
India’s geopolitical and economic priorities. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------- 66
TEPA as a Long-Term Strategic Partnership ---------------------------------------------------------------- 67
TEPA in the Context of India’s Geopolitical Priorities---------------------------------------------------- 67
Q. How do debt vulnerabilities and unsustainable borrowing among Indian Ocean nations
pose challenges to regional stability? Assess India’s role in providing economic alternatives.
(10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 69
Q What are the major factors that make long-term peace negotiations in Ukraine difficult?
Suggest a framework for sustainable conflict resolution. (10 M) --------------------------------------- 70
Q. The changing voting patterns in the UN General Assembly on resolutions against Russia
indicate evolving global power dynamics. Analyze the factors influencing this shift and its
implications for multilateral diplomacy. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------- 72
Q. Evaluate the impact of global geopolitical fragmentation on India-European Union
relations. How can both partners navigate emerging challenges. (10 M) ---------------------------- 74
Important International institutions, agencies and fora - their structure, mandate. --------75
Q. In the context of the AI Action Summit, examine the importance of equitable access to AI
resources for the Global South. How can India advocate for a fair AI ecosystem at the
multilateral level? (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 75
Q. How does the International Criminal Court (ICC) contribute to global justice, and what
are the key criticisms against its functioning? Discuss with recent examples. (10 M) ----------- 77
Q. The WTO has played a critical role in shaping global trade norms, but its relevance is
increasingly being questioned. In this context, Evaluate whether India should prioritize
strengthening the WTO or seek alternative trade arrangements. (15 M) --------------------------- 78
Q. India has been a cornerstone of UN peacekeeping but faces emerging challenges in modern
conflict zones. Examine these challenges and suggest measures to enhance India’s
effectiveness in UN peacekeeping operations. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------ 80

4
Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution,
features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure.
Q. Analyze the implications of arbitrary police actions on freedom of speech and
expression in India. What measures can be taken to safeguard democratic
rights? (10 M)

Introduction
The freedom of speech and expression, enshrined under Article 19(1)(a) of the Indian
Constitution, forms the bedrock of democracy. However, arbitrary police actions, such as
unwarranted arrests and seizures, pose a serious threat to this fundamental right, undermining
democratic values.

Body

Implications of arbitrary police actions on freedom of speech and expression

1. Chilling effect on free speech: Fear of legal repercussions discourages individuals,

activists, and journalists from expressing critical views.
o Eg: The seizure of journalists’ phones in Chennai (2025) led to concerns
over press freedom and intimidation of the media (The Hindu, 2025).
2. Suppression of dissent: Arbitrary actions are often used to curb dissent, affecting
democratic debates and the right to protest.
o Eg: The use of Section 124A (Sedition) during protests like the anti-CAA
movement (2019-20) highlighted misuse to silence dissent.
3. Erosion of media independence: Targeting journalists hampers investigative
reporting, weakening the media’s role as a watchdog of democracy.
o Eg: Arrest of Siddique Kappan (2020) while covering sensitive issues in
Uttar Pradesh raised concerns about media freedom.
4. Violation of privacy: Unjustified seizures of personal devices infringe on the right to
privacy, recognized under Article 21.
o Eg: In the Puttaswamy judgment (2017), the Supreme Court declared
privacy as a fundamental right, limiting arbitrary state intrusions.
5. Undermining rule of law: Arbitrary actions without judicial oversight weaken the
legal framework and foster authoritarian tendencies.
o Eg: Supreme Court’s observation (2022) criticized the misuse of preventive
detention laws without proper procedural safeguards.

Measures to safeguard democratic rights

1. Strict adherence to constitutional safeguards: Reinforce the application of Article

19(2), ensuring restrictions are reasonable, legal, and proportionate.

5
 o Eg: The Shreya Singhal case (2015) struck down Section 66A of the IT Act,
upholding freedom of online expression.
2. Judicial oversight for sensitive investigations: Mandate judicial warrants for
phone seizures and surveillance to prevent misuse of power.
o Eg: Supreme Court directive (2023) seeking guidelines for the seizure of
digital devices to protect privacy rights.
3. Legal reforms to curb misuse: Amend colonial-era laws like sedition and introduce
clear protocols for police powers in handling free speech cases.
o Eg: The Law Commission’s 267th report recommended redefining sedition
to prevent misuse against legitimate dissent.
4. Capacity building of law enforcement: Sensitize police and investigative agencies
on human rights, media freedom, and democratic values through training programs.
o Eg: NHRC guidelines on police accountability stress the importance of
human rights education for law enforcement.
5. Strengthening institutional checks and balances: Empower bodies like the Press
Council of India and Human Rights Commissions to monitor violations against free
speech.
o Eg: PCI’s intervention (2021) criticized arbitrary actions against journalists
during the coverage of farmers' protests.

Conclusion:
To uphold India’s democratic ethos, it is imperative to ensure that law enforcement actions
remain accountable, respecting constitutional principles. A balanced approach, with
judicial oversight, legal safeguards, and institutional accountability, is key to protecting
the freedom of speech and expression.

Q. Discuss how the philosophical foundations of the Indian Constitution reflect a

synthesis of diverse historical and ideological influences. (10 M)

Introduction

The Indian Constitution is a unique document that embodies a synthesis of diverse

historical experiences and ideological influences, blending indigenous values with global
constitutional principles to shape a modern democratic republic.

Body

Historical Influences on Philosophical Foundations

1. Legacy of Ancient Indian Traditions: The concepts of Dharma, rule of law, and
ethical governance are rooted in texts like the Arthashastra and Manusmriti,
influencing principles of justice.
o Eg: The idea of welfare state draws from Ashoka’s Dhamma emphasizing
public welfare.

6
 2. Impact of Colonial Rule: British constitutional practices shaped India’s
parliamentary system, bicameral legislature, and the rule of law framework.
o Eg: The Government of India Act, 1935 influenced federal structure and
administrative provisions.
3. Freedom Struggle and National Movement: The Indian National Congress’s
demand for rights and democracy inspired constitutional guarantees for fundamental
rights and universal adult franchise.
o Eg: The Nehru Report (1928) advocated for civil liberties and secularism.
4. Influence of Social Reform Movements: Thinkers like Jyotirao Phule, B.R.
Ambedkar, and Mahatma Gandhi shaped ideas of social justice, equality, and
non-violence in governance.
o Eg: Article 17 (Abolition of Untouchability) reflects Ambedkar’s vision of
social justice.
5. Global Constitutional Ideologies: Liberal democratic ideas from the US
Constitution (Fundamental Rights), Irish Constitution (Directive Principles), and
Weimar Constitution (emergency provisions) were incorporated.
o Eg: The concept of judicial review in India is influenced by the US model.

Ideological Synthesis in Constitutional Provisions

1. Democratic Values: The Constitution establishes India as a sovereign, socialist,

secular, democratic republic, ensuring participatory democracy.
o Eg: Article 326 grants universal adult franchise, influenced by global
democratic practices.
2. Secularism: A distinct Indian model of positive secularism promotes religious
freedom while maintaining state neutrality.
o Eg: Article 25-28 guarantee freedom of religion and religious practices.
3. Socialist Principles: The focus on economic justice and reducing inequalities
reflects socialist ideals.
o Eg: Directive Principles (Article 39(b) & (c)) promote equitable
distribution of resources.
4. Rule of Law and Equality: Inspired by British legal traditions, India ensures the
supremacy of law and equality before it.
o Eg: Article 14 guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of
the laws.
5. Human Rights and Individual Liberty: The global post-World War II emphasis on
human rights shaped Fundamental Rights in Part III.
o Eg: Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty) mirrors universal
human rights principles.

Conclusion

7
The Indian Constitution is a living document reflecting a fusion of India’s rich historical
experiences with global democratic ideals, designed to uphold justice, liberty, equality, and
fraternity in a dynamic and diverse society.

Q. Examine the legal and constitutional implications of the recent High Court
ruling that extends marital rape immunity to Section 377. How does this
judgment affect the legal recourse available to women against non-consensual
sexual acts within marriage? (15 M)

Introduction

The Chhattisgarh High Court ruling extending marital rape immunity to Section 377
weakens legal protections for women and raises serious constitutional challenges, further
limiting their ability to seek justice against non-consensual sexual acts within marriage.

Body

Legal implications of the ruling

1. Removes Section 377 as a legal remedy: Women can no longer invoke IPC 377 for
non-consensual unnatural acts in marriage, removing a critical legal avenue.
o Eg: Before Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018), Section 377 was
used to prosecute marital sexual violence.
2. Creates ambiguity in prosecuting spousal sexual violence: Since marital rape is
not criminalized, and Section 377 is unavailable, there is no clear legal provision to
punish forced unnatural acts in marriage.
o Eg: Delhi HC (2018) allowed wives to invoke IPC 377 in marital rape cases,
a recourse now denied.
3. Forces victims to rely on weaker civil remedies: Women must use the Domestic
Violence Act (2005), which lacks criminal penalties and only provides restraining
orders or monetary relief.
o Eg: DV Act cannot ensure criminal punishment, unlike IPC provisions.

Constitutional implications of the ruling

1. Violates Article 14 (Right to Equality): Creates arbitrary gender-based

distinction, treating marital and non-marital rape differently, denying equal
protection under the law.
o Eg: SC in Joseph Shine v. Union of India (2018) struck down adultery law
for violating gender equality.
2. Contradicts Article 21 (Right to Life and Dignity): Non-consensual acts within
marriage violate bodily autonomy and personal liberty, denying women dignity.
o Eg: SC in Independent Thought v. Union of India (2017) ruled that sex
with a minor wife is rape, emphasizing autonomy.

8
 3. Against international human rights obligations: India’s marital rape exemption
violates commitments under UN CEDAW, which mandates gender-sensitive legal
protections.
o Eg: UN CEDAW (2021) urged India to criminalize marital rape to uphold
women's rights.

Impact on legal recourse for women

1. Denies a crucial legal pathway for prosecution: With Section 377 omitted, women
lose the ability to prosecute non-consensual unnatural acts in marriage.
o Eg: Before 2018, IPC 377 was used by women seeking justice for forced
unnatural sex by husbands.
2. Weakens deterrence against spousal sexual violence: Husbands remain immune
from legal action, reinforcing impunity.
o Eg: NFHS-5 (2019-21) reported that 29% of married women experience
spousal sexual violence.
3. Increases underreporting of marital sexual abuse: Women are discouraged from
filing complaints, knowing that the law offers limited protection.
o Eg: NCRB (2022) recorded only 2% of reported sexual violence cases
involving spouses due to legal loopholes.
4. Restricts access to strong legal protections: Without Section 377, women must rely
on civil laws, which do not provide the criminal penalties needed for justice.
o Eg: DV Act (2005) provides only financial and restraining orders, not
imprisonment.
5. Contradicts ongoing Supreme Court review of marital rape: The ruling comes
when marital rape exemption itself is under legal scrutiny, creating judicial
inconsistencies.
o Eg: Marital rape PIL pending in Supreme Court (2024) challenges spousal
immunity under IPC 375.

Way forward

1. Criminalize marital rape explicitly: Amend Section 375 IPC/BNS to remove the
marital rape exception and ensure legal equality.
o Eg: UK, Canada, and South Africa have explicitly criminalized marital
rape.
2. Introduce gender-neutral sexual violence laws: Expand legal definitions of rape
and sexual assault to include all genders and marital situations.
o Eg: Verma Committee (2013) recommended gender-neutral rape laws for
better legal protection.
3. Strengthen judicial review and interpretation: The Supreme Court should interpret
marital rape exemption in line with constitutional rights.

9
 o Eg: Puttaswamy judgment (2017) upheld privacy and bodily autonomy as
fundamental rights.
4. Legislative intervention for criminal law reform: Parliament must address gaps in
BNS and ensure non-consensual sexual acts are punishable, irrespective of marital
status.
o Eg: Parliamentary Standing Committee (2023) highlighted legal gaps in
sexual offence laws under BNS.

Conclusion

The ruling undermines women's legal protections, contradicting constitutional principles

of equality and dignity. Comprehensive legal reforms must remove marital rape
immunity, reinstate legal protections, and establish a gender-neutral framework for
sexual violence laws.

Q. “The imposition of gag orders as a condition for bail amounts to a prior

restraint on free speech”. Discuss the constitutional validity of such restrictions
in light of judicial pronouncements. (15 M)

Introduction

Gag orders as bail conditions impose prior restraint on speech, a restriction that courts have
generally held unconstitutional unless justified under Article 19(2). The Supreme Court has
consistently ruled that bail conditions must not be excessive or violate fundamental
rights.

Body

Imposition of gag orders as a condition for bail amounts to a prior restraint on free
speech

1. Contrary to Article 19(1)(a) - Right to Free Speech: Prior restraint restricts speech
before it occurs, which is generally unconstitutional.
o Eg: Brij Bhushan v. State of Delhi (1950) held that prior censorship violates
freedom of speech unless justified under Article 19(2).
2. Chilling effect on expression: Restricting speech as a bail condition discourages
lawful expression and public debate.
o Eg: Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015) struck down Section 66A of
the IT Act for being vague and having a chilling effect on speech.
3. Violation of proportionality principle: Restrictions must be narrowly tailored and
necessary to meet the objective.
o Eg: Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020) held that internet shutdowns
must be proportionate and justified under Article 19(2).
4. Impact on right to livelihood (Article 19(1)(g)): A blanket gag order affects
journalists, influencers, and activists who depend on public communication.
10
 o Eg: Mohammed Zubair Bail Case (2022)—SC refused to impose a ban on
his tweets, citing its effect on his profession.

Constitutional validity of such restrictions in light of judicial pronouncements

1. Reasonable restrictions under Article 19(2): Speech can be restricted only on

grounds like public order, defamation, and morality, and must pass judicial
scrutiny.
o Eg: S. Rangarajan v. P. Jagjivan Ram (1989)—SC ruled that restrictions on
speech must have a direct and immediate link to public disorder.
2. Supreme Court cautioning against arbitrary bail conditions: Bail should not be
used to curtail fundamental rights disproportionately.
o Eg: Satender Kumar Antil v. CBI (2022) emphasized that bail conditions
must not be oppressive or impossible to comply with.
3. Prior restraint is generally unconstitutional: The SC has held that pre-emptive
restrictions on speech should be rare and exceptional.
o Eg: K.A. Abbas v. Union of India (1970) upheld film censorship but warned
against excessive prior restraint.
4. Gag orders violate due process and fairness: Restrictions must be imposed through
a legal process, not arbitrarily.
o Eg: Frank Vitus v. NCB (2024)—SC struck down bail conditions requiring
GPS tracking, ruling them unconstitutional.
5. Judicial precedent against blanket speech bans: Courts have consistently rejected
absolute bans on expression as part of bail conditions.
o Eg: Rehana Fathima Bail Case (2021)—SC stayed a Kerala HC condition
that barred her from expressing views on social media.

Way forward

1. Ensure proportionality in bail conditions: Restrictions must be narrowly framed

and case-specific.
o Eg: Justice J.S. Verma Committee (2013) emphasized the balance between
free speech and accountability.
2. Judicial safeguards against arbitrary restrictions: Courts must ensure that bail
conditions do not violate constitutional rights.
o Eg: Law Commission Report No. 268 (2017) recommended clear guidelines
for bail conditions.
3. Alternative measures instead of gag orders: Courts should seek undertakings
rather than imposing blanket speech bans.
o Eg: Alt News Bail Order (2022)—SC granted bail without banning the
accused from social media.
4. Comprehensive digital content regulation: A structured legal framework is needed
instead of ad-hoc judicial bans.

11
 o Eg: Shyam Divan Committee (2023) suggested better guidelines for online
content moderation.

Conclusion

Gag orders as bail conditions set a dangerous precedent by restricting free speech without
due process. Instead, judicial safeguards and proportionate conditions should be used to
prevent misuse while ensuring fundamental rights are upheld.

Q. “The power to impose Internet shutdowns must be exercised with caution, as

it directly impacts the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression”.
Comment. (10 M)

Introduction

Unregulated Internet shutdowns curtail free speech, hinder access to information, and
disrupt essential services, making their unchecked use a threat to democratic governance.
The Supreme Court in Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020) ruled that Internet
restrictions must be temporary, necessary, and proportionate, ensuring they do not violate
constitutional rights.

Body

Impact of internet shutdowns on fundamental rights

1. Violation of Article 19(1)(a) – Freedom of speech and expression: The Internet is a

key medium for exercising free speech, and shutdowns can amount to an
unreasonable restriction under Article 19(2).
o Eg: The Supreme Court in Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020) held
that freedom of speech and the right to the Internet are constitutionally
protected.
2. Curtailment of Article 19(1)(g) – Right to trade and profession: Internet
shutdowns disrupt e-commerce, banking, and small businesses, leading to economic
losses.
o Eg: The Kashmir Internet shutdown (2019-20) caused a ₹4,000 crore loss
to businesses (Kashmir Chamber of Commerce).
3. Impact on right to education and health: Shutdowns affect online learning and
telemedicine services, denying access to essential public services.
o Eg: Manipur (2023) faced prolonged Internet suspension, affecting online
education and healthcare services.
4. Denial of right to information: Internet shutdowns block access to government
services, legal resources, and emergency alerts.
o Eg: UN Human Rights Council (2016) declared Internet access a basic
human right and opposed arbitrary shutdowns.

12
Legal and constitutional safeguards against arbitrary shutdowns

1. Anuradha Bhasin judgment (2020) – SC guidelines on necessity and

proportionality: The Supreme Court ruled that Internet shutdowns must be reviewed
periodically and justified with reasons.
o Eg: The SC directed the publication of shutdown orders to enable judicial
scrutiny and public accountability.
2. Telecom Suspension Rules, 2024: Internet shutdowns must be temporary and
reviewed every 15 days, with prior approval from authorities.
o Eg: Despite these rules, many orders are unpublished, violating SC
transparency directives.
3. Violation of international commitments: India, as a signatory to the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), must ensure minimal interference in
digital rights.
o Eg: The Global Digital Rights Index (2024) ranked India low due to
frequent Internet blackouts.

Concerns over misuse and need for regulation

1. Lack of accountability and transparency: Many shutdowns lack clear orders,

violating the requirement for reasoned decisions.
o Eg: Access Now (2024) reported that over 50% of India’s shutdown orders
are not publicly available.
2. Shutdowns for non-security reasons: The Internet is restricted even for preventing
cheating in exams, which is a disproportionate measure.
o Eg: Rajasthan (2023) shut down the Internet during REET exams,
affecting millions unnecessarily.
3. Impact on cooperative federalism: Many shutdowns are imposed at the state level
without central oversight, leading to inconsistencies.
o Eg: Manipur (2023-24) faced a months-long Internet shutdown, raising
concerns over state overreach.

Conclusion

While Internet restrictions may be necessary in exceptional cases, their use must be
evidence-based, transparent, and legally accountable. Strengthening judicial oversight,
enforcing compliance with SC guidelines, and adopting global best practices can ensure a
balance between security concerns and constitutional freedoms.

13
Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues
and challenges pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of
powers and finances up to local levels and challenges therein.
Q. President’s Rule is often criticized for weakening the principles of cooperative
federalism. Do you agree? Substantiate your answer with relevant examples. (10
M)

Introduction

President’s Rule under Article 356 has been a contentious issue in Indian federalism. While
it aims to restore constitutional order, its misuse has led to the erosion of state autonomy,
raising concerns over cooperative federalism.

Body

How President’s Rule Weakens Cooperative Federalism

1. Excessive centralization of power: Transfers all state executive and legislative

powers to the Centre, sidelining the elected government.
o Eg: Bihar (1974), Karnataka (1977) – Dismissal of opposition-led
governments despite no constitutional breakdown.
2. Political misuse for partisan interests: Often imposed to destabilize opposition
governments rather than genuine breakdown of governance.
o Eg: Between (1966–1977) saw 39 instances of President’s Rule, mostly in
opposition-ruled states .
3. Disregard for the mandate of the people: Imposition of central rule disregards the
elected government’s legitimacy, affecting democratic governance.
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh (1954) – Imposition despite one party having a
majority, seen as political interference.
4. Weakened state autonomy in policy decisions: Centre assumes control over
subjects in State List (Schedule VII), overriding regional interests.
o Eg: Jammu & Kashmir (2018-2019) – Key local policy matters were
dictated by the Centre.
5. Undermining governance continuity: Frequent imposition creates instability in
administration, affecting development programs.
o Eg: Puducherry (2021) – Collapse of govt led to President’s Rule, delaying
welfare schemes.
6. Potential misuse in absence of clear legislative safeguards: Despite judicial review,
subjective interpretation allows Centre to bypass democratic norms.
o Eg: Article 356 imposed 10 times in Manipur (most frequent), often due to
political instability rather than constitutional failure.

Counterview: Situations Where President’s Rule Is Justified

14
 1. Ensuring constitutional governance: Applied when state governments fail to
function as per the Constitution.
o Eg: Punjab (1987-1992) – President’s Rule helped tackle insurgency and
restore stability.
2. Upholding law and order during crises: Necessary when breakdown leads to
security risks.
o Eg: Jammu & Kashmir (2018) – Imposed after coalition collapse, preventing
governance paralysis.
3. Prevention of horse-trading and political instability: Avoids unethical means to
form governments when no clear majority emerges.
o Eg: Maharashtra (2019) – Briefly imposed after major parties failed to form
government.
4. Judicial safeguards against misuse: S. R. Bommai case (1994) ensured judicial
review of President’s Rule, strengthening democratic oversight.
o Eg: Uttarakhand (2016) – SC restored dismissed government, setting a
precedent against arbitrary dismissal.

Conclusion

President’s Rule must be used as an exception, not a political tool. Strengthening

constitutional safeguards, revisiting Sarkaria Commission recommendations, and
promoting cooperative federalism can ensure a balanced Centre-State relationship.

Q. Discuss the historical context and rationale behind the creation of Zonal
Councils in India. How have they contributed to mitigating linguistic and inter-
state tensions?(15 M)

Introduction

The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 led to the formation of five Zonal Councils to resolve
inter-state issues, especially linguistic conflicts arising from state reorganization. These
councils act as advisory bodies fostering cooperative federalism and regional development.

Body

Historical context and rationale behind the creation of zonal councils

1. Post-independence linguistic conflicts: The reorganization of states on linguistic

lines created inter-state tensions.
o Eg: The demand for Andhra Pradesh (1953), leading to the formation of the
States Reorganisation Commission (SRC), 1955.
2. Pandit Nehru’s vision: Nehru envisioned Zonal Councils as platforms to reduce
linguistic hostilities and strengthen regional cooperation.
o Eg: Nehru’s speech in 1956 Parliamentary debate on state reorganization
emphasized fostering a habit of cooperation.
15
 3. Constitutional foundation: While not explicitly in the Constitution, Zonal Councils
were legally established through the States Reorganisation Act, 1956.
o Eg: Inspired by Article 263, which provides for inter-state coordination
through advisory bodies.
4. Addressing regional economic disparities: Aimed at reducing developmental
imbalances through coordinated economic planning.
o Eg: The Planning Commission aligned Zonal Councils with Five-Year
Plans for balanced development.
5. Strengthening Centre-State and inter-state relations: Provides a structured
mechanism for states and the Centre to address governance challenges.
o Eg: The formation of North Eastern Council (NEC) in 1972 as a separate
body to address NE-specific concerns.

Zonal councils contributed to mitigating linguistic and inter-state tensions

1. Resolving border disputes: Councils provide a forum for addressing long-standing

territorial conflicts.
o Eg: Western Zonal Council (2023) discussed the Maharashtra-Karnataka
Belagavi dispute to de-escalate tensions.
2. Protection of linguistic minorities: Ensures the safeguarding of linguistic rights and
fosters cultural harmony.
o Eg: Eastern Zonal Council (2022) took up concerns over Bengali-speaking
minorities in Odisha border districts.
3. Facilitating Centre-State coordination: Encourages discussions on federal issues
like revenue sharing and governance models.
o Eg: Southern Zonal Council (2021) discussed GST compensation delays
and state fiscal concerns.
4. Inter-state economic cooperation: Encourages joint initiatives for industrialization,
infrastructure, and trade facilitation.
o Eg: Northern Zonal Council (2022) deliberated on Delhi NCR air pollution
and regional transportation strategies.
5. Law and order coordination: Strengthens inter-state intelligence sharing, border
policing, and crime control.
o Eg: North Eastern Council (NEC) played a key role in joint anti-
insurgency operations in Assam, Nagaland, and Manipur.

Challenges associated with zonal councils

1. Advisory nature, no binding authority: Recommendations lack legal enforceability,

limiting their effectiveness.
o Eg: No conclusive resolution on Punjab-Haryana river water dispute,
despite multiple discussions.
2. Infrequent meetings and bureaucratic delays: Councils often meet irregularly,
weakening their relevance.

16
 o Eg: Western Zonal Council met after a gap of three years (2023), reducing
its impact.
3. Limited financial autonomy: Councils depend on central grants, restricting
independent decision-making.
o Eg: Unlike the Finance Commission, zonal councils lack dedicated financial
resources for execution.
4. Political and ideological differences: Conflicting political interests among states
hinder consensus.
o Eg: Southern Zonal Council’s GST discussions (2021) saw delays due to
Centre-State disagreements.
5. Overlap with other federal institutions: Their role sometimes duplicates that of the
Inter-State Council and other governance forums.
o Eg: The Cauvery water dispute has been discussed in multiple forums
without resolution.

Conclusion

To enhance their role, Zonal Councils must be legally empowered, meet regularly, and
have greater financial autonomy. Strengthening them as problem-solving institutions will
bolster cooperative federalism and regional governance in India.

Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal

mechanisms and institutions.
Q. Discuss the impact of the Governor’s role in legislative matters on the
doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty. Should Governors have a fixed time limit
for granting or withholding assent? Justify your answer. (15 M)

Introduction

The Governor's discretionary power in granting or withholding assent to Bills under

Article 200 often leads to conflicts with parliamentary sovereignty, affecting federalism
and governance efficiency. Recent delays in Tamil Nadu and Punjab highlight the urgency
of fixing clear time limits for gubernatorial assent.

Body

Impact of the Governor’s Role on Parliamentary Sovereignty

1. Erosion of legislative supremacy: Delayed or withheld assent undermines the State

Legislature’s will, diluting the principle of parliamentary sovereignty.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu Governor withheld multiple Bills for over two years,
disrupting governance (2023).
2. Obstruction of state policies: Governor’s inaction can stall key state policies,
limiting the elected government’s power.

17
 o Eg: Punjab Governor delayed assent to fiscal Bills, blocking crucial state
budget allocations (2023).
3. Weakening democratic mandate: The Governor, an unelected nominee, should not
override an elected legislature, as it contradicts democratic principles.
o Eg: Kerala Governor’s delay in assenting to university Bills led to legal
challenges (2022).
4. Federal imbalance: Overuse of withholding assent creates State-Centre tensions,
tilting the balance towards central dominance.
o Eg: West Bengal Governor’s repeated interventions in state laws (2022) led to
multiple state-legislature protests.
5. Judicial recognition of legislative supremacy: Courts have emphasized Governor’s
limited discretion in legislative assent.
o Eg: Shamsher Singh vs. State of Punjab (1974) ruled that the Governor
must act as per Cabinet advice in most matters.

Should Governors Have a Fixed Time Limit for Assent?

Arguments in Favour (Yes)

1. Prevents indefinite delays: Time limits ensure timely policy implementation and
prevent governance paralysis.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu Bills (2023) –withheld multiple Bills for over two years,
delaying governance decisions.
2. Strengthens cooperative federalism: Defined timelines prevent State-Centre
conflicts, ensuring smoother legislative relations.
o Eg: West Bengal Bills (2022) –delayed assent to several Bills, leading to
repeated confrontations with the State Government.
3. Reduces political misuse: It prevents Governors from withholding assent for
political reasons, ensuring neutrality.
o Eg: Punjab Fiscal Bills (2023) – Governor delayed financial Bills, causing
budgetary disruptions for the state.
4. Follows global best practices: Many federal democracies have fixed timeframes for
gubernatorial assent.
o Eg: USA State Governors – Most states in the USA have a 7–30 day limit
for Governors to act on Bills, ensuring faster decision-making.
5. Judicial endorsement for reforms: Courts have suggested timelines to prevent
arbitrary delays.
o Eg: Nabam Rebia vs. Deputy Speaker (2016) – Supreme Court emphasized
the need for Governors to act within constitutional morality and reasonable
time.

Arguments Against (No)

18
 1. Governor's discretion is constitutional: The Governor’s power under Article 200
provides an independent check on state legislation.
o Eg: Bihar Governor (2017) – Withheld assent to a reservation Bill that had
constitutional conflicts, preventing a potential legal crisis.
2. Complex legal scrutiny required: Some Bills may require detailed examination for
constitutional validity, which should not be rushed.
o Eg: Karnataka Anti-Conversion Bill (2021) – Governor took extra time to
ensure constitutional compliance before granting assent.
3. Risks hasty decision-making: A strict deadline might lead to rubber-stamping laws
without proper evaluation.
o Eg: Maharashtra Governor (2020) – Delayed assent to the Bill regulating
cooperative banks due to concerns over legal inconsistencies.
4. Emergency situations require flexibility: Some Bills may require more
deliberation due to financial, legal, or national security concerns.
o Eg: Jammu & Kashmir Reorganization Act (2019) – Central legislation
required detailed consultation before presidential assent.
5. Governor’s role is to act as a constitutional check: Imposing a rigid timeline may
undermine the Governor’s constitutional discretion.
o Eg: West Bengal Governor (2021) – Withheld assent to the state’s
University Amendment Bill to avoid executive overreach in academic
institutions.

Way Forward

1. Fix a reasonable time limit: Implement a 4-month deadline for gubernatorial

assent, as suggested by the Punchhi Commission (2010).
2. Clear guidelines for rejection: If a Bill is withheld, the Governor must provide
written reasons within a stipulated time, ensuring transparency.
3. Judicial review mechanism: Supreme Court or High Courts should have the power
to intervene if delays exceed reasonable limits, preventing misuse.
4. Strengthening legislative autonomy: Amend Article 200 to limit Governor’s
discretionary power to cases involving constitutional conflicts.
5. Follow international best practices: India can learn from USA and Canada, where
Governors must act on Bills within fixed deadlines, ensuring smoother governance.

Conclusion

A constitutional amendment introducing a specific time limit for assent would strengthen
legislative sovereignty, reduce conflicts, and enhance governance efficiency. India must
adopt best global practices while ensuring Governors act as facilitators, not obstacles, in
the democratic process.

19
Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other
countries.

Parliament and State legislatures—structure, functioning,

conduct of business, powers & privileges and issues arising out of
these.
Q. “The Motion of Thanks is not merely a parliamentary formality but a vital
tool for ensuring executive accountability”. Critically analyze its role in
enhancing democratic governance in India. (10 M)

Introduction

The motion of thanks to the president’s address, under Article 87 of the constitution, is not
just a ceremonial ritual but an essential tool for parliamentary scrutiny. It provides the
legislature with an opportunity to hold the executive accountable for its policies and
governance, thereby reinforcing the principles of democratic governance.

Body

The motion of thanks as a vital tool for ensuring executive accountability

1. Platform for policy evaluation: It allows members of parliament (MPs) to critically

examine the government’s policies and the agenda set out in the president’s address.
o Eg: During the 2023 motion of thanks debate, MPs questioned the
government's economic recovery plans post-COVID-19.
2. Mechanism for accountability: The executive must respond to questions,
critiques, and concerns raised during the debate, ensuring direct accountability to
the legislature.
o Eg: In 2015, the government was held accountable during the motion of
thanks for its land acquisition reforms, leading to policy reconsiderations.
3. Test of confidence in the government: Failure to pass the motion of thanks could
indicate a loss of majority support, indirectly functioning like a confidence motion.
o Eg: Although rare, intense debates like those during the 2001 motion of
thanks put pressure on the government over the handling of the Kargil
conflict.

Positive role in enhancing democratic governance

1. Strengthening executive-legislature relations: It reinforces the principle of

collective responsibility of the council of ministers to the parliament.
o Eg: The 2019 motion of thanks debate saw the government clarify its stance
on agricultural reforms, reflecting responsiveness to parliamentary
discussions.

20
 2. Encouraging constructive opposition: Provides a structured platform for the
opposition to highlight policy lapses and offer alternative governance approaches.
o Eg: The 2020 debate provided the opposition space to critique the
government's handling of the citizenship amendment act (CAA).
3. Review of government’s annual performance: Acts as an annual accountability
exercise, where the government’s achievements and failures are thoroughly reviewed.
o Eg: In 2022, the debate on the motion of thanks focused on pandemic
management, assessing government actions during the crisis.
4. Public awareness and transparency: Televised debates ensure that the public
remains informed about the government's priorities and the opposition’s critiques,
promoting transparency.
o Eg: The 2021 debate on farm laws was widely covered, increasing public
engagement with parliamentary proceedings.

Challenges in enhancing democratic governance

1. Partisan and symbolic nature: In recent times, debates have become partisan, with
ruling party MPs often using the platform to praise the government rather than
critically assess it.
o Eg: The 2018 debate largely saw ruling party members echoing government
achievements, limiting genuine scrutiny.
2. Limited influence on policy changes: Despite critical discussions, the motion is
non-binding, and the government is not obligated to act on the issues raised.
o Eg: Despite strong opposition voices during the 2022 debate on
environmental degradation, significant policy shifts were minimal.
3. Dominance of the majority party: In a majoritarian setup, the ruling party’s
dominance can reduce debates to a mere formality, undermining their role in
executive accountability.
o Eg: The 2016 debate witnessed limited dissent due to the overwhelming
majority of the ruling party.
4. Disruptions affecting debate quality: Frequent disruptions and walkouts dilute the
seriousness of debates, reducing them to procedural formalities.
o Eg: The 2021 motion of thanks debate faced several interruptions over the
farmers’ protests, limiting constructive dialogue.

Conclusion

The motion of thanks is a powerful democratic tool for ensuring executive accountability
and promoting transparent governance. To enhance its effectiveness, there’s a need for
meaningful debates, bipartisan participation, and reforms that encourage substantive
policy discussions, ensuring it remains a cornerstone of India’s parliamentary democracy.

21
Q. Discuss the structural barriers within India’s political framework that hinder
meaningful youth participation. Analyze how enhanced youth involvement in
politics can contribute to addressing emerging governance challenges in the
country. (10 M)

Introduction

India’s demographic dividend offers an unparalleled opportunity to harness youth potential

in governance. Yet, structural barriers in the political framework limit meaningful
participation, despite the youth comprising over 65% of the population (Census 2011,
projected till 2025).

Body

Structural barriers hindering meaningful youth participation

1. High age threshold for candidacy: The minimum age for contesting Lok Sabha (25
years) and Rajya Sabha (30 years) limits early political involvement.
o Eg: Article 84(b) of the Constitution sets these age limits, restricting political
entry compared to countries like the UK (18 years).
2. Prevalence of dynastic politics: Dominance of political families reduces space for
first-generation youth leaders.
o Eg: A 2019 ADR report highlighted that over 30% of MPs in the 17th Lok
Sabha came from political families.
3. Financial barriers in elections: High election expenditure discourages youth without
strong financial backing from participating.
o Eg: The Election Commission’s report (2024) estimated that candidates
spend up to ₹70 lakh in major constituencies, beyond the prescribed limit.
4. Lack of internal democracy in political parties: Parties often lack transparent
mechanisms for youth leadership promotion.
o Eg: The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2007) recommended
reforms for promoting inner-party democracy, yet implementation remains
weak.
5. Limited political education and civic awareness: Absence of formal civic education
curtails youth’s understanding of governance processes.
o Eg: The National Youth Policy (2014) acknowledged gaps in political
literacy among young citizens.

Enhanced youth involvement in politics can address emerging governance challenges

1. Innovative policy solutions: Youth bring fresh perspectives to tackle complex issues
like climate change and digital governance.
o Eg: Young leaders like Bhavya Bishnoi (Haryana MLA) have introduced
data-driven governance models in local policy.

22
 2. Bridging the representation gap: Youth participation ensures governance reflects
the aspirations of India’s largest demographic group.
o Eg: The Youth Parliament Programme (2023) facilitated policy discussions
directly engaging students in legislative processes.
3. Strengthening democratic accountability: Active youth involvement promotes
transparency and combats political apathy.
o Eg: The rise of youth-led movements like Fridays for Future India
showcases civic activism influencing environmental policies.
4. Driving digital transformation: Young leaders are better equipped to leverage
technology for e-governance and citizen engagement.
o Eg: Under the Digital India initiative, youth-driven startups have
collaborated with government platforms for service delivery.
5. Promoting inclusive governance: Youth advocacy often prioritizes issues of gender
equality, mental health, and LGBTQ+ rights, fostering inclusive policies.
o Eg: The UNICEF’s YuWaah initiative (2024) has empowered Indian youth
to influence public health and education reforms.

Conclusion

Empowering youth in politics is not just about representation but reshaping governance
paradigms for a dynamic, inclusive, and future-ready India. Institutional reforms promoting
meritocracy, mentorship, and civic education can unlock this transformative potential.

Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the

Judiciary—Ministries and Departments of the Government;
pressure groups and formal/informal associations and their role
in the Polity.
Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act.
Q. Should India enact a law to regulate electoral promises involving freebies?
Critically evaluate the need for such a legal framework. (10 M)

Introduction

Electoral freebies have become a contentious issue, raising concerns about fiscal prudence,
voter manipulation, and democratic ethics. The Supreme Court has observed the need to
regulate this trend, while the Election Commission has suggested guidelines rather than
outright restrictions.

Body

23
Why has the need for such a law arisen?

1. Fiscal strain on state finances: Unregulated freebies increase debt burdens, leading
to fiscal crises.
o Eg: RBI's State Finances Report (2022) warned about rising state liabilities
beyond 35% of GSDP.
2. Distortion of voter behaviour: Freebies alter voter rationality, shifting focus from
governance to short-term benefits.
o Eg: Madras High Court (2022) observed that freebie culture influences
elections unfairly.
3. Judicial observations and electoral integrity concerns: Courts and the Election
Commission have flagged freebies as a potential violation of free and fair elections.
o Eg: Supreme Court (2022) questioned the sustainability of populist schemes
and sought regulation mechanisms.

Arguments in support of enacting a law

1. Ensures fiscal discipline: A legal framework would cap unsustainable spending and
prevent reckless financial policies.
o Eg: FRBM Act, 2003, regulates deficit levels but lacks enforcement on
election-related spending.
2. Strengthens democratic ethics: Regulating freebies ensures elections are fought on
governance merits rather than populism.
o Eg: Dinesh Trivedi Committee (1998) suggested electoral reforms to curb
corrupt practices.
3. Promotes targeted welfare instead of blanket subsidies: Laws can differentiate
between essential welfare schemes and vote-buying tactics.
o Eg: Chhattisgarh Nyay Yojana (2020) targets marginalized farmers instead
of indiscriminate cash transfers.
4. Aligns with Supreme Court directives: The Court has consistently emphasized the
need for responsible governance.
o Eg: Subramaniam Balaji v. State of Tamil Nadu (2013) recognized freebies
as a policy issue requiring legislative intervention.
5. Enhances transparency and accountability: A regulatory mechanism would
mandate disclosures and cost-benefit analyses of electoral promises.
o Eg: Election Commission Guidelines (2023) now require parties to specify
funding sources for promised schemes.

Arguments against enacting a law

1. Infringement on policy autonomy of states: Welfare schemes are part of state

governance; restricting them may undermine federalism.
o Eg: Article 282 allows discretionary grants, enabling states to implement
localized welfare initiatives.

24
 2. Difficulty in distinguishing welfare from freebies: What constitutes a freebie versus
a necessary welfare measure is subjective.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s Free Laptop Scheme (2011) was criticized as a freebie
but improved digital literacy.
3. Judicial and legislative overreach risks: Electoral promises are part of political
manifestos, and restricting them might encroach on democratic rights.
o Eg: Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) upheld parliamentary supremacy in
policy decisions.
4. Potential misuse against opposition parties: Governments in power might use legal
provisions to target opposition parties making ambitious electoral promises.
o Eg: Political use of CAG reports to question welfare schemes before
elections.
5. Existing legal and institutional checks: Election Commission and fiscal bodies
already regulate financial and electoral integrity.
o Eg: Model Code of Conduct (MCC) prohibits inducements and undue
influence in elections.

Conclusion

While regulating electoral promises is necessary to ensure fiscal responsibility and fair
elections, an outright ban risks curbing welfare policies and democratic competition. A
balanced approach—mandating transparency, fiscal sustainability assessments, and public
disclosures—can prevent misuse while ensuring voter welfare.

Q. “Elections in India are free, but fairness remains a question”. In light of this
statement, critically evaluate the systemic flaws in India’s electoral process and
suggest comprehensive reforms. (15 M)

Introduction

Elections form the bedrock of democracy, yet their fairness is often debated due to
institutional biases, money power, and voter suppression. While India conducts large-
scale elections peacefully, systemic flaws raise concerns about the equity and transparency
of the process.

Body

Elections in India are free, but fairness remains a question

1. Unrestricted political participation: Every citizen has the right to vote under
Article 326, ensuring universal adult suffrage.
o Eg: Over 91 crore registered voters participated in the 2019 Lok Sabha
elections (ECI Data).

25
 2. Independent election commission: The Election Commission of India (ECI) is
constitutionally empowered under Article 324 to conduct elections without
government interference.
o Eg: Supreme Court in Mohinder Singh Gill v. Chief Election
Commissioner (1978) upheld ECI’s autonomy.
3. Regular conduct of elections: Unlike many democracies, India follows a strict
election schedule, ensuring timely electoral processes.
o Eg: Lok Sabha and state elections have never been delayed beyond
permissible limits since 1951.
4. Lack of level playing field: Money power, voter suppression, and biased
institutions create structural imbalances that tilt electoral outcomes.
o Eg: Supreme Court struck down the Electoral Bonds Scheme (2024) due to
concerns over opacity in political funding.

Systemic Flaws In India’s Electoral Process

1. Money Power And Unregulated Party Expenditure: While candidates have a

spending cap, political parties face no such restrictions, leading to disproportionate
influence.
o Eg: ADR report (2023) found that over 55% of total donations went to one
party through electoral bonds.
2. Electoral Roll Manipulations: Mass deletions and fraudulent additions distort voter
representation, impacting fair competition.
o Eg: New Delhi Assembly Constituency (2020) witnessed large-scale voter
deletions, raising credibility concerns.
3. Biased Functioning Of Election Commission: Allegations of staggered election
scheduling and selective enforcement of the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) raise
questions about ECI’s neutrality.
o Eg: Supreme Court in Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India (2023) ruled
against executive dominance in appointing Election Commissioners.
4. Law Enforcement And Voter Intimidation: Police and administrative bias in
certain constituencies discourages voter participation, often favouring the ruling party.
o Eg: Rampur By-election (2022) saw police action allegedly targeting a
particular voter base.
5. Judicial Delays In Election Disputes: Election petitions remain unresolved for
years, rendering the judicial process ineffective.
o Eg: Rajendra Bhatt v. Union of India (2019) case on electoral malpractices
was decided after the concerned term ended.
6. Opaque Political Funding: The absence of transparency in corporate donations
creates a quid pro quo system, undermining voter trust.
o Eg: Electoral Bonds Scheme (2018-2024) allowed anonymous donations,
favoring ruling parties disproportionately.

Comprehensive reforms to ensure fair elections

26
 1. Regulating political party expenditure: Imposing a spending cap on political
parties can prevent money-driven electioneering.
o Eg: Law Commission (1999) recommended state funding of elections to curb
undue influence.
2. Transparent appointment of election commissioners: A collegium system,
independent of executive control, can enhance ECI’s credibility.
o Eg: Supreme Court’s verdict (2023) mandated a selection panel for
appointing Election Commissioners.
3. Stronger laws against electoral roll manipulation: Implementing real-time voter
list verification mechanisms can prevent mass deletions and fraudulent additions.
o Eg: Aadhaar-Voter ID linkage introduced in 2022 aims to reduce
duplication.
4. Speedy disposal of election disputes: Setting up Fast-Track Election Tribunals
can ensure timely resolution of election-related cases.
o Eg: Goswami Committee on Electoral Reforms (1990) recommended
disposal of election petitions within six months.
5. Curtailing police and administrative interference: Strengthening ECI’s oversight
over law enforcement agencies can prevent intimidation tactics.
o Eg: Model Code of Conduct (MCC) provisions need statutory backing for
stricter enforcement.
6. Enhancing financial transparency in political funding: Enforcing mandatory
disclosures for donations and public financing of elections can ensure accountability.
o Eg: Supreme Court’s ruling (2024) on Electoral Bonds Scheme emphasized
the need for financial transparency.

Conclusion

Ensuring fairness in elections requires institutional autonomy, financial transparency,

and judicial efficiency. Strengthening these areas will restore public trust and uphold the
democratic values enshrined in the Constitution of India.

Q. Critically evaluate the argument that delimitation based on recent census data
disproportionately benefits northern states at the cost of southern states. (15 M)

Introduction

Delimitation aims to ensure equal representation, but using recent census data may
disadvantage southern states due to their success in population control. This raises concerns
about federal equity, governance incentives, and political balance.

Body

In support: Disproportionate benefit to northern states

27
 1. Population growth and seat allocation: Higher birth rates in northern states will
increase their parliamentary representation.
o Eg: UP’s seats may increase from 80 to 91, Bihar’s from 40 to 50 (Source:
PRS India, 2024)
2. Punishing population control efforts: Southern states followed family planning
policies, yet stand to lose representation.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s seats may reduce from 39 to 31, Kerala’s from 20 to 12
3. Skewed fiscal resource allocation: More seats mean greater influence over Finance
Commission devolution and policymaking.
4. Undermining federal balance: More seats for the North could tilt national policy
priorities towards high-population regions.
o Eg: Higher representation in Parliament may influence taxation,
subsidies, and fund allocations, benefiting populous states.
5. Potential dominance of national parties: Northern states tend to vote for national
parties, reducing the bargaining power of regional parties.
o Eg: Ruling party’s Lok Sabha tally—majority seats from UP, MP, Bihar;
contrast with regional parties in South.

Against: Delimitation ensures equitable representation

1. Democratic principle of equal representation: More populous states deserve higher

representation to reflect true voter distribution.
o Eg: Article 81 mandates that Lok Sabha representation should be based on
population
2. Constitutional mandate and historical precedent: Delimitation is required after
every Census under Article 82 to maintain fairness.
o Eg: Delimitation exercises in 1951, 1961, and 1971 followed population-
based seat allocation.
3. Alternative compensatory mechanisms: Seat allocation should not be the only
metric; resource devolution and governance indices can balance disparities.
o Eg: Rangarajan Committee (2008) suggested incentivizing population
control through targeted central grants.
4. Population density and governance challenges: Higher population states require
greater governance efforts, justifying increased representation.
o Eg: UP’s per capita administrative burden is nearly double that of Tamil
Nadu (Source: NITI Aayog, 2023).
5. Growth potential and economic redistribution: Northern states need more
representation to accelerate economic catch-up with developed states.
o Eg: Bihar’s per capita income is just 1/4th of Karnataka’s (Source: RBI
State Finances Report, 2023).

Way forward: Ensuring a balanced approach

28
 1. Proportional increase in total seats: Expand Lok Sabha seats proportionally
rather than redistributing existing ones.
o Eg: France and Germany periodically expand parliamentary seats instead
of redistributing.
2. Incentivizing population control: Link central funding to demographic
responsibility rather than just population size.
o Eg: Finance Commission recommendations should reward states with
effective population control measures.
3. Alternative representation mechanisms: Consider additional weighted voting for
underrepresented regions in national decision-making.
o Eg: Rajya Sabha seat allocation reforms, weighted voting in fiscal
decision-making bodies like GST Council.
4. Constitutional safeguards against regional imbalance: Amend Article 82 to
include parameters beyond population for seat allocation.
o Eg: A new Delimitation Commission should be established with regional
representation.

Conclusion

A balanced delimitation framework must ensure representation reflects population shifts

without penalizing states that implemented responsible policies. The way forward lies in
institutional reforms, expansion of seats, and equitable resource distribution.

Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions

and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies.
Q. Judicial pronouncements have played a crucial role in shaping the autonomy
of the Election Commission of India. Examine whether the legislature’s response
to these rulings strengthens or weakens institutional independence. (15 M)

Introduction

The Election Commission of India (ECI), established under Article 324, plays a crucial role
in ensuring free and fair elections. Judicial pronouncements have reinforced its independence,
but legislative responses have raised concerns about executive influence in the appointment
and functioning of Election Commissioners.

Body

Judicial pronouncements shaping ECI’s autonomy

1. Anoop Baranwal vs Union of India (2023) – Mandated a neutral selection panel for
Election Commissioners to reduce executive dominance.

29
 o Eg: The Supreme Court directed that CEC and ECs should be appointed by
a committee comprising the PM, Leader of Opposition, and the CJI,
ensuring greater independence.
2. TN Seshan Case (1995) – Election Commission’s independence upheld –
Affirmed that the Chief Election Commissioner is not subordinate to the
government and emphasized the autonomy of the institution.
o Eg: The SC ruled that CEC has the same security of tenure as Supreme
Court judges, reinforcing institutional strength.
3. Mohinder Singh Gill vs Chief Election Commissioner (1978) – Expanded ECI’s
powers – Held that ECI’s authority is not limited to statutory provisions and can take
actions necessary to ensure free and fair elections.
o Eg: The SC stated that Article 324 gives ECI plenary powers, enabling it to
act beyond the Representation of the People Act when necessary.
4. S. S. Dhanoa vs Union of India (1991) – Security of tenure for Election
Commissioners – Distinguished the removal procedure of Election Commissioners
from that of the CEC, ensuring protection from arbitrary dismissal.
o Eg: The SC held that Election Commissioners should not be removed
without the recommendation of the CEC, preventing executive overreach.

Legislature’s response strengthening ECI’s autonomy

1. Enhanced financial allocation for electoral reforms – Recent budgets have

increased funding for ECI to modernize electoral processes.
o Eg: Union Budget 2024 allocated ₹15,000 crore for electoral infrastructure
and voter outreach programs.
2. Introduction of remote voting technology – The government backed ECI’s pilot
project on remote voting for migrant workers and NRIs to improve voter
participation.
o Eg: ECI's Remote Voting Machine (RVM) pilot project (2024) aimed at
ensuring voting rights for migrants.
3. Electoral bond reforms for transparency – New amendments allow the Election
Commission to access donor details, improving accountability in political funding.
o Eg: Election Commission was empowered in 2024 to scrutinize funding
sources, reducing opaque donations.
4. Use of technology for electoral integrity – Legislative backing for biometric
authentication and e-voting to prevent electoral fraud.
o Eg: ECI's proposal for Aadhaar-voter ID linkage (2023) was partially
approved to reduce duplication in voter rolls.

Legislature’s response weakening ECI’s autonomy

1. Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment)

Act, 2023 – Shifted balance towards the executive – Replaced the CJI with a
Cabinet Minister in the selection panel, weakening judicial oversight.

30
 o Eg: The new law gives the ruling government a majority in the selection
process, raising concerns over partisan appointments.
2. Extended executive control over tenure and removals – The new law allows the
executive to alter terms and conditions of service for Election Commissioners.
o Eg: The CEC and ECs no longer have statutory protection on tenure and
service conditions, making them more vulnerable to political influence.
3. Weakening of Model Code of Conduct (MCC) enforcement – Legislative
amendments restricted ECI’s power to act against pre-election government policies
influencing voters.
o Eg: ECI’s warning against populist budget announcements (2024) was
ignored due to lack of legal backing.
4. Non-implementation of judicial recommendations on election funding – Despite
SC recommendations, anonymous political funding remains prevalent, reducing
transparency.
o Eg: The ECI’s 2019 proposal to ban anonymous cash donations above
₹2,000 has not been implemented.

Way forward

1. Reinstating judicial oversight in appointments – Bringing back CJI in the

selection panel to maintain neutrality.
o Eg: 2nd ARC Report (2008) recommended a multi-stakeholder selection
panel to ensure impartiality.
2. Ensuring financial independence of ECI – Allocating funds directly from the
Consolidated Fund of India, like other independent constitutional bodies.
o Eg: CAG and UPSC have financial autonomy, preventing executive
interference.
3. Granting statutory backing to MCC – Giving MCC legal enforceability to prevent
misuse of state machinery in elections.
o Eg: Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998) recommended making MCC legally
binding for better enforcement.
4. Transparent and independent selection process – Moving towards a collegium
system similar to judicial appointments to safeguard neutrality.
o Eg: The Law Commission Report (2015) proposed an independent
collegium for selecting ECs, reducing executive bias.

Conclusion

Judicial interventions have strengthened the Election Commission’s independence, but

recent legislative changes increase executive influence, risking credibility. A transparent
appointment mechanism, financial independence, and legal backing for MCC are critical
for safeguarding electoral integrity.

31
Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.
Government policies and interventions for development in
various sectors and issues arising out of their design and
implementation.
Development processes and the development industry —the role
of NGOs, SHGs, various groups and associations, donors,
charities, institutional and other stakeholders.
Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the
Centre and States and the performance of these schemes;
mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the
protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections.

Q. The death penalty is often seen as a deterrent to crimes, yet global and
national studies indicate otherwise. Assess the effectiveness of capital punishment
in addressing violent crimes and suggest alternative policy measures. (15 M)

Introduction

Capital punishment is often justified as a deterrent against violent crimes, yet global and
national studies offer conflicting evidence regarding its effectiveness. While some argue it
instills fear and delivers justice, others highlight judicial errors, lack of deterrence, and
socio-economic biases in its application.

Body

Effectiveness of capital punishment in addressing violent crimes

Arguments in favour of the death penalty

1. Strong deterrent effect for heinous crimes: The fear of execution can dissuade
individuals from committing grave offenses.
o Eg: Saudi Arabia and Iran, where strict capital punishment laws are
linked to lower violent crime rates (Amnesty International, 2023).
2. Ensures justice and closure for victims: The death penalty serves as retributive
justice, giving victims and their families a sense of closure.
o Eg: 2012 Nirbhaya gang rape case led to public demand for execution,
resulting in Justice Verma Committee recommendations.
3. Prevents repeat offenses by hardened criminals: Life imprisonment carries risks of
parole or escape, while execution eliminates future threats.

32
 o Eg: Dhananjoy Chatterjee execution (2004) for rape and murder was
justified on grounds of preventing repeat offenses.
4. Public confidence in the justice system: Harsh punishments reinforce faith in legal
institutions, especially in cases involving extreme brutality.
o Eg: Pakistani courts sentenced terrorists to death under anti-terror laws,
boosting public confidence (Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, 2022).
5. Acts as a symbolic warning for potential offenders: The severity of capital
punishment conveys a zero-tolerance stance against violent crimes.
o Eg: China’s strict capital punishment for corruption and violent crimes is
cited as a factor in maintaining law and order.

Arguments against the death penalty

1. No conclusive deterrence effect: Studies show no consistent evidence that capital

punishment reduces crime more than life imprisonment.
o Eg: National Law University (NLU) Death Penalty India Report, 2023
found no link between the death penalty and crime reduction.
2. Risk of judicial errors and wrongful execution: The irreversible nature of capital
punishment makes miscarriages of justice irreversible.
o Eg: SC in Santosh Kumar Bariyar v. State of Maharashtra (2009)
emphasized the arbitrary application of the death penalty.
3. Disproportionate impact on marginalized communities: Most death row inmates
belong to economically and socially disadvantaged groups.
o Eg: Justice Bhagwati’s dissent in Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab (1980)
warned against bias in capital sentencing.
4. Inconsistent judicial application: The definition of ‘rarest of rare’ is subjective,
leading to unequal sentencing.
o Eg: Death sentences often commuted by higher courts; SC overturned
75% of death penalties in appeal (Death Penalty India Report, 2022).
5. Focus on punishment over prevention: The root causes of crime—poverty, lack of
education, weak policing, and slow judicial processes—remain unaddressed.
o Eg: Justice J.S. Verma Committee (2012) suggested life imprisonment
without parole over the death penalty for rape cases.

Alternative policy measures to address violent crimes

1. Strengthening law enforcement and forensic investigation: Better policing, faster

response systems, and improved evidence collection can increase conviction rates.
o Eg: NCRB Report (2023) found that low conviction rates in sexual crimes
stem from poor investigation quality.
2. Judicial and procedural reforms: Fast-track courts, witness protection programs,
and digital case management can reduce trial delays and improve justice delivery.
o Eg: Delhi’s fast-track courts (post-Nirbhaya) improved case resolution
time, but many lack funding and judges.

33
 3. Restorative justice and rehabilitation: Reform-oriented approaches like
counselling, skill development, and community reintegration lower recidivism
rates.
o Eg: Norway’s prison rehabilitation model has one of the lowest recidivism
rates globally (Global Prison Brief, 2023).
4. Stronger victim protection and support: Legal aid, financial assistance, trauma
counseling, and safe spaces must be enhanced to empower victims.
o Eg: Nirbhaya Fund (2013) remains underutilized (CAG Report, 2022)
despite its aim to support rape survivors.
5. Public safety and awareness initiatives: Improved urban safety measures,
community policing, and public awareness campaigns can prevent violent crimes
before they occur.
o Eg: Mumbai’s Safe City Project (2023) reduced crimes against women by
20% through better lighting and surveillance.

Conclusion

While capital punishment remains a contentious issue, its lack of deterrence, risk of wrongful
execution, and judicial inconsistencies weaken its justification. A multi-dimensional
approach—focused on policing reforms, judicial efficiency, victim support, and crime
prevention—offers a more effective and humane solution to addressing violent crimes.

Q. Evaluate the implementation of the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 in India.
Examine the legal and administrative hurdles faced in its enforcement. Suggest
institutional reforms to strengthen the recognition of Community Forest
Resource (CFR) rights. (15 M)

Introduction

The Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 was enacted to correct historical injustices against forest
dwellers by granting them legal rights over forest land and resources. However, its
implementation remains sluggish, with only 3 states (Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Odisha)
recognizing a notable number of Community Forest Resource (CFR) rights (MoTA,
2024).

Body

Implementation of FRA, 2006 in India

Positive aspects

1. Legal recognition of forest dwellers’ rights: FRA grants individual and

community rights to Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(OTFDs) over forest land and resources.

34
 o Eg: Supreme Court in Niyamgiri Case (2013) upheld Gram Sabhas'
authority to decide on mining projects affecting their forests.
2. Empowerment of Gram Sabhas: The Act strengthens decentralized forest
governance, allowing local institutions to manage forests.
o Eg: Maharashtra’s Gadchiroli district operationalized CFR rights over 1.5
lakh hectares, improving both forest conservation and local incomes.
3. Contribution to sustainable conservation: Community-led conservation under FRA
has improved biodiversity and reduced deforestation.
o Eg: Mendha Lekha village (Maharashtra) has successfully managed its
forests while generating local employment.

Negative aspects

4. Slow and uneven recognition of CFR rights: As of 2024, only 5% of potential

CFR claims have been approved, with many states lagging behind (MoTA, 2024).
o Eg: States like Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and West Bengal have
recorded zero CFR recognition despite vast forest-dependent populations.
5. Opposition from forest bureaucracy: The Forest Department resists relinquishing
control over forest land and resources, delaying CFR recognition.
o Eg: Karnataka High Court (2022) ruled against forced evictions in reserved
forests, citing non-compliance with FRA.
6. Diversion of forest land for projects: Over 3 lakh hectares of forest land have been
diverted for mining and infrastructure, bypassing FRA provisions.
o Eg: POSCO case (Odisha, 2014) ignored CFR claims for industrial
expansion, leading to conflicts.
7. Displacement due to conservation policies: Protected area expansions often evict
forest dwellers without settling their claims, contradicting FRA provisions.
o Eg: National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA, 2023) relocated 64,801
people from core tiger reserves without ensuring their rights.

Legal and administrative hurdles in enforcement

1. Dilution of FRA through policy changes: Amendments to Forest Conservation

Rules (2022) removed the requirement for Gram Sabha consent in forest land
diversion.
o Eg: Supreme Court ruling in TN Godavarman (1996) reinforced state control
over forests, weakening community claims.
2. Lack of coordination among agencies: MoEFCC and MoTA often work in silos,
leading to delays in implementation.
o Eg: Parliamentary Committee on Tribal Affairs (2023) highlighted inter-
departmental conflicts as a major bottleneck.
3. Arbitrary rejection of CFR claims: Over 50% of CFR claims have been rejected
without proper justification or due process (MoTA, 2023).

35
 o Eg: Chhattisgarh (2022) – 13,000 CFR claims were rejected without
adequate scrutiny.
4. Judicial delays in enforcing rights: Courts have often favored conservation and
industrial interests over CFR claims.
o Eg: Vedanta case (Niyamgiri Hills, 2013) was a rare success where SC
upheld Gram Sabha’s decision against mining.
5. Carbon forestry and green displacement: Programs like REDD+ and
afforestation schemes prioritize carbon sequestration over community rights.
o Eg: Green Credit Rules (2023) initially ignored local consent requirements
before being withdrawn.

Institutional reforms to strengthen CFR recognition

1. Strengthening Gram Sabha autonomy: Empower Gram Sabhas with legal and
financial backing to manage forest governance.
o Eg: Chhattisgarh’s FRA cell (2023) streamlined CFR claims at the village
level.
2. Judicial oversight for FRA implementation: Special tribunals under SC
supervision should expedite claim settlements.
o Eg: Justice MB Shah Commission (2014) recommended legal mechanisms
to prevent arbitrary claim rejections.
3. Forest bureaucracy reform: Reduce the absolute power of the Forest Department
by ensuring joint forest management with communities.
o Eg: Gadchiroli model (Maharashtra) allows Gram Sabhas to independently
manage 1.5 lakh hectares of forest land.
4. Revising the Forest Conservation Rules: Restore Gram Sabha consent for land
diversion under FRA guidelines.
o Eg: NC Saxena Committee (2010) emphasized mandatory community
consultation.
5. Data transparency and accountability: Establish real-time FRA monitoring
dashboards at national and state levels.
o Eg: Odisha’s FRA portal (2022) tracks claims and rejections digitally.

Conclusion

For FRA to fulfill its objectives, Gram Sabhas must be empowered, legal safeguards
reinforced, and bureaucratic resistance addressed. A rights-based approach to forest
governance will ensure that conservation and community livelihoods coexist sustainably

Q. Evaluate the role of remission in reducing the burden on the criminal justice
system. Examine the possible risks of arbitrary or en masse remission. Suggest
measures to ensure a fair and transparent remission process. (15 M)

Introduction

36
Remission plays a crucial role in reducing prison overcrowding and ensuring
rehabilitation-based justice. However, arbitrary or mass remission can undermine public
safety and legal sanctity, necessitating a structured and transparent process.

Body

Role of remission in reducing the burden on the criminal justice system

1. Prison decongestion and resource optimization: Remission helps reduce the

number of inmates, easing pressure on prison infrastructure and lowering
administrative costs.
o Eg: As per NCRB 2022, India’s prisons had an occupancy rate of 131.4%,
with 75.8% undertrials.
2. Focus on undertrial reforms: While remission primarily applies to convicts, it
indirectly reduces burden on courts by allowing space for fast-tracking undertrial
cases.
o Eg: Justice Amitava Roy Committee (2018) recommended fast-tracking of
undertrial cases to decongest prisons.
3. Judicial efficiency and case load reduction: Premature release through remission
reduces the burden of repeated appeals and mercy petitions on higher courts.
o Eg: The Supreme Court’s 2025 ruling in In Re: Policy Strategy for Grant of
Bail emphasized remission to ease judicial workload.
4. Rehabilitation and socioeconomic reintegration: Controlled remission ensures that
reformed convicts reintegrate into society, preventing recidivism and reducing re-
offense rates.
o Eg: Kerala’s Prison Reforms (2023) focused on skill development and
phased remission.
5. International best practices in prison reform: Countries like Norway and
Germany have structured remission models that contribute to lower recidivism and
efficient criminal justice systems.
o Eg: Norway’s open prison system allows for conditional early release based
on rehabilitation.

Risks of arbitrary or en masse remission

1. Threat to public safety: Arbitrary remission may release prisoners without proper
assessment, increasing risks of crime recurrence.
o Eg: The 2019 Tamil Nadu remission of convicts in Rajiv Gandhi
assassination case faced strong opposition on public security grounds.
2. Political misuse and vote-bank politics: Unchecked remission powers may be used
for electoral gains, leading to selective releases.
o Eg: The Bihar government’s 2020 decision to remit sentences before
elections raised concerns of political favouritism.

37
 3. Violation of judicial authority: En masse remission may bypass judicial reasoning
and dilute the principle of individualized justice.
o Eg: The Supreme Court’s 2013 ruling in Sangeet v. State of Haryana held
that remission should not override judicial sentencing discretion.
4. Erosion of rule of law and disparities in implementation: Unequal remission
across states creates inconsistencies, undermining the uniform application of justice.
o Eg: State-wise disparity in remission policies, as seen in Gujarat’s 2022
release of convicts in the Bilkis Bano case, has drawn criticism.
5. Risk of recidivism and lack of monitoring: Without proper post-release
supervision, some convicts may relapse into crime.
o Eg: NCRB 2022 reported that over 15% of re-arrested criminals were
previously released on remission.

Measures to ensure a fair and transparent remission process

1. Mandatory case-by-case review: Every remission decision should undergo an

independent review based on well-defined eligibility criteria.
o Eg: The Supreme Court’s ruling in Mafabhai Motibhai Sagar v. State of
Gujarat (2024) emphasized reasonableness in remission conditions.
2. Uniform national policy for remission: A centralized guideline under BNSS 2023
can prevent arbitrary state-level variations in remission.
o Eg: Law Commission of India (268th Report, 2017) recommended a
national policy to standardize remission across states.
3. Strict public safety assessment mechanisms: Risk assessment models should be
institutionalized to evaluate potential threats before granting remission.
o Eg: UK’s Parole Board Model evaluates potential re-offense risk before
early release.
4. Judicial and citizen oversight mechanisms: Remission should be subject to judicial
oversight with provisions for public disclosure of selection criteria.
o Eg: Germany’s Conditional Release System mandates court approvals for
remission cases involving serious crimes.
5. Post-release monitoring and rehabilitation support: Structured monitoring
prevents relapse into criminal activity and facilitates reintegration.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s 2022 post-release probation system tracks reformed
convicts for three years.

Conclusion

While remission is a powerful tool for criminal justice reform, arbitrary or en masse
remission can undermine public trust and legal sanctity. A transparent, standardized,
and accountable remission process is crucial to achieving the dual objectives of justice
and rehabilitation in India.

38
Q. Human smuggling is a major governance challenge that requires robust legal
and institutional mechanisms. Analyze the lacunae in India’s existing legal
framework and suggest measures to strengthen anti-human smuggling laws. (15
M)

Introduction

Human smuggling has become a serious governance challenge, exploiting legal loopholes
and weak institutional mechanisms. Despite growing cases of irregular migration, India
lacks a comprehensive central law to effectively curb smuggling networks, making
legislative reforms imperative.

Body

Why human smuggling is a major governance challenge

1. Exploitation of vulnerable populations – Smuggling networks target economically

weaker sections, exploiting their aspirations for better livelihoods abroad.
o Eg: Recent deportations from the U.S. (2025) exposed how rural youth
from Punjab, Gujarat, and Haryana were misled by agents.
2. Threat to national security – Illegal migration weakens border security, creates law
enforcement challenges, and strains diplomatic ties.
o Eg: Indian migrants in Iraq were found working in ammunition dumps,
raising security concerns.
3. Involvement of organized crime syndicates – Transnational criminal networks
facilitate human smuggling, leading to forced labour and modern slavery.
o Eg: Illegal migration networks in Punjab and Gujarat have links to
international criminal syndicates.
4. Weak enforcement and legal loopholes – The Emigration Act, 1983, does not
explicitly criminalize human smuggling, leading to low conviction rates.
o Eg: India lacks a central anti-human smuggling law, unlike the U.S.
(Trafficking Victims Protection Act, 2000).
5. Impact on India’s global reputation – Rising deportations of Indian migrants
damage India’s diplomatic image and raise concerns about illegal migration
policies.
o Eg: Planeloads of Indian migrants were deported from the U.S. (2025),
triggering international scrutiny.

Lacunae in India’s existing legal framework

1. Absence of a dedicated central law – No comprehensive law exists specifically to

tackle human smuggling, unlike human trafficking, which has some legal provisions.
o Eg: The Emigration Act, 1983, focuses on legal migration but does not
target smuggling networks.

39
 2. Lack of inter-agency coordination – Multiple agencies like MEA, MHA, and state
police handle cases, leading to overlapping jurisdiction and weak enforcement.
o Eg: Delays in prosecuting human smugglers in Punjab due to state-central
agency conflicts.
3. Limited effectiveness of state laws – Punjab’s 2012 Travel Professionals
Regulation Act is the only state law, but its implementation is weak.
o Eg: The Act mandates licensing for travel agents, but fraudulent agents still
operate freely.
4. Inadequate punishment and low conviction rates – Existing laws under BNS and
Passport Act impose minimal penalties, making smuggling a low-risk, high-profit
crime.
5. Limited international cooperation – India lacks strong extradition treaties and
legal cooperation with key destination countries.

Measures to strengthen anti-human smuggling laws

1. Enact a comprehensive central law – The new law should define human smuggling,
criminalize recruitment networks, and provide victim protection.
o Eg: The Emigration (Overseas Mobility Facilitation and Welfare) Bill,
2024, should include specific anti-smuggling provisions.
2. Strengthen state and central coordination – A national task force under the
Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) should oversee inter-agency coordination.
o Eg: Interpol’s Human Smuggling Task Force has successfully enhanced
cross-border coordination in Europe.
3. Regulate travel and recruitment agents – A strict licensing framework should be
enforced for travel agents, with penalties for fraudulent operations.
o Eg: UAE’s labour recruitment reforms (2023) introduced strict vetting of
agents to prevent exploitation.
4. Increase penalties and fast-track legal proceedings – Special fast-track courts
should be established to increase conviction rates for human smuggling cases.
o Eg: The Trafficking in Persons (Prevention, Care, and Rehabilitation)
Bill, 2021, introduced harsher penalties for trafficking, which should extend
to human smuggling.
5. Enhance international collaboration – India must sign bilateral agreements with
key migration destinations to improve deportation policies and prosecution of
smugglers.
o Eg: The India-UAE Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreement
(2022) focused on protecting migrant workers.

Conclusion

Human smuggling is a severe governance crisis that requires urgent legal and institutional
reforms. Enacting a strong central anti-smuggling law, improving enforcement

40
mechanisms, and fostering international cooperation will be critical to protect Indian
migrants and strengthen national security.

Q. “Reducing the age of consent will weaken the safeguards against child
trafficking and child marriage”. Discuss. (10 M)

Introduction

India’s stringent legal framework, including POCSO Act, 2012 and Prohibition of Child
Marriage Act, 2006, aims to protect minors from exploitation. However, reducing the age of
consent to 16 years risks undermining these safeguards, potentially increasing child
trafficking and early marriages.

Body

How reducing the age of consent will weaken safeguards against child trafficking and
child marriage

1. Increased vulnerability to trafficking: Lowering the age of consent can be misused

by traffickers to evade legal scrutiny by claiming victim’s consent.
o Eg: NCRB (2023) reports 6,622 cases of child trafficking, with many
victims forced into prostitution or illegal labour.
2. Legitimization of child marriages: It may allow families to marry off underage girls
under the pretence of consensual relationships.
o Eg: NFHS-5 (2019-21) shows that 23% of Indian women were married
before 18, despite legal prohibitions.
3. Erosion of legal protection under POCSO: The POCSO Act criminalizes sexual
exploitation of minors, but reducing the age of consent may weaken prosecution
against perpetrators.
o Eg: NCPCR 2023 report highlights cases where traffickers exploit gaps in
consent laws to justify minor victims’ exploitation.
4. Challenges in enforcement: Law enforcement may face difficulties in distinguishing
genuine relationships from cases of coercion or abuse.
o Eg: Law Commission (2023) cautioned against reducing the age of consent
due to enforcement challenges.
5. Increased risk of forced pregnancies: Younger girls face higher health risks in
childbirth, which can be exploited under reduced legal protection.
o Eg: UNICEF 2023 states adolescent pregnancies in India lead to higher
maternal mortality rates.
6. Undermining international commitments: India is a signatory to UNCRC, which
emphasizes child protection until 18 years.
o Eg: UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (2023) urged India to
strengthen, not dilute, child protection laws.

41
Arguments against the view – Why reducing age of consent may be justified

1. Recognition of adolescent agency: Adolescents engage in consensual relationships,

and criminalizing them leads to undue legal consequences.
o Eg: Bombay HC (2024) granted bail in a POCSO case citing the girl’s
understanding of her actions.
2. Preventing wrongful criminalization: Many consensual adolescent relationships
result in POCSO cases due to parental pressure or social stigma.
o Eg: Delhi HC (2023) observed a rise in false POCSO cases filed by parents
to break relationships.
3. Global best practices: Many countries have set the age of consent at 16 years while
maintaining strict anti-exploitation laws.
o Eg: UK, Canada, and Australia have 16 as the legal age of consent.
4. Reducing burden on judiciary: A high number of POCSO cases involve consensual
relationships, diverting attention from actual abuse cases.
o Eg: Supreme Court (2023) acknowledged misuse of POCSO in cases
involving consensual teenage relationships.

Conclusion

While reducing the age of consent may prevent wrongful criminalization, it must not
compromise child protection. A balanced approach with judicial discretion, case-specific
assessments, and stronger enforcement against trafficking and child marriages is essential to
ensure both child rights and safety.

Issues relating to development and management of Social

Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.
Q. “Teachers play a pivotal role in shaping learning outcomes and the overall
quality of education”. Examine the key challenges faced by school teachers in
India and suggest measures to enhance their effectiveness. (15 M)

Introduction

Teachers are the cornerstones of the education system, playing a pivotal role in shaping
learning outcomes, fostering critical thinking, and building the foundation for a nation’s
development. Despite their importance, they face numerous challenges that hinder their
effectiveness.

Body

Teachers’ role in shaping learning outcomes and education quality

42
 1. Foundational literacy and numeracy: Teachers are key to developing basic
reading, writing, and numeracy skills at an early stage.
o Eg: The ASER Report 2024 credited improved literacy levels in government
schools to focused teacher-led interventions.
2. Promoting critical thinking: Teachers shift focus from rote learning to conceptual
clarity and analytical thinking.
o Eg: The NEP 2020 emphasizes competency-based education where teachers
foster critical reasoning.
3. Ensuring inclusive education: Teachers bridge gaps for marginalized communities,
promoting social equity in classrooms.
o Eg: AISHE Report (2023) highlighted a 66% increase in ST enrollment,
reflecting teachers' efforts towards inclusivity.
4. Socio-emotional development: Teachers play a role in building students’ emotional
intelligence, ethics, and interpersonal skills.
o Eg: CBSE’s Life Skills Program (2022) integrates emotional learning
through teacher-driven modules.
5. Technology integration: Teachers facilitate blended learning by incorporating
digital tools in the classroom.
o Eg: The DIKSHA platform helped teachers adopt EdTech effectively during
the COVID-19 pandemic.
6. Gender sensitization: Teachers promote gender equality and awareness through
inclusive teaching practices.
o Eg: UNICEF’s Gender Responsive Pedagogy (2023) trained teachers to
create gender-sensitive learning environments.

Key challenges faced by school teachers in India

1. High student-teacher ratio: Overcrowded classrooms limit individual attention to

students.
o Eg: Bihar’s student-teacher ratio of 60:1 exceeds the RTE Act’s
recommended 30:1 ratio.
2. Lack of continuous professional development: Teachers lack regular upskilling
opportunities to improve pedagogy.
o Eg: The Justice J.S. Verma Commission (2012) highlighted the need for
reforming teacher training institutions.
3. Limited curriculum autonomy: Teachers face rigid curricula with little flexibility
for innovative teaching.
o Eg: NEP 2020 proposes giving teachers greater freedom in curriculum and
assessment design.
4. Non-teaching workload: Teachers are burdened with administrative duties like
election work and census surveys.
o Eg: A NITI Aayog report (2023) revealed that teachers spend less than 60%
of their time on actual teaching.

43
 5. Inadequate infrastructure: Poor classroom resources and facilities hinder
effective teaching.
o Eg: UDISE+ Report (2023) found that 20% of schools lack functional ICT
labs for digital learning.
6. Regional disparities: Rural areas suffer from a shortage of qualified teachers, leading
to single-teacher schools.
o Eg: Over 1.2 lakh single-teacher schools exist in remote and tribal regions
of India (MHRD 2024).

Measures to enhance teachers' effectiveness

1. Recruitment to reduce student-teacher ratio: Hiring more teachers to maintain the

RTE Act’s ideal ratio.
o Eg: Bihar’s recruitment drive (2024) aims to recruit 1.75 lakh teachers to
ease classroom burden.
2. Continuous professional development (cpd): Implementing regular training
programs to upgrade teaching skills.
o Eg: National Professional Standards for Teachers (NPST) 2021 promotes
continuous teacher capacity-building.
3. Curriculum flexibility and autonomy: Giving teachers freedom to design
contextual lesson plans.
o Eg: The NIPUN Bharat Mission (2021) promotes competency-based
learning over rote methods.
4. Reducing administrative burden: Appointing dedicated administrative staff to
handle non-teaching tasks.
o Eg: Karnataka’s School Administrative Model (2023) helped reduce
teachers’ administrative workload.
5. Improved pay and job security: Enhancing salary structures and providing
permanent employment to boost morale.
o Eg: Haryana’s regularization policy (2024) improved job security for over
14,000 contract teachers.
6. Digital literacy training: Equipping teachers with ICT skills for effective blended
learning.
o Eg: The DIKSHA platform offers comprehensive EdTech modules for
teachers’ digital empowerment.

Conclusion

Teachers are the backbone of India’s education system, yet their potential remains
underutilized due to systemic challenges. By focusing on policy reforms, capacity building,
and reducing administrative burdens, we can empower teachers to drive meaningful
change and ensure quality education for all.

44
Q. Analyze the effectiveness of the National Assessment and Accreditation
Council (NAAC) in promoting quality assurance in higher education. Examine
the loopholes in the current system and suggest policy interventions for robust
accreditation mechanisms. (15 M)

Introduction

Accreditation is a cornerstone of ensuring quality assurance in higher education. The

National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), established in 1994 under the
University Grants Commission (UGC), plays a critical role in evaluating the quality of
academic institutions in India.

Body

Effectiveness of NAAC in Promoting Quality Assurance

1. Standardized evaluation framework: NAAC provides a uniform framework for

assessing institutions based on parameters like teaching, research, and infrastructure.
o Eg: The 8-point grading system (A++ to D) ensures objective evaluation
across over 1,000 accredited institutions.
2. Enhancement of global recognition: Accreditation improves the global standing of
Indian institutions, aiding in international collaborations.
o Eg: Institutions like IISc Bengaluru have enhanced global rankings post-
NAAC accreditation.
3. Accountability and continuous improvement: NAAC encourages institutions to
maintain accountability through regular re-assessments every 5-7 years.
o Eg: Delhi University’s periodic reaccreditation fosters continuous
curriculum and research improvement.
4. Linkage to autonomy and funding: Institutions with high NAAC grades are eligible
for greater autonomy and funding opportunities from UGC.
o Eg: Colleges with A+ grades can apply for autonomous status under UGC
guidelines.
5. Promotion of student-centric evaluation: The introduction of the Student
Satisfaction Survey (SSS) ensures student voices are integrated into the evaluation
process.
o Eg: NAAC’s SSS mechanism in 2023 incorporated feedback from over 5
lakh students nationwide.

Loopholes in the current system

1. Corruption and malpractices: Allegations of bribery and manipulation in the

accreditation process compromise credibility.
o Eg: The 2025 NAAC bribery case involving Koneru Lakshmaiah
Education Foundation (KLEF) highlighted systemic corruption.

45
 2. Limited peer review diversity: Over-reliance on a small pool of assessors leads to
biases and lack of objectivity.
o Eg: The 2022 Joorel Committee Report noted that only 20-30% of
assessors from the existing pool are regularly utilized.
3. Opaque selection of inspection teams: Lack of transparency in the formation of
peer review teams fosters favoritism.
o Eg: In the KLEF case, institutions influenced the inclusion of “known
members” in the inspection team.
4. Overemphasis on documentation: Focus on paper-based compliance rather than
actual academic quality undermines holistic assessment.
o Eg: Institutions achieving high grades through inflated self-study reports
without corresponding academic outcomes.
5. Inadequate technology integration: The absence of robust IT infrastructure makes
the process vulnerable to data manipulation.
o Eg: The Joorel Committee (2022) recommended reforms in NAAC’s online
data management to address integrity issues.

Policy interventions for robust accreditation mechanisms

1. Transition to binary accreditation: Shift from the traditional grading system to a

binary accreditation model for clarity and simplicity.
o Eg: The K. Radhakrishnan Committee (2022) recommended identifying
institutions as “Accredited” or “Not Accredited”.
2. Strengthening technological frameworks: Implement AI-based data analytics and
blockchain technology to ensure data integrity.
o Eg: The 2024 NAAC reforms emphasized IT-based validation and
stakeholder crowdsourcing for accuracy.
3. Decentralization of accreditation bodies: Establish multiple accreditation
agencies under a regulatory umbrella to promote competition and reduce monopolies.
o Eg: The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 proposes the creation of
Accreditation Councils alongside NAAC.
4. Enhanced transparency in peer selection: Introduce algorithm-based random
selection of peer reviewers to minimize human intervention.
o Eg: The UGC’s 2023 directive proposed reforms in the peer team selection
process for improved transparency.
5. Mandatory conflict of interest disclosures: Enforce strict conflict of interest
policies for accreditation team members to prevent bias.
o Eg: Best practices from the US Higher Learning Commission (HLC)
require full disclosure of affiliations during reviews.

Conclusion

Ensuring integrity and transparency in the accreditation process is critical for enhancing
the global competitiveness of India’s higher education system. A robust, technology-

46
driven, and decentralized framework, aligned with NEP 2020, can restore public trust and
promote academic excellence.

Q. Despite being the fifth-largest economy, India’s private sector investment in

R&D remains significantly lower than global peers. Analyze the structural
challenges inhibiting private sector-led research and innovation. (10 M)

Introduction

India’s Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) is only 0.7% of GDP, far lower than China
(2.4%) and the USA (3.1%) (DST, 2024). The private sector contributes just 41% to
total R&D, whereas in developed economies, this exceeds 70%, highlighting India’s
innovation gap.

Body

India’s private sector investment in R&D remains significantly lower than global peers

1. Low private sector contribution to R&D: Most R&D funding (50%) comes from
the public sector, unlike advanced economies where businesses lead research.
o Eg: Economic Survey 2024 highlighted that in South Korea and the USA,
over 75% of R&D is privately funded.
2. Underinvestment in high-tech and deep-tech sectors: Indian firms focus on IT and
services, neglecting AI, semiconductors, and space technology.
o Eg: NASSCOM (2023) found that only 10% of Indian unicorns invest in
deep-tech R&D, compared to 30% in the USA.
3. Weak commercialization of academic research: University research remains
theoretical, with limited private sector partnerships.
o Eg: India ranks 42nd in the Global Innovation Index 2024, primarily due
to low technology transfer and patent filings.
4. Regulatory and financial barriers: Complex compliance norms, limited tax
incentives, and high borrowing costs deter private investment in research.
o Eg: World Bank (2023) noted that India’s R&D tax incentives are less
competitive than those in China, Singapore, and Germany.
5. Heavy reliance on foreign technology imports: Indian companies prefer importing
technology rather than investing in indigenous R&D.
o Eg: India imported ₹1.3 lakh crore worth of electronic components in
2023 (Department of Commerce, 2024), reflecting weak domestic research
output.

Structural challenges inhibiting private sector-led research and innovation

1. Weak intellectual property framework: Slow patent approvals, weak

enforcement, and costly litigation discourage innovation.

47
 o Eg: India has over 2 lakh pending patent applications (Controller General
of Patents, 2024), delaying commercialization of research.
2. Poor industry-academia collaboration: Universities and businesses operate in
silos, limiting applied research and innovation.
o Eg: Only 15% of patents filed in India involve industry-academia
partnerships (WIPO, 2023), compared to 60% in the USA.
3. High cost and risk of innovation: Private firms hesitate to invest in long-gestation,
high-risk R&D projects.
o Eg: Less than 1% of Indian manufacturing firms allocate funds for R&D,
leading to low product innovation (NITI Aayog, 2024).
4. Limited government support for private R&D: Tax deductions under Section
35(2AB) of the Income Tax Act were reduced in 2020, reducing incentives for
corporate research.
o Eg: India ranked 37th in R&D tax incentives (OECD, 2023), making
private R&D less attractive.
5. Lack of a structured National R&D Policy: Unlike China’s Made in China 2025
strategy, India lacks a long-term R&D roadmap.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s draft National R&D Policy (2023) remains in the
consultation phase, delaying policy action.

What can be done?

1. Enhancing financial incentives for private R&D: Increase tax rebates, direct
funding, and venture capital support for research-driven enterprises.
o Eg: South Korea provides 40% tax rebates for R&D investments (OECD,
2023), boosting private sector innovation.
2. Strengthening intellectual property rights (IPR) protections: Speed up patent
approvals, improve enforcement, and lower litigation costs.
o Eg: USA’s Patent Prosecution Highway (PPH) model accelerates patent
processing for deep-tech startups.
3. Building stronger industry-academia collaboration: Encourage corporate-funded
university research, joint PhD programs, and university incubators.
o Eg: Stanford University’s ties with Silicon Valley led to the success of
companies like Google and Tesla.
4. Expanding deep-tech funding and innovation hubs: Provide low-interest R&D
loans, sovereign R&D funds, and public-private research centers.
o Eg: Germany’s Fraunhofer Institutes focus on industry-driven applied
research, fostering innovation.
5. Developing a National R&D Strategy: Establish a 10-year roadmap for private
sector R&D with sector-specific research priorities.
o Eg: China’s Made in China 2025 policy helped establish AI,
semiconductors, and biotech leadership.

Conclusion

48
Increasing private sector-led R&D requires financial, policy, and institutional reforms.
Strengthening IP protection, industry-academia collaboration, and strategic funding can
help India shift from being a technology consumer to a technology leader.

Q. “A National Skill Census is not just a data collection exercise but a crucial
policy tool for governance”. Comment. (10 M)

Introduction

A National Skill Census (NSC) is a transformative governance tool that enables targeted
workforce planning, employment generation, and economic policymaking. It is essential
to ensure that India's demographic dividend translates into productive employment,
preventing long-term structural unemployment.

Body

National skill census as a crucial policy tool for governance

1. Evidence-based policymaking: Provides real-time, granular workforce data for

effective decision-making.
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh Skill Census 2024 helped map workforce capabilities,
leading to sectoral skill development policies.
2. Bridging skill mismatch: Aligns vocational training with industry demands, reducing
the skill gap.
o Eg: India Skills Report 2024 found that only 45.9% of graduates were
employable (Source: Wheebox).
3. Regional workforce planning: Helps states design localized skill policies based on
economic clusters.
o Eg: UP’s Migrant Skill Mapping (2020) linked 11.5 lakh workers with
MSMEs.
4. Integration with economic planning: Links skill development with industrial
growth, FDI, and entrepreneurship policies.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s Skill Policy (2023) focuses on aligning workforce training
with industrial zones.

Implications of a national skill census

1. Informed labour market strategies: Enables dynamic workforce planning based on

emerging job trends.
o Eg: AI & automation have reshaped demand for digital skills (Source:
WEF Future of Jobs Report 2023).
2. Optimized resource allocation: Ensures skilling investments are cost-effective and
outcome-driven.
o **Eg: PMKVY saw high dropout rates due to industry misalignment
(Source: MSDE 2022).
49
 3. Better tracking of employability: Helps monitor the long-term impact of skill
programs on career growth.
o Eg: Lack of employment tracking weakened the effectiveness of DDU-
GKY.
4. Boost to cooperative federalism: Strengthens Centre-State collaboration for
decentralized skilling.
o Eg: Kerala’s ASAP model tailors skills training to local economic needs.

Way forward

1. Institutionalize the national skill census: Conduct biennially under a Skill India
Commission.
o Eg: NSSO’s PLFS lacks skill-specific insights, requiring a dedicated skill
census.
2. Leverage digital technology: Use AI-driven analytics, multilingual access, and
offline data collection.
o Eg: Singapore’s SkillsFuture Portal provides real-time job-skill mapping.
3. Strengthen industry-academia partnerships: Ensure curriculum modernization to
match industry needs.
o Eg: NASSCOM-FutureSkills initiative promotes AI-based skilling
programs.
4. Create an independent monitoring body: Establish a third-party workforce audit
for real-time assessments.
o **Eg: OECD countries use independent labor evaluation agencies to assess
skilling impact.

Conclusion

A National Skill Census is not just a data exercise but a governance imperative—it can
enhance policy efficiency, boost employment, and drive economic transformation. A well-
executed skill census will ensure that India’s workforce remains competitive, adaptive,
and future-ready.

Q. What are the key factors contributing to the decline in school enrolment in
India over the past decade? Analyze the socio-economic implications of this
trend. (10 M)

Introduction

India's declining school enrolment over the past decade signals a demographic shift with far-
reaching socio-economic consequences. While improved data accuracy is cited as a factor,
deeper structural issues such as demographic transitions, economic distress, and educational
inefficiencies play a crucial role.

Body
50
Key factors contributing to the decline in school enrolment

1. Demographic transition: India's falling fertility rate (2.01 in 2022, NFHS-5) has
led to a shrinking school-age population, directly impacting enrolment.
o Eg: U-DISE+ 2023-24 shows a 5.78% decline in the 6-17 age group over a
decade.
2. Economic distress and child labour resurgence: Rising inflation and job losses
have forced many children, especially from poor households, into informal work.
o Eg: The PLFS 2022-23 reported an increase in child labour participation
(especially in rural areas) post-pandemic.
3. Migration and school dropouts: Seasonal migration of families disrupts children's
education due to lack of continuity in schooling.
o Eg: UNESCO 2023 Report highlights that 28% of migrant children drop
out before completing primary education.
4. Weakening of government schooling system: Poor quality education, infrastructure
gaps, and inadequate teacher availability deter enrolment.
o Eg: The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Education (2023) reported
40% of schools lack trained teachers, leading to learning gaps.
5. Gender and socio-cultural barriers: Girls in rural areas often face early marriage or
are engaged in domestic work, limiting their schooling.
o Eg: NFHS-5 (2019-21) revealed that 23% of girls in India are married
before 18, impacting their secondary education.

Socio-economic implications of declining school enrolment

1. Erosion of demographic dividend: A declining school-age population means fewer

educated youth, reducing India’s long-term productivity.
o Eg: World Bank 2023 Report warns that India's working-age population
will peak by 2035, requiring urgent skilling initiatives.
2. Rising income inequality: With private school enrolment increasing, access to
quality education is becoming more class-based, widening economic disparity.
o Eg: ASER 2022 highlights a 14% learning gap between students in
government and private schools.
3. Impact on female empowerment: Lower school enrolment leads to reduced
workforce participation among women, limiting gender parity gains.
o Eg: India's female labor force participation (LFPR) fell to 24% in 2023
(ILO Report), partly due to educational dropouts.
4. Future skill gap and unemployment: The decline in secondary education enrolment
will impact India’s future workforce, increasing unemployment risks.
o Eg: CMIE 2023 found that 63% of unemployed youth lacked higher
education, underscoring the impact of early dropouts.
5. Increased social vulnerabilities: Poorly educated youth are more likely to engage in
crime, substance abuse, and radicalization.

51
 o Eg: NCRB 2023 data links 55% of juvenile offenses to school dropouts,
indicating a correlation between education and crime rates.

Conclusion

India must urgently strengthen public schooling, invest in vocational education, and
address socio-economic barriers to safeguard its demographic advantage. A proactive
policy shift, aligned with National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and demographic realities,
is essential for ensuring inclusive and sustained human capital development.

Q. The increasing participation of women in the teaching workforce is not just

about gender equity but a fundamental reform in education. Comment. (15 M)

Introduction

The rise in female representation in India’s teaching workforce, crossing 53.34% in

2023-24 (UDISE+ data), is not merely about numerical gender balance but a transformative
shift in education quality, inclusivity, and social equity. Women educators foster
inclusive learning, improve female student retention, and challenge gender biases in
pedagogy.

Body

Increasing participation of women in the teaching workforce as a fundamental reform

in education

1. Enhancing inclusive education: Women teachers foster higher classroom

participation and gender-sensitive pedagogy, ensuring holistic student engagement.
o Eg: UNESCO report (2022) states female-led classrooms show 20% higher
inclusive participation.
2. Boosting female student enrolment & retention: The presence of female teachers
improves girls’ access to education by addressing safety concerns and social barriers.
o Eg: Bihar’s Kanya Utthan Yojana saw a significant rise in female
enrollment due to increased women teachers.
3. Breaking social taboos & stereotypes: Women educators normalize discussions on
menstrual hygiene, child marriage, and gender roles, fostering an egalitarian mindset.
o Eg: Udaan Scheme (MHRD, 2014) emphasizes mentorship for adolescent
girls by female teachers.
4. Better emotional & psychological support for students: Women educators tend to
provide stronger emotional backing, enhancing student well-being and performance.
o Eg: ASER Report 2023 links higher female teacher presence with better
student-teacher interaction quality.
5. Economic empowerment & workforce participation: A higher share of women in
teaching challenges patriarchal employment biases and sets a precedent for other
professions.
52
 o Eg: McKinsey Global Institute (2022) estimates that closing the gender gap
in education could add $12 trillion to global GDP.
6. Creating leadership pipelines in education: More female educators inspire
leadership aspirations among young girls and contribute to diverse decision-making in
academic institutions.
o Eg: National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 emphasizes gender inclusivity
in leadership roles in higher education.

Challenges hindering women's role in educational reforms

1. Underrepresentation in higher education: Women make up only 43% of faculty in

higher education (AISHE 2021-22), limiting their impact beyond school-level
education.
o Eg: IITs & IIMs have less than 20% female faculty, reflecting institutional
barriers.
2. Workplace harassment & safety issues: Lack of safe transport, infrastructure, and
grievance redressal mechanisms deters many women from joining or continuing in the
profession.
o Eg: NCW (2023) reported a rise in sexual harassment cases in educational
institutions.
3. Wage disparity & contractual employment: Women teachers in private schools
face lower salaries and job insecurity, undermining their contribution.
o Eg: Private school teachers earn 30-40% less than government
counterparts (NSSO 2019), disproportionately affecting women.
4. Burden of domestic responsibilities: Societal norms limit women’s career
progression, restricting them to primary education roles while men dominate
administration and research.
o Eg: ILO Report (2021) highlights that Indian women spend 9.8 times more
hours on unpaid domestic work than men.

Way forward

1. Increasing women’s leadership in higher education: Encourage women-led

research, mentorship programs, and leadership training.
o Eg: UGC’s Gender Advancement for Transforming Institutions (GATI)
program promotes women faculty leadership.
2. Ensuring pay parity & job security: Implement equal pay policies, stricter labor law
enforcement, and regularization of contractual teachers.
o Eg: Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, needs stronger enforcement in private
education.
3. Strengthening safety & workplace support: Improve transport facilities, grievance
redressal mechanisms, and campus safety measures.
o Eg: Nirbhaya Fund (2013) has been used for setting up women’s safety
measures in education institutions.

53
 4. Encouraging male participation in primary education: A balanced gender ratio in
teaching would normalize caregiving roles and reduce the feminization of primary
education.
o Eg: Finland & Sweden actively promote male recruitment in early
childhood education.

Conclusion

The rising participation of women in the teaching workforce is a structural reform that
enhances educational inclusivity, gender equity, and societal progress. However, policy
efforts must address barriers in leadership, safety, and pay disparity to ensure sustained
impact beyond numerical representation.

Q. The transition from learning outcomes to curricular outputs is not just a

pedagogical shift but a socio-economic imperative for India. Discuss with
reference to employment generation, social mobility, and educational equity. (15
M)

Introduction

India’s education system must evolve beyond textbook-driven learning to equip students with
practical skills, adaptability, and creativity. A curricular output-driven approach fosters
employability, enhances social mobility, and ensures equitable access to opportunities in a
rapidly changing socio-economic landscape.

Body

The transition from learning outcomes to curricular outputs as a socio-economic

imperative

1. Bridging the skill gap: Traditional learning outcomes focus on rote knowledge,
whereas curricular outputs develop industry-relevant skills.
o Eg: 75% of engineering graduates in India remain unemployable due to
lack of practical skills (Source: India Skills Report 2023).
2. Adapting to the Fourth Industrial Revolution: Emerging fields such as AI,
robotics, and data science demand output-driven education that emphasizes hands-
on learning.
o Eg: The NASSCOM Future Skills Prime Initiative aims to train 1 million
professionals in new-age digital skills.
3. Entrepreneurial and innovation ecosystem: A curriculum focused on problem-
solving fosters entrepreneurship and start-ups.
o Eg: Atal Tinkering Labs (NITI Aayog) have helped school students develop
over 6,500 innovative prototypes since inception.

54
 4. Global competitiveness: Nations with curricular output-driven models, like Finland
and Germany, produce workforce-ready graduates, ensuring economic progress.
o Eg: Germany’s dual vocational training system integrates classroom
learning with practical work, leading to only 5.7% youth unemployment
(2023).

Employment generation

1. Industry-academia alignment: Practical curriculum bridges the education-

employment disconnect, leading to higher workforce participation.
o Eg: The Skill India Mission has trained over 1.4 crore youth under the
PMKVY scheme, improving employability.
2. Sector-specific training: Curricular outputs prepare students for sectoral demands in
manufacturing, healthcare, and digital economy.
o Eg: The National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (NAPS) facilitated 5
lakh apprenticeships in 2023.
3. Gig economy preparedness: With freelancing and platform-based jobs rising,
practical learning fosters self-employment.
o Eg: India’s gig workforce is projected to reach 23.5 million by 2030 (NITI
Aayog Report, 2022).
4. Boost to MSMEs and rural employment: Vocational learning enhances
productivity in micro-enterprises and self-help groups (SHGs).
o Eg: The Rural Skill Development Schemes (DDU-GKY) trained over 12
lakh rural youth for employment.

Social mobility

1. Breaking the generational poverty cycle: Skills-driven education enables first-

generation learners to secure better jobs.
o Eg: Aspirational Districts Programme improved vocational training in
backward districts, increasing school-to-work transitions.
2. Inclusive growth for women: Hands-on training promotes women’s workforce
participation in STEM, entrepreneurship, and skilled trades.
o Eg: Women in STEM Initiative (DST) aims to increase female
representation to 30% by 2030.
3. Empowering marginalized communities: Practical education reduces caste and
class barriers by emphasizing merit and competence.
o Eg: Jan Shikshan Sansthan (JSS) trained over 6 lakh people from
SC/ST/OBC backgrounds in 2023.
4. Urban-rural mobility: Vocational learning encourages migration from agrarian to
industrial and service sectors for better wages.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s Naan Mudhalvan Scheme provides skill-based education
to help rural youth enter urban job markets.

55
Educational equity

1. Reducing urban-rural disparity: Schools in remote areas can integrate hands-on

learning for skill development.
o Eg: Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) provide tribal students
with vocational training alongside academics.
2. Digital learning access: Online and hybrid learning models bridge access gaps in
curricular output-focused education.
o Eg: The PM e-Vidya initiative launched 200+ digital courses to support
remote learners.
3. Addressing disabilities and learning diversity: Practical learning enhances
inclusivity for children with disabilities (CWDs).
o Eg: National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 mandates adaptive learning for
divyang (PwD) students.
4. Affordable skill education for all: Public-private partnerships can ensure low-cost
vocational and technical education.
o Eg: National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) trained 3 crore
youth under PPP mode.

Conclusion

Shifting from learning outcomes to curricular outputs is essential for India’s socio-economic
growth, workforce competitiveness, and inclusive development. By integrating practical
learning, industry linkages, and digital inclusivity, India can equip its youth for the future
and achieve Viksit Bharat 2047.

Issues relating to poverty and hunger.

Important aspects of governance, transparency and
accountability, e-governance- applications, models, successes,
limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency &
accountability and institutional and other measures.
Q. Despite legislative and institutional reforms, India continues to struggle with
systemic corruption. Identify the key structural issues in India’s anti-corruption
mechanisms and propose a roadmap for holistic reforms. (15 M)

Introduction

Systemic corruption persists in India despite a robust legal and institutional framework,
primarily due to weak enforcement, procedural delays, and political interference. Addressing
these structural gaps is critical for ensuring transparent and accountable governance.

Body

56
India’s struggle with systemic corruption despite reforms

1. Weak enforcement of anti-corruption laws: Despite the Prevention of Corruption

Act (PCA), 1988 (amended in 2018), implementation remains ineffective due to
poor conviction rates.
o Eg: NCRB (2023) data shows that 77% of corruption cases remain
pending for more than five years.
2. Political interference in anti-corruption agencies: Institutions like Lokpal, CVC,
and CBI lack operational autonomy, leading to selective action against offenders.
o Eg: Supreme Court (2023) criticized the government’s delay in appointing
the Lokpal.
3. Opaque political funding: Electoral bonds and unregulated corporate donations
undermine financial transparency in politics.
o Eg: ADR (2023) report highlights that ₹12,000 crore worth of electoral
bonds were purchased anonymously.
4. Judicial backlog and slow trials: Corruption cases take years to resolve due to
procedural inefficiencies and lack of fast-track courts.
o Eg: DoPT Report (2023) shows that over 7,000 cases under PCA, 1988,
remain unresolved.
5. Dilution of whistle blower protection: The Whistle Blowers Protection Act, 2014
remains unimplemented, discouraging disclosures.
o Eg: Over 100 RTI activists attacked or killed between 2011-2023 (CHRI
Report, 2023).
6. Corruption in welfare and procurement systems: Despite e-Governance
initiatives like DBT and GeM, fraudulent transactions persist.
o Eg: MNREGA audit (2023) flagged ₹1,200 crore in fake beneficiaries and
misallocated funds.

Key structural issues in India’s anti-corruption mechanisms

1. Executive control over investigative agencies: Agencies like CBI and ED function
under the government, impacting their neutrality.
o Eg: CBI was called a ‘Caged Parrot’ by the Supreme Court in CPIL vs
UOI (2013) due to political misuse.
2. Understaffing and resource constraints: Anti-corruption bodies lack sufficient
personnel and modern forensic tools.
o Eg: CAG report (2023) found 43% vacancies in CVC and 31% in CBI’s
anti-corruption wing.
3. Ambiguity in corporate bribery laws: PCA, 2018, criminalized bribe-giving but
lacks clarity on corporate lobbying and indirect influence.
o Eg: Satyam Scam (2009) exposed loopholes in corporate auditing and
governance.
4. Lack of accountability in public procurement: Absence of real-time monitoring
systems allows large-scale financial irregularities.

57
 o Eg: CVC (2023) detected procurement fraud worth ₹3,000 crore in
various departments.
5. Ineffective citizen participation mechanisms: Social audits and RTI Act, 2005,
have been diluted due to bureaucratic restrictions.
o Eg: RTI activist Anjali Bhardwaj (2023) flagged increasing denials under
Section 8(1) of the RTI Act.
6. Judicial delays in corruption cases: India lacks special fast-track courts for
corruption cases, leading to prolonged trials.
o Eg: Only 23% conviction rate in PCA cases (PRS Legislative Research,
2024) due to slow prosecution.

Roadmap for holistic reforms

1. Ensuring independent anti-corruption institutions: Grant Lokpal, CVC, and CBI

financial and operational autonomy to prevent political interference.
o Eg: Second ARC Report recommended CBI’s independence in anti-
corruption cases.
2. Judicial and procedural reforms: Establish fast-track special courts for corruption
cases with strict timelines.
o Eg: Vineet Narain case (1997) led to SC directives for time-bound
corruption trials.
3. Whistle-blower protection and corporate accountability: Implement the Whistle
Blowers Protection Act, 2014, and mandate corporate anti-bribery policies.
o Eg: UK Bribery Act, 2010, imposes strict penalties on companies failing to
prevent corruption.
4. Transparency in political funding: Mandate real-time disclosure of political
donations and ban anonymous electoral bonds.
o Eg: EU Transparency Register (2023) requires full public tracking of
political contributions.
5. Leveraging technology for real-time monitoring: Use blockchain, AI, and Big
Data analytics in public procurement and welfare schemes.
o Eg: South Korea’s ‘KONEPS’ e-Procurement system reduced procurement
fraud by 75%.
6. Strengthening public participation and social audits: Expand social audit
mechanisms in MNREGA, PDS, and infrastructure projects.
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh Social Audit Mechanism improved NREGA fund
utilization by 30%.

Conclusion

A corruption-free India requires institutional autonomy, judicial efficiency, digital

interventions, and public participation. Strengthening enforcement, political
transparency, and corporate accountability will ensure a robust and corruption-free
governance system.

58
Role of civil services in a democracy.
India and its neighborhood- relations.

Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving

India and/or affecting India’s interests.
Q. “The robust and time-tested friendship between India and Russia serves as a
shining example of cooperation and diplomacy for the world to emulate”.
Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction

The India-Russia partnership, rooted in historical trust and strategic alignment since the
Cold War era, has evolved into a Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership,
transcending global power shifts and setting an example of resilient diplomacy.

Body

Robust and time-tested friendship between India and Russia

1. Strategic partnership evolution: The relationship has evolved from the 1950 Indo-
Soviet Treaty of Friendship to a Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership
post-2000.
o Eg: The Indo-Soviet Treaty (1971) supported India during the Bangladesh
Liberation War, strengthening strategic ties.
2. Defense and security cooperation: Russia is India’s largest defense supplier,
contributing to 45% of India’s defense imports (SIPRI, 2023).
o Eg: The delivery of the S-400 Triumf missile system in 2021 showcased deep
defense collaboration despite global sanctions pressure.
3. Civil nuclear energy collaboration: Russia supports India’s nuclear energy
development, especially through the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant.
o Eg: Kudankulam Units 3 and 4, under Russian collaboration, boost India’s
clean energy capacity (Source: NPCIL, 2024).
4. Strong economic ties: Bilateral trade reached $50 billion in 2023, with plans to hit
$100 billion by 2030 (Ministry of Commerce, 2024).
o Eg: Growth in pharmaceuticals, oil, and defense spare parts highlights
economic diversification beyond traditional sectors.
5. Space and scientific cooperation: Close ties in space exploration through ISRO-
Roscosmos agreements foster technological growth.
o Eg: Russian training support for Indian astronauts in the upcoming
Gaganyaan Mission (2025) signifies advanced space collaboration.

Shining example of cooperation and diplomacy for the world to emulate

59
 1. Strategic autonomy in foreign policy: India maintains strong ties with Russia while
balancing relationships with the US and other powers, showcasing strategic
autonomy.
o Eg: India’s neutral stance during the Russia-Ukraine conflict (2022-present)
highlighted its independent foreign policy despite Western pressure.
2. Multilateral cooperation platforms: Active collaboration in BRICS, SCO, G-20,
and the UN promotes multipolar diplomacy.
o Eg: The BRICS Summit 2024 in St. Petersburg emphasized economic
reforms and multilateral cooperation, strengthening India-Russia ties.
3. Energy security and diversification: Russia is pivotal for India’s energy security,
especially in oil and natural gas supplies.
o Eg: A significant rise in Russian crude oil imports to India post-2022 amid
Western sanctions (Source: Reuters, 2024).
4. Defense cooperation despite global pressures: India continues defense engagements
with Russia despite CAATSA sanctions threats from the US.
o Eg: The operational deployment of INS Vikramaditya, refurbished with
Russian support, reflects resilient defense ties.
5. Cultural and people-to-people exchanges: Strong cultural diplomacy fosters long-
term goodwill beyond governmental relations.
o Eg: The popularity of Russian literature, language programs, and
educational exchanges has deepened socio-cultural connections.

Challenges in India Russia relations

1. Geopolitical realignments: Russia’s growing closeness to China post-Ukraine war

raises strategic concerns for India, especially regarding border security.
o Eg: The Russia-China "no-limits" partnership (2022) challenges India’s
balancing act in Eurasian geopolitics.
2. Trade imbalance: India faces a significant trade deficit with Russia due to heavy
reliance on energy imports and limited export diversification.
o Eg: In 2023, India's exports to Russia were dwarfed by energy imports,
creating an unsustainable trade imbalance (Source: Ministry of Commerce).
3. Defense dependency risks: Overdependence on Russian defense equipment makes
India vulnerable to supply chain disruptions amid global conflicts.
o Eg: Delays in spare parts for Sukhoi aircraft due to the Russia-Ukraine war
disrupted operational readiness.
4. Impact of western sanctions: Global sanctions on Russia post-Ukraine war
complicate India’s financial transactions and defense procurements.
o Eg: Challenges in executing rupee-ruble trade settlements amid SWIFT
restrictions have affected bilateral trade mechanisms.
5. Limited economic diversification: Despite strong defense ties, economic relations
lack depth in areas like technology, services, and manufacturing.
o Eg: Underperformance in bilateral investments in IT and digital sectors
compared to India’s engagements with other strategic partners.

60
Conclusion

India-Russia relations symbolize resilient diplomacy grounded in mutual respect,

strategic autonomy, and shared interests. To remain a global example, the partnership
must focus on diversifying economic cooperation, deepening technological exchanges,
and navigating emerging geopolitical complexities with strategic foresight.

Q. Analyze the significance of India-Qatar upgrading their ties to a strategic

partnership. How does it impact India’s energy security? What are the
geopolitical implications of this development? (15 M)

Introduction

The India-Qatar strategic partnership marks a significant upgrade in bilateral ties, covering
trade, energy, security, and regional cooperation. Given Qatar’s role as India’s largest LNG
supplier and a key player in West Asia, this partnership holds strategic and economic
importance for India.

Body

Significance of India-Qatar Strategic Partnership

1. Institutionalized cooperation: Strengthens structured dialogue on trade, energy,

defense, and security through high-level mechanisms.
o Eg: Formation of India-Qatar Joint Business Forum (2025) to enhance
investment and trade.
2. Enhanced trade and investment flows: Facilitates greater FDI from Qatar in
sectors like energy, infrastructure, and technology.
o Eg: Qatar Investment Authority’s $1.5 billion investment in Reliance Jio
(2023).
3. Strengthening diaspora ties: Enhances welfare measures and labour protections
for the 800,000-strong Indian workforce in Qatar.
o Eg: 85 Indian prisoners pardoned by Qatar in 2024 (MEA Report).
4. Security and defense cooperation: Opens new avenues for maritime security,
intelligence sharing, and counterterrorism collaboration.
o Eg: Discussion on a bilateral defense pact under the strategic framework
(2025).
5. Regional stability and diplomatic leverage: Strengthens India’s role in West Asia’s
strategic affairs while balancing relations with GCC nations.
o Eg: India’s engagement in Gaza peace discussions during the Qatari Amir’s
visit (2025).

Impact on India’s Energy Security

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 1. Long-term LNG supply assurance: Qatar is India’s largest LNG supplier,
accounting for 40% of India’s LNG imports, ensuring energy stability.
o Eg: India-Qatar LNG supply extension deal signed in 2024 for 20 years
(Petroleum Ministry).
2. Diversification of energy sources: Expands India's access to Qatar’s advanced
energy sector, including hydrogen and renewables.
o Eg: MoU signed for green hydrogen cooperation (2025) under India’s
National Green Hydrogen Mission.
3. Stabilizing energy prices: Ensures competitive pricing and reduced volatility
through direct government negotiations.
o Eg: India negotiating preferential LNG pricing mechanism with Qatar for
long-term supply (2025).
4. Investment in India’s energy infrastructure: Qatar’s investments in India’s
petrochemical and refinery projects strengthen supply chains.
o Eg: Qatar Petroleum’s stake in India’s LNG terminals, enhancing
domestic energy security.
5. Strategic reserves and energy security buffer: Qatar’s partnership in India’s
strategic crude oil reserves improves resilience against global supply disruptions.
o Eg: Qatar’s participation in India’s strategic petroleum reserves (2024)
for energy crisis management.

Geopolitical Implications of the Partnership

1. Strengthening India’s presence in the Gulf: Deepens India’s engagement with

GCC nations, reinforcing its economic and strategic footprint.
o Eg: India-GCC FTA negotiations accelerated post India-Qatar agreement
(2025).
2. Balancing Israel-Gulf relations: Enhances India's diplomatic maneuverability
amid the ongoing Israel-Palestine conflict.
o Eg: India’s neutral stance on the Gaza crisis (2025) aligns with its balanced
Gulf strategy.
3. Countering China’s influence: A strategic agreement reduces China’s leverage in
Gulf energy partnerships, giving India an edge in West Asia.
o Eg: Qatar’s shift in LNG exports from China to India under long-term
contracts (2025).
4. Maritime security and regional stability: Enhances cooperation in Indian Ocean
security, ensuring safe energy trade routes.
o Eg: Discussions on joint naval exercises in the Arabian Sea (2025) to
counter piracy.
5. Soft power and diplomatic credibility: Strengthens India's role as a regional
stabilizer and energy hub in West Asia.
o Eg: India’s mediation role in Qatar’s outreach for West Asian peace
initiatives (2025).

62
Conclusion

The India-Qatar strategic partnership is a game-changer for India’s energy security, economic
resilience, and regional influence. Leveraging this relationship effectively can enhance
India’s geopolitical standing in West Asia and secure its long-term energy future.

Q. Examine how the US–India COMPACT fits into the broader Indo-Pacific
strategic framework and its implications for regional power dynamics. (10 M)

Introduction

The US–India COMPACT strengthens economic and strategic ties, reinforcing India’s
Indo-Pacific engagement. It aligns with India’s vision of a free, open, and rules-based
order in the Indo-Pacific, countering regional coercion.

Body

US–India COMPACT in the Indo-Pacific Strategic Framework

1. Countering Chinese Economic Influence: The agreement enhances India-US

supply chain integration, reducing dependence on Chinese manufacturing.
o Eg: US CHIPS and Science Act (2022) aims to shift semiconductor
production from China, with India as a potential partner.
2. Strengthening the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF): The COMPACT
aligns with IPEF’s goal of enhancing fair trade, supply chain resilience, and clean
energy transition.
o Eg: India joined the IPEF (2022) but opted out of the trade pillar, focusing on
supply chain resilience.
3. Enhancing Defense-Industrial Ties: The agreement strengthens defence co-
production and joint technology transfers, bolstering India’s military
preparedness in the Indo-Pacific.
o Eg: India-US Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET,
2023) fosters defense technology cooperation.
4. Expanding Maritime Security Cooperation: Strengthened economic ties lead to
deeper engagement in joint naval exercises, intelligence sharing, and security
partnerships.
o Eg: Malabar Exercise (2024) saw India, US, Japan, and Australia enhancing
interoperability in the Indo-Pacific.
5. Economic Diversification in Regional Trade: COMPACT positions India as an
alternative manufacturing hub, reducing over-reliance on China-centric trade
networks.
o Eg: India's participation in the Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI,
2021) with Japan and Australia promotes trade diversification.

Implications for Regional Power Dynamics

63
 1. Strategic Realignment of Indo-Pacific Alliances: Strengthened India-US trade
solidifies India’s position as a key US partner, affecting regional equations.
o Eg: China’s concerns over QUAD and India-US defence ties indicate
shifting Indo-Pacific power structures.
2. Economic Pressure on China’s Dominance: India’s integration into US-led trade
mechanisms reduces China’s monopoly over critical global supply chains.
o Eg: Apple shifting iPhone production to India (2023-24) aligns with the US
strategy of "friend shoring."
3. Challenges to ASEAN’s Centrality: Deepening India-US economic ties may dilute
ASEAN’s role as the central actor in Indo-Pacific trade and security frameworks.
o Eg: India’s limited engagement in RCEP (Regional Comprehensive
Economic Partnership, 2020) contrasts with its growing ties with the US.
4. Impacts on India’s Strategic Autonomy: While India benefits from COMPACT,
increased economic reliance on the US could limit India’s multi-alignment
approach.
o Eg: India balancing US ties with BRICS and Global South engagement,
maintaining strategic flexibility.
5. Rise of a Bipolar Economic Order: The agreement contributes to a US-led
alternative economic bloc, challenging China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
o Eg: Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII, 2023) is
the US-led alternative to BRI, with India playing a key role.

Conclusion

The US–India COMPACT reshapes Indo-Pacific geopolitics by challenging China’s

economic influence and strengthening India’s regional standing. India must balance trade
liberalization with strategic autonomy to maximize long-term geopolitical gains.

Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing

countries on India’s interests, Indian diaspora.
Q. “India-Indonesia ties are no longer just bilateral; they are strategic anchors
for Indo-Pacific stability”. Critically analyze the evolving nature of their
partnership in the current geopolitical context. (15 M)

Introduction

As maritime democracies with strategic locations along critical sea lanes, India and
Indonesia have transformed their bilateral relations into pivotal anchors for Indo-Pacific
stability, driven by shared interests in security, trade, and regional multilateralism.

Body

India-Indonesia ties are no longer just bilateral but are strategic anchors for Indo-
Pacific stability

64
 1. Maritime security cooperation: Both nations collaborate to secure the Straits of
Malacca, vital for global trade and energy flow.
o Eg: The India-Indonesia Naval Exercise (Samudra Shakti, 2023) enhances
maritime interoperability in the Indo-Pacific.
2. Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (2018): This elevated partnership covers
defence, economic cooperation, and political dialogue.
o Eg: The 2018 Jakarta Joint Statement emphasized maritime cooperation,
counter-terrorism, and connectivity.
3. Alignment in Indo-Pacific frameworks: Both support a free, open, and inclusive
Indo-Pacific, reinforcing rules-based maritime order.
o Eg: India's Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) aligns with Indonesia’s
ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific (AOIP).
4. Defence and security dialogues: Regular high-level defense exchanges strengthen
strategic understanding beyond bilateral contexts.
o Eg: The Defence Ministers’ Dialogue (2024) focused on joint defense
production and strategic cooperation in the Indo-Pacific.
5. Multilateral cooperation beyond borders: Collaboration in G20, BRICS, and
ASEAN-led platforms shapes broader regional stability.
o Eg: At the G20 Summit (2023, New Delhi), both nations advocated for
resilient global supply chains.

The evolving nature of their partnership in the current geopolitical context

Positives (Strengthening Strategic Partnership)

1. Enhanced defence cooperation: Joint military drills, naval exercises, and defense
technology collaborations reflect growing security ties.
o Eg: Signing of the Defence Cooperation Agreement (2024) on joint naval
exercises and technology sharing.
2. Growing economic ties: Bilateral trade crossed $30 billion (2023), with targets to
double in the next five years.
o Eg: The India-Indonesia CEOs Forum (2024) prioritized sectors like
energy, health, and digital economy.
3. Counter-terrorism collaboration: Intelligence sharing and joint efforts against
extremism strengthen internal and regional security.
o Eg: Joint Working Group on Counter-Terrorism (2023) addressed threats
from transnational terrorist networks.
4. Climate change and energy partnership: Cooperation in renewable energy and
sustainable development to tackle global environmental challenges.
o Eg: India-Indonesia Renewable Energy Partnership (2024) focuses on
solar energy projects.
5. Digital and technological cooperation: Growing collaboration in cybersecurity,
artificial intelligence, and digital infrastructure.

65
 o Eg: The India-Indonesia Digital Economy Dialogue (2024) explored fintech
and cybersecurity solutions.

Challenges associated

1. China’s growing influence: Diverging approaches towards managing China’s

assertiveness in the South China Sea can cause strategic friction.
o Eg: Indonesia’s cautious stance on South China Sea disputes contrasts with
India’s stronger strategic posture.
2. Trade imbalance: Despite growing volumes, India faces a trade deficit with
Indonesia, primarily due to heavy imports of palm oil and coal.
o Eg: India’s trade deficit with Indonesia stood at $8 billion (2023), as per
Ministry of Commerce data.
3. Maritime boundary sensitivities: Disagreements over Exclusive Economic Zones
(EEZs) occasionally strain maritime cooperation.
o Eg: Past tensions over fishing rights near the Andaman Sea highlight
potential flashpoints.
4. Limited connectivity infrastructure: Inadequate maritime and air connectivity
hampers deeper economic integration.
o Eg: The delayed expansion of direct shipping routes under the SABANG
port project reflects this gap.
5. Geopolitical uncertainty in multilateral forums: Differing priorities in platforms
like BRICS and ASEAN may limit strategic convergence.
o Eg: Indonesia’s neutral stance on Russia-Ukraine conflict diverges from
India’s more nuanced diplomatic position.

Conclusion

While India-Indonesia relations have evolved into strategic pillars for Indo-Pacific stability,
realizing their full potential requires addressing trade imbalances, enhancing maritime
security cooperation, and deepening multilateral alignment to shape a resilient and rules-
based regional order.

Q. “The India-EFTA Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) is

more than a trade deal; it is a step toward a long-term strategic
partnership”.Analyze in the context of India’s geopolitical and economic
priorities. (15 M)

Introduction

The India-EFTA Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) is not just a trade
pact but a comprehensive framework for economic growth, technology transfer, investment,
and geopolitical cooperation. By leveraging EFTA’s strengths in advanced technology

66
and finance, India aims to secure long-term strategic advantages in global trade and
diplomacy.

Body

TEPA as a Long-Term Strategic Partnership

1. Technology and innovation collaboration – TEPA facilitates access to EFTA’s

expertise in pharmaceuticals, precision engineering, and AI-driven industries,
boosting India's technological ecosystem.
o Eg: Swiss technology played a crucial role in India’s Chandrayaan-3
mission (2023), showcasing deepening tech ties.
2. Sustainable development and green energy transition – Norway and Iceland’s
leadership in renewable energy, hydrogen fuel, and carbon-neutral technologies
supports India’s Net Zero 2070 goals.
o Eg: Norwegian investments in India’s offshore wind energy (2024) align
with India’s National Green Hydrogen Mission.
3. FDI and employment generation – EFTA’s commitment to $100 billion
investment and 1 million jobs over 15-20 years under TEPA demonstrates a long-
term vision for economic cooperation.
o Eg: Swiss pharmaceutical giant Novartis expanded its R&D operations in
Hyderabad (2023), enhancing India’s life sciences sector.
4. Institutional mechanisms for regulatory alignment – The establishment of the
EFTA Desk in India (2025) ensures continued policy coordination, easing customs
procedures, dispute resolution, and IP protection.
o Eg: EFTA Desk will streamline business operations, ensuring ease of doing
business for investors from Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and
Switzerland.
5. Beyond transactional trade: A values-driven partnership – Unlike conventional
FTAs, TEPA promotes shared values in economic governance, sustainable
finance, and ethical trade practices, strengthening trust.
o Eg: India and Switzerland’s partnership in sustainable finance (GIFT
City, 2024) enhances India’s position in ethical investment frameworks.

TEPA in the Context of India’s Geopolitical Priorities

1. Diversification of trade partnerships – TEPA reduces India’s over-reliance on EU

and US markets, strengthening economic sovereignty amidst global trade
uncertainties.
o Eg: India-EU FTA negotiations remain stalled (since 2007), making EFTA
a crucial alternative partner.
2. Positioning India as a global trade hub – By securing preferential market access to
EFTA, India strengthens its role in global supply chains and re-exports to Europe.

67
 o Eg: PLI Scheme (2020) + TEPA can position India as a manufacturing hub
for precision engineering and specialty chemicals.
3. Strategic counterbalance to China – Strengthening ties with EFTA nations
enhances India’s negotiating power in Europe, balancing China’s dominance in
trade agreements.
o Eg: China-EFTA FTA (2014) led to an export surge, making it crucial for
India to gain a competitive foothold in the same region.
4. Strengthening India’s global leadership in climate diplomacy – Norway and
Iceland’s expertise in climate finance and carbon-neutral industries align with
India’s COP28 commitments.
o Eg: India-Norway Joint Statement on Climate Action (2023) focused on
ocean economy and carbon capture projects.
5. Strengthening India's stance in multilateral institutions – Closer economic ties
with Switzerland (a key WTO player) can bolster India's influence in trade
negotiations.
o Eg: India-Switzerland consultations at WTO (2023) on trade dispute
resolution highlight deeper strategic coordination.

TEPA in the Context of India’s Economic Priorities

1. Boosting India’s manufacturing and exports – TEPA provides a duty-free, high-

income market for Indian exports, particularly in textiles, pharmaceuticals, and
engineering goods.
o Eg: India’s textile exports to Switzerland grew 15% (2023), with further
expansion expected under TEPA.
2. Strengthening India’s financial ecosystem – Switzerland’s expertise in wealth
management, fintech, and digital banking enhances India’s financial inclusion
and fintech innovation.
o Eg: Swiss fintech firms partnering with Indian startups (2024) in digital
payments and blockchain technology.
3. Increasing technology transfer and R&D collaborations – TEPA encourages joint
ventures in AI, biotechnology, and advanced robotics, promoting India’s
knowledge-based economy.
o Eg: Icelandic biotech firms signed MoUs with Indian pharma startups
(2024) for vaccine development.
4. Enhancing ease of doing business – The agreement removes non-tariff barriers
(NTBs) and regulatory bottlenecks, facilitating a business-friendly environment
for Indian and EFTA firms.
o Eg: EFTA-India investment facilitation framework (2025) aims to reduce
compliance burdens for Indian exporters.
5. Encouraging investment in critical sectors – TEPA prioritizes pharmaceuticals,
renewable energy, and financial services, attracting high-value foreign direct
investment (FDI).

68
 o Eg: Swiss pharma giant Roche invested in India’s personalized medicine
sector (2024), expanding healthcare R&D.

Conclusion

The India-EFTA TEPA is a transformative agreement, going beyond market access to foster
long-term economic and geopolitical collaboration. It strengthens India’s global positioning,
industrial growth, and climate diplomacy, making it a strategic pillar for India’s future
trade and investment frameworks.

Q. How do debt vulnerabilities and unsustainable borrowing among Indian

Ocean nations pose challenges to regional stability? Assess India’s role in
providing economic alternatives. (10 M)

Introduction

Debt distress among Indian Ocean nations has escalated due to unviable infrastructure
projects, opaque loans, and economic shocks, leading to economic instability and
geopolitical vulnerabilities. India's debt-free developmental model presents a strategic
alternative.

Body

Challenges posed by debt vulnerabilities and unsustainable borrowing

1. Economic instability: Heavy debt servicing reduces fiscal capacity, leading to

inflation, unemployment, and reduced public spending.
o Eg: Sri Lanka’s economic crisis (2022)—foreign reserves depletion led to
hyperinflation and governance collapse (World Bank).
2. Sovereignty erosion: Nations unable to repay debts cede strategic assets under
pressure.
o Eg: China’s Hambantota Port lease (2017)—Sri Lanka handed a 99-year
lease due to loan defaults (Belt and Road Initiative).
3. Geopolitical imbalance: Indebted nations become dependent on external actors,
affecting regional security.
o Eg: Maldives debt to China (2023)—owed nearly $1.37 billion, raising
concerns of economic coercion (IMF report).
4. Debt-fueled infrastructure traps: Many projects lack viability, leading to low
returns and financial burdens.
o Eg: Kenya’s Mombasa port risk—used as collateral for loans from China’s
EXIM Bank (2022) (African Development Bank).
5. Disruption in regional connectivity: Debt-ridden nations cut public investment in
connectivity, affecting trade and development.
o Eg: Mozambique’s debt crisis (2023)—reduced port and road connectivity
projects (African Union Report).
69
India’s role in providing economic alternatives

1. Sustainable financing model: India promotes grant-based assistance and

concessional loans, avoiding debt traps.
o Eg: $500 million LOC to Maldives (2021) for Greater Male Connectivity
Project, free from hidden debt clauses (MEA).
2. Infrastructure development through transparent partnerships: India invests in
high-return connectivity projects based on local needs.
o Eg: Chabahar Port development (Iran)—enhancing regional trade without
debt-driven coercion.
3. Strategic debt relief assistance: India provides economic aid and budgetary
support to stabilize debt-ridden economies.
o Eg: $4 billion aid to Sri Lanka (2022)—helped in crisis recovery without
sovereignty risks (Indian High Commission, Colombo).
4. Regional financial collaboration: India promotes financial integration through
multilateral platforms like IORA and BIMSTEC.
o Eg: India’s leadership in IORA (2023)—initiating Blue Economy Fund for
sustainable financing (MEA Report).
5. Promotion of Rupee trade and economic independence: Strengthening local
currency settlements reduces reliance on external debt.
o Eg: India-Sri Lanka Rupee trade mechanism (2023)—reduced dollar
dependency for imports (RBI).
6. Advocating for global debt restructuring reforms: India plays a key role in G20
debt relief initiatives.
o Eg: G20 Common Framework advocacy (2023)—pushing for fairer debt
restructuring (Finance Ministry Report).

Conclusion

India’s transparent, need-based, and sovereignty-respecting economic alternatives counter

the debt-driven hegemony in the Indian Ocean Region. Strengthening regional financial
institutions and sustainable trade frameworks will ensure a stable, self-reliant, and
resilient Indian Ocean economy.

Q What are the major factors that make long-term peace negotiations in Ukraine
difficult? Suggest a framework for sustainable conflict resolution. (10 M)

Introduction

The Russia-Ukraine conflict is shaped by territorial disputes, security dilemmas, and great
power rivalries. A durable peace requires addressing deep-seated hostilities, geopolitical
interests, and economic constraints.

Body

70
Major challenges in long-term peace negotiations

1. Territorial disputes and sovereignty concerns – Ukraine refuses to recognize

Russian annexations, making negotiations difficult.
o Eg: Russia’s 2022 annexation of Donetsk, Luhansk, Zaporizhzhia, and
Kherson despite UN condemnation.
2. Security dilemmas and NATO tensions – Ukraine's NATO aspirations are a red
line for Russia, increasing escalation risks.
o Eg: NATO Vilnius Summit (2023) reaffirmed support for Ukraine,
worsening tensions.
3. Lack of trust and past agreement failures – Previous peace efforts like Minsk
Accords (2014-15) failed due to non-compliance.
o Eg: Russia’s violation of the Budapest Memorandum (1994) undermined
trust in guarantees.
4. External power struggles and geopolitical interests – The U.S., EU, China, and
others have competing interests, complicating negotiations.
o Eg: China’s 12-point peace plan (2023) was dismissed by the West as
favoring Russia.
5. Economic warfare and resilience strategies – Despite Western sanctions, Russia
sustains its war economy through alternative trade.
o Eg: IMF Report (2024) shows Russia’s increasing oil exports to China
despite sanctions.

Framework for sustainable conflict resolution

1. Neutrality with security guarantees – Ukraine could adopt a Finland-like model,

ensuring sovereignty with international assurances.
o Eg: Finland-Soviet Union Agreement (1948) maintained Finland’s neutrality
while preserving independence.
2. International peacekeeping and ceasefire enforcement – A UN-backed
peacekeeping force could monitor ceasefires and buffer zones.
o Eg: UN Peacekeeping Mission in Cyprus (1964-present) has prevented
renewed conflict.
3. Phased resolution of territorial disputes – Freezing territorial claims for 15 years
with internationally supervised referendums later.
o Eg: West Germany–East Germany Ostpolitik (1970s) eased tensions before
reunification.
4. Sanctions relief linked to compliance – Gradual easing of sanctions in return for
verified Russian troop withdrawals.
o Eg: Iran Nuclear Deal (JCPOA, 2015) successfully linked sanctions relief
with compliance.
5. Economic recovery and war compensation – Establishing a Ukraine Recovery
Fund funded by frozen Russian assets and international donors.

71
 o Eg: EU’s €50 billion Ukraine reconstruction plan (2024) to rebuild
infrastructure and economy.

Conclusion

A step-by-step, trust-building approach integrating security guarantees, economic

cooperation, and territorial compromises can lead to a sustainable peace. The focus must be
on long-term stability rather than short-term settlement.

Q. The changing voting patterns in the UN General Assembly on resolutions

against Russia indicate evolving global power dynamics. Analyze the factors
influencing this shift and its implications for multilateral diplomacy. (10 M)

Introduction

The shifting voting trends in the UN General Assembly on Russia-Ukraine resolutions

highlight the changing contours of global power politics. The realignment of national
interests, economic dependencies, and regional security concerns are shaping diplomatic
stances on multilateral platforms.

Body

Changing voting patterns in the UN General Assembly and evolving global power
dynamics

1. Declining Western influence in multilateral forums: The U.S. and its allies no
longer dominate global decision-making as emerging economies assert strategic
autonomy.
o Eg: BRICS expansion (2023) and calls for de-dollarization indicate a shift
in global economic influence (IMF Report 2024).
2. Rise of middle powers and regional groupings: Countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin
America are adopting non-aligned, pragmatic stances instead of bloc-based voting.
o Eg: India, South Africa, and Brazil abstained in multiple UNGA
resolutions, signalling a preference for diplomatic solutions.
3. Geopolitical realignments and multipolarity: The increasing role of China, Gulf
states, and African nations in global affairs has diluted Western-led resolutions.
o Eg: China’s Global Security Initiative (GSI) promotes alternative
diplomatic frameworks to U.S.-led sanctions.
4. Economic and energy dependencies shaping foreign policy: Many developing
nations rely on Russian energy, defence, and trade, influencing their votes at the
UN.
o Eg: India increased Russian oil imports (2023-24) despite Western
sanctions, citing strategic autonomy (MEA Data 2024)

Factors influencing the shift in voting trends

72
 1. Weaponization of economic sanctions and countermeasures: Nations are wary of
aligning too closely with either bloc due to secondary sanctions and trade restrictions.
o Eg: U.S. threatening of CAATSA sanctions on India over Russian S-400
deal led to diplomatic tensions.
2. Fatigue over prolonged conflict and shifting priorities: Many nations prioritize
domestic economic recovery over prolonged geopolitical tensions.
o Eg: African Union’s 2024 statement emphasized focus on food security and
debt relief rather than taking sides in conflicts.
3. Influence of regional security dynamics: Countries consider their regional interests
before voting on global resolutions.
o Eg: Turkey’s balancing act between NATO commitments and Russia-led
energy projects (TurkStream Gas Pipeline).
4. Growing skepticism towards Western narratives: Some nations see Western
resolutions as one-sided and driven by strategic interests rather than neutrality.
o Eg: Indonesia and ASEAN’s refusal to explicitly condemn Russia while
advocating dialogue (ASEAN Summit 2024).

Implications for multilateral diplomacy

1. Weakening of Western-led consensus in global governance: The failure to secure

high vote counts on critical resolutions indicates a dilution of Western diplomatic
influence.
o Eg: G20 2023 declaration omitted direct criticism of Russia due to
opposition from multiple countries.
2. Rise of issue-based coalitions over ideological blocs: Countries are forming flexible
partnerships based on economic and security needs rather than Cold War-era
alliances.
o Eg: India-UAE-Russia trade corridor discussions despite geopolitical
tensions (WTO 2024 Report).
3. Challenges to the legitimacy of the UN system: The inability to enforce resolutions
reduces faith in multilateral mechanisms, pushing nations toward bilateral
negotiations.
o Eg: Saudi Arabia and UAE brokered prisoner exchanges between Russia
and Ukraine without UN mediation.
4. Need for UN reforms and inclusive global governance: The shift in voting
underscores demands for greater representation of developing nations in decision-
making.
o Eg: India, Brazil, and South Africa’s push for UNSC expansion under the
G4 coalition (UNGA 2024).

Conclusion

The evolving global power dynamics, reflected in shifting UNGA voting patterns, signal a
transition from Western-dominated diplomacy to a multipolar world order. Strengthening

73
inclusive, consensus-based multilateralism is essential for ensuring credibility and
effectiveness in global governance.

Q. Evaluate the impact of global geopolitical fragmentation on India-European

Union relations. How can both partners navigate emerging challenges. (10 M)

Introduction

The changing global order, marked by US-China tensions, the Russia-Ukraine war, and
protectionist policies, has reshaped India-EU relations. While challenges exist, new
opportunities for strategic alignment are emerging.

Body

Impact of global geopolitical fragmentation on India-EU relations

1. Divergence on Russia-Ukraine war: India’s neutral stance conflicts with the EU’s
sanctions-driven approach.
o Eg: India's continued oil imports from Russia despite the EU’s embargo
(MEA, 2024).
2. Trade barriers and protectionism: The EU's Carbon Border Adjustment
Mechanism (CBAM) and non-tariff barriers challenge India’s exports.
o Eg: CBAM could impact $8 billion worth of Indian exports, affecting steel
and aluminum sectors (Economic Survey 2024).
3. Shifting global supply chains: The China+1 strategy has boosted India-EU
economic cooperation but also increased competition.
o Eg: The EU’s Global Gateway initiative competes with India’s IMEC
project (EU Commission, 2023).
4. Indo-Pacific strategic convergence: The EU’s engagement in the Indo-Pacific
aligns with India’s vision but faces security concerns.
o Eg: India’s participation in the EU Indo-Pacific Ministerial Forum 2024.
5. Weakening multilateral institutions: Declining influence of WTO, UN, and global
financial institutions has limited India-EU cooperation.
o Eg: The EU’s push for G20 reform with India to enhance Global South
representation (G20 Summit 2023).

How India and the EU can navigate emerging challenges

1. Strengthening trade and investment ties: Finalizing the India-EU Free Trade
Agreement (FTA) can boost economic synergy.
o Eg: The 10th round of India-EU FTA talks is scheduled for 2025
(Commerce Ministry).
2. Strategic partnership in technology and defence: Deepening collaboration in
semiconductors, AI, and cyber security.
o Eg: The India-EU Trade and Technology Council (TTC) launched in 2023.

74
 3. Countering climate challenges together: Harmonizing policies on carbon taxation
and green energy transition.
o Eg: India’s push for Global Green Hydrogen Alliance with EU support
(COP28, 2023).
4. Expanding security and maritime cooperation: Increasing the EU’s role in the
Indian Ocean Region can strengthen security.
o Eg: India-EU Maritime Security Dialogue established in 2021.
5. Enhancing mobility and migration frameworks: Facilitating skilled workforce
migration to address the EU’s labor shortages.
o Eg: India signed Mobility and Migration Agreements with Germany,
France, and Finland (MEA, 2023).

Conclusion

India and the EU must leverage their strategic convergence in trade, security, and
technology while addressing geopolitical tensions. A pragmatic, rules-based engagement
can shape a stable and resilient partnership.

Important International institutions, agencies and fora - their

structure, mandate.
Q. In the context of the AI Action Summit, examine the importance of equitable
access to AI resources for the Global South. How can India advocate for a fair AI
ecosystem at the multilateral level? (10 M)

Introduction

The AI Action Summit 2025 in Paris provides India a key platform to advocate for AI
equity in the Global South. Lack of access to computing power, datasets, and AI
expertise limits AI-driven development in emerging economies. India, as a tech leader of
the Global South, must push for democratizing AI resources to ensure inclusive
technological growth.

Body

Importance of equitable access to AI resources for the Global South

1. Bridging the AI divide: Developing nations lack AI infrastructure, leading to a

digital gap between the Global North and South.
o Eg: UNESCO AI Report 2024 highlights that less than 10% of Latin
American institutions have formal AI adoption policies.
2. Enabling economic growth: AI can drive growth in healthcare, agriculture, and
education, reducing economic disparity.
o Eg: India’s Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI), such as UPI, has boosted
financial inclusion and economic participation.

75
 3. Preventing monopolization by big tech: AI dominance by a few corporations can
restrict innovation in developing countries.
o Eg: The EU’s AI Act (2024) regulates large AI models to curb monopolistic
control.
4. Enhancing AI-driven public services: AI can improve governance, healthcare,
and disaster management in resource-constrained nations.
o Eg: Brazil’s AI-powered Bolsa Família program optimizes social welfare
targeting.
5. Preserving cultural diversity: AI models trained on Western-centric data risk
cultural dilution and language exclusion.
o Eg: African AI Coalition’s Indigenous Language Project aims to develop
AI in local languages.

How India can advocate for a fair AI ecosystem at the multilateral level

1. Promoting AI infrastructure for the Global South: Push for AI supercomputing

clusters, cloud access, and open datasets under global cooperation.
o Eg: India’s G20 Task Force on Digital Public Infrastructure (2023)
emphasizes scalable AI solutions for developing nations.
2. Championing open-source AI models: Advocate for open-access AI models to
reduce dependency on proprietary models.
o Eg: India’s National AI Mission (2023) supports open-source AI research.
3. Strengthening South-South AI collaboration: Enhance AI partnerships within
IBSA, BRICS, and Global South alliances.
o Eg: BRICS AI Forum 2024 proposed a joint AI innovation fund for
startups.
4. Framing inclusive AI governance policies: Push for equitable AI rules at GPAI,
UN, and WTO to prioritize Global South needs.
o Eg: India’s G20 AI Framework (2023) emphasizes balancing AI
innovation and regulation.
5. Advocating ethical AI and risk mitigation: Push for context-specific AI safety
frameworks rather than Global North-centric models.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s AI for All Strategy (2024) focuses on risk assessment
tailored to India’s socio-economic conditions.

Conclusion

India’s role at the AI Action Summit 2025 is crucial to ensure equitable AI access for the
Global South. By championing AI democratization, India can bridge the AI divide and
position itself as a global leader in responsible AI governance.

76
Q. How does the International Criminal Court (ICC) contribute to global justice,
and what are the key criticisms against its functioning? Discuss with recent
examples. (10 M)

Introduction

The International Criminal Court (ICC) was established in 2002 under the Rome Statute
to prosecute individuals for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. Despite its
role in global justice, its effectiveness and impartiality remain contested.

Body

Contribution of ICC to global justice

1. Accountability for war crimes: It prosecutes individuals responsible for war crimes
and crimes against humanity, ensuring justice for victims.
o Eg: Arrest warrant against Vladimir Putin (2023) for the forced
deportation of Ukrainian children.
2. Deterrence against future crimes: By holding leaders and military officials
accountable, it discourages potential violations.
o Eg: The trial of Congolese warlord Thomas Lubanga (2012) set a
precedent for child soldier recruitment cases.
3. Justice for victims in weak legal systems: It intervenes when national governments
fail to prosecute crimes effectively.
o Eg: Sudan’s Omar al-Bashir (2009) indicted for Darfur genocide, despite
Sudan’s unwillingness to act.
4. Universal jurisdiction on core crimes: It provides a legal framework for
prosecuting crimes that transcend borders, ensuring global rule of law.
o Eg: Myanmar Rohingya case (2019) where ICC assumed jurisdiction due to
Bangladesh’s ICC membership.
5. Support for transitional justice: It aids in post-conflict reconciliation by ensuring
perpetrators face justice.
o Eg: Uganda’s Dominic Ongwen conviction (2021) for LRA war crimes,
helping in national reconciliation efforts.

Key criticisms against ICC

1. Selective targeting of African nations: It has disproportionately prosecuted leaders

from African countries, raising bias concerns.
o Eg: 9 out of 11 ICC convictions are against African warlords, leading to
African Union's (AU) discontent.
2. Lack of enforcement powers: It depends on member states to execute arrest
warrants, limiting its effectiveness.

77
 o Eg: Russia and China blocked enforcement of the ICC’s Putin warrant
(2023) in the UN Security Council.
3. Non-participation of major powers: USA, China, Russia, and Israel are not ICC
members, undermining its global reach.
o Eg: US sanctions on ICC officials (2020) under Trump administration
weakened its authority.
4. Slow trial process and high costs: Cases take years to resolve, and the court’s
budget (2025) is €195 million, leading to inefficiency.
o Eg: Kenya’s Uhuru Kenyatta case (2014) dragged on for years before being
withdrawn due to lack of evidence.
5. Politicization of cases: Allegations of politically motivated prosecutions weaken its
credibility.
o Eg: Israel-Palestine arrest warrants (2025) were criticized for alleged
Western bias against Israel.

Conclusion

The ICC remains a vital institution for international justice, but structural reforms are
needed to enhance its credibility and effectiveness. Strengthening enforcement mechanisms
and ensuring impartial prosecution can help make it a truly global justice system.

Q. The WTO has played a critical role in shaping global trade norms, but its
relevance is increasingly being questioned. In this context, Evaluate whether
India should prioritize strengthening the WTO or seek alternative trade
arrangements. (15 M)

Introduction

The World Trade Organization (WTO) has been a cornerstone of global trade governance,
ensuring rules-based commerce. However, with the rise of protectionism, unilateral
sanctions, and disputes over reforms, its effectiveness is being questioned. India faces a
strategic choice—strengthen the WTO or diversify its trade engagements through
alternative arrangements.

Body

WTO’s role in shaping global trade norms but its relevance is questioned

1. Rule-based trade framework: The WTO has provided a structured mechanism for
resolving trade disputes and ensuring fairness.
o Eg: India’s victory in the US steel and aluminum tariffs dispute at WTO in
2023.

78
 2. Non-functional dispute resolution: The Appellate Body has been defunct since
2019 due to the US blocking judge appointments, undermining enforcement of trade
rules.
o Eg: India vs. US medical devices tariff case remains unresolved due to the
broken appellate mechanism.
3. Agricultural subsidy imbalances: The Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) penalizes
developing nations while allowing developed countries to provide hidden subsidies.
o **Eg: India’s MSP issue facing WTO scrutiny due to outdated External
Reference Price (1986-88).
4. Rise of protectionism: Major economies, including the US and EU, impose
unilateral trade barriers beyond WTO’s control.
o **Eg: US CHIPS Act (2022) and EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment
Mechanism (CBAM).
5. Slow progress on WTO reforms: Despite India and other developing nations
pushing for reforms, negotiations remain deadlocked.
o Eg: India’s demand for a permanent solution on public stockholding for
food security has seen no consensus.

India should prioritize strengthening the WTO

1. Safeguarding multilateralism: Strengthening WTO ensures a rules-based global

order, preventing arbitrary trade restrictions.
o Eg: India’s G-33 alliance efforts to reform AoA safeguard interests of
developing nations.
2. Trade dispute settlement mechanism: Despite flaws, WTO remains the only global
forum for resolving trade conflicts.
o Eg: India won the solar panel dispute against the US at WTO (2018).
3. Protecting Indian exports: WTO enforces Most Favored Nation (MFN) and
National Treatment principles, ensuring non-discriminatory access to markets.
o **Eg: Without WTO, India’s textile and pharma exports could face higher
tariffs in EU and US.
4. Resisting developed-country dominance in FTAs: WTO provides collective
bargaining power, whereas bilateral FTAs often impose stricter conditions on
developing nations.
o Eg: India exited RCEP (2020) citing concerns over unfair trade terms
favoring China.
5. Developing-country coalition for fairer trade: India can lead Global South efforts
to reform WTO, ensuring inclusive trade policies.
o Eg: India, South Africa, and Brazil push for TRIPS waiver on COVID-19
vaccines at WTO.

India should seek alternative trade arrangements

79
 1. Diversifying trade engagements: Bilateral and regional agreements allow India to
bypass WTO deadlocks and secure better terms.
o **Eg: India-United Arab Emirates (UAE) CEPA (2022) led to a 10%
increase in Indian exports.
2. Reduced dependence on the WTO: The paralysis of WTO reforms means India
must explore alternative trade groupings.
o Eg: India is negotiating FTAs with the UK, EU, and Australia to expand
market access.
3. Sector-specific agreements: India can negotiate sectoral pacts in areas like digital
trade, supply chains, and green energy.
o Eg: India joining the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF) supply
chain pillar in 2023.
4. Tackling non-tariff barriers: WTO lacks effective enforcement of non-tariff
barriers like sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS).
o Eg: EU’s Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) standards affecting Indian
agricultural exports.
5. Geopolitical leverage through trade blocs: Aligning with key economic blocs helps
India counter trade restrictions by major economies.
o Eg: India’s participation in BRICS+ trade initiatives enhances its trade
influence.

Conclusion

India must pursue a dual approach—advocating for WTO reforms to ensure fair trade
governance while simultaneously forging strategic trade alliances to safeguard its
economic interests. A stronger WTO and diversified trade networks will reinforce India's
position in global trade.

Q. India has been a cornerstone of UN peacekeeping but faces emerging

challenges in modern conflict zones. Examine these challenges and suggest
measures to enhance India’s effectiveness in UN peacekeeping operations. (10 M)

Introduction

India, as one of the largest troop contributors to UN peacekeeping (5,384 personnel as of

2024 - UN Report), plays a pivotal role in maintaining global peace. However, modern
conflicts have become more asymmetric, technologically driven, and politically complex,
posing new challenges to peacekeeping effectiveness.

Body

Challenges in modern conflict zones

1. Increasing attacks on peacekeepers: Rising hostilities and targeted attacks on UN

forces make peacekeeping operations riskier.
80
 o Eg: UN Fatality Report 2024 highlighted a 30% increase in attacks on
peacekeepers, especially in Mali (MINUSMA) and the Central African
Republic (MINUSCA).
2. Limited mandate and operational constraints: Many UN missions operate under
Chapter VI (peacekeeping) rather than Chapter VII (peace enforcement),
restricting proactive military action.
o Eg: UNISFA in Abyei (South Sudan-Sudan border) lacks an enforcement
mandate, limiting its ability to prevent violent clashes.
3. Growing disinformation and cyber threats: Misinformation campaigns and AI-
driven propaganda hinder mission credibility and peacekeeper safety.
o Eg: Fake news targeting MONUSCO (DR Congo) led to violent protests
against peacekeepers in 2023 (UN Strategic Communications Report).
4. Geopolitical constraints and selective intervention: Political interference from P5
nations often restricts action against aggressors, undermining India’s peacekeeping
objectives.
o Eg: Russia’s veto on Myanmar’s military actions (2022) in the UNSC
blocked a stronger peacekeeping response.
5. Gender imbalance in leadership: Despite India's efforts in women-led
peacekeeping, less than 10% of senior peacekeeping officers are women (UN
Women Report 2023).
o Eg: Major General Anita Asmah (UNDOF) is the only uniformed woman
head in current peacekeeping operations.

Measures to enhance India’s effectiveness in UN peacekeeping

1. Pushing for a stronger mandate under Chapter VII: Advocating for peace
enforcement rather than passive peacekeeping for more effective conflict resolution.
o Eg: India’s demand for a robust Chapter VII mandate in the Democratic
Republic of Congo (MONUSCO) during UNSC tenure (2021-22).
2. Strengthening peacekeeper safety through technology: Deployment of AI-based
surveillance, real-time intelligence systems, and cyber-defence mechanisms to
counter modern threats.
o Eg: India’s AI-driven “Mission Suraksha” project (2024) enhances real-
time monitoring for peacekeeping troops.
3. Enhancing women’s role in peacekeeping: Increasing India’s women peacekeepers
in frontline roles and leadership positions.
o Eg: India’s all-women Formed Police Unit in Liberia (2007) was a global
model for gender-inclusive peacekeeping.
4. Greater say in UN peacekeeping decision-making: Leveraging India’s high troop
contribution to demand a stronger role in command and policymaking structures.
o Eg: India’s proposal at the UNSC Open Debate (2022) for greater
representation of troop-contributing countries in decision-making.

81
 5. Capacity building and regional peacekeeping initiatives: Establishing bilateral
peacekeeping partnerships and regional capacity-building programs in the
Global South.
o Eg: India’s Centre for UN Peacekeeping (CUNPK) in New Delhi has
trained over 12,000 foreign personnel from 85 countries.

Conclusion

As conflicts evolve, India must push for a stronger mandate, enhanced safety measures,
and a leadership role in peacekeeping decision-making. Strengthening its technological,
diplomatic, and strategic contributions will ensure its peacekeeping remains effective and
future-ready.

82
 Secure Synopsis compilation for March-2025
General Studies-2
Table of contents

Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments,

significant provisions and basic structure. ----------------------------------------------------------- 5
Q. The Indian Constitution's flexibility is its greatest strength, yet also its potential
vulnerability. Comment. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------5
Q. “Judicial interventions may protect free speech in form but fail to secure it in substance”.
Examine. Suggest measures to ensure robust constitutional protection for democratic dissent.
(10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges
pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of powers and finances up to local levels and
challenges therein.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
Q. Proxy leadership in Panchayati Raj reflects deeper institutional biases rather than just a
patriarchal mindset. Analyze the systemic weaknesses that allow proxy governance to thrive
and suggest comprehensive policy measures to dismantle this practice. (15 M)-------------------8
Q. What factors have contributed to the increasing friction between the Union and the States
in recent years? Suggest institutional measures to address these tensions. (15 M) ------------- 10
Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal mechanisms and
institutions.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
Q. The increasing intervention of the judiciary in arbitration has been criticized for
weakening the efficiency of the arbitral process. Discuss the implications of excessive judicial
interference on India’s dispute resolution framework and suggest reforms to enhance its
global standing. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
Parliament and State legislatures—structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers &
privileges and issues arising out of these. -----------------------------------------------------------14
Q. Parliamentary Standing Committees act as ‘mini-Parliaments’ in examining legislative
and policy matters. Evaluate their role in improving the quality of law-making in India. (15
M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Q. The Indian Constitution provides for a ‘quasi-judicial role’ for the Speaker in matters of
disqualification. Critically assess the challenges this poses to impartiality and legislative
independence. (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16

1
 Q. Analyze the role of the ‘Motion of Thanks’ in the Indian parliamentary system. How does
it reflect the balance between executive accountability and parliamentary supremacy? (10 M)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 17
Q. The absence of a fixed parliamentary calendar has hindered the effective functioning of
legislative business. Assess the need for institutionalizing a mandatory session schedule. (10
M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
Q. The absence of a fixed parliamentary calendar has hindered the effective functioning of
legislative business. Assess the need for institutionalizing a mandatory session schedule. (10
M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary—Ministries
and Departments of the Government; pressure groups and formal/informal associations
and their role in the Polity. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------22
Q. Discuss the challenges women judicial officers face in India’s lower judiciary. How can
institutional reforms ensure a more equitable and inclusive work environment? (10 M) ----- 22
Q. Examine the significance of speedy judicial hearings in matters concerning personal
liberty. Analyze the impact of delayed bail hearings on constitutional rights. Suggest reforms
to ensure time-bound judicial decisions in cases affecting personal freedom. (15 M) ---------- 24
Q. Evaluate the constitutional safeguards that aim to uphold the principle of separation of
powers in India. How effective have these safeguards been in preventing encroachments by
different organs of the state? (15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
Q. The concept of 'delegated legislation' has empowered the Executive with excessive
discretion. Critically analyze. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
Q. Analyze the role of pressure groups in influencing public policy. Examine how digital
activism has transformed advocacy. Assess its implications for democratic processes. (15 M)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 32
Q. What are the systemic flaws in the current Collegium-based judicial appointments
process? How have recent judicial controversies revealed structural opacity and ethical
lapses? Evaluate how an Indian Judicial Service can address these issues. (15 M) ------------- 34
Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act. -------------------------------------------36
Q. The practice of sitting legislators contesting for another office creates multiple challenges
for India's electoral ecosystem. Discuss. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------- 36
Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of
various Constitutional Bodies.-------------------------------------------------------------------------38
Q. The Finance Commission is vital for fiscal federalism in India. Examine how its
recommendations impact state finances and suggest measures to enhance their practical
utility. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
Q. The Election Commission’s role in conducting elections is pivotal, yet its powers to
regulate internal party democracy remain limited. Critically examine this limitation and
propose reforms to ensure intra-party democracy. (10 M) ------------------------------------------ 40
Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.------------------------------------------41
Q. The Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) is crucial for ensuring transparency in public
administration. Evaluate its role in combating corruption, identify key limitations, and
suggest measures for strengthening its institutional framework. (15 M) ------------------------- 41

2
 Q. Quasi-judicial bodies play an essential role in sectoral regulation. Critically evaluate the
functioning of the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) in ensuring investor
protection and maintaining market integrity. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------ 43
Q. Evaluate the role of quasi-judicial bodies in India’s regulatory governance. Discuss how
their structural independence can be enhanced. (10 M) --------------------------------------------- 45
Development processes and the development industry —the role of NGOs, SHGs, various
groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders. -----------47
Q. The absence of a lobbying law in India has created opacity in policy influence. Examine
the need for a regulatory framework to ensure transparency and accountability. How can
such a framework distinguish legitimate advocacy from undue influence? (15 M) ------------- 47
Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the
performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for
the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections. --------------------------------------49
Q. The design of welfare schemes often fails to address intersectional vulnerabilities,
undermining their intended impact. Discuss. Also, suggest strategies to ensure holistic
inclusion. (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49
Q. Rehabilitating women survivors of violence demands integrated welfare measures that go
beyond financial assistance. Examine India's approach and propose comprehensive reforms.
(15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to
Health, Education, Human Resources. --------------------------------------------------------------52
Q. The triple burden of diseases in India requires a differentiated surveillance strategy. How
well does India's disease surveillance system cater to this unique burden? (10 M) ------------- 52
Q. Artificial intelligence (AI) is not a threat to education but an impetus for its evolution.
Examine the role of AI in personalizing education and its impact on traditional teaching
methods. (10 M)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 54
Body------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 54
Q. In a society where menstruation is still stigmatized, how can India balance cultural
sensitivities with the need for progressive menstrual health policies? (10 M) ------------------- 56
Q. Assess the implications of ‘platformization’ in India’s digital education ecosystem. What
steps are necessary to ensure equitable learning outcomes in this context? (15 M)------------- 58
Q. How effective have community-based health interventions been in improving rural
healthcare outcomes? (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 60
Q. The Anganwadi system has played a crucial role in improving maternal and child health
outcomes in India. Assess its impact while identifying major gaps in service delivery. Suggest
reforms to enhance its effectiveness. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------ 61
Issues relating to poverty and hunger. ---------------------------------------------------------------63
Q. The challenge of ‘hidden hunger’ in India calls for a nutrition-sensitive approach to policy.
Examine the gaps in India's existing nutrition framework. Suggest comprehensive reforms.
(10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63

3
Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability, e-governance-
applications, models, successes, limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency
& accountability and institutional and other measures. ------------------------------------------65
Q. The rising role of data-driven governance has improved public service delivery. Assess the
risks of data manipulation and privacy violations. (10 M) ------------------------------------------ 65
Q. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) in governance have improved service delivery but have
also raised concerns about corporate influence. Evaluate their impact on accountability and
citizen welfare. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66
Q. The success of e-governance initiatives lies not merely in technological adoption but in
aligning with social realities. Examine with examples. (10 M) -------------------------------------- 69
Q. The institutional architecture for ensuring accountability in India faces challenges of
overlap, inertia, and excessive centralization. Discuss. (15 M)-------------------------------------- 70
Role of civil services in a democracy. ----------------------------------------------------------------72
Q. The role of civil services in India is evolving beyond traditional administrative functions.
Examine this shift. How can civil servants effectively manage emerging governance challenges
in a rapidly changing socio-political landscape? (15 M) --------------------------------------------- 72
Q. Civil servants are the backbone of policy implementation, yet their neutrality is
increasingly questioned. Examine the causes and implications. (10 M) --------------------------- 74
India and its neighborhood- relations. ---------------------------------------------------------------75
Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting
India’s interests. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------75
Q. Assess the impact of India’s outreach to Pacific Island nations on its diplomatic clout. How
can India strategically leverage this partnership to secure its geopolitical interests? (10 M) - 75
Q. Assess the evolving nature of India’s engagement with Africa. What strategic imperatives
drive this outreach? (10 M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77
Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests,
Indian diaspora.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------79
Q. Post-Ukraine, nuclear proliferation appears to be a rational choice for smaller states.
Critically examine. (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 79
Q. Evaluate the impact of India's humanitarian diplomacy during global crises on its
diplomatic credibility. How can India institutionalize this aspect of its foreign policy to
enhance global influence? Suggest key reforms to ensure strategic coherence. (15 M) -------- 80
Q. “The global multilateral order is increasingly being weaponized for national interests”. Do
you agree? Examine the implications for India’s role in international institutions. How can
India push for reform in global governance structures? (15 M) ----------------------------------- 82
Important International institutions, agencies and fora - their structure, mandate. --------84

4
Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution,
features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure.
Q. The Indian Constitution's flexibility is its greatest strength, yet also its
potential vulnerability. Comment. (10 M)

Introduction

The Indian Constitution strikes a balance between rigidity and flexibility, ensuring
adaptability while safeguarding its core principles. This dual nature has empowered
democratic evolution but also poses certain risks.

Body

Flexibility as a strength

1. Adaptability to social change: Enables timely responses to evolving socio-political

challenges.
o Eg: The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (1992) empowered
grassroots democracy.
2. Judicial interpretation ensures dynamism: Courts have interpreted the Constitution
progressively to uphold rights.
o Eg: Navtej Singh Johar vs Union of India (2018) decriminalized Section
377, aligning with evolving social norms.
3. Smooth economic reforms: Flexibility allowed swift implementation of reforms like
GST without major constitutional roadblocks.
o Eg: The 101st Constitutional Amendment Act (2016) facilitated GST
introduction.
4. Emergency provisions for stability: Flexibility enables quick responses to internal
or external crises.
o Eg: The 42nd Amendment (1976) expanded Parliament’s power to deal with
emergencies.
5. Progressive rights inclusion: Ensures rights are expanded over time in response to
societal needs.
o Eg: The Right to Privacy was recognized as a Fundamental Right in KS
Puttaswamy Case (2017).

Flexibility as a vulnerability

1. Threat to federal structure: Frequent amendments risk excessive centralization of

power.
o Eg: The 42nd Amendment undermined federalism by transferring key state
subjects to the concurrent list.
2. Judicial overreach risk: Flexible interpretation may sometimes encroach on
legislative powers.

5
 o Eg: NJAC case (2015) struck down a constitutional amendment, raising
concerns about judicial primacy.
3. Potential misuse of emergency provisions: Broad powers under Article 356 may
destabilize elected state governments.
o Eg: President's Rule imposed in Arunachal Pradesh (2016) was criticized
for being politically motivated.
4. Risk of populist amendments: Flexibility allows amendments to suit political
interests, weakening institutional integrity.
o Eg: The 10th Schedule (Anti-Defection Law) has been criticized for
enabling selective disqualifications.
5. Undermining constitutional morality: Frequent changes may dilute foundational
principles of justice, liberty, and equality.
o Eg: The 39th Amendment (1975) attempted to shield the Prime Minister's
election from judicial scrutiny.

Conclusion

While flexibility empowers the Indian Constitution to evolve with societal needs,
safeguarding core democratic values requires vigilant checks and balances to prevent misuse.
Ensuring accountability and adherence to constitutional morality is key to preserving its
strength.

Q. “Judicial interventions may protect free speech in form but fail to secure it in
substance”. Examine. Suggest measures to ensure robust constitutional
protection for democratic dissent. (10 M)

Introduction
While the judiciary has periodically upheld free speech through landmark judgments, its
efforts often remain symbolic without transforming the lived realities of dissenters facing
state and social backlash.

Body

Judicial interventions may protect free speech in form but fail to secure it in substance

1. Lack of enforcement mechanism: Courts issue directions, but lack authority to

ensure compliance by police or executive.
 Eg: SC’s 2023 directive to register suo motu FIRs for hate speech (Pravasi
Bhalai Sangathan case) has seen poor enforcement across states.
2. Delayed and reactive relief: Judicial protection is often post-facto, offering no
immediate shield to dissenters.
 Eg: Imran Pratapgarhi's FIR quashed in March 2025 after months of public
vilification.

6
 3. Selective activism: Courts act inconsistently, taking up free speech cases selectively
based on public visibility or pressure.
 Eg: Delay in hearing petitions on journalists' arrests in Manipur vs. prompt
response in high-profile satirist cases — SC Observer, Jan 2025.
4. Undermined by parallel executive action: Even after judicial relief, state actors
continue harassment using alternate legal routes
 Eg: Alt News co-founder Mohammed Zubair, despite bail, was booked
under new charges in 2022.
5. Failure to address institutional silences: Judiciary rarely questions state complicity
in mob action or media trials.
 Eg: No judicial reprimand against police inaction during Kamra studio
vandalism in Mumbai, 2025.

Measures to ensure robust constitutional protection for democratic dissent.

1. Codification of dissent rights: Parliament must enact a comprehensive Free Speech

and Dissent Protection Law.
 Eg: Law Commission’s 267th Report (2017) recommended a statute on hate
speech but ignored positive protections for dissent — Law Commission of
India.
2. Independent complaints authority: Establish state-level ombudsman to address
misuse of police powers against speech.
 Eg: Justice Verma Committee (2013) recommended police accountability
through independent bodies
3. Institutional training on speech rights: Judiciary and police must undergo regular
sensitisation on Articles 19(1)(a) and 21.
 Eg: NHRC’s 2023 recommendation for free speech modules in police
training curriculum.
4. Monitoring by civil society panels: Encourage third-party audits on compliance
with SC guidelines on hate speech and misuse of laws.
 Eg: PUCL’s 2024 report on declining space for satire and dissent highlights
systemic intimidation.
5. Fast-track judicial relief for speech cases: Special benches for urgent hearing of
speech-related detentions and FIRs.
 Eg: SC’s 2024 guidelines on bail reform advocated early hearings in
sensitive cases, but not institutionalised — SC Order in Hriday Bedi v.
State, Nov 2024.

Conclusion
Democratic dissent must not survive on judicial benevolence alone. A resilient democracy
needs proactive institutional reform that embeds speech freedoms in both law and culture.

7
Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues
and challenges pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of
powers and finances up to local levels and challenges therein.

Q. Proxy leadership in Panchayati Raj reflects deeper institutional biases rather

than just a patriarchal mindset. Analyze the systemic weaknesses that allow
proxy governance to thrive and suggest comprehensive policy measures to
dismantle this practice. (15 M)

Introduction

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment aimed to ensure grassroots democracy through

women’s leadership, but proxy leadership remains a major hurdle. This issue is not just
rooted in patriarchy but also in institutional weaknesses that fail to empower elected
women representatives (EWRs) effectively.

Body

Proxy leadership in Panchayati Raj reflects deeper institutional biases

1. Lack of institutional capacity-building: Women sarpanches are often denied

training and technical knowledge, making them dependent on male relatives.
o Eg: Many states lack structured capacity-building programs, leaving
women sarpanches unprepared for governance.
2. Weak enforcement of anti-proxy rules: Existing laws do not effectively penalize
cases of proxy leadership, allowing male relatives to function as de facto leaders.
o Eg: Despite Rajasthan’s recent initiative to bar male relatives from official
meetings, implementation gaps persist.
3. Bureaucratic neglect and bias: Government officials often do not take women
sarpanches seriously, reinforcing the control of male family members.
o Eg: Reports by NITI Aayog (2023) indicate that many block-level officers
interact with husbands of sarpanches rather than elected women
themselves.
4. Lack of financial and logistical independence: Poor remuneration and no official
transport hinder independent functioning, forcing reliance on male family members.
o Eg: In Rajasthan, sarpanches receive just ₹4,500/month, making
governance financially unviable.
5. Flawed grievance redressal mechanisms: Women face threats and coercion when
resisting proxy leadership, with no robust protection mechanisms.
o Eg: In several states, women sarpanches who complain about proxy
leadership are targeted with social and political pressure (PRIA Report,
2022).

8
Systemic weaknesses that allow proxy governance to thrive

1. Educational barriers and low literacy levels: Many EWRs lack formal education,
making it difficult for them to navigate governance structures.
o Eg: The NCRWC (2002) recommended a minimum education
qualification, but only a few states like Haryana and Rajasthan implemented
it.
2. Limited political autonomy due to party structures: Political parties often choose
women candidates as a formality, with real power remaining with male relatives.
o Eg: Studies show that in several states, party decisions are conveyed
directly to male relatives rather than women representatives.
3. Social norms restricting mobility and public engagement: Cultural constraints
limit women’s ability to travel, attend meetings, or assert authority.
o Eg: In many northern states, women sarpanches avoid gram sabha meetings
due to fear of social stigma.
4. Lack of digital access and technological support: Many EWRs lack smartphones,
digital literacy, and direct access to governance portals, increasing dependence on
male relatives.
o Eg: The Digital India mission has limited outreach to rural women
representatives, restricting their independent access to government schemes.
5. Power imbalance in local administration: Panchayat functionaries and local
bureaucrats undermine women sarpanches by prioritizing male counterparts.
o Eg: Field studies by PRIA (2023) found that 70% of Panchayat secretaries
prefer discussing governance matters with husbands rather than elected
women leaders.

Comprehensive policy measures to dismantle this practice

1. Strict enforcement of anti-proxy rules: Governments must implement and

monitor penalties for cases where male relatives exert unauthorized influence.
o Eg: Rajasthan’s "No Proxy Rule" barring husbands from panchayat
meetings should be extended nationwide.
2. Compulsory capacity-building programs: Mandatory training in governance,
budgeting, and digital literacy for elected women representatives.
o Eg: IIM Bodh Gaya’s leadership program for Jharkhand’s women
panchayat leaders is a best practice.
3. Financial independence and logistical support: Increased honorarium, official
transport, and direct bank transfers to sarpanches for governance activities.
o Eg: Bihar has introduced ₹10,000 monthly honorarium for women
sarpanches, setting a good precedent.
4. Institutional accountability and inclusion: Bureaucrats and functionaries must be
trained to directly engage with elected women representatives.
o Eg: Madhya Pradesh has introduced block-level officers to directly mentor
women sarpanches to reduce proxy interference.

9
 5. Technological empowerment: Free smartphones, internet access, and official
WhatsApp groups with direct support from government functionaries to ensure
independent governance.
o Eg: Kerala’s "Kudumbashree" model integrates digital literacy with
governance training for women leaders.

Conclusion

Ending proxy leadership requires structural reforms, robust institutional support, and
strict policy enforcement. By ensuring women’s financial, digital, and governance
autonomy, India can move towards true grassroots democracy and fulfill the vision of a
Sashakt Bharat.

Q. What factors have contributed to the increasing friction between the Union
and the States in recent years? Suggest institutional measures to address these
tensions. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s federal structure is marked by both cooperation and contention. In recent years,
fiscal asymmetry, executive overreach, and politicization of institutions have intensified
Centre-State friction.

Body

Factors Contributing to Union-State Friction

1. GST and fiscal autonomy: The introduction of GST has limited states’ power to
raise independent revenue.
o Eg: Delay in GST compensation payments led to fiscal strain for states like
Punjab and Kerala.
2. Misuse of Article 356: The Centre’s frequent use of President’s Rule has strained
Centre-State relations.
o Eg: Imposition of President’s Rule in Maharashtra (2019) before coalition
government formation raised concerns.
3. Governor’s interference: Instances of Governors withholding bills or delaying
legislative approvals have heightened tensions.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu Governor’s delay in assenting to NEET exemption bill in
2022.
4. Overreach in concurrent subjects: The Centre’s dominance in subjects like
agriculture, education, and criminal law bypasses state autonomy.
o Eg: The Farm Laws (2020) were passed without adequate consultation with
states.
5. Financial devolution disparities: Reduced state share in central taxes weakens
states’ fiscal capacity.
10
 o Eg: The 15th Finance Commission reduced Karnataka’s share, impacting
development programs.
6. Use of investigating agencies: The Centre’s frequent use of agencies like the CBI
and ED in opposition-ruled states has deepened mistrust.
o Eg: West Bengal’s legal battle against CBI jurisdiction in 2021.
7. Unilateral legislative moves: Enactment of laws affecting state interests without
prior consultation worsens disputes.
o Eg: The CAA (2019) faced resistance from several northeastern states.

Institutional Measures to Address Friction

1. Strengthen Inter-State Council: Reviving and institutionalizing the Inter-State

Council (Article 263) can foster cooperative dialogue.
o Eg: The Punchhi Commission (2010) recommended regular council
meetings.
2. Empowering Finance Commission: The Finance Commission should ensure
greater fiscal predictability for states.
o Eg: The Fifteenth Finance Commission recommended performance-based
incentives for states.
3. Redefining Governor's Role: Establishing a clear code of conduct for Governors can
reduce political interference.
o Eg: The Sarkaria Commission advised limiting Governors’ discretion in
political matters.
4. Judicial Safeguards: Fast-tracking disputes related to Centre-State issues through
Article 131 can prevent prolonged conflict.
o Eg: The Supreme Court upheld state autonomy in the West Bengal vs. UOI
(2019) case.
5. Strengthening Zonal Councils: Leveraging Zonal Councils can enhance
cooperation on regional concerns.
o Eg: The Southern Zonal Council effectively mediated Andhra Pradesh-
Telangana disputes.
6. Institutionalizing Fiscal Dialogue: Creating a National Fiscal Council for
coordinated fiscal planning can ensure greater harmony.
o Eg: Recommended by the Rangarajan Committee.
7. Legislative Consultation Framework: Establishing a mandatory consultation
mechanism for laws impacting state jurisdiction can improve coordination.
o Eg: The NCRWC Report recommended mandatory consultation for subjects
in the Concurrent List.

Conclusion

Strengthening India’s federal balance requires robust dialogue, institutional reforms, and
cooperative mechanisms to promote harmonious Centre-State relations in line with the
Constitution's spirit.

11
Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal
mechanisms and institutions.

Q. The increasing intervention of the judiciary in arbitration has been criticized

for weakening the efficiency of the arbitral process. Discuss the implications of
excessive judicial interference on India’s dispute resolution framework and
suggest reforms to enhance its global standing. (15 M)

Introduction

India's arbitration regime was envisioned as an efficient alternative to traditional litigation.

However, excessive judicial intervention has diluted this objective, impacting investor
confidence and India's global arbitration standing.

Body

Increasing intervention of the judiciary in arbitration

1. Expanding scope of judicial review: Courts frequently interfere at various stages—

appointment, interim reliefs, and enforcement—leading to delays.
o Eg: Delhi Metro Rail Corporation v. DAMEPL (2021) – Delhi HC stayed
an arbitral award, later upheld by SC, leading to prolonged litigation.
2. Broad interpretation of ‘public policy’: Indian courts often set aside awards citing
‘public policy,’ making enforcement unpredictable.
o Eg: ONGC v. Saw Pipes (2003) – Expanded ‘public policy’ to include
‘patent illegality,’ increasing judicial scrutiny.
3. Frequent challenges to foreign awards: International arbitral awards face high
resistance in Indian courts, discouraging foreign investors.
o Eg: Amazon-Future Group dispute (2021) – SIAC award faced legal battles
in Indian courts, delaying resolution.
4. Precedent of re-adjudication: Higher courts often re-examine merits rather than
reviewing procedural fairness, undermining arbitration’s finality.
o Eg: Bhatia International v. Bulk Trading SA (2002) – Extended Part I of
Arbitration Act to foreign-seated arbitrations, leading to increased court
interventions.
5. Interference despite legislative amendments: The Arbitration and Conciliation
(Amendment) Act, 2015 sought to limit judicial interference, but courts continue to
exercise wide discretion.
o Eg: McDermott International Inc. v. Burn Standard Co. Ltd. (2006) – SC
reviewed arbitration award on merits despite arbitration being final.

Implications of excessive judicial interference on India’s dispute resolution framework

12
 1. Delays and inefficiency: Arbitration, meant for quick resolution, faces excessive
delays due to judicial scrutiny.
o Eg: Vodafone tax arbitration (2012-2021) – Arbitration award favoring
Vodafone was challenged in Indian courts, delaying resolution.
2. Erosion of party autonomy: Frequent judicial intervention weakens contractual
autonomy, discouraging businesses from choosing arbitration.
o Eg: Hindustan Zinc Ltd. v. Ajmer Vidyut Nigam (2019) – SC intervened in
the tribunal’s jurisdiction despite a valid arbitration clause.
3. Negative impact on foreign investment: Foreign companies hesitate to engage in
arbitration in India due to unpredictability and judicial delays.
o **Eg: World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business Report (2020) ranked India
163rd in contract enforcement due to delays in arbitration enforcement.
4. Weakening of India as an arbitration hub: Despite efforts like the New Delhi
International Arbitration Centre (NDIAC), India is not seen as a global arbitration
destination.
o Eg: Singapore International Arbitration Centre (SIAC) handles 90% of
Indian corporate arbitration cases.
5. Undermining global treaty commitments: Excessive interference contradicts
India’s obligations under international treaties like the New York Convention
(1958).
o Eg: Cairn Energy dispute (2021) – India refused to enforce the international
award, leading to asset seizures abroad.

Reforms to enhance India’s global standing

1. Restricting judicial intervention: Courts should adhere strictly to Section 34 and 37

of the Arbitration Act and limit review to procedural grounds.
o Eg: Law Commission’s 246th Report (2014) recommended narrowing the
scope of judicial review.
2. Strengthening institutional arbitration: Encouraging institutions like NDIAC,
MCIA and ensuring government-backed arbitration centers for credibility.
o Eg: Singapore’s SIAC and UK’s LCIA are globally preferred due to
strong institutional mechanisms.
3. Creating specialized arbitration benches: Dedicated benches in High Courts and
Supreme Court for arbitration-related matters to ensure expertise and efficiency.
o Eg: UK’s Commercial Court and Singapore’s International Commercial
Court have specialized arbitration divisions.
4. Amending ‘public policy’ definition: Public policy should be narrowly interpreted
in line with global standards to prevent excessive award rejections.
o Eg: 2015 Amendment Act tried to limit ‘public policy’ to fraud and
corruption, but judicial interpretation remains broad.
5. Ensuring timely enforcement of awards: A strict timeline for enforcement without
multiple layers of judicial review should be mandated.

13
 o Eg: China enforces arbitral awards within six months of final ruling,
ensuring faster dispute resolution.

Conclusion

Judicial interference in arbitration has slowed India’s progress as a dispute resolution hub. A
balanced approach—ensuring minimal judicial intervention while upholding procedural
fairness—will enhance India’s arbitration ecosystem and global standing.Comparison of the
Indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries.

Parliament and State legislatures—structure, functioning,

conduct of business, powers & privileges and issues arising out of
these.
Q. Parliamentary Standing Committees act as ‘mini-Parliaments’ in examining
legislative and policy matters. Evaluate their role in improving the quality of law-
making in India. (15 M)

Introduction

Parliamentary Standing Committees (PSCs) play a critical role in legislative scrutiny,

acting as deliberative bodies that ensure deeper examination of laws and policies. Their
detailed discussions, expert consultations, and bipartisan approach make them an essential
component of evidence-based policymaking in India.

Body

Parliamentary Standing Committees as ‘Mini-Parliaments’

1. In-depth legislative scrutiny: PSCs examine bills thoroughly, allowing for technical
and stakeholder inputs.
o Eg: Data Protection Bill (2019) was referred to the Joint Parliamentary
Committee (JPC) for detailed review before enactment.
2. Expert-driven policy evaluation: Committees engage with domain experts,
bureaucrats, and stakeholders for an informed assessment.
o Eg: Parliamentary Committee on Health (2021) sought expert inputs while
reviewing India's COVID-19 management strategy.
3. Reducing legislative workload: PSCs help in detailed examination, reducing the
burden on Parliament’s limited session time.
o Eg: Over 70% of bills in the 15th Lok Sabha (2009-14) were referred to
PSCs, improving legislative efficiency.
4. Promoting bipartisan consensus: Unlike floor debates, committee discussions foster
agreement across party lines.
o Eg: GST Bill (2016) saw cross-party discussions in the PSCs before being
passed.
5. Monitoring executive accountability: PSCs oversee policy implementation and
government programs through detailed reports.

14
 o Eg: Public Accounts Committee (PAC) 2022 flagged irregularities in the
PM CARES Fund allocations.

Evaluating the Role of PSCs in Improving Law-Making

Positive Impact Challenges in Functioning

1. Strengthens legislative scrutiny: 1. Non-binding recommendations:
Ensures laws are comprehensive, reducing Government often ignores committee
ambiguities. suggestions.
2. Improves policy effectiveness: Detailed 2. Declining reference of bills: Only 12% of
stakeholder engagement results in balanced bills in the 17th Lok Sabha (2019-24) were
policies. sent to PSCs.
3. Enhances transparency: Committee 3. Lack of time-bound discussions: Reports
reports provide factual insights, ensuring are sometimes delayed, affecting legislative
public accountability. processes.
4. Facilitates data-driven policymaking:
4. Politicization of discussions: Party-driven
Encourages reliance on expert studies and
narratives often dilute objective analysis.
factual reports.
5. Strengthens fiscal oversight: 5. Limited public accessibility: Committee
Committees review budget allocations and deliberations lack transparency due to
financial mismanagement. confidential nature.

Way Forward

1. Make PSC recommendations binding in certain cases: Ensure accountability by

mandating government responses.
o Eg: UK and US legislatures have stronger committee enforcement
mechanisms.
2. Increase reference of bills to PSCs: A structured mandate should require at least 60-
70% of bills to undergo committee scrutiny.
o Eg: The share of referred bills was 60% in 14th Lok Sabha, but dropped to
12% in 17th Lok Sabha.
3. Ensure time-bound committee proceedings: Set strict timelines for report
submissions to prevent delays.
o Eg: The Land Acquisition Bill (2015) faced legislative uncertainty due to
extended committee deliberations.
4. Enhance transparency and public participation: PSC reports should be made
publicly accessible, ensuring accountability.
o Eg: US Congressional Committees hold open hearings to ensure public
trust.
5. Reduce politicization of committee discussions: Encourage expert-driven, evidence-
based analysis rather than party-driven narratives.
o Eg: PSC on IT (2022) faced political deadlock over Pegasus spyware
probe, delaying crucial recommendations.

Conclusion

15
Parliamentary Standing Committees play a crucial role in refining laws and policies but
face institutional and procedural limitations. Strengthening their mandate, increasing bill
references, and making their recommendations more enforceable can enhance their role
as India’s ‘mini-Parliaments’ in the legislative process.

Q. The Indian Constitution provides for a ‘quasi-judicial role’ for the Speaker in
matters of disqualification. Critically assess the challenges this poses to
impartiality and legislative independence. (10 M)

Introduction

The Speaker's dual role as a political member and quasi-judicial authority in disqualification
cases under the Tenth Schedule has often raised concerns about impartiality. This conflict
undermines the constitutional ideals of fairness and legislative independence.

Body

Quasi-judicial role of the Speaker in disqualification matters

The Speaker’s quasi-judicial role arises from the following constitutional provisions and
judicial precedents:

1. Tenth Schedule (Anti-defection Law): The Speaker decides disqualification cases

under Articles 102(2) and 191(2) for Members of Parliament and State Legislatures.
o Eg: Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992) upheld the Speaker's authority but
highlighted concerns of bias.
2. Article 93 / Article 178: Empowers the Speaker (Lok Sabha/State Assemblies) to act
as the final arbiter in disqualification cases.
3. Judicial Immunity: Speaker’s decision is subject to judicial review only after the
ruling is given, delaying accountability.
4. Lack of Fixed Timelines: The Constitution does not specify a timeframe for the
Speaker to decide disqualification cases.
o Eg: Manipur Legislative Assembly case (2020) — The Supreme Court
criticized the Speaker for delaying the disqualification decision for over 3
years.

Challenges to impartiality and legislative independence

1. Partisan Bias: As the Speaker is often aligned with the ruling party, impartiality is
compromised.
o Eg: Karnataka Assembly Crisis (2019) — The Speaker faced criticism for
selectively disqualifying rebel MLAs to favour the ruling party.
2. Delays for Political Gain: Speakers have frequently delayed decisions to protect the
ruling party's strength in the legislature.

16
 o Eg: Keisham Meghachandra Singh case (2020) — The SC imposed a 3-
month deadline for disqualification verdicts.
3. Conflict of Interest: The Speaker's allegiance to their party creates an inherent
conflict in maintaining neutrality.
o Eg: Arunachal Pradesh Crisis (2016) — The Speaker’s controversial
disqualification of 14 rebel MLAs led to President’s Rule.
4. Threat to Legislative Independence: Politicization of the Speaker’s role undermines
the legislative body's autonomy.
o Eg: Goa Legislative Assembly (2019) — The Speaker’s delay in deciding
disqualification petitions helped the ruling party consolidate power.
5. Judicial Overreach Risk: While the SC allows judicial review, frequent
interventions risk disturbing the delicate balance of separation of powers.
o Eg: Nabam Rebia v. Deputy Speaker (2016) — The SC restricted the
Speaker from acting on disqualifications once a motion for their own removal
is pending.

Way Forward

1. Independent Tribunal for Disqualification Cases: Establishing an autonomous

tribunal for disqualification matters, as recommended by the Dinesh Goswami
Committee (1990) and supported by the Law Commission (170th Report).
2. Fixed Timeframe for Decisions: Introduce constitutional amendments prescribing a
mandatory 3-month deadline for Speakers to decide disqualification cases.
o Eg: The SC ruling in Keisham Meghachandra Singh (2020) recommended
such timelines.
3. Parliamentary Ethics Committee Oversight: Strengthen these committees to
provide checks and balances on disqualification decisions.
4. Judicial Oversight with Defined Limits: Establish clear constitutional guidelines for
judicial review to minimize unwarranted intervention while ensuring accountability.

Conclusion

While the Speaker's quasi-judicial role was intended to ensure discipline in legislative
conduct, political allegiance often distorts this neutrality. Establishing a neutral body for
disqualification matters and enforcing clear timelines can restore both impartiality and
legislative independence in India's democracy.

Q. Analyze the role of the ‘Motion of Thanks’ in the Indian parliamentary

system. How does it reflect the balance between executive accountability and
parliamentary supremacy? (10 M)

Introduction

17
The Motion of Thanks is a constitutional requirement under Article 87 that allows
Parliament to discuss the President’s Address. It plays a crucial role in ensuring executive
accountability while reinforcing parliamentary supremacy.

Body

Role of motion of thanks in the Indian parliamentary system

1. Constitutional mandate: Ensures the President's address outlining the government’s

policy is debated, ensuring parliamentary oversight.
o Eg: In 2023, debates on economic priorities and foreign policy underscored
Parliament’s role in guiding governance.
2. Platform for discussion: Facilitates comprehensive debate on the government's
policy, offering MPs the opportunity to raise concerns.
o Eg: The 2021 Motion of Thanks witnessed intense debate on farm laws and
COVID-19 handling.
3. Opportunity to criticize or support: Allows both criticism and appreciation, giving
voice to opposition and independent MPs.
o Eg: In 2018, strong opposition criticism shaped discourse on employment and
agrarian distress.
4. Test of government’s majority: Its passage acts as a test of the executive's majority,
indirectly establishing parliamentary confidence.
o Eg: In 1990, the V.P. Singh government faced difficulty during the Motion
of Thanks debate amid political instability.
5. Highlighting policy deficiencies: Enables Parliament to address gaps in policy
frameworks and suggest improvements.
o Eg: The 2012 Motion of Thanks debate highlighted lapses in the coal block
allocation policy.

Reflection of balance between executive accountability and parliamentary supremacy

1. Ensures executive accountability: Compels the government to justify policies,

ensuring public scrutiny through debates.
o Eg: The 2022 debate criticized the government’s handling of the
unemployment crisis.
2. Opportunity for corrective measures: Criticism often prompts policy course
corrections to align with public welfare.
o Eg: After the 2018 Motion of Thanks, the government enhanced allocations
to the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA).
3. Strengthens parliamentary oversight: Parliament scrutinizes the government's
priorities and decisions, reinforcing legislative supremacy.
o Eg: The 2015 Motion of Thanks debated land acquisition concerns,
strengthening parliamentary control over executive action.

18
 4. Empowers opposition's role: Offers opposition parties a structured platform to voice
dissent and suggest alternatives.
o Eg: The 2020 Motion of Thanks saw opposition-led demands for greater
transparency in COVID-19 management.
5. Demonstrates democratic strength: Reflects the Indian Parliament’s power to
uphold democratic principles by compelling the executive to answer critical
questions.
o Eg: In 2023, debates on Adani-Hindenburg controversy amplified calls for
regulatory reforms.

Conclusion

The Motion of Thanks is not merely a constitutional ritual but a vital tool for ensuring
executive accountability and reinforcing parliamentary supremacy. Strengthening debate
quality and ensuring robust opposition participation can further enhance its effectiveness.

Q. The absence of a fixed parliamentary calendar has hindered the effective

functioning of legislative business. Assess the need for institutionalizing a
mandatory session schedule. (10 M)

Introduction:
The Indian Constitution mandates Parliament to meet at least twice a year (Article 85), yet
the absence of a fixed parliamentary calendar has led to irregular sittings, reducing
legislative efficiency.

Body

The absence of a fixed parliamentary calendar has hindered legislative functioning

1. Inadequate scrutiny of bills: Fewer sittings limit the time available for debates and
detailed examination of legislative proposals.
o Eg: The Farm Laws, 2020 were passed with minimal debate due to truncated
sessions.
2. Weakens executive accountability: Fewer sessions reduce the opportunity for
opposition to question the government.
o Eg: The Monsoon Session, 2021 witnessed record-low question hours.
3. Impact on public welfare legislation: Urgent social and economic issues often face
delays due to disrupted parliamentary sittings.
o Eg: Criminal Procedure (Identification) Act, 2022 faced criticism for
inadequate deliberation.
4. Missed opportunity for discussions on key issues: Irregular sessions reduce the
scope for meaningful debates on contemporary concerns.
o Eg: The Pegasus Spyware Issue in 2021 was largely sidelined despite public
demand for a parliamentary debate.

19
Need for institutionalizing a mandatory session schedule

1. Enhanced legislative scrutiny: A fixed schedule would ensure proper deliberation

and reduce rushed law-making.
o Eg: The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments saw extensive debates
due to sufficient session time.
2. Improved executive accountability: Regular sessions ensure ministers are frequently
questioned, enhancing government transparency.
o Eg: The COVID-19 Vaccine Strategy faced criticism due to limited
parliamentary oversight.
3. Strengthened parliamentary committees: A fixed calendar would provide
structured timelines for committee reports, improving legislative quality.
o Eg: The Joint Parliamentary Committee on Data Protection Bill benefited
from structured deliberations.
4. Better crisis management: A mandatory schedule would ensure Parliament is
available during emergencies.
o Eg: During the 2008 Financial Crisis, Parliament met swiftly to pass critical
economic measures.

Challenges in institutionalizing a mandatory session schedule

1. Conflict with federalism principles: A rigid schedule may undermine regional

interests and flexibility in state legislative sittings.
o Eg: State Assemblies in Northeast India require customized schedules for
seasonal considerations.
2. Increased financial burden: Ensuring frequent sittings may significantly escalate
administrative costs.
3. Risk of political deadlock: Prolonged mandatory sessions could increase the scope
for repeated disruptions.
o Eg: The Winter Session, 2021 saw frequent walkouts impacting legislative
work.
4. Possibility of dilution of quality debates: Frequent sittings without strategic
prioritization may encourage superficial discussions.
o Eg: The hurried passage of Finance Bill, 2018 despite multiple sittings
reflects this concern.

Conclusion

Institutionalizing a mandatory parliamentary calendar with flexibility for urgent sittings

can enhance accountability, policy deliberation, and crisis management. Integrating this
with enhanced committee roles and public consultation mechanisms can further improve
legislative efficiency.

20
Q. The absence of a fixed parliamentary calendar has hindered the effective
functioning of legislative business. Assess the need for institutionalizing a
mandatory session schedule. (10 M)

Introduction:
The Indian Constitution mandates Parliament to meet at least twice a year (Article 85), yet
the absence of a fixed parliamentary calendar has led to irregular sittings, reducing
legislative efficiency.

Body

The absence of a fixed parliamentary calendar has hindered legislative functioning

1. Inadequate scrutiny of bills: Fewer sittings limit the time available for debates and
detailed examination of legislative proposals.
o Eg: The Farm Laws, 2020 were passed with minimal debate due to truncated
sessions.
2. Weakens executive accountability: Fewer sessions reduce the opportunity for
opposition to question the government.
o Eg: The Monsoon Session, 2021 witnessed record-low question hours.
3. Impact on public welfare legislation: Urgent social and economic issues often face
delays due to disrupted parliamentary sittings.
o Eg: Criminal Procedure (Identification) Act, 2022 faced criticism for
inadequate deliberation.
4. Missed opportunity for discussions on key issues: Irregular sessions reduce the
scope for meaningful debates on contemporary concerns.
o Eg: The Pegasus Spyware Issue in 2021 was largely sidelined despite public
demand for a parliamentary debate.

Need for institutionalizing a mandatory session schedule

1. Enhanced legislative scrutiny: A fixed schedule would ensure proper deliberation

and reduce rushed law-making.
o Eg: The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments saw extensive debates
due to sufficient session time.
2. Improved executive accountability: Regular sessions ensure ministers are frequently
questioned, enhancing government transparency.
o Eg: The COVID-19 Vaccine Strategy faced criticism due to limited
parliamentary oversight.
3. Strengthened parliamentary committees: A fixed calendar would provide
structured timelines for committee reports, improving legislative quality.
o Eg: The Joint Parliamentary Committee on Data Protection Bill benefited
from structured deliberations.

21
 4. Better crisis management: A mandatory schedule would ensure Parliament is
available during emergencies.
o Eg: During the 2008 Financial Crisis, Parliament met swiftly to pass critical
economic measures.

Challenges in institutionalizing a mandatory session schedule

1. Conflict with federalism principles: A rigid schedule may undermine regional

interests and flexibility in state legislative sittings.
o Eg: State Assemblies in Northeast India require customized schedules for
seasonal considerations.
2. Increased financial burden: Ensuring frequent sittings may significantly escalate
administrative costs.
o Eg: The Budget Session, 2023 faced logistical delays due to resource
constraints.
3. Risk of political deadlock: Prolonged mandatory sessions could increase the scope
for repeated disruptions.
o Eg: The Winter Session, 2021 saw frequent walkouts impacting legislative
work.
4. Possibility of dilution of quality debates: Frequent sittings without strategic
prioritization may encourage superficial discussions.
o Eg: The hurried passage of Finance Bill, 2018 despite multiple sittings
reflects this concern.

Conclusion

Institutionalizing a mandatory parliamentary calendar with flexibility for urgent sittings

can enhance accountability, policy deliberation, and crisis management. Integrating this
with enhanced committee roles and public consultation mechanisms can further improve
legislative efficiency.

Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the

Judiciary—Ministries and Departments of the Government;
pressure groups and formal/informal associations and their role
in the Polity.

Q. Discuss the challenges women judicial officers face in India’s lower judiciary.
How can institutional reforms ensure a more equitable and inclusive work
environment? (10 M)

Introduction

22
India’s lower judiciary has witnessed an increasing presence of women, yet systemic
challenges hinder their professional growth. Addressing these barriers through institutional
reforms is crucial for ensuring gender equity in the judiciary.

Body

Challenges Faced by Women Judicial Officers

1. Lack of gender-sensitive policies: Absence of workplace provisions for maternity

leave, menstrual health, and childcare affects career progression.
o Eg: Supreme Court ruling (Feb 2025) reinstating two women judges
dismissed without considering maternity-related hardships.
2. Unconscious bias and patriarchal attitudes: Women judges often face skepticism
regarding their competence in handling complex or high-profile cases.
o Eg: Justice Nagarathna (2025) emphasized that gender stereotypes
influence judicial evaluations.
3. Work-life balance struggles: Long working hours and lack of flexible work
arrangements create additional burdens, especially for married women.
o Eg: Parliamentary Standing Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances
(2021) recommended work-life balance reforms in the judiciary.
4. Lack of representation in higher judiciary: Women remain underrepresented in
higher courts despite growing numbers in the lower judiciary.
o Eg: As of Feb 2025, only 2 out of 34 Supreme Court judges are women .
5. Harassment and hostile work environment: Lack of grievance redressal
mechanisms makes women judicial officers vulnerable to harassment.
o Eg: Delhi HC set up an Internal Complaints Committee (2023) to address
gender-based workplace issues.

Institutional Reforms for an Equitable and Inclusive Judiciary

1. Gender-sensitive workplace policies: Implement mandatory provisions for

maternity leave, menstrual leave, and support for mothers in judicial services.
o Eg: Rajasthan HC (2023) introduced flexible maternity leave for women
judges.
2. Ensuring fair performance evaluation: Address gender biases in promotions and
case allotments to provide equal growth opportunities.
o Eg: Shetty Commission Report recommended a transparent promotion
system for judicial officers.
3. Reservation and mentorship programs: Introduce reservations for women in
judicial services and structured mentorship programs to support career growth.
o Eg: Women’s Reservation Bill (2023) set a precedent for gender quotas in
governance structures.
4. Grievance redressal and harassment prevention: Establish Internal Complaints
Committees (ICCs) in all courts to address gender-based discrimination.

23
 o Eg: Vishaka Guidelines (1997) mandate ICCs, but implementation remains
weak in judiciary.
5. Representation in policy-making bodies: Ensure women’s participation in judicial
appointments and reform committees for inclusive decision-making.
o Eg: Judicial Appointments Commission proposal (2015) suggested gender
representation in selection panels.

Conclusion

A gender-sensitive judiciary strengthens constitutional values of equality (Article 14) and

non-discrimination (Article 15). Ensuring inclusive policies, representation, and
accountability will make the judiciary a model institution for workplace fairness and gender
justice.

Q. Examine the significance of speedy judicial hearings in matters concerning

personal liberty. Analyze the impact of delayed bail hearings on constitutional
rights. Suggest reforms to ensure time-bound judicial decisions in cases affecting
personal freedom. (15 M)

Introduction
Timely judicial hearings are fundamental to protecting personal liberty, ensuring that
justice is neither delayed nor denied. Article 21 of the Constitution guarantees the right to
life and personal liberty, which is compromised when courts fail to address bail matters
swiftly.

Body

Significance of speedy judicial hearings in matters concerning personal liberty

1. Upholding constitutional rights: Delays in hearings violate Article 21, which

mandates protection against arbitrary detention.
o Eg: Hussainara Khatoon Case (1979) led to the recognition of speedy trials
as a fundamental right.
2. Prevention of wrongful detention: Prolonged incarceration, especially for
undertrials, affects fundamental rights and social standing.
o Eg: Over 75% of India’s prison population consists of undertrials
(NCRB, 2023), many of whom await bail hearings.
3. Reducing judicial pendency: Delayed hearings contribute to case backlogs, further
slowing the justice system.
o Eg: Over 4 crore cases pending in Indian courts (NJDG, 2024), with bail
matters forming a significant portion.
4. Ensuring justice in humanitarian cases: Delay in hearing bail pleas for medical or
family emergencies causes undue hardship.

24
 o Eg: Punjab & Haryana HC granted bail for surgery after 2 months,
prompting SC intervention (2025).
5. Preventing misuse of state power: Delay in bail allows authorities to use detention
as a tool for coercion or political vendetta.
o Eg: SC in Arnab Goswami Case (2020) reiterated that personal liberty
cannot be curtailed indefinitely.

Impact of delayed bail hearings on constitutional rights

1. Violation of right to life and dignity: Prolonged incarceration denies the right to live
with dignity, a core aspect of Article 21.
o Eg: Shabnam vs State of UP (2015) reaffirmed that dignity extends to
prisoners.
2. Denial of access to justice: Delays create barriers to fair and timely legal recourse,
especially for marginalized groups.
o Eg: Justice M.N. Venkatachaliah Committee (2000) emphasized fast-
tracking bail hearings to improve access.
3. Psychological and economic distress: Extended imprisonment destroys livelihoods
and leads to mental trauma for detainees and their families.
o Eg: Over 40% of undertrials come from economically weaker sections
(NCRB, 2023).
4. Erosion of public trust in judiciary: Delay in bail decisions creates perception of
bias and judicial inefficiency.
o Eg: Law Commission Report (268th, 2017) highlighted delays in bail as a
key reason for public distrust.
5. Undermining of judicial independence: Political and bureaucratic interference in
bail matters leads to selective justice.
o Eg: Delhi Riots case (2021) saw selective and delayed bail approvals,
raising concerns over fairness.

Reforms to ensure time-bound judicial decisions in cases affecting personal freedom

1. Fast-track bail courts: Dedicated courts for bail matters can expedite hearings and
reduce pendency.
o Eg: Madhya Pradesh HC (2024) proposed separate bail benches to clear
pending cases faster.
2. Mandatory timelines for bail hearings: Courts should set strict deadlines for
disposing of bail petitions.
o Eg: Malimath Committee (2003) recommended 24-48 hours for hearing
urgent bail pleas.
3. Digitization and AI-based case management: Use of technology can ensure
automatic flagging of urgent bail cases.
o Eg: E-Courts Mission Mode Project introduced AI tools for case
prioritization.

25
 4. Accountability mechanisms for judicial delays: Judges delaying bail matters
without valid reasons must be held accountable.
o Eg: SC in Satender Kumar Antil Case (2022) directed courts to avoid
unnecessary bail delays.
5. Strengthening legal aid for undertrials: Free and efficient legal aid services can
prevent prolonged detention due to lack of representation.
o Eg: NALSA’s Legal Aid Defense Counsel System (2022) focuses on
expediting bail for indigent undertrials.

Conclusion

Judicial efficiency in bail matters is crucial for upholding constitutional rights and
restoring public faith in justice. Timely hearings, systemic reforms, and digital
interventions are necessary to prevent liberty from becoming a casualty of delay.

Q4. Evaluate the constitutional safeguards that aim to uphold the principle of
separation of powers in India. How effective have these safeguards been in preventing
encroachments by different organs of the state? (15 M)

Introduction

The principle of separation of powers is crucial to ensuring a balanced governance structure

and preventing authoritarianism. The Indian Constitution, while not explicitly adopting the
doctrine, incorporates several safeguards to maintain institutional independence.

Body

Constitutional safeguards to uphold separation of powers

1. Articles 53 & 154 - Executive Power: Vests executive power in the President and
Governor to ensure clear demarcation from legislative functions.
o Eg: The President cannot exercise legislative powers unless provided under
Article 123 (Ordinance power).
2. Article 50 - Judicial Independence: Directs the state to separate the judiciary from
the executive in public services to ensure impartiality.
o Eg: Judicial appointments follow a distinct process ensuring independence
under the Collegium System.
3. Article 121 & 211 - Judicial Immunity: Prohibits discussions in Parliament and
State Legislatures on the conduct of judges except during impeachment proceedings.
o Eg: Justice V. Ramaswami's impeachment in 1993 followed this procedure.
4. Article 226 & 32 - Judicial Review: Empowers High Courts and the Supreme Court
to review legislative and executive actions.
o Eg: The Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) upheld judicial review as part of
the Basic Structure Doctrine.

26
 5. Article 245 & 246 - Legislative Competence: Defines the jurisdiction of Parliament
and State Legislatures through the Union, State, and Concurrent Lists to prevent
encroachments.
o Eg: The SR Bommai Case (1994) clarified Parliament’s role during
President’s Rule to avoid legislative overreach.

Effectiveness in preventing encroachments

Successes:

1. Judicial independence maintained: The judiciary has effectively resisted executive

overreach through the Collegium System.
o Eg: NJAC Case (2015) upheld judicial primacy in appointments.
2. Curb on arbitrary ordinances: Judicial scrutiny has restricted the misuse of the
ordinance-making power.
o Eg: DC Wadhwa Case (1987) declared repeated ordinances unconstitutional.
3. Preventing legislative overreach: Judicial activism has kept laws in check to protect
constitutional rights.
o Eg: Shayara Bano Case (2017) struck down Triple Talaq for violating
constitutional morality.
4. Strengthened federal structure: Clear division of legislative powers has bolstered
state autonomy.
o Eg: The NCT of Delhi Case (2018) upheld the legislative supremacy of the
Delhi Assembly in non-police and non-land matters.
5. Impeachment process ensures judicial accountability: The detailed process
restricts politically motivated removal attempts.
o Eg: The failed impeachment motion against Justice Dipak Misra in 2018
demonstrated this safeguard.

Challenges:

1. Executive overreach: Excessive use of ordinances and interventions in judicial

appointments persist.
o Eg: Frequent ordinances on contentious issues like farm laws in 2020 raised
concerns.
2. Judicial overreach: The judiciary has been criticized for encroaching on legislative
and executive domains.
o Eg: Vishaka Guidelines (1997) framed workplace sexual harassment norms
despite the absence of legislative policy.
3. Incomplete separation in india: The Parliamentary system’s executive-legislative
overlap blurs boundaries.
o Eg: The Prime Minister and Cabinet Ministers are part of the legislature.
4. Delay in judicial actions: The slow pace of judicial proceedings often fails to prevent
immediate constitutional violations.

27
 o Eg: The Electoral Bonds Case faced prolonged judicial delays.
5. Lack of clear judicial conduct code: Despite several attempts, a codified judicial
code remains absent.
o Eg: The Justice C.S. Karnan Case (2017) exposed gaps in handling judicial
misconduct.

Conclusion

While constitutional safeguards have largely succeeded in ensuring institutional

independence, periodic encroachments highlight the need for robust implementation
mechanisms and timely judicial interventions to uphold the doctrine of separation of
powers. Strengthening parliamentary accountability and ensuring judicial reforms can further
reinforce this principle.

Q. Evaluate the constitutional safeguards that aim to uphold the principle of

separation of powers in India. How effective have these safeguards been in
preventing encroachments by different organs of the state? (15 M)

Introduction

The principle of separation of powers is crucial to ensuring a balanced governance structure

and preventing authoritarianism. The Indian Constitution, while not explicitly adopting the
doctrine, incorporates several safeguards to maintain institutional independence.

Body

Constitutional safeguards to uphold separation of powers

1. Articles 53 & 154 - Executive Power: Vests executive power in the President and
Governor to ensure clear demarcation from legislative functions.
o Eg: The President cannot exercise legislative powers unless provided under
Article 123 (Ordinance power).
2. Article 50 - Judicial Independence: Directs the state to separate the judiciary from
the executive in public services to ensure impartiality.
o Eg: Judicial appointments follow a distinct process ensuring independence
under the Collegium System.
3. Article 121 & 211 - Judicial Immunity: Prohibits discussions in Parliament and
State Legislatures on the conduct of judges except during impeachment proceedings.
o Eg: Justice V. Ramaswami's impeachment in 1993 followed this procedure.
4. Article 226 & 32 - Judicial Review: Empowers High Courts and the Supreme Court
to review legislative and executive actions.
o Eg: The Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) upheld judicial review as part of
the Basic Structure Doctrine.

28
 5. Article 245 & 246 - Legislative Competence: Defines the jurisdiction of Parliament
and State Legislatures through the Union, State, and Concurrent Lists to prevent
encroachments.
o Eg: The SR Bommai Case (1994) clarified Parliament’s role during
President’s Rule to avoid legislative overreach.

Effectiveness in preventing encroachments

Successes:

1. Judicial independence maintained: The judiciary has effectively resisted executive

overreach through the Collegium System.
o Eg: NJAC Case (2015) upheld judicial primacy in appointments.
2. Curb on arbitrary ordinances: Judicial scrutiny has restricted the misuse of the
ordinance-making power.
o Eg: DC Wadhwa Case (1987) declared repeated ordinances unconstitutional.
3. Preventing legislative overreach: Judicial activism has kept laws in check to protect
constitutional rights.
o Eg: Shayara Bano Case (2017) struck down Triple Talaq for violating
constitutional morality.
4. Strengthened federal structure: Clear division of legislative powers has bolstered
state autonomy.
o Eg: The NCT of Delhi Case (2018) upheld the legislative supremacy of the
Delhi Assembly in non-police and non-land matters.
5. Impeachment process ensures judicial accountability: The detailed process
restricts politically motivated removal attempts.
o Eg: The failed impeachment motion against Justice Dipak Misra in 2018
demonstrated this safeguard.

Challenges:

1. Executive overreach: Excessive use of ordinances and interventions in judicial

appointments persist.
o Eg: Frequent ordinances on contentious issues like farm laws in 2020 raised
concerns.
2. Judicial overreach: The judiciary has been criticized for encroaching on legislative
and executive domains.
o Eg: Vishaka Guidelines (1997) framed workplace sexual harassment norms
despite the absence of legislative policy.
3. Incomplete separation in india: The Parliamentary system’s executive-legislative
overlap blurs boundaries.
o Eg: The Prime Minister and Cabinet Ministers are part of the legislature.
4. Delay in judicial actions: The slow pace of judicial proceedings often fails to prevent
immediate constitutional violations.

29
 o Eg: The Electoral Bonds Case faced prolonged judicial delays.
5. Lack of clear judicial conduct code: Despite several attempts, a codified judicial
code remains absent.
o Eg: The Justice C.S. Karnan Case (2017) exposed gaps in handling judicial
misconduct.

Conclusion

While constitutional safeguards have largely succeeded in ensuring institutional

independence, periodic encroachments highlight the need for robust implementation
mechanisms and timely judicial interventions to uphold the doctrine of separation of
powers. Strengthening parliamentary accountability and ensuring judicial reforms can further
reinforce this principle.

Q. The concept of 'delegated legislation' has empowered the Executive with

excessive discretion. Critically analyze. (15 M)

Introduction:
Delegated legislation refers to the law-making power conferred on the Executive by the
Legislature through a parent Act, enabling the Executive to fill in technical details or adapt
laws to changing circumstances. While it enhances flexibility, excessive discretion raises
concerns about accountability.

Body

Issues arising from excessive discretion in delegated legislation

1. Weak parliamentary oversight: Delegated legislation often bypasses parliamentary

scrutiny, risking undemocratic law-making.
o Eg: The Tribunals Reforms Act, 2021 empowered the Executive to alter
tribunal structures without adequate debate.
2. Lack of public consultation: Executive-led rule-making may bypass public
participation, reducing transparency.
o Eg: The IT Rules, 2021 faced criticism for impacting digital freedom without
adequate public consultation.
3. Judicial challenges and ambiguity: Excessive discretion can lead to vague and
inconsistent rules, increasing litigation.
o Eg: In In Re: Delhi Judicial Service Association (1991), the Supreme Court
stressed clear limits on delegated powers.
4. Potential for executive overreach: The Executive may bypass Parliament to
introduce critical regulations.
o Eg: The Farm Laws Ordinances, 2020 were criticized for evading broader
legislative debate.

30
 5. Threat to fundamental rights: Unchecked powers may infringe on constitutional
freedoms.
o Eg: The Telecom Suspension Rules (2017) were challenged for restricting
internet access in Jammu & Kashmir.

Need for delegated legislation

1. Flexibility in rule-making: Enables quick adaptation to changing circumstances

without frequent legislative amendments.
o Eg: COVID-19 lockdown regulations were adapted rapidly through
delegated powers.
2. Technical expertise requirement: Complex sectors like taxation, environmental
norms, and telecom require expert-driven rules.
o Eg: The SEBI Regulations require technical details best handled by experts.
3. Reducing parliamentary burden: Delegated legislation allows Parliament to focus
on broader policy issues.
o Eg: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 2020 rules streamlined
environmental approvals.
4. Efficient crisis management: In emergencies, immediate regulatory changes can be
made via delegated powers.
o Eg: The Disaster Management Act, 2005 enabled swift nationwide pandemic
responses.
5. Sectoral customization: Delegated legislation allows tailored rules for diverse
industries without frequent legislative amendments.
o Eg: The Food Safety and Standards Regulations cater to sector-specific
needs.

Way forward

1. Stronger parliamentary oversight: Empower Parliamentary Committees to

scrutinize rules effectively.
o Eg: The Rules Committee in Parliament can ensure tighter scrutiny.
2. Mandatory public consultation: Ensuring public participation can enhance
transparency and accountability.
o Eg: The Pre-Legislative Consultation Policy (2014) mandates public input
but requires stronger enforcement.
3. Enhanced judicial review: Courts should actively review excessive delegation to
prevent misuse.
o Eg: Krishna Kumar Singh v. State of Bihar (2017) emphasized limits on
excessive ordinance power.
4. Codification of limits: Clearly defining the permissible scope of delegated legislation
in parent Acts can prevent misuse.
o Eg: The Environmental Protection Act, 1986 specifies defined areas for
rule-making.

31
 5. Empowering regulatory authorities: Independent regulatory bodies with defined
mandates can reduce executive overreach.
o Eg: The RBI’s Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) operates autonomously
to avoid political interference.

Conclusion

While delegated legislation is crucial for responsive governance, unchecked discretion

threatens constitutional safeguards. A balanced approach combining robust oversight,
public consultation, and judicial vigilance can ensure that executive discretion aligns with
democratic principles.

Q. Analyze the role of pressure groups in influencing public policy. Examine how
digital activism has transformed advocacy. Assess its implications for democratic
processes. (15 M)

Introduction:
Pressure groups act as the conscience-keepers of democracy, ensuring that diverse societal
interests influence the policy process. In the digital age, their influence has become more
immediate and dynamic.

Body

Role of pressure groups in influencing public policy

1. Policy advocacy and lobbying: They engage directly with lawmakers to shape
legislative and executive decisions.
 Eg: FICCI and CII influenced key reforms during the 1991 liberalisation
phase by lobbying for deregulation (Source: Economic Survey 2016-17).
2. Expertise and technical inputs: They provide evidence-based research and solutions
to complex policy challenges.
 Eg: Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) guided the framing of
Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 with scientific data.
3. Amplifying neglected voices: They represent vulnerable or underrepresented groups
in policymaking.
 Eg: Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) was instrumental in the
enactment of the RTI Act, 2005 through grassroots campaigns.
4. Judicial interventions: They file PILs and use courts to influence policy and
enforcement.
 Eg: PUCL v. Union of India (2001) led to the Mid-Day Meal Scheme as a
right to food initiative.
5. Agenda-setting in media and public discourse: They shape national conversations
and priorities through campaigns.

32
  Eg: India Against Corruption movement (2011) brought Lokpal Bill to the
center of public debate and legislative focus.

How digital activism has transformed advocacy

1. Real-time mobilisation and outreach: Digital platforms allow instant engagement

with large populations.
 Eg: The #SaveAarey campaign (2019) mobilised citizens in Mumbai against
deforestation within hours using Twitter and Instagram.
2. Decentralised leadership and participation: Digital tools empower local voices to
lead and influence from the ground.
 Eg: The Shaheen Bagh protests (2020) were sustained through WhatsApp
groups and social media live updates.
3. Cost-effective and scalable advocacy: It removes traditional logistical barriers in
organising movements.
 Eg: Fridays for Future India used digital petitions and webinars to push for
climate action, avoiding expensive mass gatherings.
4. Increased pressure on decision-makers: Viral campaigns can compel political
accountability and policy response.
 Eg: The viral #JusticeforManisha campaign (2020) pressured authorities in
the Hathras gangrape case to expedite action.
5. Use of data analytics for targeted influence: Activists use analytics to tailor
messaging and track engagement.
 Eg: Jhatkaa.org used behavioural insights during campaigns on clean air
and net neutrality, improving outreach outcomes.

Implications for democratic processes

1. Enhanced participatory democracy: Digital tools foster broader civic engagement

beyond voting.
 Eg: MyGov portal launched in 2014 allows direct citizen feedback on
policies like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.
2. Risk of misinformation and manipulation: Unregulated digital space enables fake
narratives.
 Eg: During 2021 farm law protests, fake videos circulated, leading to
communal tensions (Source: Alt News Fact-check).
3. Algorithmic echo chambers: Digital activism can become polarised, reducing
dialogue and consensus-building.
 Eg: The Toolkit case (2021) showed how narrative control on platforms can
turn advocacy into conflict.
4. Threat to accountability: Anonymous campaigns may lack transparency and dilute
responsibility.

33
  Eg: Fake Twitter handles were used during the 2023 Manipur conflict,
spreading unverifiable claims (Source: PIB Fact Check).
5. Pressure for responsive governance: Governments are increasingly pushed to
respond to online activism.
 Eg: After #NetNeutrality campaign, TRAI upheld open internet principles in
2016, reinforcing digital rights.

Conclusion:
As technology redefines advocacy, a robust regulatory and ethical framework is essential to
harness its democratic potential while curbing its excesses. Digital activism must evolve with
responsibility to preserve its credibility and impact.

Q. What are the systemic flaws in the current Collegium-based judicial

appointments process? How have recent judicial controversies revealed
structural opacity and ethical lapses? Evaluate how an Indian Judicial Service
can address these issues. (15 M)

Introduction
An institution’s legitimacy flows from both constitutional sanctity and public credibility.
The judiciary, despite being a guardian of the Constitution, faces rising criticism due to its
opaque appointment mechanism and ethical controversies.

Body

Systemic flaws in the Collegium-based judicial appointments process

1. Lack of transparency in selection criteria: Collegium resolutions do not disclose

objective benchmarks for elevation.
o Eg: Justice Akil Kureshi’s delayed elevation (2019) highlighted selective
disclosure and lack of criteria (Source: Law Ministry file notings).
2. Prevalence of nepotism and judicial dynasties: The absence of competitive
selection fosters informal networks and legacy-based entry.
o Eg: Vidhi Centre report (2021) revealed over 50% of recent HC appointees
had familial ties in the legal system.
3. Absence of institutional accountability: No statutory body oversees Collegium
decisions or reviews complaints.
o Eg: Second Judges Case (1993) upheld judicial primacy, but did not create
any independent oversight body .
4. Undermining of federal principles: State High Courts have limited role in All-India
appointments despite being constitutionally autonomous.
o Eg: 14th Law Commission Report (1958) recommended greater
consultation with High Courts in judicial appointments.

Structural opacity and ethical lapses revealed by recent controversies

34
 1. Lack of disciplinary accountability: Internal inquiries into judicial misconduct often
remain undisclosed.
o Eg: Delhi HC judge’s residence fire incident (2025) revealed unexplained
possession of burnt cash, yet no FIR was filed.
2. Insensitive judicial reasoning: Controversial judgments reveal value-based deficits
in judicial conduct.
o Eg: A High Court judge's 2025 ruling stated ‘breaking pyjama strings’
was not attempt to rape, stayed by SC for ‘total insensitivity’.
3. Judicial insulation from oversight: Courts have resisted inclusion under Lokpal,
limiting external scrutiny.
o Eg: SC suo motu 2025 stayed Lokpal inquiry into HC judge, citing lack of
jurisdiction.
4. Perceived conflict of interest in inquiries: Judges presiding over inquiries involving
their own conduct undermine due process.
o Eg: 2019 case of sexual harassment against CJI saw initial committee
including CJI himself, later dropped amid public backlash.

Role of Indian Judicial Service in addressing these concerns

1. Merit-based, all-India selection: A UPSC-like structure ensures transparency,

diversity, and fairness in recruitment.
o Eg: IJS proposal in 116th Constitutional Amendment Bill advocated
national-level exams for judicial posts.
2. Inclusivity and social representation: IJS can help induct women, Dalits, and
minorities into higher judiciary through open competition.
o Eg: Parliament Standing Committee Report (2022) noted only 12% of HC
judges were women, underlining need for representational reform.
3. Pre-service training and value-based orientation: Structured training can embed
ethical standards and legal pluralism.
o Eg: National Judicial Academy, Bhopal could serve as a model for pan-
India IJS training modules.
4. Institutional accountability mechanisms: An IJS model allows periodic
performance review and code of conduct enforcement.
o Eg: UK Judicial Conduct Investigations Office serves as best practice
model for post-appointment judicial accountability.

Challenges in implementing Indian Judicial Service

1. Federal resistance from States and High Courts: States may oppose centralised
recruitment for judges of their respective High Courts.
o Eg: Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu have formally opposed IJS, citing
violation of autonomy.
2. Separation of powers concerns: Judiciary may perceive it as executive
encroachment on judicial independence.

35
 o Eg: NJAC struck down in 2015 as violating Article 50 and basic structure
doctrine.
3. Lack of political consensus: No uniform political backing for amending appointment
structure after NJAC verdict.
o Eg: The 116th Constitution Amendment Bill (2013) lapsed without floor
debate.
4. Implementation logistics and cadre management: Harmonising different legal
systems, languages, and HC rules may be operationally complex.
o Eg: Law Commission (2009) flagged divergent service rules across states as
a major challenge for IJS rollout.

Conclusion
Reform must not sacrifice judicial independence, but must expand transparency, diversity,
and accountability. A well-designed IJS, evolving through consultation and constitutional
safeguards, can bridge this critical gap and rejuvenate faith in the judiciary.

Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act.

Q. The practice of sitting legislators contesting for another office creates multiple
challenges for India's electoral ecosystem. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction

India's electoral system allows sitting legislators to contest for another office, but this practice
disrupts governance, increases election costs, and creates voter disillusionment. While
legally permitted, it raises concerns about democratic accountability and electoral
efficiency.

Body

Prevalence of the practice

1. Legal framework permits it – Article 101(2) & 190(3) of the Constitution, along
with Prohibition of Simultaneous Membership Rules, 1950, allow legislators to
contest for another office.
o Eg: In 2024 Lok Sabha elections, five sitting MLAs from Kerala
contested, causing vacancies and subsequent bye-elections.
2. High frequency of occurrence – Many MPs and MLAs contest elections despite
holding seats, leading to frequent bye-elections.
o Eg: Three Union Ministers (Rajya Sabha MPs) contested for Lok Sabha
in 2024, creating midterm vacancies.
3. Global context – Countries like Australia and Italy restrict such candidacies, while
Canada mandates resignation before re-contesting.
o Eg: Parliament of Canada Act prevents sitting provincial legislators from
contesting federal elections.

36
Challenges posed to India's electoral ecosystem

1. Governance disruption – Frequent elections impose the Model Code of Conduct

(MCC), delaying government decisions.
o Eg: NITI Aayog (2023) report noted policy delays due to MCC enforcement
during bye-elections.
2. Public expenditure burden – Conducting elections is costly, with Rs 6,931 crore
spent in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections (ECI estimates).
o Eg: Frequent bye-elections further escalate costs, impacting fiscal prudence.
3. Erosion of voter trust – Winning candidates vacating seats mid-term leads to voter
apathy and lower turnout.
o Eg: 2023 Himachal Pradesh bye-elections saw reduced participation after
MLAs vacated seats.
4. Political instability and opportunism – Contesting multiple elections is often driven
by political calculations rather than public service.
o Eg: Nine MLAs, including five ministers in Punjab, contested Lok Sabha
elections in 2024 for career progression, leaving assembly seats vacant.
5. Parachute candidacy undermines local leadership – Contesting from different
constituencies dilutes local political engagement and grassroots leadership.
o Eg: Several senior leaders in Bihar and UP shifted constituencies in 2024,
sidelining local aspirants.
6. Increased litigation and electoral uncertainty – Multiple candidacies lead to legal
disputes and challenges over seat vacancies.
o Eg: The Election Commission of India (ECI) flagged the issue in 2023,
calling for reforms to curb electoral manipulation.

What needs to be done?

1. Mandatory resignation before re-contesting – India should adopt a Canada-like

model, requiring legislators to vacate their seat before filing nominations.
o Eg: Election Commission's 2016 reform proposal suggested this as a
deterrent.
2. Financial penalty for vacating seats – A security deposit or financial liability for
those vacating seats could compensate for bye-election costs.
o Eg: Law Commission’s 255th Report (2015) recommended imposing
penalties for midterm resignations.
3. Restricting multiple candidacies – Amending Representation of the People Act,
1951, to limit leaders from contesting multiple seats simultaneously.
o Eg: Venkatachaliah Commission (2002) recommended restricting multi-seat
candidacies.
4. Cooling-off period before re-contesting – Legislators should serve a minimum
tenure before contesting another election, ensuring commitment to their electorate.
o Eg: Similar provisions exist in Germany and South Korea, preventing
abrupt seat changes.

37
Conclusion

Unregulated multiple candidacies undermine democratic accountability and electoral

efficiency. Introducing mandatory resignation, financial penalties, and legal restrictions
will enhance governance stability and voter trust, strengthening India's electoral
framework.

Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions

and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies.
Q. The Finance Commission is vital for fiscal federalism in India. Examine how
its recommendations impact state finances and suggest measures to enhance their
practical utility. (10 M)

Introduction
The Finance Commission (FC) plays a crucial role in ensuring fiscal equity by
recommending resource distribution strategies that address economic disparities among
states, thus strengthening fiscal federalism.

Body

Impact of finance commission recommendations on state finances

1. Revenue sharing formula: Ensures fair tax devolution among states based on criteria
like income distance, population, etc.
o Eg: The 15th FC recommended 41% tax devolution to states, ensuring
continued fiscal stability post-J&K’s reorganization.
2. Grants-in-aid distribution: Targets specific state needs to ensure economic stability
and development.
o Eg: Post-Devolution Revenue Deficit Grants (₹1.18 lakh crore in FY 2023-
24) for 14 states with revenue gaps.
3. Performance-linked incentives: Encourages states to improve governance, fiscal
discipline, and reform adoption.
o Eg: The 15th FC rewarded states implementing Power Sector Reforms,
promoting efficiency and revenue generation.
4. Disaster risk management grants: Strengthens state preparedness and response
capacity.
o Eg: The 15th FC allocated ₹1.6 lakh crore to the State Disaster Response
Fund (SDRF) for 2021-26.
5. Urban and rural local body grants: Empowers local governance through direct fund
transfers.
o Eg: ₹70,051 crore for urban local bodies and ₹2.36 lakh crore for rural local
bodies under the 15th FC.
6. Health sector support: Strengthens healthcare infrastructure in states.

38
 o Eg: ₹13,192 crore allocated for Health Grants to improve primary healthcare
facilities.
7. Special grants for resource-deficient states: Ensures additional assistance to
disadvantaged states.
o Eg: Special grants for Northeast states and hilly regions under the 15th FC.
8. Borrowing and debt management: Guides states on borrowing limits to ensure
fiscal stability.
o Eg: The 15th FC set a 4% of GSDP borrowing limit for states in FY 2021-22.

Measures to enhance practical utility of fc recommendations

1. Dedicated monitoring mechanism: Establish a Finance Commission Monitoring

Cell for real-time tracking and evaluation.
o Eg: Expenditure Monitoring Division under the Finance Ministry ensures
efficient fund utilization.
2. Capacity building for states: Develop robust institutional frameworks for improved
fiscal management.
o Eg: States like Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka implemented Outcome
Budgeting for better resource planning.
3. Dynamic criteria for devolution: Introduce dynamic indicators like climate
vulnerability, digital infrastructure, etc.
o Eg: The 15th FC introduced Demographic Performance as a new factor for
devolution.
4. Enhanced local body empowerment: Strengthen Panchayati Raj and municipal
institutions for efficient fund utilization.
o Eg: Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign significantly improved grassroots
governance.
5. Greater stakeholder consultation: Involve NITI Aayog, state leadership, and civil
society to ensure practical solutions.
o Eg: The 15th FC held regional consultations to ensure inclusive
recommendations.
6. Transparent digital mechanisms: Introduce real-time fund tracking systems to
improve accountability.
o Eg: The Public Financial Management System (PFMS) tracks fund
disbursal across schemes.

Conclusion
For effective fiscal federalism, the Finance Commission’s recommendations must be coupled
with better monitoring, innovative criteria, and state-level reforms to ensure improved
resource allocation and sustainable development.

39
Q. The Election Commission’s role in conducting elections is pivotal, yet its
powers to regulate internal party democracy remain limited. Critically examine
this limitation and propose reforms to ensure intra-party democracy. (10 M)

Introduction
Despite its constitutional mandate to ensure free and fair elections, the Election Commission
of India (ECI) has limited powers to regulate internal party democracy, impacting political
accountability and transparency.

Body

Limitations in regulating internal party democracy

1. Absence of explicit constitutional mandate: The Constitution does not empower

the ECI to regulate internal party functioning directly.
o Eg: Article 324 focuses on the conduct of elections but excludes intra-party
regulation.
2. Lack of statutory authority: The Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951
outlines ECI’s role in electoral processes but excludes explicit provisions for intra-
party democracy.
o Eg: The ECI can only demand periodic updates on party constitutions, not
enforce changes.
3. Opaque party funding and membership: The ECI lacks control over internal
financial management and membership transparency, enabling non-democratic
practices.
o Eg: Allegations of opaque financing in major parties in recent years.
4. Judicial ambiguity: Courts have often refrained from recognizing ECI’s role in
enforcing intra-party democracy, limiting its ability to intervene.
o Eg: Indian National Congress vs Institute of Social Welfare (2002)
curtailed ECI’s authority to deregister non-compliant parties.
5. Resistance from political parties: Political parties have often opposed reforms that
ensure greater transparency and internal accountability.
o Eg: Reluctance to adopt the Law Commission's 255th Report (2015)
recommendations on regulating intra-party elections.

Proposed reforms to ensure intra-party democracy

1. Strengthen the RPA, 1951: Amend the RPA, 1951 to empower the ECI to oversee
internal party elections and enforce transparency.
o Eg: The 255th Law Commission Report recommends mandatory internal
elections with ECI oversight.
2. Introduce a ‘Model Party Constitution’: The ECI can propose a uniform template
ensuring regular elections, accountability norms, and inclusive decision-making.
o Eg: Similar models are adopted in countries like Germany and South Africa.

40
 3. Transparency in party funding: Introduce stricter norms for financial disclosures,
audited accounts, and public scrutiny mechanisms.
o Eg: The ADR Report 2023 highlighted significant gaps in party funding
transparency.
4. Mandatory internal election audits: Introduce third-party auditing of internal
elections to ensure fairness and compliance.
o Eg: The UK Electoral Commission enforces internal audits to ensure
procedural integrity.
5. Empowering ECI with punitive powers: Provide the ECI with powers to fine,
derecognize, or withhold election symbols from parties that violate internal
democracy norms.
o Eg: Recommended by the Venkatachaliah Commission on electoral reforms.

Conclusion
Ensuring intra-party democracy is crucial to strengthening India’s democratic ethos.
Empowering the ECI with clear legal authority and promoting financial transparency can
foster greater accountability and public trust in the political system.

Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.

Q. The Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) is crucial for ensuring
transparency in public administration. Evaluate its role in combating corruption,
identify key limitations, and suggest measures for strengthening its institutional
framework. (15 M)

Introduction

The Central Vigilance Commission (CVC), established in 1964 based on the Santhanam
Committee recommendations, is India’s apex anti-corruption body tasked with ensuring
integrity and accountability in public administration.

Body

Role of CVC in Combating Corruption

1. Supervision of CBI Investigations: CVC exercises superintendence over the CBI

in corruption cases under the DSPE Act, 1946.
o Eg: CVC’s oversight improved transparency in the INX Media Case (2017).
2. Advisory Role in Disciplinary Matters: Provides binding advice on disciplinary
action against central government officials.
o Eg: Recommended strict action in the ICICI Bank loan fraud case (2020).
3. Preventive Vigilance Measures: Introduced reforms like e-tendering, GeM portal,
and Integrity Pact to curb procurement corruption.
o Eg: CVC’s intervention ensured cleaner contracts in the Delhi Metro Project.

41
 4. Monitoring Major Corruption Cases: Tracks corruption-prone sectors and
recommends procedural corrections.
o Eg: Identified lapses in the Satyam Scam (2009) and ensured improved
corporate governance.
5. Whistleblower Protection: Functions as the designated body under the
Whistleblower Protection Act, 2014.
o Eg: Supported whistleblowers in the ONGC Irregularities Case (2021).
6. Public Awareness and Training: Conducts programs like Vigilance Awareness
Week to promote ethics in public administration.
o Eg: The 2023 campaign focused on citizen engagement in reporting
corruption.

Key Limitations of CVC

1. Lack of Independent Investigation Wing: Relies on CBI and other agencies for
investigations, weakening autonomy.
o Eg: The Vineet Narain judgment (1997) criticized this structural flaw.
2. Limited Jurisdiction: Restricted to Group A officers in central services, excluding
state officials and private players.
o Eg: Corruption in the PMC Bank Scam (2019) remained outside CVC’s
oversight.
3. Non-binding Recommendations: CVC’s recommendations lack mandatory
enforcement, limiting their impact.
o Eg: CVC’s advisory role in the Banking Frauds Case (2020) faced delays in
disciplinary actions.
4. No Direct Prosecution Powers: Lacks the authority to file chargesheets or prosecute
directly.
o Eg: The AgustaWestland Scam highlighted this limitation in prosecution.
5. Resource Constraints: Faces staff shortages and budgetary limitations, reducing
proactive vigilance.
o Eg: The 2019 Parliamentary Committee Report flagged staffing gaps in
CVC's core departments.

Measures to Strengthen CVC’s Institutional Framework

1. Independent Investigation Wing: Establish a dedicated investigative unit within

CVC to reduce dependence on the CBI.
o Eg: The Second ARC Report recommended an Independent Prosecution
Wing under CVC.
2. Enhanced Jurisdiction: Expand CVC’s authority to include state-funded schemes,
PSUs, and private sector entities linked to public funds.
o Eg: Expanding oversight on projects like PM Awas Yojana can improve
accountability.

42
 3. Empowering CVC Recommendations: Make CVC’s directives binding in serious
corruption cases for faster implementation.
o Eg: The Lokpal and Lokayukta Act, 2013 offers a model for mandatory
recommendations.
4. Strengthening Whistleblower Protection: Implement secure digital portals for
anonymous complaints and ensure strict confidentiality.
o Eg: Enhanced safeguards could have improved outcomes in the Vyapam
Scam (2015).
5. Technological Integration: Introduce AI-driven data analytics, blockchain
tracking, and predictive vigilance to track corruption trends.
o Eg: CVC’s IT-based File Tracking System aims to improve procedural
efficiency.
6. Capacity Building and Training: Collaborate with institutions like LBSNAA and
National Judicial Academy to train vigilance officers.
o Eg: The National Anti-Corruption Strategy emphasizes proactive training
to reduce procedural delays.

Conclusion

The CVC's effectiveness in ensuring transparent governance can be enhanced by introducing

investigative autonomy, wider jurisdiction, and technological advancements.
Strengthening CVC will reinforce India’s fight against corruption and ensure improved
public sector accountability.

Q. Quasi-judicial bodies play an essential role in sectoral regulation. Critically

evaluate the functioning of the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) in
ensuring investor protection and maintaining market integrity. (15 M)

Introduction:
Quasi-judicial bodies like SEBI are vital in regulating sectors requiring specialized
knowledge and timely adjudication. SEBI, established in 1992 under the SEBI Act, ensures
transparency and stability in India’s financial markets.

Body

Positive role of SEBI in ensuring investor protection and market integrity

1. Robust regulatory framework: SEBI’s enforcement of disclosure norms, insider

trading regulations, and investor grievance redressal strengthens market transparency.
o Eg: Introduction of LODR Regulations (2015) enhanced disclosure norms
for listed entities.
2. Investor education initiatives: SEBI has launched awareness campaigns like
SCORE to empower retail investors against fraud.

43
 o Eg: The SCORE platform resolved over 6.7 lakh investor complaints as of
2023 (Source: SEBI Annual Report 2023).
3. Strict enforcement actions: SEBI's power to impose fines, ban entities, and initiate
criminal proceedings ensures accountability.
o Eg: In 2023, SEBI penalized Byju’s for delayed financial disclosures,
strengthening corporate governance.
4. Market surveillance mechanisms: Advanced systems like the Data Warehousing
and Business Intelligence System (DWBIS) enable real-time detection of
manipulative practices.
o Eg: SEBI identified front-running activities in prominent mutual fund cases
in 2022.
5. Strengthening IPO and listing processes: SEBI’s guidelines on Anchor Investors,
pricing mechanisms, and grey market control enhance investor confidence.
o Eg: Reforms introduced in 2021 limited IPO proceeds usage for unspecified
acquisitions to 35% of total funds.

Challenges faced by SEBI

1. Delayed investigation processes: SEBI’s regulatory actions often face prolonged

timelines, limiting immediate deterrence.
o Eg: SEBI’s investigation into the Adani Group’s Hindenburg allegations
faced delays despite public urgency.
2. Limited jurisdiction over unregulated financial spaces: SEBI has limited control
over cryptocurrency markets and decentralized finance platforms.
o Eg: The 2022 Crypto Regulation Proposal remains pending parliamentary
approval.
3. Weak enforcement against influential entities: SEBI’s authority is sometimes
restricted in cases involving politically linked or large corporate players.
o Eg: SEBI faced criticism for delayed action in the Sahara Refund Case.
4. Resource constraints: Inadequate workforce and technical resources hinder SEBI’s
ability to track sophisticated market manipulations.
o Eg: The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Finance (2022) flagged
SEBI’s limited manpower in forensic audits.
5. Insufficient investor awareness in smaller towns: Despite outreach programs,
financial literacy in Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities remains low.
o Eg: A SEBI study (2022) found that over 60% of retail investors lacked
awareness of risk assessment tools.

Way forward

1. Strengthening investigation timelines: Establishing a Fast-Track Dispute

Resolution Mechanism for time-bound settlement of cases.
o Eg: The Securities Appellate Tribunal (SAT) can be strengthened for
expedited appeals.

44
 2. Enhanced oversight of emerging sectors: SEBI should expand its jurisdiction to
cover digital assets and decentralized finance.
o Eg: The Crypto and Digital Asset Committee (CDAC) can collaborate with
SEBI for policy frameworks.
3. Capacity building and resources: Increasing technical staff, forensic experts, and
AI-driven surveillance systems for better market tracking.
o Eg: Adoption of Regulatory Sandbox Mechanism to test fintech innovations
securely.
4. Investor education through digital media: SEBI should collaborate with social
media influencers, fintech platforms, and schools for awareness.
o Eg: The ‘SEBI Mitra’ initiative can be expanded to Tier-3 cities.
5. Greater accountability in corporate disclosures: Strengthening disclosure
timelines, audit regulations, and penalties for non-compliance.
o Eg: The Kotak Committee (2017) recommendations on corporate governance
can be implemented more rigorously.

Conclusion

SEBI has played a crucial role in safeguarding investors and ensuring market integrity.
However, addressing enforcement delays, regulatory gaps, and emerging financial trends is
imperative to maintain its relevance in India’s dynamic financial ecosystem.Government
policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their
design and implementation.

Q. Evaluate the role of quasi-judicial bodies in India’s regulatory governance.

Discuss how their structural independence can be enhanced. (10 M)

Introduction

Quasi-judicial bodies bridge the gap between the executive and judiciary by providing
sectoral adjudication. Their success, however, is contingent on their autonomy from political
and institutional interference.

Body

Role of quasi-judicial bodies in regulatory governance

1. Specialized dispute resolution: They deliver expert rulings in technical domains,

easing burden on regular courts.
 Eg: SEBI resolves insider trading cases under the SEBI Act, 1992, ensuring
fast-track market regulation.
2. Ensuring compliance: They enforce statutory rules and impose penalties,
strengthening regulatory discipline.
 Eg: NGT imposed fines on Delhi govt. for waste management failure in 2023
under the NGT Act, 2010.

45
 3. Fair market regulation: They prevent anti-competitive practices and promote
consumer welfare in liberalized sectors.
 Eg: CCI fined Google ₹1,337 crore (2022) for abusing dominance in the
Android ecosystem.
4. Enhancing transparency: They uphold public accountability and ensure
enforcement of rights.
 Eg: CIC directed disclosure of PM-CARES audit files in 2023 using powers
under the RTI Act, 2005.
5. Reducing pendency: They offer an alternative to overburdened courts for faster
grievance redressal.
 Eg: As per Ministry of Law (2023), tribunals resolved over 1.3 lakh cases,
easing trial court pressure.

Measures to enhance structural independence

1. Independent appointments: Ensure selection through judicially-led, bipartisan

committees.
 Eg: Madras Bar Association v. Union of India (2021) mandated balanced
tribunals' appointment panels.
2. Tenure security: Fixed terms and protected removal process uphold institutional
neutrality.
 Eg: 15th Finance Commission flagged frequent tenure changes post Finance
Act, 2017 as weakening autonomy.
3. Financial autonomy: Separate budgets and independent administrative bodies avoid
executive overreach.
 Eg: Law Commission (272nd Report) proposed a National Tribunals
Commission for independent oversight.
4. Administrative decoupling: Removing control of parent ministries ensures impartial
adjudication.
 Eg: CIC’s control by DoPT was criticized in the Parliamentary Standing
Committee Report (2022).
5. Clear appellate hierarchy: Judicial oversight without interference ensures
constitutional harmony.
 Eg: NGT orders are appealable directly to the Supreme Court, ensuring
judicial consistency with independence.

Conclusion

Empowering quasi-judicial bodies with true independence is not a luxury but a necessity for
modern democratic governance. India must institutionalize reforms that insulate them from
executive influence while reinforcing public trust.

46
Development processes and the development industry —the role
of NGOs, SHGs, various groups and associations, donors,
charities, institutional and other stakeholders.
Q. The absence of a lobbying law in India has created opacity in policy influence.
Examine the need for a regulatory framework to ensure transparency and
accountability. How can such a framework distinguish legitimate advocacy from
undue influence? (15 M)

Introduction

In India, the absence of a dedicated lobbying law has led to opaque policy influence, raising
concerns about corruption, conflict of interest, and unethical practices. Establishing a
robust framework is vital to distinguish legitimate advocacy from undue influence in
policymaking.

Body

Need for a regulatory framework for lobbying

1. Transparency in policymaking: Without clear guidelines, policymakers may face

unaccounted external pressures, reducing transparency.
o Eg: The Radia Tapes Scandal (2010) exposed corporate lobbying
influencing ministerial appointments.
2. Prevention of unethical practices: Absence of a legal framework encourages quid-
pro-quo, nepotism, and policy manipulation.
o Eg: Allegations of corporate lobbying in the Coal Allocation Scam (2012).
3. Public trust and democratic integrity: Unregulated lobbying may create
perceptions of elite capture, weakening citizens’ faith in governance.
o Eg: Influence of powerful pharmaceutical companies on drug pricing
policies.
4. Accountability of interest groups: Clear guidelines would compel corporate entities
and other stakeholders to maintain ethical conduct.
o Eg: The US Lobbying Disclosure Act (1995) requires lobbyists to disclose
financial details.
5. Economic and industrial growth: Facilitating legitimate lobbying can ensure that
sectoral concerns are effectively conveyed to policymakers.
o Eg: The role of the NASSCOM in shaping India’s IT policy framework.

Key features of a robust regulatory framework

1. Mandatory registration of lobbyists: Ensures transparency by requiring lobbyists to

disclose their affiliations, clients, and objectives.

47
 o Eg: The UK Register of Consultant Lobbyists (2014) mandates detailed
disclosures.
2. Clear definition of lobbying activities: Clearly distinguishing between lobbying,
advocacy, and consultancy will prevent misuse.
o Eg: The Canadian Lobbying Act (1989) defines lobbying as direct
communication with public officials for influence.
3. Code of conduct for lobbyists: Establishes ethical norms to prevent
misinformation, bribery, and conflict of interest.
o Eg: The OECD Principles for Transparency and Integrity in Lobbying
(2010) outlines best practices.
4. Independent regulatory authority: Establishing a statutory body to monitor
lobbying activities can ensure compliance.
o Eg: The US Office of Congressional Ethics monitors lobbyist violations.
5. Periodic disclosure of expenditure: Mandating periodic financial disclosures by
lobbyists would improve financial transparency.
o Eg: In the EU Transparency Register, lobbyists must declare their budgets
annually.

Distinguishing legitimate advocacy from undue influence

1. Transparency in stakeholder meetings: Mandating the publication of meeting

records between policymakers and lobbyists.
o Eg: The UK Transparency of Lobbying Act (2014) requires ministers to
disclose such interactions.
2. Prohibition of covert financing: Prevents lobbyists from offering financial benefits
or gifts to influence policy.
o Eg: In the USA, gifts above $50 from lobbyists to legislators are banned.
3. Rotating door policy restrictions: Imposing a cooling-off period before former
government officials can become lobbyists.
o Eg: In Canada, ministers must wait 5 years before lobbying.
4. Enhanced role of media & civil society: Empowering watchdogs to track lobbying
practices and ensure public scrutiny.
o Eg: The Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) actively highlights
electoral funding patterns.
5. Public participation mechanisms: Mandating public consultations before significant
policy decisions to counteract undue lobbying.
o Eg: The Pre-Legislative Consultation Policy (2014) in India requires public
consultation on major bills.

Conclusion

A well-regulated lobbying framework can uphold transparency, ethical conduct, and

accountability while protecting the legitimate role of interest groups in democracy. By

48
adopting best practices from global models and ensuring rigorous oversight, India can strike a
balance between fostering healthy advocacy and deterring undue influence.

Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the

Centre and States and the performance of these schemes;
mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the
protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections.
Q. The design of welfare schemes often fails to address intersectional
vulnerabilities, undermining their intended impact. Discuss. Also, suggest
strategies to ensure holistic inclusion. (10 M)

Introduction
Welfare schemes often overlook intersectional vulnerabilities, where individuals face
discrimination based on overlapping identities such as gender, caste, disability, and socio-
economic status, limiting their intended impact.

Body

Reasons why welfare schemes fail to address intersectional vulnerabilities

1. One-size-fits-all approach: Schemes often lack customization for diverse social

groups, failing to cater to specific intersectional needs.
o Eg: PMAY often overlooks disabled-friendly housing despite targeting
economically weaker sections.
2. Inadequate disaggregated data: Lack of comprehensive data on marginalized sub-
groups prevents targeted interventions.
o Eg: NITI Aayog report (2023) highlighted data gaps in tracking welfare
impact on transgender persons.
3. Weak implementation mechanisms: Bureaucratic bottlenecks and insensitivity
towards intersectional challenges reduce scheme effectiveness.
o Eg: The Maternity Benefit Act, 2017 inadequately supports informal sector
women.
4. Socio-cultural biases: Deep-rooted prejudices in local administration often
marginalize certain groups.
o Eg: SC/ST women face compounded discrimination in accessing MGNREGA
benefits.
5. Limited community engagement: Welfare design often excludes vulnerable groups
from policy formulation.
o Eg: Disabled persons’ groups were largely excluded during the Accessible
India Campaign design phase.

Strategies to ensure holistic inclusion

49
 1. Targeted policy design: Develop schemes that account for multiple layers of
vulnerability.
o Eg: The Jal Jeevan Mission includes separate provisions for SC/ST and
marginalized hamlets.
2. Improved data collection and analysis: Implement disaggregated data frameworks
for evidence-based policymaking.
o Eg: The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) now collects data on
gender, caste, and disability for better insights.
3. Capacity building for local administrators: Training officials to recognize and
address intersectional concerns.
o Eg: The Poshan Abhiyaan trains Anganwadi workers to handle malnutrition
in marginalized groups.
4. Enhanced social audits and monitoring: Establish participatory audits involving
vulnerable communities.
o Eg: MGNREGA social audits in Andhra Pradesh ensured better inclusion of
Dalit women.
5. Inclusion of marginalized voices in policy-making: Empower vulnerable groups
through stakeholder consultations.
o Eg: The National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (2022) was drafted
with active consultation from disability rights organizations.

Conclusion

Ensuring inclusive welfare design requires a shift from uniform frameworks to context-
sensitive approaches that actively address intersectional vulnerabilities. This will foster
equitable growth and enhance the true impact of welfare initiatives.

Q. Rehabilitating women survivors of violence demands integrated welfare

measures that go beyond financial assistance. Examine India's approach and
propose comprehensive reforms. (15 M)

Introduction

Women survivors of violence face multi-dimensional challenges that require a holistic

rehabilitation framework integrating social, psychological, medical, and legal support
beyond financial aid.

Body

Why rehabilitation must go beyond financial assistance

1. Psychological trauma and post-violence distress: Survivors often experience

PTSD, anxiety, and depression, which require long-term counselling.
o Eg: The Manodhairya Scheme (Maharashtra) provides trauma
counselling and emotional support to rape survivors.
50
 2. Social isolation and stigma: Survivors often face social rejection, limiting
reintegration despite financial aid.
o Eg: The Garima Greh Scheme for transgender individuals extends support
for survivors of violence, ensuring social reintegration.
3. Employment vulnerability and financial independence: Survivors may lose
livelihoods, necessitating skill-building rather than one-time monetary relief.
o Eg: The Mahalir Thittam Scheme (Tamil Nadu) trains survivors in
tailoring, handicrafts, and entrepreneurship.
4. Educational disruption: Violence against girls often results in dropouts, restricting
future economic stability.
o Eg: The Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana offers financial incentives for
education to vulnerable girls.
5. Legal intimidation and procedural hurdles: Prolonged litigation often dissuades
survivors from pursuing justice.
o Eg: The Fast Track Special Courts (FTSCs) under the Criminal Law
(Amendment) Act, 2019 provide swift trial for POCSO and rape cases.

India's current approach

1. One Stop Centres (OSCs): Provides integrated medical, legal, and counselling
support for women survivors.
o Eg: As of 2023, over 1,000 OSCs are operational, supporting 3 lakh
survivors nationwide.
2. Nirbhaya Fund: Supports infrastructure like fast-track courts, OSCs, and women
helplines to enhance post-violence response.
o Eg: Delhi's 'SHE-Box' portal allows for online complaints of workplace
harassment.
3. Sakhi Helpline (181): Provides 24x7 emergency support to survivors by linking
them with counseling, medical aid, and legal services.
o Eg: In Rajasthan, the Sakhi helpline reported assisting over 20,000 survivors
in 2023.
4. Compensation Framework: The Compensation Scheme for Women Survivors of
Sexual Assault (2018) ensures timely monetary aid.
o Eg: In Bihar, district-level nodal officers ensure prompt release of
compensation to survivors.
5. Anti-Human Trafficking Units (AHTUs): Specialized units for victim rescue,
medical care, and vocational support.
o Eg: Over 300 AHTUs have been set up in vulnerable districts as of 2023.

Comprehensive reforms for improved rehabilitation

1. Specialized trauma recovery centers: Establish dedicated trauma centers in

hospitals to provide immediate psychiatric intervention.

51
 o Eg: Kerala’s ‘Mitra 181’ helpline integrates psychiatric intervention for
domestic violence survivors.
2. Targeted financial incentives for skill development: Introduce customized skill-
building programs to foster long-term economic empowerment.
o Eg: The 'Roshni' Skill Development Scheme targets tribal women in
violence-prone regions.
3. Community-driven rehabilitation models: Involve local NGOs and panchayats to
reduce stigma and ensure social reintegration.
o Eg: West Bengal's ‘Shakti Sadan’ homes use community volunteers for
psychological support and social inclusion.
4. Safe housing infrastructure expansion: Develop secure transitional housing with
multi-agency collaboration to ensure survivor protection.
o Eg: The Asha Kiran Homes (Delhi) provide both housing and skill-building
programs for long-term stability.
5. Education continuity frameworks: Implement dedicated 'return to school' policies
for young survivors to ensure educational recovery.
o Eg: The Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) ensures school re-enrollment for
girls who dropped out due to violence.

Conclusion

While India's framework addresses financial relief, integrated measures focusing on mental
health, vocational support, and social reintegration are crucial for sustainable
rehabilitation. A community-centric, multi-agency approach can foster resilience and
empower survivors to rebuild their lives with dignity.

Issues relating to development and management of Social

Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.

Q. The triple burden of diseases in India requires a differentiated surveillance

strategy. How well does India's disease surveillance system cater to this unique
burden? (10 M)

Introduction

India’s disease burden is shaped by emerging infections, persistent endemic diseases, and
rising non-communicable diseases (NCDs). A robust surveillance strategy is essential to
address this complex landscape, ensuring early detection and effective response.

Body

Triple burden of diseases in India requires a differentiated surveillance strategy

52
 1. Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) require rapid detection – Outbreaks like
COVID-19, Nipah, and Zika demand real-time surveillance for early containment.
o Eg: COVID-19 pandemic led to the enhancement of Integrated Health
Information Platform (IHIP) for real-time tracking.
2. Endemic diseases persist due to socio-environmental factors – Vector-borne
diseases like malaria and dengue remain major public health threats, requiring
sustained monitoring.
o Eg: National Framework for Malaria Elimination (NFME) 2016-2030
targets malaria eradication by 2030.
3. Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) need long-term tracking – Rising diabetes,
hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases necessitate continuous surveillance for
policy planning.
o Eg: National NCD Monitoring Survey (NNMS) 2020 provides crucial data
for intervention strategies.
4. Zoonotic and neglected diseases demand specialized tracking – Diseases like
Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) and Leptospirosis require enhanced collaboration
between human and veterinary health sectors.
o Eg: One Health Approach, adopted by WHO and India’s Ministry of
Health, aims at integrated disease surveillance across species.

How well does India's disease surveillance system cater to this unique burden?

1. Digital real-time surveillance strengthens early detection – Platforms like IHIP

and IDSP enable real-time data tracking and quicker response.
o Eg: IHIP (2021) upgraded surveillance with GIS mapping and geotagging to
track outbreaks precisely.
2. State and district-level monitoring units improve coordination – Disease
surveillance units exist at district, state, and national levels, ensuring decentralized
response.
o Eg: State Surveillance Units (SSU) under IDSP ensure local outbreak
response, aiding central coordination.
3. Multi-sectoral collaboration enhances data sharing – Coordination between
health, environment, and animal husbandry departments improves integrated
surveillance.
o Eg: National Rabies Control Programme (NRCP) uses collaboration
between ICMR, veterinary agencies, and health departments.
4. Integration of sentinel surveillance for focused monitoring – Sentinel sites track
specific diseases with detailed laboratory investigations, filling gaps in routine
surveillance.
o Eg: Sentinel sites for H1N1 Influenza in India provide early warning on
seasonal flu trends.

Challenges in India's disease surveillance system

53
 1. Limited private sector participation in reporting – Private hospitals and clinics are
often reluctant to report disease data due to data confidentiality issues and weak
enforcement.
o Eg: National Digital Health Mission (NDHM) aims to improve data
integration from private healthcare providers.
2. Underreporting and weak diagnostic capacity – Many rural areas lack laboratory
infrastructure, leading to delayed disease confirmation and response.
o Eg: ICMR’s expansion of Viral Research and Diagnostic Laboratories
(VRDLs) aims to strengthen rural disease surveillance.
3. Insufficient workforce and training gaps – Shortage of trained epidemiologists
and surveillance officers hampers data collection and analysis.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s 2019 report highlights the need for 1,500 additional
epidemiologists for effective surveillance.
4. Slow adaptation to climate-linked disease patterns – Climate change is altering
disease trends, but surveillance systems remain slow to adapt to shifting disease
hotspots.
o Eg: ICMR study (2023) identified malaria resurgence in non-endemic
Himalayan states due to rising temperatures.

Conclusion

A robust, technology-driven, and multi-sectoral surveillance system is key to tackling

India’s evolving disease burden. Strengthening real-time data integration, private sector
participation, and climate-adaptive surveillance will ensure better preparedness against
future health threats.

Q. Artificial intelligence (AI) is not a threat to education but an impetus for its
evolution. Examine the role of AI in personalizing education and its impact on
traditional teaching methods. (10 M)
Introduction
AI has the potential to revolutionize education by personalizing learning experiences and
modernizing traditional teaching methods. However, its integration must be balanced
with ethical safeguards to ensure accessibility, inclusivity, and academic integrity.

Body

Role of AI in personalizing education

1. Adaptive learning systems – AI-driven platforms like Khan Academy's Khanmigo

tailor learning pathways based on student performance.
o Eg: Coursera and edX use AI to suggest personalized course
recommendations.
2. Real-time feedback and assessments – AI analyzes student responses to provide
instant feedback, improving retention and understanding.

54
 o Eg: Carnegie Learning’s MATHia provides AI-based real-time problem-
solving assistance.
3. Catering to diverse learning needs – AI tools offer customized content for
differently-abled students (text-to-speech, visual aids).
o Eg: Microsoft's Seeing AI assists visually impaired students with real-time
text recognition.
4. Bridging language barriers – AI-powered translation tools facilitate multilingual
education and inclusive learning.
o Eg: Google’s Bolo App (now Read Along) helps children improve reading
skills in regional languages.
5. AI-powered tutors and chatbots – These provide 24/7 assistance, supplementing
traditional teacher support.
o Eg: Duolingo’s AI tutor adapts to user mistakes and modifies difficulty
levels.

Impact of AI on traditional teaching methods

1. Shift from rote learning to conceptual clarity – AI promotes interactive and

inquiry-based learning, reducing dependence on memorization.
o Eg: India’s NEP 2020 emphasizes AI-based assessment methods to replace
rote learning.
2. Reduction in administrative workload – AI automates attendance, grading, and
scheduling, allowing teachers to focus on pedagogy.
o Eg: U.S. Department of Education (2023) report highlights AI’s role in
reducing administrative burden.
3. Enhanced student engagement – AI-driven gamification and virtual reality tools
make learning immersive.
o Eg: Byju’s AI-based adaptive learning system enhances student
engagement.
4. Data-driven curriculum improvements – AI analyzes student performance data
to recommend curriculum modifications.
o Eg: IndiaAI Mission (2023) focuses on using AI analytics to enhance
education policy.
5. Challenges of dependency and misinformation – AI-generated content may erode
critical thinking and lead to misinformation.
o Eg: Dr. Benny Johnson (2024) warns about over-reliance on AI tools like
ChatGPT without expert validation.

Conclusion

AI in education is a transformational force, not a threat, provided it is used as an assistive

tool rather than a replacement for teachers. A balanced approach integrating AI with
human pedagogical expertise is key to ensuring an inclusive, adaptive, and future-ready
education system.

55
Q. In a society where menstruation is still stigmatized, how can India balance
cultural sensitivities with the need for progressive menstrual health policies? (10
M)

Introduction

Menstruation is often associated with deep-rooted cultural taboos in India, leading to

exclusion, misinformation, and poor health outcomes. While progressive policies are
emerging, aligning them with cultural sensitivities is crucial to ensure effective
implementation.

Body

Challenges in a society where menstruation is stigmatized

1. Social exclusion and taboos: Women face restrictions in temples, kitchens, and
social activities, reinforcing discrimination.
o Eg: The Sabarimala verdict (2018, Supreme Court) struck down the temple
entry ban on women but faced strong opposition due to cultural beliefs.
2. Lack of awareness and misinformation: Menstruation is not openly discussed,
leading to myths and health neglect.
o Eg: A 2022 NHFS report found that only 58% of young girls in rural India
knew about menstruation before their first period.
3. Inadequate infrastructure and affordability: Many lack access to toilets, hygiene
products, and disposal mechanisms.
o Eg: The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (2014) improved sanitation, but menstrual
waste disposal remains a challenge.
4. Economic burden on underprivileged women: High cost of hygiene products forces
many to use unsafe alternatives.
o Eg: The Rajasthan Free Sanitary Pad Scheme (2022) distributes free pads
to reduce menstrual poverty.
5. Limited representation in policy-making: Menstrual health is not a political
priority, delaying comprehensive reforms.
o Eg: The Menstrual Hygiene Policy (Draft 2022) is yet to be fully
implemented nationwide.

Balancing cultural sensitivities with progressive policies

1. Education and awareness for behavioural change

1. School-based menstrual education: Integrating menstruation awareness in NCERT

and state curricula can normalize discussions.
o Eg: The Menstrual Hygiene Management Guidelines (2015, MoHFW)
recommend menstrual education from primary school level.

56
 2. Community engagement with local influencers: Training anganwadi workers,
teachers, and religious leaders can improve acceptance.
o Eg: Menstrual Health Alliance India (2020) works with grassroots
organizations for awareness.
3. Leveraging media and social campaigns: Public figures and mass media can
challenge stigma through positive messaging.
o Eg: The "Break the Silence" campaign (2021, UNICEF India) used digital
platforms for awareness.

2. Strengthening menstrual health infrastructure

1. Ensuring WASH (Water, Sanitation & Hygiene) facilities: More gender-friendly

toilets with disposal facilities in schools and workplaces.
o Eg: Jal Jeevan Mission (2019) aims to provide tap water in rural schools and
anganwadis.
2. Affordable and accessible menstrual products: Government subsidies and GST
exemptions on all menstrual products can improve access.
o Eg: The removal of 12% GST on sanitary pads (2018) made them more
affordable.
3. Sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives: Promoting biodegradable pads and
menstrual cups respects both environmental and cultural concerns.
o Eg: The Sakhi Sanitary Napkin initiative (Odisha, 2021) promotes local
production of biodegradable pads.

3. Legislative and policy reforms

1. Legal recognition of menstrual rights: Menstrual health should be included under

Right to Health (Article 21) and covered in labor laws.
o Eg: The Menstruation Benefits Bill (2018, Private Member’s Bill)
proposed paid menstrual leave but lacked government support.
2. Corporate responsibility in menstrual inclusion: Companies should provide paid
menstrual leave and workplace hygiene support.
o Eg: Zomato introduced menstrual leave (2020), setting an example for
private sector policies.
3. Menstrual waste management policies: Enforcing EPR (Extended Producer
Responsibility) norms on sanitary product manufacturers can help waste reduction.
o Eg: The Plastic Waste Management Rules (2021) mandate disposal
guidelines for menstrual products.

Conclusion

Menstrual health must be seen as a human rights and public health issue rather than a
taboo. A multi-pronged approach combining education, infrastructure, and legal

57
reforms can ensure dignity and equity, making menstruation an accepted and supported
aspect of women's health

Q. Assess the implications of ‘platformization’ in India’s digital education

ecosystem. What steps are necessary to ensure equitable learning outcomes in
this context? (15 M)
Introduction
Platformization refers to the increasing reliance on digital platforms for delivering
educational content, services, and interactions. In India's digital education ecosystem, this
shift has enabled scalable, technology-driven learning models but also presents challenges in
ensuring equitable access and outcomes.

Body

Implications of platformization in India’s digital education ecosystem

Positive implications:

1. Wider reach and inclusivity: Online platforms like DIKSHA and SWAYAM have
expanded access to quality educational content across remote areas.
o Eg: The DIKSHA platform facilitated uninterrupted learning for 36 crore
students during the COVID-19 lockdown.
2. Personalized learning experience: AI-driven platforms offer adaptive learning
models tailored to individual learning paces.
o Eg: Platforms like BYJU'S and Toppr provide customized modules based on
student performance.
3. Cost-effective learning tools: Digital resources significantly reduce costs for
textbooks, tutorials, and supplementary materials.
o Eg: e-Pathshala by NCERT offers free multimedia content for students.
4. Enhanced teacher training: Digital platforms empower educators with continuous
professional development programs.
o Eg: The NISHTHA portal trains teachers under the Samagra Shiksha
initiative.
5. Global learning exposure: Integration with international learning platforms enables
cross-cultural learning.
o Eg: Coursera's partnerships with Indian universities promote exposure to
global academic standards.

Negative implications:

1. Digital divide: Uneven internet connectivity and lack of devices hinder access,
especially in rural areas.
o Eg: The ASER 2022 Report highlighted that only 43% of rural children had
access to online learning during COVID-19.

58
 2. Language and content barriers: Predominance of English-centric content limits
accessibility for non-English speakers.
o Eg: Limited regional language support in key platforms like Coursera and
edX.
3. Privacy and data concerns: Unregulated data collection exposes students to privacy
risks.
o Eg: Cases of data breaches in EdTech platforms like WhiteHat Jr have raised
concerns.
4. Excessive commercialization: The aggressive marketing tactics of some platforms
exploit vulnerable parents.
o Eg: BYJU'S faced criticism for coercive marketing tactics in 2022.
5. Learning fatigue and disengagement: Over-reliance on digital tools can reduce
student engagement and critical thinking.
o Eg: Studies by NIMHANS indicated rising instances of screen addiction
among students.

Steps to ensure equitable learning outcomes

1. Strengthening digital infrastructure: Prioritize rural broadband expansion under

initiatives like BharatNet.
o Eg: The PM-WANI scheme aims to provide free Wi-Fi hotspots in
underserved areas.
2. Localized content development: Develop multilingual content with culturally
relevant material to improve engagement.
o Eg: The DIKSHA app offers content in 33 Indian languages.
3. Inclusive device distribution programs: Ensure affordable device access under
schemes like PM e-Vidya.
o Eg: The Tamil Nadu Smart Classrooms Project distributed 3 lakh tablets to
students in 2023.
4. Data protection framework: Introduce regulatory frameworks ensuring safe and
ethical use of student data.
o Eg: The Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023 aims to protect
children's data on digital platforms.
5. Teacher capacity building: Develop training modules to help teachers adopt digital
tools effectively.
o Eg: The NEP 2020 emphasizes digital pedagogy training for educators.

Conclusion
While platformization holds immense potential to democratize education, ensuring digital
equity, content diversity, and data protection is crucial. Proactive reforms can transform
India's digital education landscape into an inclusive and empowering force.

59
Q. How effective have community-based health interventions been in improving
rural healthcare outcomes? (10 M)

Introduction

Community-based health interventions have emerged as crucial tools for improving

healthcare accessibility in rural India by leveraging local participation, resource optimization,
and culturally sensitive approaches. Their success, however, depends heavily on effective
implementation and scalability strategies.

Body

Effectiveness of community-based health interventions

1. Improved maternal and child health outcomes: Empowering Accredited Social

Health Activists (ASHA) workers has improved maternal care, immunization rates,
and institutional deliveries.
o Eg: The Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) increased institutional deliveries
from 40% (2005) to 79% (2020) (NFHS-5).
2. Enhanced disease surveillance and early detection: Training community volunteers
has improved early diagnosis and intervention for communicable diseases.
o Eg: The Malaria Elimination Program in Odisha achieved a 90% reduction
in cases in tribal regions through volunteer-led awareness drives.
3. Promotion of preventive healthcare: Community programs focused on hygiene,
sanitation, and vaccination have successfully reduced disease outbreaks.
o Eg: The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan integrated community engagement,
reducing open defecation to less than 1% in 2023 (UNICEF Report).
4. Mental health support in remote areas: Community-based mental health
interventions have improved outreach in underserved regions.
o Eg: The Atmiyata Project in Gujarat addressed mental health concerns for
over 50,000 villagers through community volunteers.
5. Improved nutritional security: Community-led initiatives have improved dietary
practices and nutritional awareness.
o Eg: The Poshan Abhiyaan in Rajasthan used local volunteers to improve
nutrition outcomes for 2 lakh families in marginalized communities.

Challenges faced by community-based health interventions

1. Limited training and knowledge gaps: Many volunteers lack medical expertise,
compromising healthcare quality.
o Eg: ASHA workers often struggle with complex cases due to limited medical
knowledge (Lancet Report 2022).
2. Inadequate funding and resource constraints: Financial bottlenecks often hinder
expansion and capacity-building efforts.

60
 o Eg: The Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centers faced operational
challenges in scaling community outreach due to budget constraints.
3. Social stigma and cultural barriers: Certain healthcare interventions face resistance
due to entrenched beliefs.
o Eg: Resistance to vaccination in parts of Uttar Pradesh during the Pulse Polio
Campaign delayed immunization goals.
4. Lack of coordination with formal healthcare systems: Poor integration with
primary healthcare centers reduces efficiency.
o Eg: The TB Mukt Bharat Campaign faced delays in rural follow-ups due to
weak coordination with local PHCs.
5. Volunteer fatigue and high dropout rates: Overburdened community workers often
disengage due to inadequate incentives.
o Eg: A 2021 study by the Indian Journal of Public Health found 28%
dropout rates among ASHA workers in rural regions.

Conclusion

While community-based health interventions have significantly improved rural healthcare

outcomes, addressing gaps in training, incentives, and integration is essential to ensuring their
scalability. Leveraging technology and aligning efforts with national healthcare frameworks
will be pivotal in maximizing their long-term impact.

Q. The Anganwadi system has played a crucial role in improving maternal and
child health outcomes in India. Assess its impact while identifying major gaps in
service delivery. Suggest reforms to enhance its effectiveness. (15 M)

Introduction
The Anganwadi system, launched under the Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) in 1975, has been instrumental in delivering nutrition, healthcare, and early
childhood education services, significantly improving maternal and child welfare.

Body

Impact of the Anganwadi system

1. Improved nutrition outcomes: Reduced child malnutrition, wasting, and stunting

through supplementary nutrition programs.
o Eg: POSHAN Abhiyaan (2018) improved nutrition indicators by integrating
technology in Anganwadi services.
2. Maternal health enhancement: Provides antenatal care, iron supplements, and
health awareness for pregnant and lactating mothers.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s ‘Amma Baby Care Kit’ enhances maternal and neonatal
care.

61
 3. Early childhood education: Offers pre-school education promoting cognitive and
social development.
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh's Bala Vikasa Kendrams integrate play-based learning.
4. Community empowerment: Anganwadi workers act as grassroots mobilizers,
connecting families to government schemes.
o Eg: Gujarat’s Khushali Sehat initiative improves maternal healthcare through
Anganwadi engagement.
5. Health monitoring: Regular growth monitoring and immunization support reduce
infant mortality rates.
o Eg: The eSwasthya App in Rajasthan aids digital tracking of child
development.

Major gaps in service delivery

1. Infrastructure deficiencies: Lack of proper buildings, toilets, and drinking water

facilities.
o Eg: The NFHS-5 (2019-21) reported poor infrastructure in 35% of
Anganwadi centers.
2. Inadequate training: Limited knowledge of nutrition practices, childcare, and
health interventions among workers.
o Eg: The 2018 NITI Aayog Report highlighted gaps in Anganwadi worker
training.
3. Resource constraints: Shortage of nutritional supplements, learning material, and
medical equipment.
o Eg: ICDS Rapid Survey on Children (2021) revealed delays in supply
chains.
4. Poor monitoring mechanisms: Weak data collection, reporting systems, and
impact assessment.
o Eg: The Parivar Pehchan Patra scheme in Haryana addresses such gaps
through digital tracking.
5. Low community participation: Limited awareness reduces parental involvement in
Anganwadi programs.
o Eg: The Jan Andolan Strategy under POSHAN Abhiyaan aims to enhance
engagement.

Reforms to enhance effectiveness

1. Infrastructure improvement: Ensure all-weather buildings, proper hygiene

facilities, and child-friendly spaces.
o Eg: Kerala’s Model Anganwadi Centres provide enhanced infrastructure.
2. Skill enhancement for workers: Implement regular training programs on
nutrition, childcare, and communication.
o Eg: The POSHAN Tracker application offers digital training modules.

62
 3. Strengthening monitoring: Introduce real-time data systems for improved tracking
of nutritional outcomes.
o Eg: The ICDS-CAS platform monitors Anganwadi performance digitally.
4. Community engagement initiatives: Launch awareness drives and involve SHGs,
Panchayati Raj institutions, and local NGOs.
o Eg: The SNEHA Shivirs in Rajasthan improved participation in Anganwadi
programs.
5. Nutritional diversification: Promote region-specific diets, locally sourced foods,
and traditional recipes for better outcomes.
o Eg: The Eat Right India Campaign (2020) promotes culturally appropriate
nutrition practices.

Conclusion
Strengthening Anganwadi centers through robust infrastructure, capacity-building, and
community involvement can ensure sustainable improvements in maternal and child health
outcomes, aligning with SDG 2 and SDG 3 targets.

Issues relating to poverty and hunger.

Q. The challenge of ‘hidden hunger’ in India calls for a nutrition-sensitive
approach to policy. Examine the gaps in India's existing nutrition framework.
Suggest comprehensive reforms. (10 M)

Introduction
Hidden hunger refers to a form of malnutrition caused by deficiencies in micronutrients
such as iron, zinc, and vitamins. Despite India’s progress in food security, micronutrient
deficiency continues to affect vulnerable populations.

Body

The challenge of ‘hidden hunger’ in India

1. Micronutrient deficiencies: High prevalence of iron, iodine, and vitamin A

deficiencies impacts cognitive and physical development.
o Eg: The NFHS-5 (2019-21) reveals that 67% of children suffer from anemia.
2. Poor dietary diversity: Over-reliance on calorie-dense but nutrient-poor foods
aggravates micronutrient deficiencies.
o Eg: The Global Hunger Index 2023 ranks India 111th out of 125 nations,
highlighting nutrition gaps.
3. Socio-economic disparities: Marginalized groups, especially tribal and rural
populations, face greater risk due to poor access to diverse diets.
o Eg: The NFHS-5 indicates that anemia prevalence is 68% among tribal
children.
4. Gender-linked nutritional inequality: Women and adolescent girls often suffer
disproportionately due to cultural biases and inadequate maternal care.

63
 o Eg: The POSHAN Abhiyaan identified women’s nutrition as a key
intervention area.

Gaps in India’s existing nutrition framework

1. Lack of micronutrient fortification: Inadequate fortification of essential foods like

rice, salt, and oil limits nutrient availability.
o Eg: The Fortification of Rice Scheme (2021) is yet to achieve full coverage.
2. Fragmented implementation: Multiple schemes like ICDS, Mid-Day Meal, and
POSHAN Abhiyaan often lack convergence.
o Eg: A NITI Aayog (2022) report highlighted poor coordination in nutrition
initiatives.
3. Inadequate monitoring systems: Weak tracking mechanisms limit effective
identification of nutrient deficiencies.
o Eg: The Comprehensive National Nutrition Survey (CNNS) data gaps
hinder targeted interventions.
4. Limited behavioural change campaigns: Poor awareness on balanced diets reduces
participation in nutrition schemes.
o Eg: The Eat Right India Movement requires deeper community engagement.

Comprehensive reforms to address hidden hunger

1. Widespread food fortification: Expand the Fortification of Staples Scheme to

cover more regions and ensure rigorous quality control.
o Eg: The FSSAI’s fortification standards for rice, wheat, and edible oils
should be uniformly enforced.
2. Convergence of schemes: Integrate programs like ICDS, Mid-Day Meal, and
POSHAN Abhiyaan through unified data platforms.
o Eg: The Poshan Tracker launched in 2021 aims to improve real-time
monitoring.
3. Diversifying public food distribution: Include nutrient-rich foods like millets,
pulses, and green vegetables in welfare schemes.
o Eg: The Millet Mission 2023 aims to promote millet consumption in PDS.
4. Targeted awareness campaigns: Launch intensive awareness programs to improve
diet diversity and promote biofortified crops.
o Eg: The Biofortified Wheat Variety (WB02) enriched with zinc was
promoted in 2023.

Conclusion
Addressing hidden hunger demands a robust combination of food fortification, convergent
policy frameworks, and community engagement. A proactive and evidence-driven
approach is key to achieving sustainable nutritional outcomes in India.

64
Important aspects of governance, transparency and
accountability, e-governance- applications, models, successes,
limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency &
accountability and institutional and other measures.
Q. The rising role of data-driven governance has improved public service
delivery. Assess the risks of data manipulation and privacy violations. (10 M)

Introduction
Data-driven governance has revolutionized public service delivery by enabling targeted
interventions, real-time monitoring, and evidence-based policymaking, significantly
improving efficiency and accountability.

Body

Role of data-driven governance in improving public service delivery

1. Targeted welfare schemes: Data analytics enables precise identification of

beneficiaries, reducing leakages.
o Eg: The Aadhaar-enabled PDS system in Telangana reduced ration leakages
significantly.
2. Predictive governance: Data insights predict social trends, helping proactive
intervention.
o Eg: The Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) helped predict
COVID-19 hotspots.
3. Improved grievance redressal: Data-driven dashboards streamline citizen
complaints and ensure swift resolution.
o Eg: The ICMS portal in Uttar Pradesh achieved faster complaint resolution
rates.
4. Enhanced infrastructure planning: Data integration supports optimized resource
allocation.
o Eg: The Smart Cities Mission leverages data analytics for efficient urban
planning.

Risks of data manipulation

1. Political manipulation: Data can be distorted for political gains, undermining public
trust.
o Eg: Allegations of voter data manipulation during the 2019 Lok Sabha
elections raised concerns.
2. Algorithmic bias: Incorrect data training may reinforce discrimination and
inequality.
o Eg: Facial recognition systems in India reported higher error rates for
marginalized groups.

65
 3. Fabricated data in welfare schemes: Fake entries or inflated data may exploit
government benefits.
o Eg: The Ayushman Bharat Scheme faced cases of false beneficiaries being
added.
4. Misleading public narratives: Selective data presentation can distort facts to sway
public opinion.
o Eg: Manipulated data on unemployment figures raised controversies in 2020.

Risks of privacy violations

1. Data breaches: Poor encryption and security protocols may expose sensitive data.
o Eg: The Aadhaar data breach (2018) exposed millions of citizens' details.
2. Surveillance overreach: Excessive data collection may infringe on personal privacy.
o Eg: Concerns were raised regarding the Aarogya Setu app collecting
excessive data.
3. Lack of data consent: Absence of clear consent frameworks may violate privacy
rights.
o Eg: The Srikrishna Committee recommended a strong Data Protection
Authority to ensure informed consent.
4. Profiling and discrimination: Unregulated data use may enable profiling based on
caste, religion, or preferences.

Conclusion
To ensure data-driven governance enhances public welfare without compromising privacy,
India must expedite the implementation of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023,
alongside robust accountability mechanisms and improved public awareness.

Q. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) in governance have improved service

delivery but have also raised concerns about corporate influence. Evaluate their
impact on accountability and citizen welfare. (15 M)

Introduction
Public-private partnerships (PPPs) have become an essential tool for improving service
delivery in governance. While they enhance efficiency and innovation, concerns about
corporate influence impacting public welfare and accountability are growing.

Body

Role of PPPs in improving service delivery and concerns about corporate influence

1. Enhanced infrastructure development: PPPs have enabled faster completion of

critical infrastructure projects by leveraging private sector expertise, funding, and
innovation.
o Eg: The Delhi Metro expansion under PPP improved urban mobility while
maintaining efficiency in timelines and quality standards.
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 2. Technology integration for efficient governance: Private sector involvement has
introduced advanced technologies, improving governance outcomes through
automation, data analytics, and smart solutions.
o Eg: The BharatNet Project, implemented with private sector support,
enhanced rural broadband connectivity and improved digital inclusion.
3. Cost efficiency and reduced fiscal burden: PPPs facilitate shared investments,
reducing the direct financial burden on the government while improving project cost
management.
o Eg: The Mumbai Trans Harbour Link (MTHL) adopted the hybrid annuity
model, where the government and private firms shared financial risks
effectively.
4. Concerns of monopolistic practices and profiteering: In some sectors, PPPs have
enabled private monopolies, leading to overpricing, reduced competition, and
compromised public interest.
o Eg: Allegations of price manipulation in the Reliance Jio’s telecom
dominance reflected concerns over corporate influence in essential services.

Impact on accountability and citizen welfare

Positive impacts

1. Enhanced transparency mechanisms: PPPs are often governed by contractual

obligations that mandate financial disclosures, performance reviews, and quality
benchmarks to ensure accountability.
o Eg: The Bengaluru Airport PPP Model included independent audits by
KPMG, ensuring financial accountability and improved service standards.
2. Improved risk management and project delivery: PPPs reduce financial and
operational risks through structured risk-sharing agreements, improving timely project
execution.
o Eg: The Ganga Expressway leveraged a risk-sharing model, ensuring better
financial stability and project completion.
3. Higher quality service delivery: Private sector efficiency often results in better
quality standards, improved maintenance, and enhanced service experience.
o Eg: The Rajasthan Healthcare PPP Model improved maternal healthcare
services, resulting in lower maternal mortality rates.
4. Increased citizen engagement and feedback: PPPs in governance increasingly
emphasize citizen consultations, ensuring that public concerns are addressed during
project planning and execution.
o Eg: The Smart Cities Mission integrated public consultations into project
designs, ensuring locally relevant infrastructure solutions.

Negative impacts

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 1. Erosion of social accountability: In some cases, corporate dominance in PPPs has
marginalized public accountability, favoring profit motives over public interest.
o Eg: Allegations against vendors during the Aadhaar enrolment process
highlighted concerns about weak accountability frameworks.
2. Profit-driven service models excluding marginalized groups: PPP-based services
often adopt revenue-centric models, limiting access to essential services for
vulnerable populations.
o Eg: Rising toll charges on PPP-operated highways have made certain routes
economically unviable for lower-income groups.
3. Weak regulatory oversight: Inadequate monitoring mechanisms allow private firms
to exploit policy gaps, leading to environmental, social, or financial concerns.
o Eg: Environmental violations during the Vedanta Sterlite Plant expansion
highlighted weak regulatory enforcement in PPP projects.
4. Data privacy and security risks: Private agencies involved in public data
management may compromise data security, posing risks to citizens' privacy.
o Eg: Data breach concerns in DigiLocker services managed by private firms
raised alarms about security vulnerabilities.

Way forward

1. Robust regulatory framework: Establishing clear legal provisions with specific

checks to prevent monopolistic practices and unethical profiteering is crucial.
o Eg: Strengthening the Public Procurement Bill, 2012 can improve PPP
contract transparency and ensure accountability.
2. Independent social audits and public monitoring: Conducting third-party
evaluations and enhancing public oversight mechanisms can improve project
accountability.
o Eg: The MGNREGA model of social audits has improved wage transparency
and minimized leakages.
3. Inclusive contract designs: PPP frameworks must incorporate equitable access,
ensuring vulnerable groups are not marginalized in profit-driven models.
o Eg: The Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (ARHCs) model under
PMAY-Urban supports migrant workers through low-cost rental units.
4. Capacity building in public institutions: Enhancing the skills of government
officials in PPP contract negotiation, risk assessment, and financial oversight can
prevent exploitation.
o Eg: The National Capacity Building Framework under the Ministry of
Housing and Urban Affairs focuses on training government officials for urban
governance PPP models.

Conclusion
While PPPs offer immense potential to improve service delivery, their success depends on
ensuring robust regulatory frameworks, strong public oversight, and citizen-centric

68
models that prioritize public welfare over corporate gains. Balancing private efficiency with
public accountability is key to maximizing their benefits.

Q. The success of e-governance initiatives lies not merely in technological

adoption but in aligning with social realities. Examine with examples. (10 M)

Introduction
While technological adoption is vital for e-governance, its success hinges on addressing
socio-economic barriers, ensuring inclusiveness, and enhancing citizen participation for
effective outcomes.

Body

Technological adoption as a key factor for e-governance success

Technological advancements form the backbone of successful e-governance; however, their

impact depends on key enablers:

1. Robust digital infrastructure: Strong internet connectivity and server resilience are
essential for ensuring seamless service delivery.
o Eg: DigiLocker enables secure storage for digital certificates, integrated with
Aadhaar for authentication.
2. Data security and privacy: Ensuring encryption, data masking, and cyber-security
standards builds user trust and enhances adoption.
o Eg: The Data Protection Bill, 2023 mandates strict data processing norms to
safeguard citizens' privacy.
3. Interoperability among platforms: Integration across government departments
reduces delays and improves efficiency.
o Eg: The Integrated Criminal Justice System (ICJS) links police, judiciary,
and forensic databases for faster investigations.
4. AI and automation: Automated systems minimize human intervention, ensuring
faster and error-free processes.
o Eg: AI-based FASTag deployment has streamlined toll collection, reducing
wait times on highways.
5. User-centric interface: A simplified, intuitive design enables citizens from diverse
backgrounds to access services easily.
o Eg: The UMANG app consolidates over 1,400 government services under
one platform to improve accessibility.

Aligning e-governance with social realities for sustained impact

For e-governance to succeed, solutions must address socio-economic disparities and diverse
cultural realities:

69
 1. Bridging the digital divide: Affordable internet, low-cost devices, and public digital
access points ensure marginalized communities benefit.
o Eg: The PM WANI scheme (2020) promotes public Wi-Fi hotspots,
enhancing connectivity in rural and underserved areas.
2. Language and cultural adaptability: Multilingual platforms ensure language
barriers do not restrict citizens from availing services.
o Eg: The Kisan Suvidha App offers weather updates and crop information in
12 Indian languages for better outreach.
3. Addressing literacy barriers: Audio-visual content and graphical designs aid semi-
literate and illiterate populations in accessing services.
o Eg: The e-Vidya platform integrates audio-visual content for rural students,
promoting inclusive learning.
4. Local governance empowerment: Decentralized digital platforms empower
grassroots institutions to cater to community-specific needs.
o Eg: The eGramSwaraj portal strengthens Panchayati Raj Institutions by
digitizing financial planning and monitoring.
5. Accessibility for differently-abled individuals: Digital services must incorporate
screen readers, voice commands, and customized interfaces.
o Eg: The Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan ensures government websites comply
with Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG).

Conclusion
For e-governance to deliver impactful outcomes, integrating technological advancements
with social inclusiveness is crucial. By embracing a citizen-first approach, governments
can bridge inequalities and foster participative governance.

Q. The institutional architecture for ensuring accountability in India faces

challenges of overlap, inertia, and excessive centralization. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction

Despite India's comprehensive accountability framework, systemic challenges like

jurisdictional overlap, bureaucratic inertia, and excessive centralization hinder its
effectiveness, impacting governance outcomes.

Body

Challenges of overlap in accountability institutions

1. Jurisdictional conflict: Agencies like CBI, CVC, and ED often clash over
investigative authority.
o Eg: In the INX Media Case (2019), jurisdictional conflict between CBI and
ED delayed prosecution.

70
 2. Ambiguity in roles: The absence of clear functional boundaries leads to duplication
of efforts.
o Eg: In the 2G Spectrum Case, conflicting reports by CAG and CBI led to
public confusion.
3. Conflict between audit and investigation bodies: Agencies like CAG and PAC
often face overlapping roles in scrutinizing public funds.
o Eg: The Commonwealth Games Scam (2010) witnessed conflicting claims
between CAG and PAC.
4. Parallel vigilance structures: Central and state vigilance bodies often lack
coordination.
o Eg: The Vyapam Scam (Madhya Pradesh) saw conflict between the state
vigilance body and the CBI, delaying prosecution.

Challenges of inertia in accountability institutions

1. Delays in investigations: Lengthy procedures hinder timely justice in corruption

cases.
o Eg: The Coal Block Allocation Scam (2012) saw extensive delays in
prosecution due to slow CBI proceedings.
2. Lack of proactive enforcement: Bureaucratic hesitation in high-profile cases
reduces public trust.
o Eg: The Adarsh Housing Scam (2010) faced delays despite clear evidence
due to procedural inertia.
3. Limited use of technology: Outdated manual processes slow down grievance
redressal.
o Eg: The delayed adoption of e-Office systems in vigilance bodies has
contributed to procedural inefficiencies.
4. Ineffective performance review: Absence of robust evaluation mechanisms limits
institutional efficiency.
o Eg: The Second ARC recommended periodic reviews of agencies like CVC
and CBI, which remain largely unimplemented.

Challenges of excessive centralization

1. Concentration of investigative powers: Excessive reliance on centralized agencies

weakens decentralized accountability.
o Eg: The CBI’s mandatory central government clearance for investigating
officers under Section 6A of DSPE Act restricts its autonomy.
2. Weakening of state-level agencies: Central dominance undermines local
accountability institutions.
o Eg: The Finance Commission's devolution formula has drawn criticism for
reducing state fiscal independence.
3. Central control over appointments: Appointment processes in key accountability
bodies often lack transparency.

71
 o Eg: The CIC Appointment Controversy (2020) exposed political favoritism
in appointing commissioners.
4. Excessive reliance on central policies: Uniform central directives often fail to
account for regional governance needs.
o Eg: The Aadhaar-Linked Welfare Schemes faced criticism for excluding
marginalized groups in remote areas.

Way forward

1. Empowering state institutions: Implement the Punchhi Commission's

recommendations to enhance cooperative federalism.
2. Strengthening autonomy: Grant statutory independence to bodies like CBI, as
suggested in the Vineet Narain Case (1998).
3. Technology integration: Leverage Blockchain and AI-driven analytics for
transparent public record management.
4. Public participation in accountability: Strengthen Social Audit Mechanisms to
enhance local accountability.
o Eg: The MGNREGA Social Audit Framework has shown success in
improving fund utilization.

Conclusion

Addressing the challenges of overlap, inertia, and centralization demands a multi-pronged

strategy emphasizing institutional clarity, digital innovation, and greater autonomy.
Implementing key reforms, as suggested by the Second ARC and Punchhi Commission, is
crucial to ensuring a more effective accountability framework in India.

Role of civil services in a democracy.

Q. The role of civil services in India is evolving beyond traditional administrative
functions. Examine this shift. How can civil servants effectively manage emerging
governance challenges in a rapidly changing socio-political landscape? (15 M)

Introduction

The Indian civil services, once confined to routine administration, have transformed into
dynamic institutions steering socio-economic development, policy innovation, and crisis
management in a rapidly evolving landscape.

Body

Evolving role of civil services beyond traditional functions

1. Policy formulation and think tanks: Civil servants now play a vital role in shaping
public policy, leveraging research, and advising governments.

72
 o Eg: The Aspirational Districts Programme, launched in 2018, was driven by
proactive policy engagement from district collectors.
2. Crisis management and emergency response: Civil services have emerged as the
first responders in crises, ensuring seamless coordination.
o Eg: During the COVID-19 pandemic, IAS officers coordinated vaccine
distribution, oxygen supply, and containment measures.
3. Public-private partnerships (PPP): Civil servants now actively facilitate PPP
models to boost infrastructure and services.
o Eg: The Bangalore Metro Rail Project is a successful PPP initiative
involving active bureaucratic oversight.
4. Technological integration: Civil servants are driving e-governance, data analytics,
and AI integration for improved service delivery.
o Eg: The e-Courts Project modernized judicial processes with digital
integration under bureaucratic guidance.
5. Citizen-centric governance: Civil services now focus on enhancing transparency,
accountability, and public participation.
o Eg: The JAM Trinity (Jan Dhan, Aadhaar, Mobile) streamlined welfare
delivery by ensuring direct benefit transfers.
6. Environmental sustainability and climate action: Civil servants increasingly shape
eco-friendly policies and resource management strategies.
o Eg: The State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC) framework has
been driven by civil service-led coordination.
7. International diplomacy and soft power: Indian diplomats from the civil services
are pivotal in strengthening India's global standing.
o Eg: The India-Africa Forum Summit 2015 saw extensive diplomatic
groundwork by IFS officers.

Managing emerging governance challenges in a changing socio-political landscape

1. Adaptive leadership and dynamic decision-making: Civil servants must adopt

flexible, responsive strategies to address evolving challenges.
o Eg: IAS officers in Bihar's Har Ghar Nal Yojana rapidly adapted strategies
to overcome groundwater depletion.
2. Technology-driven governance: Integrating AI, blockchain, and big data enhances
decision-making and ensures efficient public service delivery.
o Eg: The Real-Time Governance Society (RTGS) in Andhra Pradesh
leverages tech for grievance redressal.
3. Strengthening social cohesion: Civil servants must actively address social
polarization, ensuring inclusiveness and equity.
o Eg: The 'Buland Bharat' campaign in Uttar Pradesh promoted communal
harmony post-riot interventions.
4. Capacity building and skill upgradation: Continuous training on digital literacy,
data analysis, and crisis management is essential.

73
 o Eg: The Mission Karmayogi initiative (2020) focuses on upskilling civil
servants through digital learning platforms.
5. Strengthening federalism and decentralization: Civil servants must foster
cooperative federalism to manage regional aspirations.
o Eg: The 15th Finance Commission emphasized empowering state-level
bureaucrats for effective fund utilization.
6. Improved accountability and ethics: Ensuring ethical conduct through robust
accountability frameworks is key.
o Eg: The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) recommends
stricter conflict-of-interest policies.
7. Collaborative governance models: Civil servants must build stronger partnerships
with civil society organizations, academia, and industry.
o Eg: The Poshan Abhiyan campaign successfully combined bureaucratic
oversight with NGO engagement.

Conclusion

To address India's dynamic socio-political landscape, civil servants must combine adaptive
leadership, technological foresight, and inclusive governance models to effectively steer
the nation towards sustainable growth and development.

Q. Civil servants are the backbone of policy implementation, yet their neutrality
is increasingly questioned. Examine the causes and implications. (10 M)

Introduction
The neutrality of civil servants is vital for impartial governance, yet growing concerns about
their perceived bias threaten the credibility of public administration.

Body

Causes for the declining neutrality of civil servants

1. Political interference: Excessive political pressure forces bureaucrats to align with

ruling party agendas.
o Eg: Frequent transfers of IAS officers like Ashok Khemka for resisting
political pressure.
2. Patronage appointments: Post-retirement roles or lucrative postings compromise
integrity.
o Eg: Appointment of retired bureaucrats to positions like governors or
regulatory bodies.
3. Erosion of institutional autonomy: Weakening of independent bodies reduces
bureaucratic impartiality.
o Eg: Recent controversies involving the Election Commission’s
independence.

74
 4. Societal polarization: Increasing identity-based politics puts pressure on civil
servants to favor certain groups.
o Eg: Allegations against officers favoring caste- or religion-based demands.
5. Lack of robust accountability mechanisms: Weak oversight emboldens biased
conduct.
o Eg: Absence of a comprehensive Civil Services Board in many states as
mandated by the Supreme Court (2013).

Implications of declining neutrality

1. Erosion of public trust: Citizens lose faith in administrative decisions.

o Eg: Allegations of bias in relief distribution during the COVID-19 pandemic
in some states.
2. Compromised policy implementation: Bias-driven decisions reduce the
effectiveness of welfare schemes.
o Eg: Delayed implementation of MNREGA wages in politically neglected
areas.
3. Undermining democratic principles: Partisan behavior weakens the constitutional
mandate of impartial governance.
o Eg: Violation of Article 14 (Right to Equality) due to biased decisions.
4. Weakening of institutional credibility: Public bodies like the CBI, ED, and others
face criticism for selective actions.
o Eg: The CBI’s “caged parrot” remark by the Supreme Court (2013).
5. Stifling professional integrity: Ethical officers face demoralization, deterring honest
governance.
o Eg: Resignation of Kannan Gopinathan in 2019 citing erosion of democratic
values.

Conclusion
Ensuring the neutrality of civil servants requires robust institutional safeguards, merit-
driven appointments, and greater public accountability to uphold democratic integrity.

India and its neighborhood- relations.

Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving
India and/or affecting India’s interests.
Q. Assess the impact of India’s outreach to Pacific Island nations on its
diplomatic clout. How can India strategically leverage this partnership to secure
its geopolitical interests? (10 M)

Introduction
India’s outreach to Pacific Island nations reflects its growing ambition to expand strategic
influence in the Indo-Pacific, balancing regional powers while fostering sustainable
partnerships.
75
Body

Impact of India’s outreach to Pacific island nations on diplomatic clout

1. Enhanced regional presence: Strengthens India’s role in the Indo-Pacific Strategy,

countering China's expanding influence.
o Eg: India's active participation in the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) since
2002.
2. Soft power expansion: Promotes India's image as a responsible global player through
development aid, cultural ties, and diaspora engagement.
o Eg: FIPIC (Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation) launched in
2014, focusing on capacity-building.
3. Strengthening climate diplomacy: Builds India’s credibility in climate change
leadership by aiding climate-vulnerable island nations.
o Eg: India’s $1 million grant for the development of solar power projects in
Pacific nations (2022).
4. Economic influence through trade and investment: Encourages economic
interdependence through investments in agriculture, fisheries, and clean energy.
o Eg: India's Blue Economy initiatives in nations like Fiji and Papua New
Guinea.
5. Strategic security partnerships: Facilitates stronger maritime security collaboration,
boosting India's influence in the South Pacific region.
o Eg: Indian Navy’s recent INS Sahyadri port call to Fiji (2023) underscored
maritime cooperation.

Strategic measures to leverage the partnership for geopolitical interests

76
 1. Expanding defence and security ties: Develop deeper military-to-military
cooperation and ensure regional maritime security.
o Eg: Proposed Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) collaboration with
Pacific Island states.
2. Economic and infrastructure investments: Enhance investments in port
development, digital infrastructure, and sustainable projects.
o Eg: India's Solarization Program for Pacific Island nations under ISA
(International Solar Alliance).
3. Leveraging cultural diplomacy: Utilize India's diaspora presence in nations like
Fiji to deepen socio-political ties.
o Eg: The Fiji-India Cultural Exchange Program promoting shared heritage.
4. Climate resilience and disaster management: Position India as a key supporter in
capacity-building for disaster preparedness and climate adaptation.
o Eg: India's aid to Tonga after the Hunga Tonga volcano eruption (2022).
5. Strengthening multilateral engagement: Use forums like UN, Commonwealth, and
ASEAN Regional Forum to bolster diplomatic convergence.
o Eg: India's advocacy for Pacific Island states’ voices in UN Climate
Negotiations.

Conclusion
India’s calibrated outreach to Pacific Island nations is pivotal in shaping the emerging Indo-
Pacific order. By aligning development partnerships with strategic interests, India can secure
long-term geopolitical dividends while promoting regional stability.

Q. Assess the evolving nature of India’s engagement with Africa. What strategic
imperatives drive this outreach? (10 M)

Introduction
India’s Africa outreach reflects a shift from historical solidarity to pragmatic multilateralism,
driven by strategic competition, diaspora diplomacy, and global south realignment.

Body

Evolving nature of India’s engagement with Africa

1. From passive NAM-era ties to proactive diplomacy: Shift from ideological support
to structured bilateral and multilateral engagements.
o Eg: India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS-III, 2015) marked participation
from all 54 African nations, highlighting a new strategic push.
2. Diversification beyond development aid: Focus now includes trade, defence, health,
digital cooperation, and space.
o Eg: Pan-African e-Network Project evolved into e-Vidya Bharati and e-
Arogya Bharati (2019) for tele-education and tele-medicine across 19
African countries.

77
 3. Growing defence and maritime cooperation: Enhancing security through joint
exercises, training, and equipment supply.
o Eg: INS Trikand participated in Exercise Cutlass Express 2024 to
strengthen maritime domain awareness with eastern African nations.
4. Institutional capacity-building and skilling focus: Expanding educational and
vocational training through scholarships and technical support.
o Eg: Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program trained
over 30,000 African students by 2023 (MEA Annual Report 2023).
5. Pivot toward plurilateral and trilateral engagement: Engagements via multilateral
platforms and trilaterals like India-France-Africa.
o Eg: India-France-UAE trilateral cooperation (2023) included coordination
on Africa-focused development projects (MEA Briefs 2023).

Strategic imperatives driving India’s outreach

1. Countering China’s assertive presence: Balancing China's economic and strategic

influence across the African continent.
o Eg: India extended $12.37 billion Line of Credit to African nations by 2023,
compared to China's debt-linked investments (Exim Bank Data).
2. Energy and resource security: Securing access to oil, minerals, and rare earths
crucial for India's energy and manufacturing sectors.
o Eg: ONGC Videsh has active stakes in Mozambique’s Rovuma gas field
and Sudan oil blocks (ONGC Annual Report 2023).
3. Maritime security and Indo-Pacific vision: Ensuring safe sea lanes and securing
chokepoints in western Indian Ocean.
o Eg: India operates a coastal radar network in Seychelles and Mauritius,
enhancing Indian Ocean security architecture.
4. Leveraging Indian diaspora and soft power: Tapping historical cultural linkages
and diaspora goodwill for diplomatic leverage.
o Eg: Pravasi Bharatiya Divas 2023 spotlighted East African Indian
diaspora role in India-Africa economic partnerships.
5. Expanding markets and south-south cooperation: Promoting Indian goods,
pharma, digital public infrastructure and political solidarity.
o Eg: India exported $47 billion worth of goods to Africa in 2022-23, especially
in pharmaceuticals and engineering (Ministry of Commerce 2023).

Conclusion
India’s evolving Africa outreach is not just strategic—it is a recalibration of south-south
partnerships to shape a multipolar and cooperative global order.

78
Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing
countries on India’s interests, Indian diaspora.
Q. Post-Ukraine, nuclear proliferation appears to be a rational choice for smaller
states. Critically examine. (10 M)

Introduction

The Russia-Ukraine conflict has raised critical questions about global security, highlighting
the risks for non-nuclear states relying on security guarantees. The failure of international
assurances to Ukraine has reignited the debate on whether smaller nations should pursue
nuclear weapons for self-defense.

Body

Arguments supporting nuclear proliferation as a rational choice

1. Failure of security assurances: The 1994 Budapest Memorandum, which provided

security guarantees to Ukraine in exchange for nuclear disarmament, failed when
Russia invaded.
o Eg: Ukraine’s sovereignty was not defended despite commitments from the
US, UK, and Russia.
2. Nuclear deterrence as a strategic equalizer: Small states can deter aggression from
larger adversaries through credible nuclear capability.
o Eg: North Korea has avoided external intervention largely due to its nuclear
arsenal.
3. Geopolitical instability and power shifts: Increasing regional conflicts and the
decline of multilateralism make self-reliance imperative.
o Eg: Taiwan and South Korea are rethinking their security postures amid
rising China-US tensions.
4. Weakening of non-proliferation regimes: The perceived failure of the NPT (Non-
Proliferation Treaty) makes countries skeptical about relying on global arms control
frameworks.
o Eg: Iran’s nuclear ambitions despite JCPOA (2015) constraints highlight the
erosion of global trust in non-proliferation agreements.
5. Selective security commitments by major powers: The West’s inconsistent
responses to conflicts raise doubts about its willingness to protect smaller nations.
o Eg: Contrast between NATO's intervention in Kosovo (1999) and inaction
in Ukraine (2022).

Arguments against nuclear proliferation as a rational choice

1. High economic and technological barriers: Nuclear programs demand extensive

resources, technological expertise, and long-term commitments.
o Eg: Iran and North Korea’s programs have led to heavy economic
sanctions, crippling their economies.

79
 2. Risk of escalation and preemptive strikes: A nuclear program may invite preventive
attacks from adversaries fearing a strategic imbalance.
o Eg: Israel’s attack on Iraq’s Osirak nuclear reactor (1981) and Syria’s
Al-Kibar reactor (2007).
3. Diplomatic and economic isolation: Nuclearization can lead to sanctions and global
condemnation, affecting economic growth.
o Eg: Pakistan’s nuclear tests (1998) led to economic sanctions from the US
and Japan.
4. Violation of international commitments: Most countries are signatories to the NPT
(1968), which legally binds them against nuclear proliferation.
o Eg: India faced global sanctions post-Pokhran-II (1998) until it signed the
Indo-US Nuclear Deal (2008).
5. Risk of proliferation to non-state actors: Weak governance could result in nuclear
technology falling into terrorist hands.
o Eg: Concerns over Pakistan’s nuclear security due to internal instability
and past proliferation through A.Q. Khan’s network.

Conclusion

While Ukraine’s experience may push smaller states to reconsider nuclear deterrence,
proliferation poses severe risks, including economic, diplomatic, and security consequences.
Strengthening global security assurances and revamping non-proliferation frameworks
remain the most sustainable solutions to preventing nuclear arms races.

Q. Evaluate the impact of India's humanitarian diplomacy during global crises

on its diplomatic credibility. How can India institutionalize this aspect of its
foreign policy to enhance global influence? Suggest key reforms to ensure
strategic coherence. (15 M)

Introduction

India's humanitarian diplomacy, rooted in its civilizational ethos of "Vasudhaiva

Kutumbakam", has emerged as a strategic tool that reinforces its global stature. Recent
proactive humanitarian efforts have amplified India's diplomatic credibility as a responsible
global power.

Body

Impact of India's Humanitarian Diplomacy on Diplomatic Credibility

1. Enhanced Global Image: India's proactive role during the COVID-19 pandemic
boosted its reputation as a dependable partner.
o Eg: India's Vaccine Maitri initiative supplied vaccines to over 95 countries,
positioning India as a healthcare leader.
2. Strengthened Strategic Partnerships: Humanitarian outreach often reinforces
bilateral ties, especially with developing nations.

80
 o Eg: Emergency food supplies to Afghanistan in 2022 amid the Taliban crisis
improved diplomatic ties.
3. Soft Power Projection: India's cultural and ethical commitment to humanitarian
values enhances global perception.
o Eg: Assistance during the 2015 Nepal earthquake reaffirmed India's
leadership in South Asia.
4. Economic Diplomacy: India's humanitarian efforts strengthen trade relations and
expand economic influence.
o Eg: India's financial aid to Sri Lanka during its economic crisis improved
bilateral cooperation.
5. Geopolitical Leverage: Humanitarian initiatives allow India to counterbalance rivals
like China.
o Eg: India's relief to Mozambique after Cyclone Idai in 2019 countered
China's influence in Africa.

Measures to institutionalize humanitarian diplomacy

1. Dedicated humanitarian wing: Establishing a specialized division under the

Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) to coordinate humanitarian outreach.
o Eg: Countries like Turkey and Norway maintain dedicated humanitarian
agencies to streamline crisis responses.
2. Enhanced multilateral engagement: Strengthening India's role in global platforms
such as the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).
o Eg: India's participation in UN-led Gaza relief efforts in 2023 strengthened
its peacekeeping credibility.
3. Formalized legal framework: Enactment of a Humanitarian Assistance Act to
streamline resource allocation, response protocols, and coordination.
o Eg: The Foreign Assistance Act of the USA enables prompt and organized
humanitarian aid deployment.
4. Regional emergency response hubs: Establishing strategically located hubs to
ensure faster response in disaster-prone regions.
o Eg: India's role in forming the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral
Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) Disaster Management
Centre in 2020.
5. Technology-driven mechanism: Developing AI-based early warning systems and
geospatial tracking to predict crises and improve response efficiency.
o Eg: India's South Asia Satellite (2017) has been pivotal in assisting
neighbouring countries during disasters.

Key reforms for strategic coherence

1. Integration with development aid: Align humanitarian aid with long-term

development goals to foster economic stability.

81
 o Eg: India’s Line of Credit (LoC) to Maldives post-COVID ensured both
relief and infrastructure support.
2. Public-private partnership (ppp): Collaborating with Indian corporate giants and
NGOs to improve resources and capacity.
o Eg: India's partnership with TATA Group in oxygen supply chains during
COVID-19.
3. Crisis-responsive training modules: Establishing a cadre of diplomats skilled in
crisis diplomacy and humanitarian protocols.
o Eg: The Foreign Service Institute (FSI) can incorporate such training for
better crisis response.
4. Linking diaspora networks: Leveraging the Indian diaspora for effective crisis
response coordination.
o Eg: Indian communities in Canada and the UAE played a vital role in
coordinating COVID-19 relief supplies.
5. Strengthening Parliamentary oversight: Ensuring transparency in aid allocation
through dedicated committees.
o Eg: The Standing Committee on External Affairs can institutionalize
evaluation mechanisms.

Conclusion

Institutionalizing humanitarian diplomacy offers India a powerful tool to expand its strategic
influence while reinforcing its moral leadership. By adopting a structured, technology-driven,
and inclusive framework, India can ensure sustained diplomatic credibility on the global
stage.

Q. “The global multilateral order is increasingly being weaponized for national

interests”. Do you agree? Examine the implications for India’s role in
international institutions. How can India push for reform in global governance
structures? (15 M)

Introduction
A rules-based multilateral order is gradually morphing into a space of strategic contestation,
where global institutions are increasingly becoming extensions of national ambitions.

Body

The global multilateral order is increasingly being weaponized for national interests

1. Unilateralism over consensus: Powerful states act outside multilateral consensus to

pursue self-interest.
o Eg: US withdrawal from UNESCO (2019) citing “anti-Israel bias,”
sidelining collective decisions.

82
 2. Norm-setting without representation: Dominant countries define norms excluding
Global South.
o Eg: OECD-led global tax rules (2021) excluded key voices from developing
nations including India.
3. Strategic use of veto power: P5 members block global consensus for geopolitical
leverage.
o Eg: Russia’s repeated vetoes on Syria resolutions in UNSC undermining
humanitarian action.
4. Technology export controls as leverage: Export regimes are used to curb tech
access.
o Eg: US CHIPS Act (2022) aims to restrict semiconductor tech flow to China,
affecting global supply chains.
5. Politicisation of health and climate bodies: Global crises are used to assert
influence.
o Eg: EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (2023) criticized by India
as a “climate tariff” in disguise.

Implications for India’s role in international institutions

1. Reduced policy space: Unequal norms limit India's sovereign choices in global
frameworks.
o Eg: TRIPS waiver delay during COVID-19 impacted India’s pharma export
capabilities.
2. Stalled entry into key regimes: India’s global aspirations face systemic barriers.
o Eg: China blocks India’s NSG membership despite India's clean non-
proliferation record.
3. Marginalisation in crisis response: Dominant voices overshadow equitable crisis
solutions.
o Eg: India's vaccine outreach in Africa was eclipsed in WHO narratives
dominated by Western aid programs.
4. Fragmentation of focus: India forced to balance traditional multilateralism with new
coalitions.
o Eg: India prioritizing QUAD and BRICS as alternatives to ineffective UN
platforms.
5. Undermining reform momentum: Structural inequalities reduce India’s credibility
push.
o Eg: L.69 Group proposals on UNSC reform (India-backed) have seen
minimal traction due to P5 reluctance.

How can India push for reform in global governance structures

1. Champion inclusive representation: Institutionalise equal voice for Global South in

global bodies.

83
 o Eg: India’s successful pitch for African Union’s G20 membership (2023)
during its presidency.
2. Advance institutional reforms agenda: Revive structured reform timelines and
diplomatic coalitions.
o Eg: India’s support for “Responsibility to Reform” campaign during
UNGA 2022.
3. Promote new multilateral platforms: Lead initiatives that reflect equitable global
values.
o Eg: Launch of Global Biofuel Alliance (2023) co-led by India with Brazil and
the US.
4. Leverage leadership in development finance: Push for IMF/World Bank reforms
aligned to contemporary realities.
o Eg: India backing IMF quota realignment talks (2023 Annual Meetings,
Marrakech) to give more voice to emerging economies.
5. Mainstream digital and data governance: Build consensus for equitable digital
rules.
o Eg: India’s Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) framework endorsed by
over 50 nations during G20.

Conclusion
India stands at a pivotal juncture to reshape multilateralism through principled leadership,
strategic coalition-building, and a firm push for institutional democratisation in a rapidly
changing world.

Important International institutions, agencies and fora - their

structure, mandate.

84
 Secure Synopsis compilation for April-2025
General Studies-2
Table of contents

Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments,

significant provisions and basic structure. ----------------------------------------------------------- 5
Q. How does real-time content takedown by executive authorities impact the enforcement of
fundamental rights in cyberspace? What institutional reforms are necessary to uphold digital
due process? (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Q. What are the constitutional provisions governing the President’s role in State legislation?
Analyse the implications of the Supreme Court advising the President on the exercise of this
role. Assess its impact on the doctrine of separation of powers. (15 M) ------------------------------- 6
Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges
pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of powers and finances up to local levels and
challenges therein.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
Q. In India’s quasi-federal setup, subnational constitutionalism is emerging as a tool for
regional empowerment. Evaluate this trend. Examine its implications for the balance of
power in Indian federalism. Suggest how it can be reconciled with national constitutional
values. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 8
Q. Evaluate the impact of Centre-State tensions over language policies on national
integration. What institutional safeguards exist to resolve such issues? (10 M) ------------------- 11
Q. The gap between constitutional devolution and functional empowerment has rendered
many Panchayats symbolic. Examine. Suggest mechanisms to restore genuine
decentralisation. (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal mechanisms and
institutions.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
Q. “The Governor’s discretionary powers must operate within constitutional limits”. Explain
the scope and misuse of discretionary powers vested in the Governor. Evaluate the impact of
the recent Supreme Court ruling on addressing such misuse. (15 M) -------------------------------- 14
Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries. --------------16
Parliament and State legislatures—structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers &
privileges and issues arising out of these. -----------------------------------------------------------16
Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary—Ministries
and Departments of the Government; pressure groups and formal/informal associations
and their role in the Polity. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------16

1
 Q. Explain the constitutional and legal powers of the Supreme Court to take Suo motu
cognizance. How should these powers be exercised in relation to subordinate court
judgments? Assess its impact on judicial independence. (15 M) ---------------------------------------- 16
Q. Finality of arbitral awards is central to arbitration. Examine how excessive judicial
intervention affects this finality. Suggest reforms to maintain a balance between judicial
oversight and arbitral autonomy. (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Q. There is a thin line between judicial independence and accountability. Critically examine
this tension. Discuss how the in-house procedure seeks to balance these aspects. Suggest
improvements based on recent experiences. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------- 20
Q. Judicial independence is strengthened by transfer powers but is also vulnerable to misuse.
Analyse the safeguards against arbitrary transfers. Evaluate the impact of such transfers on
judicial morale and regional justice delivery. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------ 22
Q. Cabinet Committees enable strategic agility but pose risks of centralised decision-making.
Discuss. (15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
Q. Short tenures of Chief Justices risk continuity in institutional reforms. Analyse the impact
of frequent leadership changes on judicial efficiency. Suggest structural reforms to address
this issue. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act. -------------------------------------------28
Q. Democratic institutions must evolve from procedural formalism to active citizen
engagement. Analyse in the context of uncontested elections in India. Suggest institutional
reforms to safeguard voter empowerment where electoral choice is limited. (15 M) ------------ 28
Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of
various Constitutional Bodies.-------------------------------------------------------------------------29
Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.------------------------------------------29
Q. Enumerate the challenges of maintaining independence of investigative agencies in a
federal polity. Propose institutional safeguards to uphold their autonomy. (10 M) -------------- 29
Q. Despite the intent to reduce judicial backlog, tribunals like Central Administrative
Tribunal are grappling with their own pendency crisis. Evaluate the reasons behind this
trend and its implications for administrative justice in India. (10 M) -------------------------------- 31
Q. What are the major structural, legal, and operational deficiencies in the functioning of the
National Commission for Women? How can these be addressed to make it an institution of
consequence? (15 M)-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
Q. Examine the role of the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) in safeguarding
consumer rights in India. What institutional limitations hamper its effectiveness? Suggest
measures to strengthen its regulatory and enforcement capacity. (15 M) --------------------------- 34
Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues
arising out of their design and implementation. ---------------------------------------------------37
Q. Examine the objectives behind the Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025. Analyse how it
seeks to modernise India’s immigration framework. (10 M) -------------------------------------------- 37
Q. Evaluate how flaws in beneficiary identification under various government schemes affect
social justice. Propose reforms to strengthen grievance redressal in welfare systems. (10 M) 38

2
 Q. India’s social sector demands a foundational shift from intent-driven activism to method-
driven leadership. Analyse the rationale for this shift. Examine the features of Development
Management. Suggest reforms to mainstream it into public policy. (15 M) ------------------------ 40
Development processes and the development industry —the role of NGOs, SHGs, various
groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders. -----------42
Q. What are the key arguments in favour of a caste-based census in India? How do critics
view its impact on social cohesion and national integration? (10 M). --------------------------------- 42
Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the
performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for
the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections. --------------------------------------43
Q. Anticipatory bail ensures protection of innocent citizens but must not become a shield for
offenders. Discuss. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to
Health, Education, Human Resources. --------------------------------------------------------------45
Q. Digital education policy must go beyond access to ensure justice. Critically assess the socio-
economic implications of the Automated Permanent Academic Account Registry (APAAR)
for students across diverse backgrounds. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------ 45
Q. Discuss the role of universities as knowledge hubs for sustainable development. Examine
how rankings can incentivise this role. Evaluate the institutional reforms required in India to
realise this potential. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
Q. “The outflow of Indian students reflects domestic limitations in research infrastructure”.
Identify the key gaps in India’s higher education research ecosystem. Suggest measures to
reverse brain drain. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48
Q. How does prison overcrowding affect the delivery of justice and correctional services in
India? Examine the institutional limitations and propose long-term sustainable solutions. (15
M)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
Q. India’s aspiration to become a global higher education hub hinges more on credibility than
capacity. Discuss the critical reforms needed. Examine the role of regulatory frameworks in
achieving global trust. (10 M)-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
Issues relating to poverty and hunger. ---------------------------------------------------------------53
Q. Why is nutrition essential for achieving educational equity? Why do current programmes
fail to ensure dietary diversity? What reforms are needed in India’s PM-POSHAN to meet
global nutrition benchmarks? (15 M) --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability, e-governance-
applications, models, successes, limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency
& accountability and institutional and other measures. ------------------------------------------55
Q. “The normalisation of violence in governance transforms citizens from stakeholders to
spectators”. Critically analyse this shift. Discuss the impact of this transformation on
democracy. Propose corrective strategies for participatory governance. (15 M)------------------ 55
Q. What are the key legal and institutional shortcomings in India's surveillance oversight
architecture? Suggest ways to enhance transparency and accountability. (10 M) ---------------- 57
Role of civil services in a democracy. ----------------------------------------------------------------59

3
 Q. What are the structural reasons behind the underrepresentation of women in Indian police
forces? Suggest administrative measures to improve their participation. (10 M) ----------------- 59
Q. Examine the procedural bottlenecks and transparency concerns in empanelment and
promotion of civil servants. Suggest comprehensive reforms for a merit-based and
accountable process. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60
India and its neighbourhood- relations. -------------------------------------------------------------62
Q. Analyse the strategic implications of Bangladesh's recent deepening ties with Pakistan and
China. In this context, examine the scope for a reset in India’s regional diplomacy and
strategic partnerships. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62
Q. “Bangladesh’s foreign policy is no longer Indo-centric”. Examine the factors behind this
shift. Analyse its implications for India’s regional strategy. (10 M) ----------------------------------- 64
Q. “India’s engagement with Taliban reflects a shift from ideological rigidity to strategic
pragmatism”. Critically analyse. Examine how this recalibration impacts India’s broader
regional diplomacy. (15 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting
India’s interests. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------67
Q. What are the key strategic considerations behind India’s growing engagement with Chile?
Examine the implications of the proposed comprehensive trade agreement between the two
countries. (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
Q. Examine the role of BIMSTEC in enabling inclusive development across its member states.
How can economic cooperation be improved for better outcomes? What role can multilateral
funding play in BIMSTEC’s developmental agenda? (15 M) ------------------------------------------- 69
Q. The IMEC project highlights the shift in global supply chain priorities. Examine its
potential to redefine trade connectivity. Discuss the logistical challenges to its realisation. (10
M)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 71
Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests,
Indian diaspora.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------72
Q. “India’s extradition efforts face a triangular challenge of legal complexity, diplomatic
engagement, and human rights concerns”. Discuss. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------- 72
Q. Examine how reciprocal tariffs challenge India’s role as a voice for the Global South. How
can India build coalitions to resist rising unilateralism in global trade? (10 M) ------------------ 75
Q. What are the diplomatic implications of the declining relevance of a rules-based
international order? Analyse India’s response to global institutional fragility. (10 M) --------- 76
Important International institutions, agencies and fora - their structure, mandate. --------77
Q. What institutional constraints does WHO face in sustaining its global operations amidst
donor withdrawal? Examine the impact on health systems in vulnerable regions of the Global
South. (10 M)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 77
Q. “The proposed WHO pandemic treaty is historic in intent but limited in institutional
transformation”. Analyse its key provisions. Discuss its major limitations. Suggest structural
reforms to enhance its enforceability and impact. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------ 79

4
 Q. UN peacekeeping has helped prevent state collapse in several post-conflict nations. Analyse
how peacekeeping contributes to long-term stability. Identify the key operational challenges.
Also evaluate its relevance in a multipolar world. (15 M) ------------------------------------------------ 81

Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution,

features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure.

Q. How does real-time content takedown by executive authorities impact the

enforcement of fundamental rights in cyberspace? What institutional reforms
are necessary to uphold digital due process? (10 M)

Introduction

The rise of real-time content takedown by executive authorities marks a shift from judicial
scrutiny to administrative discretion, risking the dilution of constitutional protections in
the digital sphere.

Body

Impact on enforcement of fundamental rights in cyberspace

1. Chilling effect on freedom of expression: Unchecked takedowns deter individuals

from exercising Article 19(1)(a) rights due to fear of retaliation.
o Eg: Karnataka HC in X Corp vs Union of India (2023) criticized opaque
takedown orders lacking legal reasoning.
2. Violation of natural justice: Absence of prior notice, hearing, or appeal violates
Article 14 and Article 21 safeguards.
o Eg: Shreya Singhal vs Union of India (2015) struck down Section 66A for
enabling arbitrary restrictions without procedural fairness.
3. Inconsistent application across platforms: Lack of uniform norms leads to
discriminatory enforcement, undermining equality before law under Article 14.
o Eg: In Shabana vs GNCTD (Delhi HC, 2024), the court flagged
inconsistencies in takedown protocols across intermediaries.
4. Lack of transparency in executive action: Non-publication of takedown reasons
prevents public scrutiny and undermines accountability.
o Eg: Internet Freedom Foundation’s 2024 report noted over 80% of
takedown orders lacked published justifications.
5. Weak protection against wrongful takedown: No legal recourse or independent
grievance redressal mechanism for users leads to unchecked state power.
o Eg: UN Special Rapporteur (2023) raised concern over India’s lack of
redressal in digital content regulation.

Institutional reforms to uphold digital due process

5
 1. Statutory review mechanism: A dedicated quasi-judicial review board must assess
legality of takedown orders post-facto.
o Eg: Justice B.N. Srikrishna Committee (2018) recommended an
independent oversight authority for digital interventions.
2. Mandatory speaking orders with reasons: Executive authorities must publish well-
reasoned, time-bound orders justifying takedowns.
o Eg: Delhi HC (2024) mandated that blocking directions must disclose
“adequate reasoning” to be legally tenable.
3. User notification and appeal rights: Affected users must be informed and given the
right to contest takedown decisions.
o Eg: EU Digital Services Act (2022) mandates user rights to contest content
moderation by platforms and states.
4. Judicial pre-clearance for non-emergency cases: In non-urgent takedowns, prior
judicial sanction should be made mandatory to safeguard fundamental rights.
o Eg: Law Commission of India (Report 267, 2017) emphasized judicial
scrutiny to curb arbitrary speech restrictions.
5. Real-time transparency dashboard: Create a publicly accessible portal tracking
takedown requests, grounds, and outcomes to ensure accountability.
o Eg: Mozilla Foundation’s best practices (2023) advocate real-time
publication of takedown logs for democratic oversight.

Conclusion

A rights-respecting digital state must blend executive efficiency with institutional

accountability. Embedding due process safeguards into every takedown action is essential to
preserve India’s constitutional ethos in cyberspace.

Q. What are the constitutional provisions governing the President’s role in State
legislation? Analyse the implications of the Supreme Court advising the
President on the exercise of this role. Assess its impact on the doctrine of
separation of powers. (15 M)

Introduction

The President’s role in State legislation acts as a constitutional check to uphold federal
balance and prevent unconstitutional State laws, but recent judicial advisories raise critical
debates on institutional propriety.

Body

Constitutional provisions governing the President’s role in State legislation

6
 1. Article 200: Governor’s power to reserve State Bills for the President - Empowers
the Governor to send Bills for Presidential consideration when conflicts with Union
law or Constitution arise.
 Eg: Tamil Nadu Admission to UG Medical Courses Bill, 2021 was reserved
over exemption from NEET amid constitutional concerns .
2. Article 201: President’s final authority on reserved Bills - Enables the President to
assent, withhold, or return Bills for reconsideration, making it the final constitutional
checkpoint.
 Eg: NCRWC Report 2002 flagged delays in Presidential decision-making as
harmful to legislative autonomy.
3. Article 143: President’s power to seek Supreme Court’s opinion - Allows
reference of complex constitutional questions to SC for advisory opinion.
 Eg: Special Courts Bill, 1979, Presidential reference helped clarify
constitutionality before enactment.
4. Binding nature of ministerial advice on President - President exercises functions
under Article 201 based on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers.
 Eg: Shamsher Singh v. State of Punjab, 1974, confirmed that President acts
on Cabinet advice even in legislative matters.
5. Absence of timeline under Article 201 - Lack of time-bound provision for
Presidential decisions creates legal uncertainty and policy delays.
 Eg: Supreme Court Judgment, April 2025, mandated a 3-month deadline for
Presidential decision on Bills reserved under Article 200.

Implications of the Supreme Court advising the President on this role

1. Ensures constitutional compliance and preventive adjudication - SC’s advisory

role can pre-empt unconstitutional laws, reducing litigation and policy paralysis.
 Eg: SC judgment, 2025, emphasised preventive scrutiny to avoid post-facto
constitutional crises.
2. Fills institutional void in State-level legal scrutiny - Provides a legal opinion route
absent at the state level, aiding Governors and President alike.
 Eg: Justice Pardiwala’s judgment, 2025, noted Governors lack direct access
to courts for legal clarity.
3. Reduces perception of executive bias and politicisation - Judicial advice enhances
neutrality, especially in politically contentious State laws.
 Eg: SC ruling, 2025, observed that Presidential reference under Article 143
can mitigate accusations of mala fide actions.
4. Facilitates cooperative federalism through judicial guidance - Promotes harmony
between Centre and States by involving an impartial constitutional arbiter.
 Eg: Sri Lanka model, where President mandatorily refers provincial Bills to
Supreme Court, cited by Justice Pardiwala in 2025 verdict.
5. Brings transparency to executive decision-making - Public judicial advisories
improve accountability in Presidential decisions on State Bills.

7
  Eg: SC advisory on farm laws, 2021, brought transparency to executive
handling of contentious legislation.

Impact on the doctrine of separation of powers

1. Potential erosion of executive independence - Frequent judicial advisories risk

normalising court involvement in executive processes.
 Eg: Critiques by constitutional experts post-2025 verdict, warned against
blurring executive-judicial lines
2. Strengthens constitutional checks and balances - SC’s role as constitutional
guardian ensures no branch acts beyond its limits.
 Eg: Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, 1973, upheld judiciary’s role
in maintaining constitutional equilibrium.
3. Risk of setting precedent for judicial activism - Advisory powers may expand
judiciary’s footprint into legislative-executive space.
 Eg: Arvind Datar (Senior Advocate) commentary, 2025, highlighted risks
of judicial advisories leading to overreach
4. Preserves legislative sanctity through pre-enactment scrutiny - Offers legislature a
second chance to rectify potential constitutional errors.
 Eg: Justice R. Mahadevan’s opinion, 2025, emphasised that early judicial
input avoids post-enactment litigations.
5. Promotes rule of law without encroaching on policy domain - If used sparingly,
judicial advisories uphold rule of law while respecting executive domain.
 Eg: Constitution Bench observation, Ayodhya case 2019, maintained
judicial restraint while resolving sensitive matters.

Conclusion

Judicial advisories to the President represent a proactive approach to safeguard constitutional

integrity, but their cautious and calibrated use is vital to preserve institutional balance.
Establishing clear legal frameworks and respect for institutional boundaries will ensure that
constitutional values of federalism and separation of powers thrive in harmony.

Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues

and challenges pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of
powers and finances up to local levels and challenges therein.
Q. In India’s quasi-federal setup, subnational constitutionalism is emerging as a
tool for regional empowerment. Evaluate this trend. Examine its implications for
the balance of power in Indian federalism. Suggest how it can be reconciled with
national constitutional values. (15 M)

Introduction
The rise of subnational constitutionalism in India reflects a deeper quest by States for

8
recognition, autonomy, and reassertion of federal principles, especially in the face of growing
centralisation. It signals an assertive phase in Indian federalism shaped by political, fiscal,
and institutional developments.

Body

Evaluating the trend of subnational constitutionalism in India

1. Assertion of federal identity by States: States are increasingly reviewing Centre-

State dynamics and asserting their rights under the Constitution.
 Eg: Tamil Nadu’s Justice Kurian Joseph Committee (2025) was formed to
review constitutional provisions and recommend measures for enhanced State
autonomy and federal balance.
2. Resurgence of State-specific policy frameworks: States are pushing back against
centrally imposed policies through legislation, resolutions, and institutional reviews.
 Eg: Punjab’s 2020 Resolution rejected the Central farm laws, invoking its
own legislative competence under the State List.
3. Judicial exploration of federal space: Courts have increasingly interpreted the
Constitution to acknowledge State roles and pluralism in governance.
 Eg: In State of Kerala vs. Union of India (2023) under Article 131, Kerala
challenged CAA on federalism grounds, marking a judicial assertion of
subnational voice.
4. Invoking historical precedents: States are revisiting earlier recommendations on
federal reform for contemporary application.
 Eg: Rajamannar Committee Report (1971) is being referenced again in
2025 for its call to restore State powers over the Concurrent List.
5. Emergence of federal front politics: Regional parties are using federalism as a
political strategy to unite on issues of autonomy and decentralisation.
 Eg: The Federal Front proposal (2024) by multiple southern CMs advocated
for greater fiscal devolution and consultative governance.

Implications for balance of power in Indian federalism

1. Pushback against centralisation: Subnational constitutionalism is creating

institutional resistance to unilateral central actions.
 Eg: TN’s 2021 challenge to NEET imposition via State legislation reasserted
State health policy domain under Entry 6, State List.
2. Democratisation of federal discourse: It brings State aspirations to the fore and
strengthens bottom-up governance.
 Eg: Jharkhand’s Sarna Code Resolution (2020) on tribal identity redefined
State-led cultural autonomy.
3. Tension in legislative domains: Overlapping powers in the Concurrent List often
lead to legislative conflicts and contestation.

9
  Eg: Centre’s amendment of Forest Conservation Act (2023) was opposed
by multiple States citing violation of Article 254(2).
4. Fiscal imbalances magnified: Central control over taxation post-GST and tied grants
limit States’ capacity to innovate.
 Eg: 15th Finance Commission (2021) reduced the weightage for population
control, adversely impacting States like Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
5. Stronger role of judiciary in resolving disputes: Constitutional courts are
increasingly drawn to interpret Centre-State tensions.
 Eg: S.R. Bommai vs. Union of India (1994) remains a foundational case
asserting federal spirit in political contexts.

Reconciliation with national constitutional values

1. Strengthen Inter-State Council (ISC): Revive and empower it under Article 263 for
cooperative dispute resolution and policy harmonisation.
 Eg: Punchhi Commission (2010) recommended regular ISC meetings to
foster collaborative federalism.
2. Reform Concurrent List dynamics: Introduce a consultative mechanism before laws
are placed in the Concurrent List.
 Eg: National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution
(NCRWC, 2002) proposed State consultation for Concurrent List
legislation.
3. Ensure fiscal federalism with flexibility: Increase untied grants and allow States
more leeway in budget planning.
 Eg: Kerala’s KIIFB Model demonstrates use of State-level infrastructure
bonds for independent capital funding.
4. Institutionalise federal jurisprudence: Create constitutional benches to address
recurring Centre-State legal conflicts systematically.
 Eg: A Standing Federal Tribunal, as proposed by Justice Venkatachaliah
(NCRWC, 2002), can prevent ad-hoc litigation.
5. Promote asymmetric federalism where needed: Recognise the special needs of
States and regions with distinct historical, cultural, or economic contexts.
 Eg: Article 371 provisions for northeastern and some western States allow
context-specific autonomy.

Conclusion
India’s federalism must be agile enough to accommodate legitimate regional aspirations
while ensuring constitutional unity. Subnational constitutionalism, if channelled through
cooperative structures, can become a pillar of democratic deepening and not a cause of
fragmentation.

10
Q. Evaluate the impact of Centre-State tensions over language policies on
national integration. What institutional safeguards exist to resolve such issues?
(10 M)

Introduction
Linguistic pluralism is foundational to Indian federalism. However, recent centralising shifts
in language policy have triggered tensions that test the spirit of inclusive nationhood.

Body

Impact of centre-state tensions over language on national integration

1. Disruption of federal consensus: Language imposition erodes cooperative

federalism by overriding state autonomy in cultural-educational matters.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu and Karnataka resisted the three-language formula under
NEP 2020, citing cultural overreach by the Centre.
2. Polarisation of identity politics: Language conflicts deepen regional assertion,
fostering “us vs them” narratives detrimental to national unity.
o Eg: Anti-Hindi protests in Tamil Nadu (2019) revived the legacy of 1965
movements against centralised cultural homogenisation.
3. Unequal access in national platforms: Dominance of Hindi-English in UPSC and
Parliament sidelines speakers of other languages, undermining participatory
democracy.
o Eg: Demand for conducting UPSC exams in all 8th Schedule languages
remains unfulfilled, disadvantaging millions.
4. Tensions in curriculum design and textbook policy: Top-down naming or linguistic
changes provoke perceptions of cultural erasure.
o Eg: NCERT’s renaming of English-medium textbooks using Indian
musical terms was criticised as “linguistic tokenism”.
5. Strained centre-state legislative relations: Conflicting stances on medium of
instruction cause policy paralysis in state-implemented central schemes.
o Eg: West Bengal’s opposition to central push for Hindi in PM SHRI schools
reflects governance friction.

Institutional safeguards to resolve language-related tensions

1. Constitutional protection of linguistic rights: Key provisions ensure freedom of

language, cultural preservation, and minority education.
o Eg: Articles 29, 30, 347, and 350A–B protect linguistic minorities and
promote mother tongue instruction in primary education.
2. Eighth Schedule and language inclusion mechanism: Empowers Parliament to add
languages and preserve linguistic diversity.
o Eg: 22 languages currently included; multiple demands like Bhojpuri,
Tulu, and Rajasthani pending before the Home Ministry.

11
 3. Official Languages Act, 1963 and its amendments: Balances use of Hindi and
English without mandating imposition.
o Eg: The 1967 amendment assures continuation of English for all official
purposes beyond the 15-year deadline under Article 343.
4. Three-language formula with flexibility: NEP 2020 reaffirms flexibility to states in
implementing the language model suited to their demographics.
o Eg: Clause 4.13 of NEP 2020 guarantees that no language will be imposed,
reaffirming voluntary adoption.
5. Judicial and quasi-judicial safeguards: Courts and commissions reinforce federal
principles and protect linguistic justice.
o Eg: TMA Pai Foundation Case (2002) protected minority-run linguistic
institutions; National Commission for Minorities advises on language rights.

Conclusion
India’s linguistic integrity is safeguarded not by uniformity but by dialogue-driven
diversity. Reinvigorating constitutional respect for state autonomy in cultural matters is
key to enduring integration.

Q. The gap between constitutional devolution and functional empowerment has

rendered many Panchayats symbolic. Examine. Suggest mechanisms to restore
genuine decentralisation. (10 M)

Introduction
Despite the constitutional backing of the 73rd Amendment (1992), many Panchayats remain
administrative outposts rather than autonomous governance institutions due to limited
functional powers and fiscal leeway.

Body

Why Panchayats remain symbolic despite constitutional devolution

1. Incomplete functional devolution: Many core functions like sanitation or education

are retained by line departments.
o Eg: The 2024 Devolution Report shows a decline in functional devolution
from 35.3% (2013–14) to 29.1% (2021–22) (Ministry of Panchayati Raj).
2. Fiscal dependence on higher governments: Own-source revenues form less than 1%
of total Panchayat receipts.
o Eg: RBI's State Finances Report 2024 noted that 95% of Panchayat funds
are from central/state grants, undermining autonomy.
3. Lack of administrative control: Panchayats do not control or supervise frontline
functionaries of schemes.
o Eg: The Second ARC observed that staff accountability in flagship schemes
like MGNREGA lies with departments, not Panchayats.

12
 4. Parallel bodies bypassing PRIs: Vertical schemes often create bodies that dilute
Panchayat authority.
o Eg: 13 parallel entities like Water User Associations and Village Health
Committees operate outside Panchayat purview (MoPR 2024).
5. Outdated legal frameworks: State Panchayati Raj Acts do not align with current
development needs.
o Eg: Transform Rural India’s 2024 consultations found many states still use
pre-GST tax norms with negligible local fiscal reform.

Mechanisms to restore genuine decentralisation

1. Statutory function mapping and activity assignment: Clearly list devolved subjects
with activity-based responsibilities.
o Eg: Kerala's Activity Mapping (2022 update) details scheme-wise roles for
Panchayats, ensuring clarity.
2. Strengthen own-source revenue generation: Modernise tax assessment, collection,
and incentivise local taxation.
o Eg: The 15th Finance Commission recommended a performance-based
grant tied to property tax reforms.
3. Empower elected representatives through capacity building: Expand simulation-
based leadership training for women and SC/ST representatives.
o Eg: The Sashakt Panchayat-Netri Abhiyan (2025) trains 1.4 million EWRs
using real-life governance scenarios.
4. Mandate convergence of schemes through Gram Panchayat Development Plans
(GPDPs): Integrate all department schemes under Panchayat-led planning.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu's Village Poverty Reduction Plan merges state and
central schemes via Panchayat forums.
5. Institutionalise social accountability mechanisms: Use digital dashboards, social
audits, and community scorecards.
o Eg: Karnataka’s Panchatantra portal enables real-time tracking of
Panchayat finances and decisions.

Conclusion
Genuine decentralisation demands not just enabling laws but empowered actors. The next
phase of Panchayati Raj must move from tokenism to transformative local governance
rooted in clarity, capacity, and control.

13
Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal
mechanisms and institutions.
Q. “The Governor’s discretionary powers must operate within constitutional
limits”. Explain the scope and misuse of discretionary powers vested in the
Governor. Evaluate the impact of the recent Supreme Court ruling on
addressing such misuse. (15 M)

Introduction

The office of the Governor is envisaged as a constitutional bridge between the Centre and
the states. However, recent controversies have exposed gaps in the exercise of discretion,
demanding clearer constitutional boundaries.

Body

Scope of discretionary powers vested in the Governor

1. Reservation of bills for president’s consideration: Article 200 empowers the

Governor to reserve certain Bills for the President.
 Eg:– In 2023, Punjab’s Governor reserved multiple Bills citing procedural
irregularities (The State of Punjab v. Principal Secretary to Governor).
2. Calling and dissolving of assembly: Under Article 174, the Governor can summon
or dissolve the House based on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
 Eg:– In Arunachal Pradesh case (2016), Governor’s premature action was
struck down by SC in Nabam Rebia v. Deputy Speaker.
3. Appointment of chief minister: Article 164 vests discretion when no party has a
clear majority in the assembly.
 Eg:– In Maharashtra (2019), early morning swearing-in led to controversy,
later resolved by floor test directive.
4. Seeking information from chief minister: Article 167 empowers the Governor to
seek information on state affairs.
 Eg:– Kerala Governor (2023) sought clarification on Bills, delaying assent to
multiple legislations.
5. Discretion in emergency provisions: Under Article 356, the Governor can
recommend President’s Rule if constitutional machinery fails.
 Eg:– Maharashtra (2019), recommendation for President’s Rule was later
revoked after SC intervention.

Misuse of discretionary powers in opposition-ruled states

1. Indefinite delay in assent to bills: Governors have withheld or delayed assent

without clear reasons, stalling legislative processes.

14
  Eg:– Kerala Governor (2024) kept six Bills pending for over a year,
prompting SC intervention
2. Undue interference in assembly proceedings: Governors have questioned assembly
sessions and procedures, overstepping constitutional limits.
 Eg:– Punjab Governor (2023) termed assembly sessions "illegal", leading to
legal dispute in SC.
3. Political bias in appointments: Discretionary appointments have been used to favour
certain political interests.
 Eg:– Allegations against Tamil Nadu Governor over delay in appointment of
Vice-Chancellors
4. Selective reservation of bills: Some Governors selectively reserve bills, undermining
the mandate of elected governments.
 Eg:– Telangana Governor (2024) held back key Bills on reservation and
welfare measures.
5. Pre-emptive recommendations for President’s Rule: In politically unstable states,
pre-emptive reports undermine elected governments.
 Eg:– Arunachal Pradesh crisis (2016), where SC reinstated the dismissed
government.

Impact of the recent Supreme Court ruling on curbing misuse

1. Mandating timeframes for assent: SC prescribed 1 month post-reconsideration, and

3 months for presidential reservation under Article 200.
 Eg:– SC verdict (April 2025), in Tamil Nadu case, set clear timelines for
assent process
2. Clarification on limited discretion: SC ruled discretion cannot be arbitrary and must
align with constitutional norms.
 Eg:– SC reaffirmed in Punjab case (2023) that Governor cannot indefinitely
withhold assent.
3. Invocation of Article 142 for complete justice: SC exercised Article 142 to declare
withheld Bills as assented due to undue delays.
 Eg:– In Tamil Nadu case, SC invoked Article 142 to clear 10 pending Bills.
4. Reinforcement of federal balance: The ruling strengthens the mandate of elected
state governments against unelected constitutional authorities.
 Eg:– Legal experts hailed the judgment as a boost for cooperative federalism
5. Setting binding precedent for other states: The judgment has immediate relevance
for pending cases in Kerala, Telangana, and Punjab.
 Eg:– Kerala’s pending SC case on Governor’s inaction is likely to benefit
from this precedent

Conclusion

15
The Supreme Court’s proactive ruling reaffirms the primacy of democratic institutions over
constitutional arbitrariness. Going forward, clearer codification of gubernatorial conduct will
be essential to safeguard the sanctity of legislative processes in the federal framework.

Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other

countries.
Parliament and State legislatures—structure, functioning,
conduct of business, powers & privileges and issues arising out of
these.

Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the

Judiciary—Ministries and Departments of the Government;
pressure groups and formal/informal associations and their role
in the Polity.
Q. Explain the constitutional and legal powers of the Supreme Court to take Suo
motu cognizance. How should these powers be exercised in relation to
subordinate court judgments? Assess its impact on judicial independence. (15 M)

Introduction
The Supreme Court’s Suo motu jurisdiction is a unique constitutional mechanism to intervene
in matters of grave public interest or rights violation, but when applied to lower court
decisions, it must ensure it does not undermine institutional autonomy.

Body

Constitutional and legal powers of the Supreme Court to take suo motu cognizance

1. Article 32 – Enforcement of fundamental rights: Empowers the SC to act on its

own to protect fundamental rights without a formal petition.
o Eg: Sheela Barse v. State of Maharashtra (1983) – SC acted suo motu on a
letter highlighting custodial violence against women.
2. Article 142 – Power to do complete justice: Allows SC to pass any order necessary
to deliver justice in any case before it.
o Eg: Oxygen Supply Case (2021) – SC took suo motu action to ensure
COVID-19 oxygen availability across states.
3. Article 141 – Law declared by SC is binding: Enables SC to lay down binding
interpretations which can arise even from Suo motu matters.
o Eg: In Re: Remediation of Polluted Rivers (2020) – SC passed binding
guidelines on pollution control suo motu.
4. Public Interest Litigation (PIL) evolution: The SC developed suo motu powers
through expanding the PIL jurisprudence post-1980s.

16
 o Eg: MC Mehta cases (1986 onwards) – SC took up multiple suo motu
environmental issues under PIL framework.
5. Contempt jurisdiction under Article 129: SC may initiate suo motu contempt
proceedings to protect the dignity and authority of courts.
o Eg: Prashant Bhushan Case (2020) – SC initiated suo motu contempt for
tweets against judiciary.

How these powers should be exercised in relation to subordinate court judgments

1. Doctrine of judicial restraint: Suo motu powers must not override well-established
appellate procedures for lower court rulings.
o Eg: Madras Bar Association v. UoI (2021) – SC emphasized judicial
discipline and limits on overreach.
2. Preserve appellate hierarchy: Higher courts should promote correction through
appeal, not direct intervention unless grave injustice is evident.
o Eg: Allahabad HC Attempt to Rape Case (2024) – SC’s suo motu stay
bypassed the appellate process, drawing criticism.
3. Use only in case of manifest miscarriage of justice: Intervention should be limited
to exceptional circumstances where subordinate judgment violates basic legal
principles.
o Eg: Inhuman Prison Conditions Case (2017) – SC took suo motu action on
jail overcrowding, not on trial court error.
4. Ensure transparency and written reasoning: Suo motu actions should be backed by
written orders, not just oral observations.
o Eg: Criticism arose in Allahabad HC case due to lack of detailed SC
reasoning and reliance on media-triggered response.
5. Avoid media-driven or populist response: Judicial interventions must be legally
sound, not based on social media outrage or headline pressure.
o Eg: Law Commission of India (272nd Report) – Warned against trial by
media influencing judicial actions.

Impact on Judicial independence

Positive Impact Negative Impact

1. Protection of fundamental rights: 1. Undermines subordinate judiciary:
Enables urgent intervention in rights Overrides carefully reasoned trial court orders
violations without procedural delays. without appellate review.
Eg: Sheela Barse case (1983) – SC acted Eg: Allahabad HC attempt to rape case
swiftly on custodial abuse. (2024) faced public undermining.
2. Fills legal or administrative voids: Acts 2. Bypasses natural justice: Often taken
where executive or legislature fails to without hearing all stakeholders, violating
respond timely. procedural fairness.

17
 Positive Impact Negative Impact
Eg: Migrant Workers Crisis Case (2020) – Eg: Suo motu stay orders without full fact
SC framed guidelines in absence of policy. review in recent cases.
3. Institutional accountability tool: Can 3. Creates chilling effect on lower courts:
hold public authorities or institutions Trial judges may avoid bold decisions fearing
accountable where checks fail. criticism or reversal.
Eg: Vineet Narain Case (1998) – SC Eg: Bar Council reactions (2024) on judicial
monitored CBI investigation. demoralisation.
4. Enhances judicial activism in public
4. Centralises interpretative authority:
interest: Empowers judiciary to respond to
Concentrates excessive discretionary power
urgent social issues.
with SC, reducing federal balance.
Eg: Environmental pollution cases taken
Eg: Criticism during COVID-19 hearings
up suo motu since 1980s (MC Mehta
(2021) sidelining HCs.
series).
5. Strengthens constitutional role of SC: 5. Fuels perception of populism: May be
Reflects its position as guardian of the perceived as reacting to media pressure rather
Constitution and justice. than legal necessity.
Eg: Unnao Rape Case (2019) – SC took Eg: Allahabad HC case (2024) – SC response
suo motu action to ensure justice. appeared influenced by public outrage.

Conclusion
The Supreme Court’s Suo motu power must be used with constitutional caution and
appellate deference, ensuring it strengthens justice without trampling institutional dignity
of lower courts or compromising rule of law.

Q. Finality of arbitral awards is central to arbitration. Examine how excessive

judicial intervention affects this finality. Suggest reforms to maintain a balance
between judicial oversight and arbitral autonomy. (10 M)

Introduction

Finality in arbitration ensures timely, cost-effective, and conclusive dispute resolution.

However, growing judicial scrutiny threatens to blur the distinction between arbitration
and litigation in India’s legal ecosystem.

Body

How excessive judicial intervention affects finality of arbitral awards

1. Dilution of arbitral autonomy: Frequent judicial interference undermines the

independence and authority of arbitral tribunals.

18
 o Eg: Gayatri Balaswamy vs ISG Novasoft (2024) led to a 5-judge
Constitution Bench to decide on court powers to modify awards, disrupting
tribunal discretion.
2. Undermines enforcement certainty: Prolonged court challenges prevent awards
from attaining finality and enforcement.
o Eg: World Bank Ease of Doing Business Report ranked India 163rd in
contract enforcement, partly due to delays in arbitral award execution.
3. Judicial review on merits: Courts occasionally examine factual findings, despite
limits under Section 34 of the Act.
o Eg: ONGC vs Saw Pipes (2003) widened the ‘public policy’ clause, allowing
merit-based reviews of arbitral decisions.
4. Forum shopping and procedural delays: Parties exploit judicial recourse to delay or
frustrate award enforcement.
o Eg: In Delhi Airport Metro Express vs DAMEPL, the award faced over 5
years of litigation, delaying final closure.
5. Investor deterrence: Lack of predictability and finality affects India’s credibility as
an arbitration-friendly jurisdiction.
o Eg: SIAC Annual Report (2023) showed a rise in Indian parties choosing
Singapore over Indian arbitral forums for certainty and speed.

Reforms to maintain balance between judicial oversight and arbitral autonomy

1. Codify limited modification powers: Introduce narrow grounds for modification

through statutory amendments.
o Eg: Viswanathan Committee Report (2024) recommended amending
Section 34 to allow modification only in severable and trivial errors.
2. Strict interpretation of Section 34: Judicial review should strictly adhere to
procedural lapses or public policy violations.
o Eg: MMTC vs Vedanta Ltd (2019) reaffirmed non-intervention in merits,
emphasizing finality as a rule.
3. Dedicated commercial benches: Specialised courts can ensure consistency and speed
in arbitration-related matters.
o Eg: Delhi and Bombay High Courts have dedicated commercial divisions,
reducing delays and arbitral interference.
4. Time-bound disposal of challenges: Mandate a fixed timeline for disposing of
petitions under Section 34.
o Eg: Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Act, 2019 introduced a 12-
month timeline for awards, which can be extended to court proceedings.
5. Strengthen institutional arbitration: Promote credible arbitral institutions to ensure
quality and reduce reliance on courts.
o Eg: India International Arbitration Centre (IIAC), established under an
Act of Parliament in 2019, aims to boost institutional credibility.

Conclusion

19
A calibrated approach rooted in judicial minimalism and statutory clarity is essential to
preserve the credibility of arbitration. Finality must remain the rule and judicial intervention
the exception.

Q. There is a thin line between judicial independence and accountability.

Critically examine this tension. Discuss how the in-house procedure seeks to
balance these aspects. Suggest improvements based on recent experiences. (15 M)

Introduction

Judicial independence is the bedrock of constitutional democracy, but unchecked

independence risks eroding public confidence. Strengthening internal accountability, while
preserving autonomy, is essential for sustaining judicial legitimacy in India.

Body

Thin line between judicial independence and accountability

1. Protection from external interference: Independence ensures free functioning

without executive pressure.
o Eg: Article 50 mandates separation of judiciary from the executive,
reinforcing autonomy in judicial processes.
2. Risk of opacity in absence of accountability: Independence without checks can lead
to ethical lapses.
o Eg: Justice C S Karnan case (2017), where a sitting judge faced contempt
proceedings, exposing gaps in accountability.
3. Tension between public scrutiny and judicial freedom: Excessive oversight may
compromise impartial adjudication.
o Eg: 2019 NJAC judgment (Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record
Association v. Union of India) emphasised judicial primacy to safeguard
independence.
4. Lack of institutional transparency mechanisms: Absence of mandatory disclosures
leads to trust deficit.
o Eg: Until April 2025, asset declarations by judges were voluntary, limiting
public accountability.
5. High threshold for impeachment: Difficult removal process creates accountability
vacuum for ethical breaches.
o Eg: Article 124(4) provides for impeachment but needs proven misbehaviour,
excluding lesser ethical violations.

In-house procedure seeks to balance these aspects.

1. Confidential internal inquiry mechanism: Enables peer review while maintaining

institutional dignity.

20
 o Eg: In-house procedure adopted in 1999 allows complaints to be examined
without external interference.
2. Addressing ethical misconduct below impeachment threshold: Bridges the gap
between misbehaviour and bad conduct.
o Eg: Supreme Court observation (1995) recognised the need to address "bad
conduct inconsistent with high office."
3. Prompt response to allegations: Enables timely examination without legislative
delays.
o Eg: Inquiry initiated by CJI Sanjiv Khanna (2025) against Justice
Yashwant Verma post cash recovery incident.
4. Safeguards judicial independence: Procedure led by senior judges prevents
executive overreach.
o Eg: The committee structure under in-house procedure comprises senior
Supreme Court judges, ensuring autonomy.
5. Reinforces ethical standards: Upholds Restatement of Values of Judicial Life within
internal framework.
o Eg: Restatement of Values (1997) forms the ethical foundation for assessing
judicial conduct internally.

Improvements based on recent experiences.

1. Codify judicial ethics into binding legislation: Give legal force to ethical
guidelines.
o Eg: Recommendation by Law Commission of India (Report No. 195, 2006)
to formalise judicial conduct norms.
2. Mandatory public disclosure of assets: Institutionalise transparency beyond
voluntary norms.
o Eg: April 2025 decision of Supreme Court judges to publicly declare assets
sets positive precedent.
3. Strengthen independence of inquiry committees: Include external eminent jurists
for objectivity.
o Eg: UK Judicial Conduct Investigations Office includes lay members
alongside judges for impartiality.
4. Periodic audits of in-house procedures: Ensure relevance and efficiency of
accountability frameworks.
o Eg: Global Judicial Integrity Network (2023 UNODC report) advocates
regular assessment of judicial accountability mechanisms.
5. Enhance grievance redressal accessibility: Create anonymous portals for reporting
misconduct.
o Eg: Central Vigilance Commission portal (2024) enables confidential
reporting of public office misconduct, adaptable for judiciary.

Conclusion

21
Ensuring judicial independence while embedding robust accountability mechanisms is vital
for preserving public trust. A future-ready judiciary must embrace transparent, codified, and
impartial procedures to sustain its constitutional role as the guardian of justice.

Q. Judicial independence is strengthened by transfer powers but is also

vulnerable to misuse. Analyse the safeguards against arbitrary transfers.
Evaluate the impact of such transfers on judicial morale and regional justice
delivery. (15 M)

Introduction

Judicial transfers aim to shield judges from local pressures, but opacity risks undermining
both public trust and internal judicial confidence. The recent transfer of Justice Sushrut
Arvind Dharmadhikari rekindles the debate on balancing autonomy with accountability.

Body

Judicial independence is strengthened by transfer powers but is also vulnerable to

misuse

1. Protection from local pressures: Transfers prevent judges from succumbing to local
political or societal influences.
o Eg: Justice Ranjan Gogoi had earlier emphasised the need for transfers to
prevent "local nexus" risks.
2. Risk of executive overreach: Lack of transparency can allow executive interference
through subtle pressures.
o Eg: Justice Jayant Patel's resignation post-transfer from Karnataka HC to
Allahabad HC in 2017 raised concerns about executive pressure.
3. Lack of objective criteria: Absence of defined parameters can lead to arbitrary
decisions by the collegium.
o Eg: Second Judges Case, 1993, recognised the need for consultative,
reasoned decisions to uphold independence.
4. Impact on judicial autonomy perception: Perceived arbitrariness affects public trust
in judicial neutrality.
o Eg: Campaign for Judicial Accountability and Reforms (CJAR) has
repeatedly flagged concerns over opaque transfers.

Safeguards against arbitrary transfers

1. Constitutional provision of Article 222: Mandates consultation with the Chief

Justice of India for inter-state judge transfers.
o Eg: Article 222, Constitution of India ensures senior judicial opinion is
integral to transfer decisions.

22
 2. Collegium system post Second Judges Case: Ensures primacy of judiciary in
appointments and transfers.
o Eg: Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association vs Union of India
(1993) established collegium dominance.
3. Recording and disclosure of reasons: Although not mandatory, disclosure enhances
accountability of the collegium.
o Eg: In 2023, SC Collegium began publishing reasons for recommendations on
the official website.
4. Need for objective criteria and external audit: Proposals for setting clear guidelines
and periodic audits to prevent arbitrariness.
o Eg: Law Commission 230th Report (2009) recommended evolving objective
criteria for judicial transfers.

Impact of such transfers on judicial morale and regional justice delivery

A. Negative impacts

1. Erosion of judicial morale: Arbitrary transfers create insecurity and dissatisfaction

among judges.
o Eg: Justice Tahilramani's resignation in 2019 post-transfer from Madras HC
to Meghalaya HC triggered debate .
2. Disruption of case continuity: Transfer affects ongoing hearings and pending cases,
delaying justice delivery.
o Eg: National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG) 2024 highlights case backlog
spikes post-judge transfers.
3. Dilution of regional jurisprudence: Frequent transfers may weaken development of
localised legal norms.
o Eg: Constitutional Law Society study (2024) noted a decline in region-
specific legal evolution due to frequent judicial reshuffles.
4. Perception of arbitrariness eroding public trust: Frequent unexplained transfers
affect public faith in judicial impartiality.
o Eg: CJAR 2023 report observed declining public confidence in states with
high transfer frequency.

Positive impacts

1. Exposure to diverse legal cultures: Transfers promote cross-pollination of judicial

perspectives across states.
o Eg: Justice Kurian Joseph acknowledged diverse exposure enriches judicial
understanding.
2. Break local influence networks: Transfers disrupt entrenched local vested interests.
o Eg: Justice Ranjan Gogoi's observations in 2018 supported transfers to
break regional power nexuses.

23
 3. Promote national integration of judiciary: Transfers foster a pan-Indian judicial
outlook.
o Eg: Supreme Court Bar Association (2024) highlighted that transfers
strengthen national coherence in judicial interpretation.
4. Administrative flexibility for workload management: Transfers help in balancing
uneven caseloads across High Courts.
o Eg: NJDG 2024 data showed reduced pendency in Kerala HC after influx of
transferred judges.

Conclusion

Future-proofing judicial transfers demands codified transparency and clear objective criteria.
Ensuring fairness will not only uphold judicial integrity but also reinforce public trust in the
justice delivery system.

Q. Cabinet Committees enable strategic agility but pose risks of centralised

decision-making. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction

Cabinet Committees are powerful instruments of internal Cabinet governance that allow
swift, targeted decisions on complex issues. However, their informal nature and limited
inclusivity raise critical concerns about centralised authority.

Body

Strategic agility through Cabinet Committees

1. Rapid decision-making on critical issues: They bypass full cabinet deliberations and
enable faster decisions in high-stakes scenarios.
o Eg: Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) swiftly announced retaliatory
measures post Pahalgam attack (April 2025) including suspension of Indus
Waters Treaty
2. Specialised policy coordination: Each committee focuses on a specific domain,
ensuring thematic coherence and technical depth.
o Eg: The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) cleared the
Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme Phase-II in March 2024 to
boost electronics manufacturing.
3. Crisis management and national response: Ad-hoc committees can be formed to
respond to emergencies like pandemics or wars.
o Eg: A special Cabinet Committee on COVID-19 management was
constituted in 2020, ensuring coordinated procurement of vaccines and
hospital infrastructure.
4. Inter-ministerial convergence: Helps in resolving departmental silos, especially in
overlapping areas like climate, defence, or technology.
24
 o Eg: Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) played a key role in
framing India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 through
coordination between MEITY, MHA and Law Ministry.
5. Discretionary Prime Ministerial control: PM-led Committees ensure top-down
alignment of national priorities.
o Eg: All major Cabinet Committees (except two) are headed by Prime
Minister, showcasing centralised strategic direction.

Risks of centralised decision-making

1. Bypassing full Cabinet and institutional deliberation: Decisions can be confined to

a few ministers without wider consultation.
o Eg: In 2021, changes to farm export policies were cleared by CCEA without
detailed cabinet or state consultations, sparking federal concerns.
2. Opaque and unaccountable decision processes: Most committees don’t publish
agendas, minutes or deliberations.
o Eg: RTI applications (2019) on CCS meetings during Balakot airstrikes
were denied on national security grounds, raising transparency concerns.
3. Undermining collective cabinet responsibility: Constitutionally, all ministers are
jointly accountable, but real power lies with select committees.
o Eg: Article 75(3) implies collective responsibility, yet only 5–8 ministers are
often involved in critical decisions.
4. Exclusion of junior ministers or domain experts: Committees typically exclude
MoS or non-cabinet domain specialists.
o Eg: In 2022, MoS for Tribal Affairs raised concerns over not being consulted
during forest land diversion approvals by the CCEA.
5. Reinforcement of Prime Ministerial dominance: Dominance in committee
composition and chairmanship allows excessive centralisation.
o Eg: The GOMs and EGoMs system, scrapped in 2014, was replaced with
tighter PMO oversight via Cabinet Committees (ARC II Report).

Ensuring a balance between efficiency and accountability

1. Statutory backing and procedural reforms: Codify the committee structure in rules
to ensure regular disclosures and oversight.
o Eg: Administrative Reforms Commission (2nd ARC) recommended greater
documentation and disclosure of committee decisions (Report on Ethics in
Governance, 2007).
2. Periodic parliamentary briefings: Sensitive decisions can be explained in in-camera
sessions of relevant standing committees.
o Eg: The Defence Standing Committee could be briefed quarterly on CCS
security directions under confidentiality norms.
3. Inclusion of wider representation: Include domain-specific ministers or experts
based on the agenda, not just rank.

25
 o Eg: Best practice from the UK National Security Council, which brings in
technical experts and select opposition leaders during crises.
4. Time-bound review mechanisms: Key committee decisions should be subjected to
sunset clauses or post-facto evaluation.
o Eg: Fiscal decisions under CCEA during COVID were retrospectively
assessed by CAG in 2023 for outcome audit.
5. Digital documentation and internal accountability: Maintain a secure digital record
of meetings, decisions and dissent, for internal checks.
o Eg: Following EU Council protocols, Indian Cabinet Committees could
maintain a secure e-governance record system for internal transparency.

Conclusion

Cabinet Committees are indispensable for swift executive action, yet their unchecked
evolution may deepen centralisation. A balance must be struck by institutionalising
democratic oversight without compromising the state's agility in a complex security and
policy landscape.

Q. Short tenures of Chief Justices risk continuity in institutional reforms.

Analyse the impact of frequent leadership changes on judicial efficiency. Suggest
structural reforms to address this issue. (10 M)

Introduction
Frequent changes in the office of the Chief Justice of India weaken reform continuity,
undermining the long-term vision necessary for judicial efficiency and systemic
transformation.

Body

Impact of frequent leadership changes on judicial efficiency

1. Disruption of reform momentum: Short tenures prevent the sustained execution of

ambitious reform agendas.
o Eg: Justice U.U. Lalit’s 74-day tenure (2022) restricted follow-through on
proposals for legal aid restructuring and standardising e-filing procedures.
2. Policy inconsistency: Varied priorities of successive CJIs create fragmented reform
trajectories.
o Eg: Justice N.V. Ramana focused on judicial infrastructure, while Justice
D.Y. Chandrachud shifted focus to technology integration and open court
reforms.
3. Delay in digitalisation and innovation: Incomplete leadership cycles hinder
complex transitions like court digitalisation.
o Eg: The E-Committee Phase III report (2021) set ambitious digital targets
which remain partially implemented due to successive leadership turnovers.

26
 4. Weak executive-judiciary coordination: Short stints limit the CJI's engagement
with other branches for institutional dialogue.
o Eg: The National Judicial Infrastructure Authority, proposed by Justice
Ramana, still lacks statutory backing due to loss of momentum post his
retirement.
5. Reduced institutional accountability: Lack of long-term leadership reduces
responsibility for systemic issues and bench backlogs.
o Eg: Constitution bench cases like electoral bonds and Article 370 remained
unresolved over multiple tenures.

Structural reforms to address the issue

1. Minimum tenure convention: Institutionalise a convention for at least a one-year

term for CJIs.
o Eg: The Venkatachaliah Commission (2002) recommended a minimum
tenure norm to ensure sustained reform implementation.
2. Permanent judicial reform cell: Set up an autonomous body within the SC to
continue reforms beyond individual tenures.
o Eg: The 230th Law Commission Report recommended a National Judicial
Planning and Performance Authority for reform continuity.
3. Collegial leadership in reform process: Involve top SC judges in decision-making
to decentralise reform responsibility.
o Eg: UK’s Judicial Executive Board works as a team for systemic reforms,
not dependent on the chief judge alone.
4. Advance succession calendar: Plan leadership changes in advance to avoid back-to-
back short tenures.
o Eg: In Germany, judicial appointments are spaced with foresight to ensure
leadership continuity and policy coherence.
5. Statutory backing to key reforms: Codify core judicial reform measures to reduce
over-reliance on individual CJIs.
o Eg: A Judicial Infrastructure Authority Act could ensure stable funding
and monitoring, independent of changing leadership.

Conclusion
Leadership transitions must not translate to reform setbacks. A hybrid model of collective
reform leadership and structural continuity mechanisms is vital for a future-ready and
efficient judiciary.

27
Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act.
Q. Democratic institutions must evolve from procedural formalism to active
citizen engagement. Analyse in the context of uncontested elections in India.
Suggest institutional reforms to safeguard voter empowerment where electoral
choice is limited. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s democracy thrives on citizen participation, yet the persistence of uncontested
elections reveals serious gaps in voter agency and systemic responsiveness.

Body

How uncontested elections reveal gaps in India's electoral democracy

1. Violation of voter sovereignty: Denies citizens the opportunity to exercise free

electoral choice.
 Eg: Surat Lok Sabha seat (2024) where the a candidate was declared elected
unopposed, depriving over 20 lakh voters of choice (ECI Report 2024)
2. Dilution of democratic legitimacy: Representatives lack affirmative public
endorsement.
 Eg: Justice Surya Kant (SC Hearing, April 2025) observed the need for a
minimum vote threshold to ensure legitimacy even in uncontested elections
3. Undermining of NOTA rights: Restricts voters from registering disapproval against
candidates.
 Eg: PUCL vs Union of India (2013) SC judgment recognised NOTA as an
extension of Article 19(1)(a) guaranteeing freedom of expression
4. Weakening of electoral competitiveness: Reduces vibrancy of the electoral process
and choices.
 Eg: Election Commission data (2024) showed that uncontested elections are rare
but have impacted over 82 lakh voters since 1951
5. Lack of legal safeguards: Section 53(2) of the RPA, 1951, enables declaration of
winners without mandate.
 Eg: Representation of the People Act, 1951, Section 53(2) allows automatic
election without requiring actual voting when candidates are unopposed

Measures to institutionalize voter empowerment where electoral choice is limited

1. Introduce mandatory minimum vote threshold: Require a minimum percentage of

votes for uncontested candidates.
 Eg: SC suggestion (April 2025) proposed a 10–15% minimum valid votes
requirement before declaring uncontested winners
2. Mandatory NOTA contest: Treat NOTA as a deemed candidate and trigger re-poll if
NOTA wins majority.

28
  Eg: Law Commission 255th Report (2015) recommended considering NOTA
outcomes for strengthening electoral democracy
3. Legislative amendment to Section 53(2) of RPA, 1951: Modify law to mandate
polling even if a single candidate remains.
 Eg: Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy petition (2024) demanded elections even in
uncontested seats to uphold voter rights
4. Enhanced scrutiny of nomination withdrawals: Strengthen ECI's powers to
investigate mass withdrawal trends.
 Eg: ECI's Surat case review (2024) recommended scrutiny mechanisms after
mass rejection and withdrawals in unopposed scenarios
5. Public funding and incentives for independent candidates: Promote more
candidates to widen voter choice.
 Eg: Indrajit Gupta Committee on State Funding of Elections (1998)
recommended partial state funding to encourage wider participation
6. Voter education campaigns: Raise awareness about the importance of contesting
elections and NOTA.
 Eg: SVEEP Programme by ECI (latest revision 2023) intensified voter
awareness regarding NOTA and electoral participation
7. Institutionalize constituency-level debates: Mandate open public debates even if a
single candidate remains.
 Eg: US Presidential Townhalls model encourages voter scrutiny and informed
participation even in limited choice scenarios

Conclusion
Ensuring true democratic choice demands moving beyond procedural elections to meaningful
engagement of citizens. Building resilient, voter-centric institutions is essential to future-
proof India’s democracy.

Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions

and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies.

Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.

Q. Enumerate the challenges of maintaining independence of investigative
agencies in a federal polity. Propose institutional safeguards to uphold their
autonomy. (10 M)

Introduction

Investigative agencies are the cornerstone of criminal justice in a democracy, but in a

complex federal polity like India, ensuring their autonomy remains a persistent challenge
amidst political and jurisdictional pressures.

Body

29
Challenges of maintaining independence of investigative agencies

1. Political interference in appointments and transfers: Lack of independent control

over top positions makes agencies vulnerable.
o Eg: Verma Committee (2012) highlighted political control over CBI
appointments as a major concern.
2. Overlapping jurisdictions and turf conflicts: State-centre conflicts create
operational hurdles in sensitive investigations.
o Eg: CBI vs. West Bengal government standoff during the Saradha scam
probe (2019).
3. Dependence on state governments for logistical support: State consent is
mandatory under Section 6 of the Delhi Special Police Establishment Act, 1946.
o Eg: 8 states including West Bengal and Chhattisgarh withdrew general
consent for CBI by 2024.
4. Delays in cross-border evidence collection: Federal setups complicate coordination
in transnational investigations.
o Eg: Bofors case delays despite Letters Rogatory to the US since November
2023.
5. Judicial pendency affecting accountability: Courts’ delays in oversight dilute
timely redressal of political misuse allegations.
o Eg: Supreme Court monitoring of coal scam prolonged over a decade
(2012–2023).

Institutional safeguards to uphold their autonomy

1. Independent appointments and fixed tenure: Ensure merit-based selection

insulated from executive influence.
o Eg: Vineet Narain judgment (1997) mandated two-year fixed tenure for
CBI Director.
2. Strengthening parliamentary oversight: Regular reporting to parliamentary
committees to ensure transparency.
o Eg: Parliamentary Committee on Home Affairs, 2023, recommended
stronger scrutiny of investigative agencies.
3. State-centre cooperation frameworks: Institutionalised mechanisms for smoother
state-federal coordination.
o Eg: Inter-State Council revival in 2022 aimed to improve centre-state
dialogue on law enforcement issues.
4. Legal backing for operational independence: Statutory status for agencies like CBI
to enhance credibility.
o Eg: Administrative Reforms Commission II (2008) recommended statutory
backing for CBI.
5. Judicial oversight and fast-tracking sensitive cases: Ensure timely judicial
supervision of politically sensitive cases.

30
 o Eg: Special courts for political corruption cases were set up in 2017
following Supreme Court directive.

Conclusion

Strengthening investigative autonomy is vital to uphold democratic accountability and rule of

law. Institutionalising reforms today will safeguard the integrity of justice delivery tomorrow.

Q. Despite the intent to reduce judicial backlog, tribunals like Central

Administrative Tribunal are grappling with their own pendency crisis. Evaluate
the reasons behind this trend and its implications for administrative justice in
India. (10 M)

Introduction

The Central Administrative Tribunal under Article 323-A was envisioned for speedy
resolution of service matters, but growing pendency threatens its foundational objective of
accessible administrative justice.

Body

Reasons behind pendency in CAT

1. Vacancies in appointments: Delays in appointing judicial and administrative

members impede tribunal functioning.
 Eg: As per Ministry of Law and Justice, 2024, several tribunal posts
including in CAT remained vacant, causing case accumulation.
2. Geographical limitations of benches: Limited regional benches burden existing ones
and restrict access.
 Eg: NITI Aayog Strategy for New India @75 recommended expansion of
tribunal benches to reduce regional disparities.
3. Procedural delays and adjournments: Repeated adjournments prolong timelines
and add to the backlog.
 Eg: Law Commission of India Report No. 272 (2017) highlighted
procedural inefficiencies contributing to pendency in tribunals.
4. Complexity of service disputes: Evolving employment regulations increase
complexity and duration of hearings.
 Eg: With introduction of new pension schemes and digital service records,
service disputes have grown multifaceted (DoPT Annual Report 2023-24).
5. Executive influence over administration: Lack of independence affects institutional
efficiency and case management.
 Eg: Madras High Court observations 2021 emphasised that executive
control compromises tribunal autonomy.

31
Implications for administrative justice

1. Delay in employee grievance redressal: Prolonged cases erode morale and trust in
justice delivery.
 Eg: DoPT report 2023 acknowledged that delayed dispute resolution affects
promotion and service conditions.
2. Burden shift to higher judiciary: Inefficiency in tribunals increases load on High
Courts and Supreme Court.
 Eg: Supreme Court annual statistics 2023 reported rising appeals in service
matters originating from CAT.
3. Erosion of public trust: Perceived inefficiency undermines the credibility of the
tribunal system.
 Eg: Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy 2023 noted concerns over tribunal delays
affecting public perception of justice.
4. Defeating the purpose of tribunalisation: Slow disposal undermines CAT’s purpose
of timely resolution outside conventional courts.
 Eg: L. Chandra Kumar judgment 1997 underlined the role of tribunals in
expediting justice for service disputes.
5. Limited access to justice for remote litigants: Absence of adequate benches
increases cost and time for rural litigants.
 Eg: NITI Aayog Strategy @75 advocated decentralisation to enhance access
for all litigants.

Conclusion

CAT's pendency crisis calls for urgent reforms in appointments, regional expansion, and
autonomy to uphold the objectives of administrative justice and prevent erosion of public
trust.

Q. What are the major structural, legal, and operational deficiencies in the
functioning of the National Commission for Women? How can these be
addressed to make it an institution of consequence? (15 M)

Introduction
The National Commission for Women (NCW), formed in 1992 under the NCW Act,
1990, is India’s apex statutory body for protecting and promoting women’s rights. However,
its effectiveness has often been questioned due to inherent design and implementation gaps.

Body

Structural deficiencies in NCW

1. Lack of financial and functional autonomy: NCW depends heavily on the central
government for funding and staffing.

32
  Eg:– NCW’s Annual Report 2022-23 highlights delays in fund disbursement
and inadequate budget allocation compared to statutory workload.
2. Non-transparent appointments: Appointments lack an independent, merit-based
process leading to politicisation.
 Eg:– Parliamentary Standing Committee on Empowerment of Women
(2021) flagged concerns about lack of clear criteria in appointing the
Chairperson and members.
3. Limited regional presence: NCW lacks decentralised offices, weakening outreach in
rural and remote areas.
 Eg:– During the 2023 Manipur ethnic violence, NCW faced delays in ground
reporting due to absence of zonal structures.
4. Inadequate institutional synergy: Poor coordination with State Commissions for
Women and other rights bodies.
 Eg:– NITI Aayog (2020) in its gender index noted duplication of work and
lack of standardised coordination protocols between NCW and SCWs.

Legal deficiencies in NCW

1. Absence of enforcement powers: NCW’s recommendations are non-binding,

reducing its deterrent capacity.
 Eg:– In the 2021 Hathras case, NCW’s directions on police accountability
were not acted upon due to their advisory nature.
2. Outdated legislative mandate: The NCW Act, 1990 does not cover contemporary
gender issues like cyberstalking, online abuse, or LGBTQ+ inclusion.
 Eg:– Justice B.N. Srikrishna Committee (2018) suggested revamping gender
bodies to cover digital rights violations, yet NCW’s scope remains unchanged.
3. No suo motu penal action authority: The Commission cannot take legal action on
its own, only recommend.
 Eg:– In Murshidabad violence 2025, NCW formed a team but could not
initiate any independent legal proceedings.
4. Ambiguity in jurisdiction: Overlap with NHRC and NCPCR creates confusion in
cases involving minors or intersecting rights.
 Eg:– National Human Rights Commission (2022) and NCW had
overlapping jurisdiction in the Hyderabad rape case involving a minor.

Operational deficiencies in NCW

1. Lack of investigative capacity: NCW lacks in-house experts, forensics, and legal
investigation infrastructure.
 Eg:– Verma Committee (2013) recommended creating investigative wings
for gender commissions, which remains unfulfilled for NCW.
2. Slow response mechanisms: Complaint redressal is often delayed due to manual
systems and understaffing.

33
  Eg:– CAG Report (2019) noted pendency in case disposal rates, with over
40% cases pending beyond 6 months.
3. Weak data and research base: Absence of evidence-driven interventions hampers
proactive policymaking.
 Eg:– Unlike NCW Australia, India's NCW lacks an annual gender audit or
real-time dashboard for women’s safety.
4. Public visibility and awareness gaps: Many women, especially in marginalised
areas, are unaware of NCW’s existence or how to access it.
 Eg:– National Family Health Survey-5 (2021) indicated that over 62%
rural women did not know how to report rights violations to any commission.

Way forward to make NCW an institution of consequence

1. Legislative overhaul of NCW Act: Amend the 1990 Act to include enforcement
powers, cyber jurisdiction, and intersectional scope.
 Eg:– Law Commission of India (Report No. 264, 2017) suggested
expanding powers of statutory gender bodies to enhance enforceability.
2. Establish decentralised and digital offices: Create zonal offices and integrate
grievance systems with digital and mobile platforms.
 Eg:– Karnataka State Commission for Women launched a mobile app for
rapid complaint registration and tracking in 2023.
3. Institutionalise merit-based appointments: Create an independent collegium for
selection with representation from judiciary and civil society.
 Eg:– Model inspired by NHRC appointment process under Protection of
Human Rights Act, 1993.
4. Build investigative and research units: Develop in-house legal, medical and
psychological teams; commission thematic studies.
 Eg:– UK’s Equality and Human Rights Commission maintains a strong
evidence base through regular gender audits.

Conclusion
To truly serve the constitutional vision of Article 15(3) and 39(a), the NCW must evolve
from a recommendatory platform to an enforceable, responsive, and tech-savvy institution.
A rights body without power is symbolism; empowerment must begin with systemic
overhaul.

Q. Examine the role of the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) in

safeguarding consumer rights in India. What institutional limitations hamper its
effectiveness? Suggest measures to strengthen its regulatory and enforcement
capacity. (15 M)

Introduction

34
The growing digital economy and aggressive consumer targeting have heightened the risk of
exploitation. The CCPA, formed under the Consumer Protection Act 2019, is a dedicated
regulator, but its limited enforcement capacity dilutes its impact.

Body

Role of CCPA in safeguarding consumer rights

1. Regulation of misleading advertisements: CCPA investigates, penalises, and orders

discontinuation of false or exaggerated claims.
o Eg: In April 2024, CCPA fined 24 coaching firms ₹77.6 lakh for deceptive
success rate ads .
2. Product recall and refund enforcement: It can direct manufacturers to recall unsafe
goods and initiate consumer refund mechanisms.
o Eg: In 2022, CCPA ordered recall of Dominar pressure cookers for safety
violations .
3. Suo motu investigations: It has powers to initiate inquiries even without a formal
complaint, enhancing proactive protection.
o Eg: In 2023, CCPA investigated e-commerce platforms for dark patterns like
hidden charges (MoCAI Whitepaper, 2023).
4. Digital and e-commerce regulation: CCPA monitors adherence to disclosure norms,
seller info, and grievance timelines on digital platforms.
o Eg: In 2023, CCPA issued notices to Amazon and Flipkart for violating e-
commerce transparency rules .
5. Enforcement of consumer rights charter: Upholds key consumer rights under
Section 2(9), including right to information and redressal.
o Eg: CCPA facilitated refunds for online airline ticket delays during COVID
lockdowns .

Institutional limitations hampering its effectiveness

1. Lack of independent enforcement wings: CCPA relies on district collectors,

limiting its ability to enforce compliance directly.
o Eg: In 2024, only 76 enforcement actions were taken against over 2000
reported violations (CCPA Annual Report, 2025).
2. Low public awareness and outreach: Consumers are often unaware of CCPA’s
functions or how to file grievances.
o Eg: A 2023 LocalCircles survey showed only 18% consumers knew how to
report misleading ads to CCPA.
3. Inadequate monitoring of digital advertisements: Absence of AI tools restricts
CCPA’s ability to track violations on social media.
o Eg: Despite the surge in misleading crypto and health ads, only 12 notices
were issued in 2023 .

35
 4. No jurisdiction over psychological harm: Current law does not cover mental
distress from exploitative marketing or false hope.
o Eg: Misleading claims like “IAS in 1 year” go unchecked for their emotional
impact on youth .
5. Understaffing and budgetary constraints: CCPA has limited trained manpower and
funding, affecting its nationwide responsiveness.
o Eg: As per the Standing Committee on Consumer Affairs (2023), CCPA
has only one-third of the sanctioned staff strength.

Measures to strengthen regulatory and enforcement capacity

1. Statutory expansion to cover emotional exploitation: Amend CPA 2019 to include

psychological harm and punitive compensation clauses.
o Eg: The Parliamentary Standing Committee (2023) recommended
broadening CCPA’s jurisdiction to cover emotional distress and digital
manipulation.
2. Decentralised enforcement wings: Set up zonal/regional offices with dedicated
inspectors and real-time grievance teams.
o Eg: SEBI’s zonal model provides an effective template for consumer
surveillance at regional levels.
3. Mandatory ad disclaimers and audit disclosures: Enforce uniform display norms
and periodic data publication of product claims.
o Eg: Draft amendments to CPA rules (2024) propose uniform font size for
disclaimers in ads (DCA Proposal, 2024).
4. AI-based ad surveillance system: Use automated tools to detect misleading claims
on TV, OTT, YouTube, and social media.
o Eg: The European Union’s eAdvertising Watchdog uses NLP-AI models
to track real-time violations.
5. National consumer awareness campaigns: Launch targeted education on consumer
rights, reporting processes, and legal remedies.
o Eg: “Jago Grahak Jago 2.0” campaign in 2025 focuses on digital redressal
awareness among rural and tier-2 populations.

Conclusion

CCPA has the legislative mandate but lacks systemic muscle. A rights-based, tech-enabled,
and regionally decentralised approach is essential to convert it from a warning body to a
watchdog with teeth.

36
Government policies and interventions for development in
various sectors and issues arising out of their design and
implementation.
Q. Examine the objectives behind the Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025.
Analyse how it seeks to modernise India’s immigration framework. (10 M)

Introduction
In response to evolving global migration patterns and security challenges, India has
introduced the Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025, aiming to overhaul its immigration
system to better serve national interests and international obligations.

Body

Objectives behind the Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025

1. Enhancing national security: The Bill aims to strengthen border control and monitor
the entry and exit of individuals to prevent illegal immigration and associated security
threats.
 Eg: Establishment of the Bureau of Immigration to oversee immigration
functions and enforce regulations.
2. Consolidating existing laws: It seeks to unify and replace outdated statutes to
eliminate redundancy and create a cohesive legal framework.
 Eg: Repeal of the Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920, and the Foreigners
Act, 1946, integrating their provisions into a single legislation .
3. Facilitating economic growth: By streamlining visa processes, the Bill aims to
attract global talent and investors to bolster economic development.
 Eg: Introduction of new visa categories such as the Investor Visa and
Startup Visa to encourage foreign direct investment and entrepreneurship.
4. Implementing technological advancements: The legislation promotes the use of
digital systems to enhance efficiency and transparency in immigration procedures.
 Eg: Development of the Integrated Immigration Management System
(IIMS) utilizing biometric identification and AI-based monitoring tools .
5. Ensuring compliance and accountability: The Bill introduces stringent penalties for
violations to deter illegal activities and enforce adherence to immigration laws.
 Eg: Imposition of fines up to ₹500,000 for carriers transporting passengers
without valid documents .

Modernisation of India’s immigration framework

1. Digital integration: Adoption of advanced technologies for visa issuance and

monitoring to expedite processes and reduce human error.
 Eg: Implementation of a centralized digital platform for visa applications
and approvals .

37
 2. Establishment of regulatory bodies: Creation of dedicated authorities to oversee
immigration matters, ensuring specialized focus and streamlined operations.
 Eg: Formation of the National Immigration Authority (NIA) to manage
policy formulation and implementation .
3. Introduction of diverse visa categories: Tailoring visa options to cater to various
purposes, facilitating targeted immigration aligned with national priorities.
 Eg: Launch of the Skilled Talent Visa to attract professionals in priority
sectors like AI and biotechnology.
4. Mandatory registration and reporting: Instituting requirements for foreigners and
associated institutions to register and report, enhancing tracking and accountability.
 Eg: Requirement for foreign nationals staying over 180 days to register with
the National Foreigners Registry.
5. Strengthening enforcement mechanisms: Empowering authorities with the tools
and mandates necessary to enforce immigration laws effectively.
 Eg: Authorization for immigration officers to detain individuals perceived
as threats to national security.

Conclusion
The Immigration and Foreigners Bill, 2025, represents a significant step towards creating a
robust, efficient, and secure immigration system. Its success will depend on balanced
implementation that upholds national security while respecting individual rights and
international commitments.

Q. Evaluate how flaws in beneficiary identification under various government

schemes affect social justice. Propose reforms to strengthen grievance redressal
in welfare systems. (10 M)

Introduction

Flawed beneficiary identification weakens social welfare's constitutional mandate of ensuring

dignity and equality, leading to exclusion, leakages, and erosion of public trust.

Body

Impact of flaws in beneficiary identification on social justice

1. Exclusion of vulnerable groups: It deprives rightful citizens of basic entitlements,

deepening existing inequalities.
o Eg: 10 crore eligible beneficiaries excluded from NFSA benefits due to
outdated Census-2001 data .
2. Widening rural-urban disparities: Poor targeting disproportionately impacts rural
and marginalised communities.
o Eg: SECC 2011 data shortcomings led to misidentification in PMAY-G
housing allocations (NITI Aayog Review, 2023).

38
 3. Corruption and middlemen exploitation: Lack of clear identification fosters
leakage and bribe demands.
o Eg: Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) evaluation (2023) found ghost
beneficiaries in PM-KISAN Yojana in several states (Source: Ministry of
Agriculture).
4. Weakening of constitutional rights: Violations of Articles 14, 21, and 47 occur
when targeted beneficiaries are left out.
o Eg: Supreme Court in Swaraj Abhiyan v. Union of India (2016) stressed
correct identification under MGNREGA for ensuring right to livelihood.
5. Undermining welfare credibility: Faulty targeting lowers trust in government
schemes and democratic governance.
o Eg: CAG Report (2024) highlighted inaccurate data usage in Ayushman
Bharat leading to denial of hospitalisation claims for poor families.

Reforms to strengthen grievance redressal in welfare systems

1. Dynamic beneficiary updation: Establish real-time updation mechanisms using

Aadhaar-linked databases.
o Eg: Jharkhand's Mukhya Mantri Sukhad Rahat Yojana successfully
revised beneficiary lists dynamically post 2022 droughts.
2. Independent grievance redressal authorities: Create district-level welfare
ombudsman bodies with citizen charters.
o Eg: Kerala’s Public Grievance Redressal Mechanism (2023) achieved over
85% resolution rate within 60 days.
3. Community-based social audits: Mandate third-party verifications and public social
audits for welfare schemes.
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh’s Mahila Samakhya audit groups identified 12%
ghost beneficiaries under PDS in 2023 (Source: AP State Audit Report).
4. Integration of grievance portals: Create unified portals integrating all schemes with
multilingual accessibility.
o Eg: Rajasthan Sampark Portal (2024) provides integrated complaint
registration and tracking across welfare schemes.
5. Legal recognition of the right to grievance redressal: Statutorily guarantee timely
redress under welfare laws.
o Eg: Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) recommended
statutory backing for grievance redressal systems (Report No. 12).

Conclusion

Ensuring that no citizen is denied rightful benefits must remain the cornerstone of welfare
governance, demanding real-time targeting and citizen-centric grievance redressal reforms.

39
Q. India’s social sector demands a foundational shift from intent-driven activism
to method-driven leadership. Analyse the rationale for this shift. Examine the
features of Development Management. Suggest reforms to mainstream it into
public policy. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s ₹25 lakh crore social sector, expanding at 13% annually, is central to inclusive nation-
building but lacks a professionalised management ecosystem suited to its complexity and
scale.

Body

Rationale for shift from intent-driven to method-driven leadership

1. Scale of operations has outpaced intent: Social interventions now span healthcare,
livelihoods, education, and climate action, requiring systemic delivery tools.
o Eg: The Aspirational Districts Programme (NITI Aayog) struggled in early
phases due to lack of on-ground strategic capacity.
2. Incompatibility of business models with social missions: Corporate strategies focus
on efficiency, while SPOs need long-term, trust-based engagement.
o Eg: Many CSR-funded SPOs adopting output-focused KPIs fail in
measuring community-centric impact (Source: India CSR Outlook Report
2024).
3. High burnout and leadership vacuum: Activist leadership lacks institutionalised
grooming or support for scaling impact.
o Eg: ISDM study (2023) found that over 60% of SPOs had no structured
leadership development framework.
4. Power asymmetries and community exclusion: Traditional models often
marginalise the voices of beneficiaries in planning and execution.
o Eg: CAG Report (2022) on tribal welfare schemes in Jharkhand highlighted
lack of participatory planning.
5. Need for mission-aligned efficiency: Method-based leadership enables
accountability without compromising on values.
o Eg: Transform Schools program by Samhita Foundation used strategic
planning with empathy-driven leadership to improve dropout rates.

Key features of Development Management (DM)

1. Systems thinking approach: Considers interlinked issues rather than silo-based

solutions.
o Eg: Gram Vaani’s community media model integrates education, health,
and gender voices in rural Bihar.
2. Collaborative and distributed leadership: Moves beyond charismatic individuals to
collective institutional strength.

40
 o Eg: PRADAN’s decentralised team leadership ensures community
ownership in rural livelihoods.
3. Values-based decision-making: Anchored in equity, dignity, and justice beyond
efficiency metrics.
o Eg: Barefoot College (Tilonia) builds capacities of rural women without any
formal hierarchy.
4. Capacity-building for complexity: Trains SPO leaders in policy, finance,
stakeholder engagement, and design thinking.
o Eg: ISDM’s Development Management Programme integrates fieldwork,
systems tools, and ethical leadership.
5. Open-source knowledge and learning: Encourages ecosystem-wide sharing and
feedback loops.
o Eg: India Data Portal (ISB) promotes data-driven social action by making
public datasets easily accessible.

Reforms to mainstream Development Management in public policy

1. Institutionalise DM education and training: Create dedicated national institutes and

integrate into existing ones.
o Eg: Proposal to establish a National School for Development Management
akin to IIMs, as suggested in ISDM-ASHOKA 2023 paper.
2. Mandate DM capabilities in government schemes: Incorporate it in flagship
programmes like PMAY, NRLM.
o Eg: MoRD pilot with ISDM on integrating DM principles in DAY-NRLM
training modules (2024).
3. Fund capacity-building, not just outcomes: CSR and state grants must allocate
budgets for leadership and institutional development.
o Eg: Tata Trusts 2023 guidelines allow up to 20% funding for organisation-
building.
4. Create a Development Leadership Cadre: Similar to IAS, to professionalise SPO
management within ministries.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s recommendation (2021) for a Development Professionals
Network under SDG implementation.
5. Policy recognition of DM as core infrastructure: Treat it like roads or digital
infra—essential for program delivery.
o Eg: Economic Survey 2024 highlighted need for “institutional backbone” in
social sector governance.

Conclusion
For India to achieve Viksit Bharat by 2047, it must go beyond welfare spending and invest in
building strategic, values-based leadership. Development Management is not optional—it is
foundational to sustainable transformation.

41
Development processes and the development industry —the role
of NGOs, SHGs, various groups and associations, donors,
charities, institutional and other stakeholders.
Q. What are the key arguments in favour of a caste-based census in India? How
do critics view its impact on social cohesion and national integration? (10 M).

Introduction
India lacks credible, updated data on the socio-economic status of OBCs despite affirmative
action commitments, making caste enumeration a data justice issue.

Body

Key arguments in favour of a caste-based census

1. Evidence-based policy formulation: Absence of credible OBC data hinders targeted

welfare delivery.
o Eg: Mandal Commission (1980) relied on 1931 census, estimating OBCs at
52%, highlighting data vacuum in policymaking.
2. Constitutional mandate for equity: Articles 15(4) and 16(4) empower state to make
special provisions for backward classes.
o Eg: Indra Sawhney judgment (1992) upheld 27% OBC quota, emphasizing
the need for updated data to review reservations.
3. Ensuring fair resource distribution: Accurate data helps allocate funds and
schemes based on actual need.
o Eg: Socio-Economic Caste Census (2011) identified deprivation indicators
but lacked usable caste classification, hampering MPLAD fund targeting.
4. Strengthening decentralised governance: Panchayati Raj institutions need caste
data for inclusive grassroots planning.
o Eg: Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957) stressed inclusion of
marginalised groups in rural governance; current data gap weakens this.
5. Correcting historical under-representation: Caste census helps evaluate
representation in bureaucracy, legislature, and judiciary.
o Eg: Justice Rohini Commission (2024) flagged lack of data as a barrier to
sub-categorisation within OBC quota.

Critics’ view on impact on social cohesion and national integration

1. Reinforces caste identities: Enumeration may deepen caste consciousness,

countering efforts for a casteless society.
o Eg: Some political experts warned that caste census should be avoided as a
political tool to prevent social division.
2. Risks of politicisation: Political parties may use caste data for vote bank mobilisation
and polarised campaigning.

42
 o Eg: Bihar caste survey (2023) was criticised for being released near
elections, raising doubts about electoral neutrality.
3. Administrative burden and ambiguity: Thousands of sub-castes with overlapping
names make classification prone to errors.
o Eg: P Chidambaram’s Lok Sabha speech (2011) cited caste duplication and
confusion in state vs central OBC lists.
4. Threat to national unity: Excessive focus on caste data can fragment the narrative of
citizenship and shared identity.
o Eg: Constituent Assembly Debates, especially by Ambedkar, warned
against over-structuring society around caste post-Independence.
5. May overshadow economic criteria: Class-based deprivation could get sidelined,
weakening the focus on universal social justice.
o Eg: Critics of SECC (Standing Committee report, 2016) pointed out lack of
correlation between caste and economic deprivation.

Conclusion
India must walk a fine line—ensuring data-driven affirmative action while fostering a
shared civic identity. A caste census with clear safeguards and limited scope can be a
reformist—not divisive—tool.

Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the

Centre and States and the performance of these schemes;
mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the
protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections.
Q. Anticipatory bail ensures protection of innocent citizens but must not become
a shield for offenders. Discuss. (10 M)

Introduction
Anticipatory bail acts as a vital shield for safeguarding personal liberty, yet its misuse
undermines the justice system and public trust. Ensuring its responsible application is crucial
for balancing rights and responsibilities.

Body

Anticipatory bail ensures protection of innocent citizens

1. Protection against arbitrary arrest: Safeguards citizens from wrongful detention

and harassment.
o Eg: Siddharam Satlingappa Mhetre v. State of Maharashtra (2011)
affirmed anticipatory bail as a tool against arbitrary arrests (Supreme Court
Judgments).
2. Upholding right to personal liberty: Reinforces Article 21 of the Constitution
guaranteeing life and personal liberty.

43
 o Eg: Gurbaksh Singh Sibbia v. State of Punjab (1980) recognised
anticipatory bail as intrinsic to Article 21 protection
3. Prevents misuse of criminal process: Guards against false cases filed with malafide
intentions.
o Eg: Law Commission of India 203rd Report (2006) highlighted anticipatory
bail as a check on malicious prosecution
4. Facilitates fair investigation: Allows accused to cooperate with investigation
without custodial coercion.
o Eg: Delhi High Court (2024) observed anticipatory bail enables voluntary
participation in probe while preserving liberty.

Being used as shield for offenders

1. Potential misuse by habitual offenders: Repeat offenders exploit anticipatory bail to

evade justice.
o Eg: Bombay High Court (2023) flagged concerns of bail misuse by organised
crime networks (
2. Undermining victim’s right to justice: Premature bail may intimidate victims and
obstruct evidence collection.
o Eg: Supreme Court (2022) stressed careful scrutiny in bail for sexual offence
cases to protect victims' rights
3. Delays in trial process: Offenders on anticipatory bail may manipulate legal delays
to weaken prosecution.
o Eg: National Crime Records Bureau 2023 highlighted rising pendency of
cases involving out-on-bail accused
4. Erosion of public trust in justice: Overuse undermines faith in the criminal justice
system.
o Eg: Verma Committee Report (2013) recommended stringent scrutiny of
bail in sensitive offences to maintain public confidence.

Way forward

1. Strict judicial scrutiny: Courts must apply rigorous standards before granting bail,
especially in sensitive cases.
o Eg: Supreme Court Guidelines 2020 mandated reasoned orders while
granting anticipatory bail.
2. Clear legislative guidelines: Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023 should clearly define
anticipatory bail limits.
o Eg: Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita Draft 2023 aims to streamline bail provisions
to avoid misuse.
3. Victim-centric approach: Ensure protective measures for victims during bail
hearings.
o Eg: POCSO Rules 2020 emphasised victim safety in bail decisions involving
minors .

44
 4. Periodic judicial training: Continuous sensitisation of judges on evolving bail
jurisprudence.
o Eg: National Judicial Academy Programs 2024 included modules on bail
discretion and victim rights .

Conclusion
Anticipatory bail, when applied judiciously, preserves personal liberty while respecting the
rights of victims. Strengthening judicial vigilance and legislative clarity will ensure justice is
both timely and balanced.

Issues relating to development and management of Social

Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.
Q. Digital education policy must go beyond access to ensure justice. Critically
assess the socio-economic implications of the Automated Permanent Academic
Account Registry (APAAR) for students across diverse backgrounds. (10 M)

Introduction

Access alone does not ensure equity or justice in digital education—structural readiness,
digital literacy, and social inclusion must also be addressed for transformative impact.

Body

Positive socio-economic implications of APAAR

1. Seamless academic portability: Enables students to carry verified academic records

across institutions and states.
o Eg: APAAR integrated with DigiLocker ensures lifetime access to
academic documents. (Ministry of Education, 2024)
2. Reduced documentation burden: Minimises the paperwork and cost especially for
students from remote or low-income families.
o Eg: Tribal students in Jharkhand now access marksheets through single-
click DigiLocker IDs.
3. Improved access to scholarships and services: Single identity may ease access to
welfare schemes tied to educational performance.
o Eg: Linkage of APAAR with National Scholarship Portal improves
targeted subsidy delivery.
4. Increased transparency in admission and employment: Reduces the risk of
document forgery and enhances trust in credentials.
o Eg: Employers verifying marks via APAAR benefit from tamper-proof
records issued by registered institutions.
5. Supports academic mobility under NEP: Facilitates implementation of Academic
Bank of Credits for flexible learning paths.

45
 o Eg: NEP 2020 envisages modular degrees and mobility, supported by
APAAR’s credit tracking.

Negative socio-economic implications of APAAR

1. Digital divide and rural exclusion: Students in rural and tribal areas lack reliable
internet and infrastructure to benefit.
o Eg: NSSO 2022 report showed only 24% rural households had internet
access.
2. Privacy and surveillance risks: Centralisation of sensitive student data risks misuse
and long-term profiling.
o Eg: Supreme Court in Puttaswamy (2017) upheld informational privacy
as a fundamental right.
3. Lack of consent mechanisms: Students and parents have limited clarity or control
over how their data is used.
o Eg: APAAR terms do not provide granular opt-in or opt-out options,
violating voluntary consent principles.
4. Exclusion of non-Aadhaar holders: Linking with Aadhaar despite court rulings may
deny access to undocumented or excluded students.
o Eg: Puttaswamy (2019) ruled that Aadhaar cannot be mandatory for
school enrolment.
5. No statutory backing or grievance redress: APAAR lacks a clear legal framework
ensuring data protection or student rights.
o Eg: Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 not yet fully enforced;
APAAR runs under executive guidelines only.

Conclusion

Digital education tools like APAAR can be empowering, but only when grounded in access,
autonomy, and accountability. Equity must be built into the system—not assumed through
technology alone.

Q. Discuss the role of universities as knowledge hubs for sustainable

development. Examine how rankings can incentivise this role. Evaluate the
institutional reforms required in India to realise this potential. (15 M)

Introduction

Universities, as epicentres of knowledge creation and dissemination, are pivotal in driving

sustainable solutions for global challenges. Their intellectual resources can transform
sustainability from policy vision to societal practice.

Body

Role of universities as knowledge hubs for sustainable development

46
 1. Curriculum integration of sustainability: Embedding sustainability concepts across
disciplines builds future-ready human capital.
 Eg: UGC 2023 guidelines mandated universities to integrate SDG education
in undergraduate and postgraduate programmes.
2. Catalysing interdisciplinary research: Universities foster cross-sectoral research to
address complex sustainability challenges.
 Eg: IISc Bengaluru's interdisciplinary research on renewable energy
storage solutions (2024) combines material science and environmental
studies.
3. Community outreach and awareness: HEIs act as agents of behavioural change
through societal engagement programmes.
 Eg: Banaras Hindu University’s Clean Ganga initiative, conducting local
awareness campaigns since 2023.
4. Policy advisory role: Academic research influences evidence-based policymaking for
sustainable development.
 Eg: TERI School of Advanced Studies provided inputs for India’s Energy
Conservation Building Code 2024.
5. Green campuses as living laboratories: Universities themselves can model
sustainable practices for society.
 Eg: Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, implemented a zero-waste
campus model by 2024, recognised by UI GreenMetric Ranking.

How rankings can incentivise this role

1. Recognition of academic contributions: Rankings reward impactful research and

curriculum on sustainability themes.
 Eg: Times Higher Education Impact Rankings 2025 evaluate universities
on their contributions to SDG research outputs.
2. Encouraging sustainable infrastructure: Ranking parameters promote investments
in green campuses and infrastructure.
 Eg: UI GreenMetric Rankings 2025 prioritised energy-efficient
infrastructure in Indian campuses.
3. Boosting institutional reputation: Higher ranks attract funding, partnerships, and
quality faculty for sustainability programmes.
 Eg: IIT Madras’s rise in QS Sustainability Rankings 2025 led to increased
CSR partnerships for green tech research.
4. Fostering global collaborations: Participation in rankings opens avenues for
international academic exchanges.
 Eg: Delhi University’s 2024 MoU with University of Tokyo for joint
climate resilience research, linked to global ranking visibility.
5. Incentivising data-driven governance: Rankings demand transparent reporting,
fostering better institutional practices.

47
  Eg: NIRF SDG Rankings 2025 required detailed data on waste management
and carbon footprint reduction.

Institutional reforms required in India to realise this potential

1. Establishing robust data management systems: Reliable data collection

mechanisms are essential for ranking participation.
 Eg: National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 recommends creation of HEI
data repositories for academic and sustainability metrics.
2. Enhancing funding for green initiatives: State-funded universities need dedicated
sustainability budgets.
 Eg: Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) allocations in 2024–25
included funds for solarisation of university campuses.
3. Capacity building for sustainability leadership: Training faculty and administrators
in SDG implementation is crucial.
 Eg: AICTE Green Campus Training Programmes 2024, focused on
capacity building in sustainable practices.
4. Incentivising interdisciplinary research ecosystems: Promoting cross-disciplinary
projects on SDGs within HEIs.
 Eg: DST’s Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems Mission 2025,
encouraging solutions for urban sustainability.
5. Integrating Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS): Leveraging traditional practices for
cost-effective sustainable solutions.
 Eg: IKS Division under Ministry of Education, 2024, promoting water
conservation techniques from ancient India.

Conclusion

As India advances towards Agenda 2030, empowering universities as sustainability

champions will ensure both global leadership and grassroots transformation. Strategic
reforms and meaningful incentives can unlock their full potential as beacons of sustainable
development.

Q. “The outflow of Indian students reflects domestic limitations in research

infrastructure”. Identify the key gaps in India’s higher education research
ecosystem. Suggest measures to reverse brain drain. (10 M)

Introduction
India, despite being the third-largest producer of scientific papers globally (Scopus, 2023),
struggles with research infrastructure gaps, pushing bright minds to seek global avenues.

Body

Key gaps in India’s higher education research ecosystem

48
 1. Low public investment in research: India’s GERD remains below 1% of GDP,
limiting capacity for world-class research.
 Eg: Economic Survey 2023 highlights India’s GERD at 0.65%, far below
China (2.4%) and USA (3.45%).
2. Limited university-industry linkages: Weak collaboration restricts applied research
and innovation translation.
 Eg: Atal Innovation Mission (2023 review) flagged inadequate industry-
academia synergy as a major hurdle.
3. Inadequate research infrastructure in universities: Many public universities lack
state-of-the-art labs and equipment.
 Eg: NIRF 2024 noted that only 3 IITs and 2 IISERs feature in top 300 global
research infrastructure rankings.
4. Brain drain of faculty and researchers: Top researchers prefer foreign institutions
offering better facilities and freedom.
 Eg: Ministry of Education data (2024) reports over 25,000 PhD holders
migrated between 2020-2024.
5. Administrative bottlenecks and funding delays: Bureaucratic delays discourage
innovative research projects.
 Eg: Kothari Commission 2024 recommendations stressed simplifying fund
disbursal to boost research outcomes.

Measures to reverse brain drain

1. Enhance research funding and grants: Increase public funding and simplify grant
access for young researchers.
 Eg: Budget 2024-25 proposes Rs 1.25 lakh crore for research and innovation
under National Research Foundation.
2. Strengthen global collaborations: Forge partnerships with global universities for
joint research and exchange.
 Eg: India-UK Science Partnership 2024 launched joint doctoral programmes
and researcher exchanges.
3. Promote institutional autonomy: Empower universities for independent research
agenda setting and execution.
 Eg: NEP 2020 advocates graded autonomy for higher education institutions to
promote research freedom.
4. Boost incentives for returning scholars: Provide grants, tenure-track positions, and
startup support for returnees.
 Eg: VAJRA Scheme, under DST, offers fellowships to attract overseas
scientists to Indian labs.
5. Improve research ecosystem inclusivity: Ensure interdisciplinary and cross-
department collaborations thrive.
 Eg: Institutes of Eminence mandate multi-disciplinary research clusters for
academic excellence.

49
Conclusion
A robust, well-funded, and globally connected research ecosystem is India’s best strategy to
not just stem brain drain but also transform itself into a global research powerhouse.

Q. How does prison overcrowding affect the delivery of justice and correctional
services in India? Examine the institutional limitations and propose long-term
sustainable solutions. (15 M)

Introduction
Overcrowding turns Indian prisons into warehouses of undertrial misery, obstructing both
justice delivery and the rehabilitative mandate of incarceration.

Body

Impact of overcrowding on justice and correctional services

1. Denial of right to dignity: High inmate density compromises basic needs like
hygiene, space, and privacy, violating Article 21.
 Eg:– India Justice Report 2025 notes a 131% average occupancy with
Maharashtra at 161%, far exceeding UN standards.
2. Delay in legal access: Limited access to legal aid and public defenders impedes
timely trials and fair representation.
 Eg:– NCRB 2022 showed over 77% of prisoners are undertrials, many
awaiting trial for years due to resource strain.
3. Health and mental crises: Inadequate space fuels spread of disease and stress, while
staffing gaps worsen inmate health.
 Eg:– Only 25 psychologists are available for 5.7 lakh prisoners, per IJR
2025, with 43% vacancy among medical officers.
4. Obstruction to reformative justice: Lack of educational, vocational, and de-
addiction services inhibits rehabilitation.
 Eg:– Model Prison Manual 2016 mandates vocational training, but
overcrowding limits its implementation in most States.
5. Rising custodial violence and recidivism: Cramped conditions increase prison
tensions and reduce scope for humane corrections.
 Eg:– NHRC 2023 recorded 165 custodial deaths citing overcrowding-linked
triggers and lack of monitoring.

Institutional limitations in addressing overcrowding

1. Judicial delay and undertrial over-dependence: Inefficient bail processes and

under-resourced judiciary cause accumulation of pre-trial detainees.
 Eg:– Law Commission 268th Report (2017) flagged excessive reliance on
imprisonment due to lack of speedy trials and bail reforms.

50
 2. State capacity and budget deficits: Prison infrastructure expansion is low priority in
State budgets despite rising inmate numbers.
 Eg:– Only a 27% rise in capacity (2012–2022) despite a 50% increase in
prison population (IJR 2025).
3. Non-implementation of legal reforms: Recommendations like plea bargaining,
parole liberalisation, and open prisons remain underutilised.
 Eg:– Mulla Committee (1983) and Justice Krishna Iyer’s reports on
humanising prisons have seen partial implementation at best.

Long-term sustainable solutions

1. Judicial reforms for undertrial reduction: Implement Section 436A of CrPC more
rigorously and expand e-courts for faster disposal.
 Eg:– Delhi High Court (2023) ordered suo motu review of all undertrial cases
pending for over 1 year in city jails.
2. Community-based alternatives to incarceration: Promote probation, restorative
justice, and non-custodial sentences for petty offences.
 Eg:– Kerala Probation Scheme helped reduce first-time offenders’ jail entry
by diverting them to monitored community rehabilitation.
3. Digital integration and prisoner tracking: Use AI and real-time dashboards for bail
eligibility alerts and occupancy monitoring.
 Eg:– e-Prisons Project now operational in 29 States, with scope to integrate
medical and legal data systems.
4. Infrastructure and staff investment: Increase sanctioned medical, legal, and
correctional staff posts in line with prison manual benchmarks.
 Eg:– Model Prison Manual 2016 suggests 1 doctor per 300 inmates; current
ratio stands at 1:775 nationally (IJR 2025).
5. Decentralised oversight mechanisms: Strengthen Boards of Visitors and State Legal
Services Authorities for regular audits.
 Eg:– Karnataka’s hybrid prison inspection model includes retired judges
and civil society for real-time grievance redressal.

Conclusion
India’s prison reform cannot wait for crisis thresholds. Justice, dignity, and rehabilitation
must be structurally embedded through data-driven, rights-based correctional governance.

Q. India’s aspiration to become a global higher education hub hinges more on

credibility than capacity. Discuss the critical reforms needed. Examine the role of
regulatory frameworks in achieving global trust. (10 M)

Introduction

51
India’s global education ambition stands at a crossroads where mere expansion is insufficient;
ethical credibility, transparency, and structural integrity will determine its future role as a
global higher education leader.

Body

Critical reforms needed to strengthen credibility

1. Independent regulatory oversight: Establishing neutral agencies to regulate

overseas student recruitment and support services.
 Eg: Proposal by retired IAS officers (2025) to create an Indian Council for
International Education Standards (ICIES) to monitor ethical practices.
2. Embedding global curriculum frameworks: Integrating international issues like
climate change, cybersecurity, and migration into academic courses.
 Eg: Taylor & Francis (2025) study stresses that internationalisation must
go beyond student mobility and must reorient curricula.
3. Enhancing transparency in student services: Standardising admission, grievance
redressal, and fee structures across institutions.
 Eg: UGC's Model Guidelines for Grievance Redressal Mechanism, 2024
aim to ensure student-centric processes.
4. Building global quality research culture: Incentivising cross-border research
collaborations and joint publications.
 Eg: NEP 2020 encourages setting up multidisciplinary Education and
Research Universities (MERUs) for global standard research.
5. Promoting ethical edtech ecosystems: Ensuring digital degrees, stackable
certifications, and online platforms adhere to global standards.
 Eg: University Grants Commission (Online Courses Regulations), 2024
enabled online degrees with mandatory quality benchmarking.

Role of regulatory frameworks in achieving global trust

1. International benchmarking of accreditation: Indian universities must align with

international accreditation norms like QS standards and WASC protocols.
 Eg: Taylor & Francis (2025) recommends adopting global accreditation
systems to match international credibility expectations.
2. Legal accountability of foreign collaborations: Tight regulations for MoUs,
twinning programmes, and offshore campuses to prevent exploitation.
 Eg: UGC (Setting up and Operation of Campuses of Foreign Higher
Educational Institutions in India) Regulations, 2023 set clear frameworks.
3. Monitoring unethical recruitment practices: Strict licensing and blacklisting of
malpractices by education agents and brokers.
 Eg: Australia’s 2024 crackdown on unethical Indian student agents leading
to ban on certain states’ applicants shows urgent Indian reforms needed.

52
 4. Digital public infrastructure for education governance: Use of blockchain for
certification and national digital records to enhance verification and transparency.
 Eg: DigiLocker integration by NEAT platform (2024) enables blockchain-
verifiable educational certificates.
5. Inclusive regulatory frameworks: Special focus on socio-economically
disadvantaged students in regulatory processes to ensure holistic credibility.
 Eg: National Educational Alliance for Technology (NEAT) 2.0 (2024)
focuses on bridging digital divides through AI solutions.

Conclusion

To emerge as the architect of the new global education order, India must move beyond optics
to institutionalise credibility reforms, modernise governance, and inspire genuine global
confidence in its higher education ecosystem.

Issues relating to poverty and hunger.

Q. Why is nutrition essential for achieving educational equity? Why do current
programmes fail to ensure dietary diversity? What reforms are needed in India’s
PM-POSHAN to meet global nutrition benchmarks? (15 M)

Introduction

Nutrition is the invisible infrastructure of learning. Without adequate nourishment,

educational inputs fail to translate into equitable outcomes for children from disadvantaged
backgrounds.

Body

Nutrition and educational equity

1. Boosts cognitive function and learning: Nutrition enhances memory, focus, and
classroom performance.
o Eg: UNESCO (2025) report highlights that biofortified pearl millet in
Maharashtra improved adolescent attention and memory.
2. Improves enrolment and retention: Mid-day meals act as an incentive for
disadvantaged families to send children to school.
o Eg: PM-POSHAN saw a notable rise in girl enrolment post-implementation
(Ministry of Education, 2023).
3. Bridges intergenerational disadvantage: Well-nourished children are more likely to
escape cycles of poverty and malnutrition.
o Eg: NFHS-5 (2021) found maternal education positively correlated with
child nutrition indicators.
4. Fulfils constitutional mandates: Ensures access to quality education under Article
21A and aligns with Directive Principles under Article 47.

53
 o Eg: Supreme Court in PUCL v. Union of India (2001) mandated cooked
mid-day meals in all government schools.
5. Supports inclusive development goals: Reduces educational disparities based on
caste, class, and gender.
o Eg: Brazil's National School Feeding Programme links local farmers to
schools, improving both nutrition and equity.

Reasons for failure in dietary diversity

1. Overdependence on staple grains: Meals are often limited to rice, wheat, or maize,
lacking diversity.
o Eg: NITI Aayog (2022) reported 85% of states served fewer than three food
groups in mid-day meals.
2. Weak integration with local agriculture: Disconnection from seasonal and regional
food sources.
o Eg: CAG Report (2023) flagged underutilisation of local farm produce in
school meals across 12 states.
3. Lack of training among implementers: School staff are not equipped with
knowledge on nutrition science.
o Eg: UNESCO (2025) recommends capacity building for cooks, teachers, and
school heads on food diversity.
4. Low budgetary allocation: Inadequate per-child cost limits quality and variety in
meals.
o Eg: Economic Survey (2024) showed only ₹4.97/day allocated per primary
student in PM-POSHAN, limiting nutritional scope.
5. Inadequate monitoring frameworks: Absence of real-time evaluation and feedback
systems.
o Eg: Only 8% of countries monitor school meals against WHO nutrition
standards (UNESCO, 2025).

Reforms needed in PM-POSHAN

1. Adopt scientific dietary standards: Align school meals with ICMR-NIN and WHO
recommended food groups.
o Eg: ICMR-NIN 2020 guidelines advocate daily inclusion of legumes, fruits,
dairy, and vegetables.
2. Decentralise and localise procurement: Enable schools to procure regionally
available, nutritious foods.
o Eg: Odisha’s millet inclusion model uses local SHGs to provide seasonal
millets and vegetables.
3. Embed nutrition in curriculum: Integrate food literacy into school education across
grades.
o Eg: UNESCO (2025) observed only 17 countries embed nutrition education
with school meals.

54
 4. Establish tech-based monitoring systems: Use MIS and mobile platforms to ensure
compliance and quality.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu’s Nutritious Meal Scheme uses real-time dashboards to
track distribution and meal quality.
5. Invest in human resource training: Build nutritional knowledge at school and
administrative levels.
o Eg: National Education Policy 2020 encourages teacher training in holistic
well-being, including health and nutrition.

Conclusion

To unlock educational equity, India must feed not just the child’s hunger but also their
potential. PM-POSHAN 2.0 must shift from a calorie-based approach to a capability-
based mission.

Important aspects of governance, transparency and

accountability, e-governance- applications, models, successes,
limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency &
accountability and institutional and other measures.
Q. “The normalisation of violence in governance transforms citizens from
stakeholders to spectators”. Critically analyse this shift. Discuss the impact of
this transformation on democracy. Propose corrective strategies for
participatory governance. (15 M)

Introduction

Governance systems, once rooted in participatory ethics, increasingly sanitise systemic

violence through bureaucratic detachment and numeric justifications. This shift erodes active
citizenship and imperils the foundations of democratic engagement.

Body

Shift from stakeholders to spectators

1. Bureaucratic depersonalisation of violence: Fragmented administrative processes

conceal accountability for structural violence.
 Eg: Narmada dam displacement saw over 40 million people uprooted, with
technocratic justifications masking human costs.
2. Spectator syndrome in digital age: Social media normalises violence as passive
consumption, detaching citizens emotionally.
 Eg: During 2020 Delhi riots, viral videos circulated with passive viewership
rather than active civic response (Internet Freedom Foundation, 2020).

55
 3. Language of policy masks exclusion: Terms like "development" and "efficiency"
sanitise decisions causing mass displacement.
 Eg: Mumbai slum clearance under Smart Cities Mission led to eviction of
nearly 2 lakh people, termed “urban renewal” (Ministry of Housing, 2023).
4. Obsolescence through policy triage: Resource allocation ignores marginalised,
rendering them "expendable".
 Eg: Post-pandemic budget cuts sidelined tribal welfare schemes, citing
"efficiency" (Union Budget, 2021).
5. Weak grievance redressal mechanisms: Inadequate platforms prevent citizens from
voicing opposition effectively.
 Eg: Lokpal institution, despite operationalisation in 2019, remains
underutilised due to limited scope.

Impact of this transformation on democracy

1. Erosion of constitutional morality: Citizens’ detachment undermines Article 38,

mandating social justice.
 Eg: Supreme Court in S. Subramaniam Balaji v. Tamil Nadu (2013)
highlighted welfare as a cornerstone of democracy.
2. Delegitimization of participatory institutions: Public apathy weakens bodies like
gram sabhas and urban local bodies.
 Eg: 73rd and 74th Amendments intended to empower local governance, but
low participation persists (Ministry of Panchayati Raj, 2024).
3. Rise of majoritarian narratives: Passive citizenship enables populist manipulation
over rational civic discourse.
 Eg: During CAA protests, state-controlled narratives overshadowed genuine
constitutional concerns (NHRC Report, 2020).
4. Accountability deficit in policymaking: Public detachment emboldens executive
overreach.
 Eg: Electoral Bonds scheme, challenged in 2024, showcased opacity in
political funding (Supreme Court ruling, February 2024).
5. Weakening of civil society vigilance: Spectator culture marginalises civil society
interventions in governance.
 Eg: FCRA amendments in 2020 restricted NGO operations, curtailing
citizen-led accountability (Home Ministry data, 2021).

Corrective strategies for participatory governance

1. Institutionalising citizen assemblies: Direct platforms for deliberation reconnect

people with policymaking.
 Eg: Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign institutionalised citizen budgeting,
enhancing participatory democracy (Kerala State Planning Board, 2022).

56
 2. Ethical education and civic literacy: Embed ethics in curricula to sensitise future
citizens.
 Eg: National Education Policy 2020 mandates constitutional values in school
education (Ministry of Education, 2020).
3. Strengthening grievance redressal: Robust platforms ensure citizen voices influence
governance.
 Eg: Centralised Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System
(CPGRAMS) received over 20 lakh complaints in 2023 (DARPG report,
2024).
4. Transparency and social audit mechanisms: Regular audits empower communities
to hold authorities accountable.
 Eg: MGNREGA social audits, institutionalised since 2014, have exposed
misappropriations and prompted corrections (Rural Development Ministry,
2023).
5. Reviving Gandhian ethics of satyagraha: Promote non-violent civic resistance to
unethical policies.
 Eg: Farmers’ protest 2020-21 effectively used peaceful demonstrations,
leading to rollback of contentious farm laws (Agriculture Ministry, 2021).

Conclusion

Democracy thrives when citizens remain active participants, not passive spectators of policy
violence. By reinvigorating ethical frameworks and participatory mechanisms, governance
can reclaim its humane and constitutional essence.

Q. What are the key legal and institutional shortcomings in India's surveillance
oversight architecture? Suggest ways to enhance transparency and
accountability. (10 M)

Introduction
India’s surveillance regime operates under opaque executive control without judicial or
parliamentary oversight, raising serious concerns over privacy, rule of law, and democratic
accountability.

Body

Legal shortcomings in surveillance oversight

1. Lack of a dedicated surveillance law: Surveillance is governed by outdated laws

like the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 and IT Act, 2000.
o Eg: Section 5(2) of Indian Telegraph Act permits interception on vague
grounds like “public emergency” without procedural clarity.
2. No judicial oversight mechanism: Surveillance approvals are solely granted by
executive committees, lacking independent scrutiny.

57
 o Eg: The Review Committee under Rule 419A of Telegraph Rules
comprises only senior bureaucrats from the Centre/State, not judges.
3. Absence of user notification and appeal: Citizens are not informed of surveillance
orders, denying them the right to legal remedy.
o Eg: Puttaswamy Judgment (2017) upheld informational privacy as part of
Article 21, but no safeguards exist to inform citizens post-surveillance.
4. Ambiguity on mass surveillance tools: Projects like CMS, NETRA, and
NATGRID function without parliamentary sanction.
o Eg: CAG Report (2022) flagged the lack of legal safeguards in the
deployment and functioning of Central Monitoring System (CMS).
5. Inapplicability of RTI in intelligence matters: Most agencies are exempt under
Section 24 of RTI Act, shielding misuse from public scrutiny.
o Eg: RAW, IB, NATGRID are listed in the Second Schedule of RTI Act,
making surveillance operations opaque.

Institutional reforms for transparency and accountability

1. Enactment of a surveillance regulation law: Introduce a comprehensive law with

safeguards, oversight, and legal remedies.
o Eg: Justice B.N. Srikrishna Committee (2018) recommended a rights-based
framework for surveillance with statutory backing.
2. Establishment of an independent oversight body: Create a multi-stakeholder
Surveillance Review Authority with judicial involvement.
o Eg: The UK’s Investigatory Powers Tribunal provides legal redress to
individuals surveilled unlawfully.
3. Parliamentary scrutiny of intelligence agencies: Set up a standing committee to
oversee intelligence agency conduct without undermining security.
o Eg: US Senate Intelligence Committee plays a crucial role in reviewing CIA
and NSA operations.
4. Mandatory user notification post-surveillance: Inform individuals once
surveillance ends, enabling legal remedy while protecting ongoing investigations.
o Eg: Germany and Canada have adopted such notification provisions to
protect privacy and enhance transparency.
5. Strengthening cyber forensic capabilities: Equip agencies with tools and training to
detect, trace, and audit spyware intrusions.
o Eg: Justice R.V. Raveendran Pegasus Report (2022) proposed a special
cyber investigation agency and citizen redressal mechanism.

Conclusion
In a data-driven democracy, legality must not lag behind technology. A transparent and
accountable surveillance regime is key to preserving constitutional freedoms while ensuring
national security.

58
Role of civil services in a democracy.
Q. What are the structural reasons behind the underrepresentation of women in
Indian police forces? Suggest administrative measures to improve their
participation. (10 M)

Introduction
India’s police force remains structurally skewed against gender diversity, with women
forming only 11.7% of the total strength as per India Justice Report 2025, despite rising
crimes against women and constitutional guarantees of equality.

Body

Structural reasons behind underrepresentation of women in police

1. Masculinised institutional culture: Policing continues to be viewed as a male-

dominated, combat-oriented service.
 Eg: BPRD’s Gender Sensitization Manual (2020) noted that women officers
face bias in field postings and crime investigation.
2. Lack of gender-sensitive infrastructure: Absence of separate toilets, dormitories,
and childcare facilities deters female participation.
 Eg: As per IJR 2025, 30% of police stations lack women help desks, and
many lack even basic amenities for women.
3. Ineffective implementation of reservation policies: Most States have not met their
own reservation targets for women in the police.
 Eg: IJR 2025 clearly states that not a single State/UT has met its own quota
for women in police.
4. Limited career progression and glass ceiling: Very few women reach senior
positions due to informal bias in promotions.
 Eg: Out of 20.3 lakh police personnel, fewer than 1,000 women occupy
senior positions (IJR 2025).
5. Recruitment design and training constraints: Physical standards and training
modules are often not gender-inclusive.
 Eg: Justice Verma Committee (2013) recommended reforming physical tests
and making training gender-just.

Administrative measures to improve women’s participation

1. Statutory reservation in police forces: Mandating gender quotas via central

legislation to ensure uniform enforcement.
 Eg: National Police Mission (MHA) has recommended 33% reservation for
women in police across States.

59
 2. Gender-sensitive infrastructure and safety audits: Ensure adequate facilities in all
police stations and conduct annual infrastructure audits.
 Eg: Delhi Police’s Pink Booths initiative created dedicated gender-friendly
spaces in urban police stations.
3. Mentorship and leadership pipelines: Identify and groom women officers for higher
responsibilities to break hierarchical glass ceilings.
 Eg: Karnataka Police’s "Shakti" Program grooms women for supervisory
roles through targeted training.
4. Reform in recruitment and promotion norms: Make recruitment criteria and
promotion pathways more inclusive and performance-based.
 Eg: Bihar Police has adopted relaxed height norms and additional attempts
for women in police exams.
5. Sensitisation and accountability training for male officers: Mandatory gender
equity training at all ranks to change institutional attitudes.
 Eg: UN Women–MHA collaboration (2021) introduced gender sensitisation
modules in State police academies.

Conclusion
Without structural transformation, gender diversity in policing will remain tokenistic. An
inclusive and representative police force is not only a matter of equity, but also of better
justice delivery in a changing society.

Q. Examine the procedural bottlenecks and transparency concerns in

empanelment and promotion of civil servants. Suggest comprehensive reforms
for a merit-based and accountable process. (15 M)

Introduction
Despite India’s robust civil service structure, opaque and inconsistent empanelment
procedures undermine institutional credibility and morale, especially at senior levels.

Body

Procedural bottlenecks in empanelment

1. Lack of uniform empanelment norms across cadres: Criteria vary across services
and ministries, leading to subjective decisions.
o Eg: The Department of Personnel and Training (DoPT) has differing
norms for Group A services and IAS, often disadvantaging officers from non-
IAS cadres.
2. Dependence on central deputation for empanelment: Officers must serve at the
Centre to qualify, ignoring State contributions.
o Eg: In April 2025, IAS officers raised concerns that lack of NOC from
States blocks empanelment for deserving candidates.

60
 3. Opaque selection committee proceedings: No feedback is given to officers who are
rejected, hampering accountability.
o Eg: As per T.V. Somanathan's Civil Services Day 2025 remarks, even
junior officers do not know why empanelment was denied.
4. Absence of real-time performance audits: Empanelment relies largely on APAR
scores, which are inflated and non-discriminatory.
o Eg: Cabinet Secretary stated that over 90% IAS officers score 9–10, despite
corruption concerns, making APAR ineffective.
5. Inter-ministerial discretion in key postings: Political and bureaucratic patronage
affects Joint Secretary-level empanelments.
o Eg: The 2017 Baswan Committee flagged discretionary and politicised
placement as a serious issue in senior postings.

Transparency concerns in the promotion system

1. No public framework for merit evaluation: Criteria for promotion to key positions
are not published or measurable.
o Eg: RTI findings (2022) showed that no written norms existed for over 40%
of central empanelments in the past decade.
2. Unstructured peer review process: Promotion boards lack external or independent
representation, causing bias.
o Eg: Unlike UK’s Senior Civil Service model, India lacks an independent
Public Service Commission–linked promotion oversight body.
3. Inadequate grievance redressal in promotions: Rejected officers have no appeal or
review mechanism except litigation.
o Eg: The 2019 Satish Chandra vs. UoI case reiterated that lack of
transparency in empanelment violates principles of natural justice.
4. Conflict of interest in APAR scoring: Reporting and reviewing officers may have
vested interests or personal bias.
o Eg: The 2nd ARC (2009) noted that APARs were being used as tools of
personal vendetta or reward in many departments.
5. Digital opacity in promotion portals: Even tech-based systems like SPARROW do
not display comparative scoring or benchmarking.
o Eg: In 2023, DARPG review of SPARROW found that the system lacked
data analytics tools to flag performance anomalies.

Comprehensive reforms for a merit-based and accountable system

1. Independent civil services board for senior appointments: Similar to UK or

Singapore, ensure non-political, expert-led panels.
o Eg: The Hota Committee (2004) recommended a statutory Central Civil
Services Authority for neutral empanelment.
2. Structured, multi-criteria evaluation: Include 360° feedback, ethics, innovation,
grievance disposal, and public satisfaction metrics.

61
 o Eg: The Mission Karmayogi Performance Framework (2021) proposes
multi-dimensional evaluation, not just APARs.
3. Mandatory reasoned communication of rejections: Officers must be informed of
grounds for non-selection with remedy timelines.
o Eg: In France, the civil service law mandates written explanations for all
senior-level promotion rejections.
4. Link promotions to verified outcomes and innovation: Move away from tenure-
based models to impact-based assessments.
o Eg: Kerala's Revenue Department (2022) adopted a model of outcome-
linked promotion for district collectors based on e-governance delivery
success.
5. Decentralised feedback collection and analytics: Use AI and big data to capture
longitudinal performance trends over years.
o Eg: The DoPT-AIIMS pilot (2023) used dashboard-based feedback
aggregation for hospital administrators, now proposed for broader rollout.

Conclusion
A credible civil service cannot be built on ritualistic procedures. Promotion and empanelment
reforms must be driven by transparency, outcome orientation, and ethical merit, aligning
with the Constitution's vision of an impartial and efficient public service.

India and its neighbourhood- relations.

Q. Analyse the strategic implications of Bangladesh's recent deepening ties with
Pakistan and China. In this context, examine the scope for a reset in India’s
regional diplomacy and strategic partnerships. (15 M)

Introduction
Dhaka’s realignment with Beijing and Islamabad amid India’s diplomatic inertia marks a
regional inflection point. India’s regional clout hinges on how it responds to this evolving
axis.

Body

Strategic implications of Bangladesh’s growing ties with Pakistan and China

1. Regional power rebalancing: China and Pakistan aim to dilute India’s strategic
centrality in South Asia.
o Eg: Beijing invited Muhammad Yunus via a special aircraft (March 2025),
signalling symbolic recognition of Bangladesh’s new leadership.
2. Military and intelligence convergence: Bangladesh’s renewed defence dialogue
with Pakistan and procurement from China may undermine India's regional security
architecture.
o Eg: Talks on military training cooperation with Pakistan and surveillance
tech deals with China surfaced in early 2025

62
 3. Dependency through Chinese economic statecraft: China's financial commitments
may lead to strategic capture of infrastructure and water systems.
o Eg: $2.1 billion in loans and grants, and $1 billion Teesta River MoU
signed with Chinese firms for flood and water management.
4. Trade and connectivity realignment: Dhaka's move towards Chinese markets
reduces India’s regional trade leverage.
o Eg: 100% duty-free access to Bangladeshi exports granted by China in 2025
5. Diplomatic alienation of India: India's over-identification with Hasina has created a
trust deficit with Dhaka’s new leadership.
o Eg: India’s initial silence post-Hasina ouster and perceived sheltering of her
from prosecution raised political tensions.

Scope for a reset in India’s regional diplomacy

1. Diversify political outreach beyond ruling regimes: Shift from leader-centric to

institutional engagement with all political stakeholders.
o Eg: Shivshankar Menon advised cultivating institutional rather than personal
ties post-Hasina .
2. Rebuild credibility through principled consistency: Avoid selective invocation of
democracy and human rights to maintain moral leadership.
o Eg: India’s urging of inclusive elections in 2025 after silence in 2018 has
been seen as a double standard .
3. Institutionalise water and river diplomacy: Create legally binding, cooperative
water-sharing mechanisms with political federalism safeguards.
o Eg: Punchhi Commission (2010) recommended Centre-State mechanisms in
foreign policy-linked water issues.
4. Strengthen cultural and educational diplomacy: Target Bangladeshi youth and
civil society to restore India's soft power.
o Eg: India-Bangladesh Youth Exchange Programme expanded in 2023; over
10,000 ICCR scholarships offered till date (MEA Report, 2024).
5. Address trade imbalances through sectoral partnerships: Support Bangladesh’s
exports and value chains to reduce asymmetry.
o Eg: Bangladesh exported $1.97 billion to India vs. $14.01 billion imports in
FY 2023–24 (Bangladesh Ministry of Commerce, 2025).

Scope for strategic partnerships and multilateral reset

1. Reclaim leadership within BIMSTEC and beyond: Infuse BIMSTEC with strategic
purpose and inclusive regional agenda.
o Eg: BIMSTEC Master Plan on Transport Connectivity (2022) can be
leveraged to initiate joint infrastructure with Bangladesh.
2. Enhance delivery and visibility of Indian aid: Ensure faster execution of LoCs and
project outcomes to match China’s speed.

63
 o Eg: Only 35% of India’s $8 bn LoC to Bangladesh has been utilised (MEA
Annual Report, 2024).
3. Leverage Bay of Bengal maritime dominance: Expand joint patrols, shipping lanes,
and coastal infrastructure cooperation.
o Eg: India-Bangladesh Coast Guard MoU (2022) enabled joint maritime
patrols to curb illegal fishing and smuggling.
4. Promote regional public goods and energy interdependence: Position India as a
stable partner in climate resilience and energy transition.
o Eg: Maitree Super Thermal Power Project at Rampal commissioned in
2024 with 1320 MW capacity .
5. Forge mini-lateral frameworks with like-minded neighbours: Build smaller
strategic coalitions like India-Sri Lanka-Bangladesh trilaterals.
o Eg: India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh held the first Trilateral Maritime
Security Dialogue in 2023 focusing on Bay of Bengal .

Conclusion
Bangladesh’s pivot offers India both a warning and an opening. Strategic recalibration, not
strategic sulking, will determine whether India regains trust or loses the neighbourhood.

Q. “Bangladesh’s foreign policy is no longer Indo-centric”. Examine the factors

behind this shift. Analyse its implications for India’s regional strategy. (10 M)

Introduction
Bangladesh's evolving foreign policy reflects its aspiration for greater strategic autonomy and
diversified partnerships amid changing regional equations. This signals a recalibration of
power dynamics in South Asia, necessitating India’s proactive response.

Body

Factors behind Bangladesh’s shift from Indo-centric policy

1. Leadership transition and regime change: The post-Hasina regime seeks to

distance itself from India-centric alignment.
 Eg: The interim government under Muhammad Yunus has demanded Sheikh
Hasina’s extradition, making it a condition for further negotiations.
2. Geopolitical balancing between powers: Bangladesh is actively engaging with
China and the US to diversify its strategic dependencies.
 Eg: Bangladesh welcomed Chinese investments and supported Trump’s
tariff regime to strengthen external bargaining
3. Assertion of regional maritime role: Bangladesh is projecting itself as a maritime
power to counter India’s regional dominance.
 Eg: Chief Advisor Yunus referred to Bangladesh as the “guardian of the
ocean”, highlighting maritime aspirations.

64
 4. Desire for multipolar regionalism: Bangladesh aims for equidistance diplomacy,
reducing over-reliance on any single power.
 Eg: Bangladesh’s positive engagement in BIMSTEC and outreach to multiple
powers demonstrates this strategy (MEA Brief, 2025).
5. Internal socio-political narratives: Rising nationalist sentiments are pushing for a
foreign policy independent of India’s shadow.
 Eg: Dhaka’s press releases framed India’s transshipment denial as external
coercion, mobilising public opinion

Implications for India’s regional strategy

1. Need for calibrated diplomatic engagement: India must balance firmness with
constructive dialogue to avoid alienation.
2. Reinforcement of neighbourhood-first policy: India has to revitalise regional
cooperation mechanisms to retain influence.
 Eg: Strengthening of SAARC disaster management frameworks post-
COVID-19 for collective resilience (MEA Report, 2024).
3. Leveraging economic interdependence: India can use trade and transit corridors to
anchor ties with Bangladesh.
 Eg: Suspension of the transshipment facility demonstrated India’s leverage
in regional logistics .
4. Countering external power influence: India must proactively engage to
counterbalance China-US manoeuvres in Bangladesh.
 Eg: India’s Act East Policy deepens links with ASEAN, reducing third-party
leverage in South Asia (MEA Annual Report, 2025).
5. Harnessing climate cooperation: Climate vulnerabilities provide an opportunity for
India to lead joint initiatives.
 Eg: Proposal for India-Bangladesh joint flood early warning system under
UNESCAP platform (UNESCAP Report, 2025).

Conclusion
Bangladesh’s evolving foreign policy demands a recalibrated Indian approach rooted in
pragmatism and regional solidarity. A forward-looking, cooperative strategy will ensure India
remains the pivotal anchor of South Asian stability.

Q. “India’s engagement with Taliban reflects a shift from ideological rigidity to

strategic pragmatism”. Critically analyse. Examine how this recalibration
impacts India’s broader regional diplomacy. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s engagement with the Taliban shows a break from past doctrinal fixations, reflecting a
dynamic foreign policy aimed at protecting national interests amid evolving regional
geopolitics.

65
Body

Positive aspects of India’s engagement with Taliban

1. Retention of diplomatic footprint: Maintains presence without endorsing Taliban

rule, ensuring strategic visibility.
o Eg: India re-established its technical team in Kabul in June 2022 after full
withdrawal in August 2021 (MEA statement, 2022).
2. Securing humanitarian leadership image: Demonstrates India’s role as a
responsible regional actor delivering aid without political strings.
o Eg: Delivery of essential medical supplies and wheat shipments through
Chabahar Port in 2023 (UN WFP, 2023).
3. Pre-empting rival strategic encroachment: Prevents complete dominance by
adversaries like China and Pakistan.
o Eg: China’s signing of oil extraction deals with Taliban in January 2023
raised concerns about strategic isolation.
4. Opening limited economic gateways: Explores avenues for trade and investment
without full diplomatic normalisation.
o Eg: Taliban inviting Indian investment in mining and infrastructure during
April 2025 talks.
5. Leveraging counter-terrorism assurances: Pressures Taliban leadership to provide
security guarantees against anti-India groups.
o Eg: Taliban’s repeated public statements in 2024 distancing itself from
groups like Jaish-e-Mohammed.

Negative aspects of India’s engagement with Taliban

1. Risk of legitimising a non-inclusive regime: Engagement may be misused by

Taliban as tacit international endorsement.
o Eg: Criticism from Afghan civil society groups (2024) accusing India of
sidelining democratic aspirations.
2. Undermining India’s global normative image: Weakens India’s consistent support
for democratic values and human rights.
o Eg: Concerns raised at Global South summits (2024) about India’s selective
diplomatic pragmatism.
3. Exposure to security risks: Taliban factions’ links with terror outfits create
uncertainties for Indian personnel and assets.
o Eg: UN Security Council reports (2025) warning about continued presence
of Al-Qaeda fighters in Afghanistan.
4. Potential economic non-viability: Afghanistan’s unstable environment makes
investments risky and unsustainable.
o Eg: Cancellation of several proposed mining contracts in 2024 due to
deteriorating security conditions.

66
 5. Alienation of traditional Afghan allies: Old partners like the Northern Alliance
factions may feel abandoned by India.
o Eg: Statements by exiled Afghan leaders in 2023 lamenting India’s
engagement without seeking inclusivity guarantees.

Impact of recalibration on India’s broader regional diplomacy

1. Expansion of strategic hedging options: Adds flexibility by balancing formal non-

recognition with informal cooperation.
o Eg: Parallel engagements with Iran, Russia, and Taliban-led Afghanistan
since 2023 to widen strategic networks.
2. Pressure on Pakistan’s Afghan strategy: India’s presence complicates Pakistan’s
attempt to monopolize Taliban's foreign relations.
o Eg: Taliban refusing to endorse Pakistan’s Kashmir stance during 2024
SAARC virtual meet.
3. Facilitating alternate connectivity routes: Engagement supports broader
infrastructure initiatives bypassing Pakistan.
o Eg: Talks on linking Chabahar Port to Afghan road networks (January
2025) enhancing INSTC prospects.
4. Creation of a dual-track regional diplomacy model: Simultaneous humanitarian
assistance and strategic engagement strengthens India’s layered approach.
o Eg: India’s dual-channel policy evident in Afghanistan and Myanmar
diplomacy during 2023-24.
5. Challenge to India’s moral leadership narrative: Diplomacy based purely on
interests may erode India's value-based appeal among emerging democracies.
o Eg: Caribbean and African bloc criticism at NAM Summit 2024
questioning India’s democratic consistency.

Conclusion

India’s Afghanistan recalibration is a careful balancing act between interests and ideals;
sustained pragmatism, anchored in principled realism, will be crucial for long-term
diplomatic credibility and regional leadership.

Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving

India and/or affecting India’s interests.
Q. What are the key strategic considerations behind India’s growing engagement
with Chile? Examine the implications of the proposed comprehensive trade
agreement between the two countries. (10 M)

Introduction

67
India’s outreach to Chile reflects a calibrated move to secure critical minerals, diversify
strategic partnerships, and enhance multilateral convergence beyond its traditional
geographies.

Body

Strategic considerations behind India’s engagement with Chile

1. Securing access to critical minerals: Chile is among the world’s top producers of
lithium and copper, vital for India’s energy transition.
o Eg: The CODELCO–Hindustan Copper MoU (2025) supports joint
mineral exploration and reduces dependence on Chinese supplies.
2. Trade diversification and market access: Engaging Chile offers entry into Latin
American markets, reducing India’s reliance on traditional partners.
o Eg: Bilateral trade with Chile stood at $2.3 billion in 2023–24, with rising
Indian exports in pharma and engineering goods.
3. Antarctica and polar cooperation: Chile’s proximity to Antarctica aligns with
India’s strategic and scientific interests in the polar region.
o Eg: In April 2025, both countries signed a Letter of Intent on Antarctic
cooperation and logistics support.
4. Convergence on multilateral reforms: Chile supports India’s call for reforming
global institutions, particularly the UN Security Council.
o Eg: Joint press statement (2025) stressed the need for UNSC expansion to
reflect contemporary global realities.
5. South–South strategic alignment: India and Chile promote multipolarity and
equitable development under a shared South–South framework.
o Eg: Chile’s participation in Global South summits complements India’s
IBSA, BRICS+, and multilateral leadership role.

Implications of the proposed comprehensive trade agreement

1. Enhanced trade liberalisation: A CEPA would expand product coverage, reduce

tariffs, and deepen services trade beyond the existing PTA.
o Eg: The current India–Chile PTA (2006) is limited, but a CEPA would
cover 96% of tariff lines under negotiation (MEA, 2025).
2. Mineral supply chain security: Institutionalising cooperation will ensure long-term,
predictable access to strategic resources like lithium and copper.
o Eg: India’s PM prioritised a resilient mineral value chain through the
upcoming bilateral economic pact.
3. Boost to Indian strategic exports: High-value sectors such as pharmaceuticals, IT
services, and green tech will benefit from expanded Chilean access.
o Eg: India’s pharma exports to Chile exceeded $250 million in FY 2023–24
(DGFT data), with further scope under CEPA.

68
 4. Innovation and green economy partnership: The agreement can provide a
framework for joint ventures in clean energy and digital public infrastructure.
o Eg: Chile expressed interest in India’s digital stack and solar solutions
during the April 2025 bilateral talks.
5. Geoeconomic counterbalance to China: Strengthened ties with Chile help India
expand influence in Latin America and dilute China’s monopoly.
o Eg: Chile’s shift away from overdependence on China aligns with India’s
goal to enhance strategic autonomy in the region.

Conclusion

The India–Chile partnership marks a strategic leap in India’s mineral diplomacy and South–
South engagement, setting the tone for a new era of diversified and value-driven bilateral
cooperation.

Q. Examine the role of BIMSTEC in enabling inclusive development across its

member states. How can economic cooperation be improved for better outcomes?
What role can multilateral funding play in BIMSTEC’s developmental agenda?
(15 M)

Introduction
With SAARC stagnating and ASEAN regionally limited, BIMSTEC emerges as a strategic
bridge enabling inclusive growth across the Bay of Bengal through regional synergy in
trade, infrastructure, and connectivity.

Body

Role of BIMSTEC in enabling inclusive development

1. Bridging South and Southeast Asia: Enhances regional cohesion by connecting

landlocked, coastal, and island nations.
o Eg: India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway expands access for
Nepal and Bhutan to Southeast Asia (MEA, 2023).
2. Sectoral focus for targeted growth: Covers 14 priority sectors including poverty
alleviation, energy, and technology.
o Eg: BIMSTEC Energy Centre (Bhubaneswar) supports energy access
across least developed member states (MoP, 2022).
3. Alternative to dysfunctional SAARC: Provides a viable platform for cooperation
unaffected by bilateral tensions.
o Eg: Post-2016 Uri attack, India hosted the BIMSTEC outreach summit
during BRICS, bypassing SAARC gridlock.
4. Maritime access for landlocked nations: Enables inclusive regional trade through
Bay of Bengal maritime connectivity.

69
 o Eg: Sittwe Port in Myanmar, developed by India, gives Nepal and Bhutan
access to maritime trade (MEA, 2023).
5. Focus on people-centric development: Promotes cooperation in areas like health,
education, disaster management.
o Eg: BIMSTEC Framework Agreement on Trans-grid Electricity
Exchange improves household energy access (BIMSTEC Secretariat, 2024).

How economic cooperation can be improved for better outcomes

1. Institutionalize trade architecture: Finalize BIMSTEC Free Trade Agreement

(FTA) for tariff reduction and rules of origin.
o Eg: Draft BIMSTEC FTA Framework Agreement (2018) pending
ratification has slowed trade growth (RIS Policy Brief, 2023).
2. Strengthen multimodal connectivity: Complete regional transport and logistics
corridors.
o Eg: Kaladan Multimodal Project, linking India’s northeast to Myanmar’s
Sittwe port, expected completion in 2025 (MDoNER Report, 2024).
3. Promote digital and energy corridors: Leverage technology and renewable energy
for balanced development.
o Eg: India’s proposal for BIMSTEC Grid Interconnection aims to share
surplus renewable power with Bhutan, Bangladesh (MNRE, 2024).
4. Simplify cross-border regulations: Harmonize customs procedures and transit
policies among members.
o Eg: BBIN Motor Vehicles Agreement (Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal)
could be extended to all BIMSTEC members (NITI Aayog, 2023).
5. Boost private sector participation: Facilitate regional value chains through cross-
border investments.
o Eg: India-Bangladesh textile parks in Tripura attract joint ventures (Textile
Ministry Report, 2024).

Role of multilateral funding in BIMSTEC’s developmental agenda

1. Financing cross-border infrastructure: Supports high-cost regional transport and

energy projects.
o Eg: Asian Development Bank (ADB) funding BIMSTEC Master Plan for
Transport Connectivity 2018–2028 with $2 billion outlay.
2. Leveraging climate and SDG financing: Attracts green and inclusive development
funds.
o Eg: Global Environment Facility (GEF) backed Mangrove restoration
project in Bangladesh and Myanmar under BIMSTEC Climate Action
Track (UNEP, 2024).
3. Capacity building and technical aid: Funds training, innovation, and regulatory
reforms.

70
 o Eg: World Bank-supported BIMSTEC Disaster Resilience Training
Platform launched in Colombo in 2022.
4. Promoting regional credit institutions: Enables concessional funding for SMEs and
startups.
o Eg: Proposal for BIMSTEC Development Fund discussed at 5th
Ministerial Meeting (2023) for inclusive financing (BIMSTEC Secretariat).
5. Blending sovereign and private finance: Encourages PPPs with risk-sharing by
multilateral institutions.
o Eg: ADB-backed Colombo Port Expansion, supported by both government
and private investors (ADB Annual Report, 2023).

Conclusion
BIMSTEC’s inclusive potential lies in coordinated execution and strategic financing.
With multilateral support and India’s leadership, it can evolve into a cornerstone of balanced
regional development in Asia.

Q. The IMEC project highlights the shift in global supply chain priorities.
Examine its potential to redefine trade connectivity. Discuss the logistical
challenges to its realisation. (10 M)

Introduction
The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) is poised to restructure global
supply chains by connecting dynamic regions, reducing overdependence on maritime
chokepoints and ensuring diversified trade routes.

Body

Potential to redefine trade connectivity

1. Diversification away from chokepoints: IMEC reduces reliance on the Suez Canal
and Strait of Hormuz, easing congestion risks.
o Eg: IMEC bypassing Suez cuts transit time by 40%, boosting efficiency
(World Bank, 2024).
2. Strengthening India-Europe trade linkages: Creates direct trade corridors,
enhancing India's access to European markets.
o Eg: Macron, 2024, called Marseille the "entry point" to Europe via IMEC
(MEA Brief, 2024).
3. Energy security enhancement: Ensures stable energy flow from Gulf nations to
India and Europe, reducing volatility.
o Eg: India-UAE Agreement 2024 focuses on logistics cooperation for energy
transit .
4. Reduction in logistics cost and time: Streamlined transport routes lower India's high
logistics expenditure burden.

71
 o Eg: LEADS 2023 showed 13–14% of GDP spent on logistics, which IMEC
aims to reduce (LEADS Report, 2023).
5. Promotion of multimodal connectivity: Integrates ports, rail, and digital
platforms for seamless cargo movement.
o Eg: PGII 2023 under G7 supports multimodal projects like IMEC (G7
Communiqué, 2023).

Logistical challenges to its realisation

1. Geopolitical instability in West Asia: Volatile security threatens corridor reliability

and trade continuity.
o Eg: Israel-Hamas conflict 2023 disrupted Middle East routes (UN Security
Council, 2023).
2. Regulatory fragmentation: Non-uniform customs and tariffs complicate cross-
border operations across IMEC nations.
o Eg: India-UAE CEPA 2022 streamlined bilateral trade but gaps remain
multilaterally (Commerce Ministry, 2024).
3. Funding and financing constraints: High capital needs deter private investors,
risking project delays.
o Eg: World Bank estimated IMEC's cost at USD 20 billion, posing financing
challenges (World Bank, 2024).
4. Technological and digital integration gaps: Absence of unified digital logistics
platforms across regions.
o Eg: National Logistics Policy 2022 promotes digitalisation but lacks IMEC-
wide alignment (DPIIT, 2024).
5. Sustainability concerns: Requirement for climate-resilient infrastructure demands
substantial green investments.
o Eg: PGII 2023 mandates eco-friendly corridors, guiding IMEC’s development
(G7, 2023).

Conclusion
IMEC offers India a strategic leap in global trade architecture. Proactive management of
geopolitical risks and digital integration will transform IMEC into a resilient trade artery for
the future.

Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing

countries on India’s interests, Indian diaspora.
Q. “India’s extradition efforts face a triangular challenge of legal complexity,
diplomatic engagement, and human rights concerns”. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction
High-profile cases like Mehul Choksi and Nirav Modi expose the intricate web of legal
ambiguities, diplomatic tightropes, and human rights dilemmas that India must navigate to
ensure extradition of fugitive economic offenders.
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Body

Legal complexity in extradition efforts

1. Diverse legal systems create procedural hurdles: Each country’s legal framework
requires specific compliance, increasing complexity and delays.
 Eg: Belgium’s civil law system demanded India submit evidence in formats
acceptable under Belgian law, complicating Choksi’s case proceedings.
2. Absence of binding Interpol mechanisms: Interpol Red Notices are not enforceable
by law, reducing their effectiveness.
 Eg: Despite Interpol withdrawing Choksi’s Red Notice in 2023, India
continued extradition efforts via bilateral treaty, showing Red Notice is not
mandatory.
3. Dual criminality principle limits scope: Extradition requires that the act be a crime
in both jurisdictions, which may not always align.
 Eg: Choksi’s fraudulent LOUs needed to be proven as financial fraud under
Belgian law, requiring specialised legal interpretation (PNB Scam Case,
2025).
4. Protracted appeals process delays justice: Multiple legal remedies prolong the
timeline for extradition.
 Eg: Nirav Modi’s ongoing appeals in UK courts since 2019 delayed
extradition despite favourable rulings at initial stages (UK High Court
records, March 2025).

Diplomatic engagement as a critical pillar

1. Bilateral treaties provide legal scaffolding: Treaty frameworks clarify legal
protocols and obligations, enabling smoother cooperation.
 Eg: India-Belgium Extradition Treaty (2020) facilitated formal extradition
request and judicial cooperation in Choksi’s case (MEA, 2025).
2. Strategic diplomacy strengthens legal outcomes: Political engagement at the
highest levels builds pressure and goodwill for extradition.
 Eg: PM Modi’s direct engagement with King Philippe of Belgium in
March 2025 bolstered India’s extradition efforts
3. Economic diplomacy acts as leverage: Deepening trade and investment ties
incentivise nations to support India’s legal pursuits.
 Eg: Belgian Princess Astrid’s economic mission to India in March 2025,
where bilateral trade discussions created favourable conditions.
4. Multilateral forums enhance global pressure: Raising the issue at forums like
FATF underscores India’s seriousness.
Eg: India’s active participation in FATF helped spotlight global concerns over
financial crimes and safe havens.

Human rights concerns impacting extradition

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 1. Health grounds delay or block extradition: Offenders frequently cite medical
reasons to resist deportation.
 Eg: Choksi’s claim of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia in 2025 delayed
Belgian judicial processes .
2. Allegations of political persecution: Claims of bias and unfair treatment are used to
contest extradition.
 Eg: Choksi alleged political victimisation by Indian authorities during
Dominica hearings in 2021.
3. Human rights law in host countries prevails: Host nations prioritise their human
rights obligations over extradition demands.
 Eg: UK courts cited potential risks of inhuman treatment to delay Nirav
Modi’s extradition, pending human rights assurances .
4. International scrutiny affects judicial decisions: Global human rights watchdogs
influence host country actions.
 Eg: Amnesty International’s monitoring of extradition cases pressures
nations to ensure fair legal treatment .

Way forward

1. Strengthening treaty networks: Expanding and updating extradition treaties to

cover new offences and streamline processes.
 Eg: Proposal for a comprehensive EU-India Extradition Framework
discussed at India-EU Summit 2024 .
2. Embedding human rights assurances: Proactively providing human rights
guarantees to address legal concerns abroad.
 Eg: India’s diplomatic note to UK courts in Nirav Modi case, ensuring
prison standards compliance .
3. Capacity building in legal diplomacy: Training legal experts and diplomats in
comparative international law to fast-track cases.
 Eg: CBI's 2024 initiative to train officers in extradition laws of target
countries .
4. Leveraging global financial intelligence networks: Collaborating with agencies like
FATF and Egmont Group to trace assets and fugitives.
 Eg: India-Egmont Group cooperation, aiding in asset tracing linked to
Choksi’s overseas holdings .

Conclusion
Extraditing fugitives like Mehul Choksi is no longer just a legal task but a test of India’s
diplomatic resolve and global credibility. Future efforts must integrate robust legal strategies
with proactive diplomacy, ensuring fugitives find no refuge worldwide.

74
Q. Examine how reciprocal tariffs challenge India’s role as a voice for the Global
South. How can India build coalitions to resist rising unilateralism in global
trade? (10 M)

Introduction
India's credibility as a champion of equitable global trade is at risk amid rising tariff
unilateralism that disproportionately affects developing economies.

Body

How reciprocal tariffs challenge India’s role as voice of Global South

1. Undermines trade justice narrative: Tariffs based on trade balance penalize

developing nations despite structural trade asymmetries.
 Eg:– The U.S. reciprocal tariff formula (2025) imposes 26% additional
duty on India despite its low export-GDP ratio.
2. Weakens India’s WTO leadership stance: India’s ability to defend special and
differential treatment gets diluted under retaliatory bilateralism.
 Eg:– India’s joint proposal with South Africa (2021) for TRIPS waiver
faced setbacks amid developed countries’ strategic decoupling.
3. Erodes credibility as fair negotiator: Pressure to enter bilateral deals diverts India
from multilateral consensus-building.
 Eg:– India’s exit from RCEP (2019) was seen by ASEAN states as reluctance
to commit to equitable regional trade norms.
4. Reduces coalition leverage: Fragmentation in trade alignments weakens India’s bloc-
building among LDCs and emerging economies.
 Eg:– African Group's divergence from India during WTO Nairobi
Ministerial (2015) on agriculture subsidies.
5. Encourages self-interest among peers: Others may follow suit in bilateral
retaliations, weakening united Global South front.
 Eg:– Indonesia and Brazil have begun revising their own trade retaliation
rules post U.S. tariff escalation (WTO Tracker, 2024).

How India can build coalitions against unilateralism

1. Reinvigorating G77 and NAM platforms: Leverage historical South-South

cooperation for unified trade positions.
 Eg:– India proposed a South-South Trade Compact at the G77 Virtual
Summit 2023, calling for collective tariff dispute redressal.
2. Championing WTO institutional reform: Lead efforts to restore Appellate Body
and revive consensus-based tariff mechanisms.
 Eg:– India backed the Ottawa Group proposal (2022) for WTO dispute
settlement reform to rein in unilateralism.

75
 3. Strategic issue-based alliances: Align with emerging economies on sectoral
concerns like digital trade, energy, and IPR.
 Eg:– India partnered with Brazil and South Africa on data sovereignty
provisions at UNCTAD 2023.
4. Leveraging regional groupings: Use platforms like BIMSTEC, IORA to build
regional resilience against major power coercion.
 Eg:– MAHASAGAR Doctrine (2025) focuses on Indo-Pacific trade
coordination to reduce overdependence on Western markets.
5. Deploying trade–aid diplomacy: Strengthen economic ties with smaller nations
through concessional trade terms and capacity-building.
 Eg:– India-Africa Trade Facilitation Initiative (2024) offers zero-duty
access and capacity support to 33 African LDCs.

Conclusion
To remain a credible voice for the Global South, India must revive multilateralism through
smart coalitions and reassert its leadership in inclusive trade governance.

Q. What are the diplomatic implications of the declining relevance of a rules-

based international order? Analyse India’s response to global institutional
fragility. (10 M)

Introduction
The post–Cold War liberal order is losing credibility as power realigns and rules are
selectively applied, forcing emerging powers like India to recalibrate their diplomatic toolkit.

Body

Diplomatic implications of a declining rules-based order

1. Erosion of multilateral legitimacy: Selective enforcement of international norms has

reduced trust in institutions like the UN and WTO.
o Eg: UNSC’s paralysis on Ukraine war and WTO’s Appellate Body
suspension reflect global governance decay .
2. Rise of transactional geopolitics: States now prioritise interests over ideology,
weakening collective security frameworks.
o Eg: AUKUS formation and NATO fragmentation show shift towards
bilateral defence pacts over institutional multilateralism.
3. Weakening of Global South voice: Emerging economies face marginalisation due to
control of Bretton Woods institutions by Western powers.
o Eg: IMF and World Bank voting shares still favour G7 despite demands
from G20 and BRICS for reform.
4. Normalisation of realpolitik interventions: Breaches of sovereignty by major
powers go unchecked, setting dangerous precedents.

76
 o Eg: Russia’s Ukraine invasion and China’s South China Sea militarisation
with minimal multilateral sanctions.
5. Fragmentation of trade governance: Decline in WTO efficacy has led to rise of
plurilateral and regional FTAs with limited transparency.
o Eg: India’s exit from RCEP (2020) citing asymmetries and lack of
safeguards for domestic industry.

India’s response to global institutional fragility

1. Pursuit of multi-alignment: India has adopted a flexible, interest-driven approach

balancing multiple powers.
o Eg: Simultaneous participation in QUAD, SCO, and BRICS despite
ideological diversity (MEA Annual Report, 2024).
2. Institutional reform advocacy: India leads calls for restructuring global bodies for
equity and effectiveness.
o Eg: At G20 Delhi Summit 2023, India pushed for UNSC reform, inclusion of
African Union, and climate finance equity.
3. Focus on South-South cooperation: India is strengthening ties with developing
nations through technology, vaccines, and capacity-building.
o Eg: India-UN Development Partnership Fund and Vaccine Maitri initiative
reached 90+ countries.
4. Promotion of alternative platforms: India is building parallel frameworks that
reflect emerging realities.
o Eg: ISA (International Solar Alliance) and Global Biofuel Alliance signal
India-led norm setting in new sectors.
5. Strategic tech and defence autonomy: Reducing dependence on Western systems to
navigate future decoupling risks.
o Eg: India’s push for AI-enabled defence and indigenous drone systems post-
Ukraine war lessons

Conclusion
India’s diplomacy in this interregnum is not about restoring the old order but shaping a fairer
one. Its success will depend on blending strategic autonomy with institutional creativity.

Important International institutions, agencies and fora - their

structure, mandate.
Q. What institutional constraints does WHO face in sustaining its global
operations amidst donor withdrawal? Examine the impact on health systems in
vulnerable regions of the Global South. (10 M)

Introduction
The World Health Organization (WHO), as the apex global health body, is increasingly
strained by donor unreliability and geopolitical disruptions—jeopardising its capacity to
ensure equitable health responses worldwide.
77
Body

Institutional constraints in sustaining operations

1. Donor dependency and skewed funding: Over 80% of WHO’s funding is voluntary
and earmarked, limiting flexibility in crisis allocation.
o Eg: U.S. aid freeze in 2024–25 led to a projected 20% budget cut, hampering
core emergency operations.
2. Unpredictable political alignments: Donor disengagement linked to regime changes
affects WHO’s long-term planning and coordination.
o Eg: U.S. exit from WHO disrupted joint surveillance and pandemic
preparedness projects globally.
3. Fragmented multilateral authority: WHO lacks enforcement power over member
states, leading to poor compliance in global health data sharing.
o Eg: Delayed COVID-19 reporting by China (2020) revealed gaps in WHO's
monitoring authority (Independent Panel on Pandemic Preparedness, 2021)
4. Over-centralisation of expertise: Excessive reliance on partnerships with a few
high-capacity nations weakens resilience when such partnerships collapse.
o Eg: Research pipelines and vaccine data sharing were impacted post-U.S.
collaboration freeze in 2024–25.
5. Administrative rigidity: Bureaucratic delays and slow disbursal hinder WHO’s rapid
emergency responses.
o Eg: Delayed deployment of emergency medical teams in Sudan due to
internal clearance hurdles

Impact on health systems in vulnerable regions of the Global South

1. Collapse of emergency health logistics: Pre-positioning of trauma kits and medicine

faces severe disruption.
o Eg: Gaza Strip saw a halt in trauma care support after U.S. aid suspension
(WHO EMRO Brief)
2. Disrupted disease surveillance: Withdrawal affects early warning systems for
outbreaks and emerging pathogens.
o Eg: Cholera and dengue outbreaks in Sudan were inadequately tracked
after WHO field surveillance was scaled down (AFP Report, 2025)
3. Impaired health infrastructure recovery: post-conflict rebuilding of hospitals is
suspended or stalled.
o Eg: Yemen’s rural clinics lost international rehabilitation support after
WHO’s funding cutbacks.
4. Reduced training of health personnel: WHO’s field training and emergency
medical team programs shrink due to staffing cuts.
o Eg: Emergency team training in Eastern Mediterranean region cancelled
in 2025 (WHO Regional Update)

78
 5. Equity gaps in vaccine and drug access: Vulnerable regions lose access to WHO-
facilitated procurement mechanisms.
o Eg: HIV treatment delivery in Indian tribal districts affected after USAID
shutdown

Conclusion
The fragility of WHO’s funding architecture exposes the Global South to cascading health
risks. Strengthening mandatory contributions, promoting South-South cooperation, and
insulating global health governance from political flux are now urgent imperatives.

Q. “The proposed WHO pandemic treaty is historic in intent but limited in

institutional transformation”. Analyse its key provisions. Discuss its major
limitations. Suggest structural reforms to enhance its enforceability and impact.
(15 M)

Introduction

The COVID-19 crisis exposed severe gaps in global health equity and governance. The
WHO’s draft pandemic treaty (2025) aims to fill these, yet its institutional architecture
remains underwhelming.

Body

Key provisions of the proposed WHO pandemic treaty

1. Pathogen access and benefit-sharing system: Ensures global access to pathogen

data in exchange for equitable distribution of medical tools.
o Eg: Draft mandates 10% free and 10% affordable vaccine/diagnostic
supply to WHO by pharma firms (Nature, 2025).
2. Technology and knowledge transfer obligations: Encourages states to facilitate
sharing of know-how with manufacturers in developing nations.
o Eg: Treaty requires conditions on public R&D funding to ensure timely and
equitable access to innovations.
3. Commitment to equitable access: Encourages national policies mandating equitable
distribution of drugs and diagnostics.
o Eg: Draft Article 12 calls for government-led access provisions during health
emergencies.
4. Public health surveillance coordination: Encourages transparent sharing of outbreak
data and surveillance systems.
o Eg: Builds on International Health Regulations (IHR) 2005, but adds
stronger clauses on genomic data sharing.
5. Non-binding commitments framework: Treaty is framed as a legal instrument
without WHO enforcement powers.

79
 o Eg: Clause 24(3) explicitly states WHO cannot alter or prescribe domestic
laws of member states.

Major limitations in institutional transformation

1. Absence of binding enforcement mechanisms: Treaty lacks power to compel

compliance from sovereign states.
o Eg: WHO cannot mandate travel bans, vaccine mandates, or lockdowns,
weakening its pandemic response authority (Source: The Telegraph, 2025).
2. Non-participation of key states: The United States has withdrawn from
negotiations, undermining legitimacy.
3. Ambiguity in benefit-sharing mechanisms: Operationalisation of equitable access
lacks clarity and enforceable modalities.
o Eg: No clear penalty or timeline for vaccine allocation failures by firms
during global health crises.
4. Limited authority for WHO Secretariat: WHO is only a facilitator, not a regulator,
reducing its role to moral persuasion.
o Eg: Treaty bars WHO from directing national public health responses or
mandating data sharing protocols.
5. Private sector reluctance: Pharma industries are concerned over innovation
disincentives and IP erosion.
o Eg: International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers and
Associations (IFPMA) warned of risks to voluntary R&D partnerships.

Suggested structural reforms for enforceability and impact

1. Create compliance review mechanisms: Establish treaty-mandated review bodies to

monitor national preparedness and equity obligations.
o Eg: Similar to UNFCCC compliance committees, with periodic transparency
reports and peer review.
2. Incentivise participation through funding linkages: Tie international funding
support to adherence with treaty principles.
o Eg: Gavi or CEPI disbursals can be conditional on timely benefit-sharing
and data transparency.
3. Institutionalise WHO emergency powers: Amend the treaty to give WHO limited
operational authority in pandemic crises.
o Eg: Allow WHO to coordinate global vaccine allocation and surge response
teams under a defined emergency protocol.
4. Create multilateral legal backstops: Establish arbitration or sanctions through
independent treaty courts or UN mechanisms.
o Eg: Modeled on WTO dispute settlement but adapted for health
emergencies.
5. Strengthen global south leadership in governance: Provide stronger voice to
developing nations in treaty implementation boards.

80
 o Eg: India, South Africa and Brazil can lead coalitions for access equity,
drawing from the TRIPS waiver experience during COVID-19.

Conclusion

A transformative treaty must go beyond intent to institutional redesign. Unless enforceable

mechanisms and equity safeguards are built in, the world risks repeating the failures of
COVID-19 during the next pandemic.

Q. UN peacekeeping has helped prevent state collapse in several post-conflict

nations. Analyse how peacekeeping contributes to long-term stability. Identify
the key operational challenges. Also evaluate its relevance in a multipolar world.
(15 M)

Introduction
UN peacekeeping missions serve as a bridge between conflict and political stability, often
being the last institutional buffer before state failure in volatile regions.

Body

Contribution of UN peacekeeping to long-term stability

1. Ceasefire monitoring and deterrence: Presence of Blue Helmets deters immediate

resurgence of violence.
o Eg: UNIFIL in Lebanon has helped prevent escalation between Israel and
Hezbollah since 2006.
2. Demobilisation and reintegration: Peacekeepers help disarm, demobilise and
reintegrate combatants post-conflict.
o Eg: UNMIL in Liberia (2003–2018) demobilised over 100,000 fighters,
enabling a return to civilian rule.
3. Elections and political transition: Peacekeeping assists in credible elections and
institution building.
o Eg: UNMIT in Timor-Leste oversaw the 2007 elections, helping smooth
leadership transition after civil unrest.
4. Civilian protection and humanitarian access: Peacekeepers safeguard vulnerable
populations and enable aid delivery.
o Eg: MONUSCO in DRC protects civilians against M23 rebel offensives and
facilitates UNICEF food access.
5. Rule of law and justice reform: Missions support judiciary, policing, and legal
systems rebuilding.
o Eg: MINUSTAH in Haiti helped rebuild police institutions and supported
judicial accountability post-2004.

Key operational challenges faced by peacekeeping

81
 1. Mandate ambiguity and overstretch: Missions often have expansive but unclear
mandates, hindering effectiveness.
o Eg: UNMISS in South Sudan has faced criticism for failing to prevent
ethnic violence despite Chapter VII mandate (Source: IPI, 2023).
2. Underfunding and donor fatigue: Heavy reliance on a few nations creates financial
vulnerabilities.
o Eg: US’s proposed withdrawal of $1.2 billion in 2025 threatens 27% of
total funding (Source: UN Peacekeeping Budget, 2024).
3. Lack of enforcement power: Peacekeepers often lack authority to use force
proactively.
o Eg: In Rwanda (1994), UNAMIR lacked sufficient mandate and troops to
prevent genocide.
4. Hostile host governments: Governments often restrict peacekeeper mobility and
mandate implementation.
o Eg: Mali’s junta expelled MINUSMA in 2023, accusing it of infringing
sovereignty.
5. Non-state actors and asymmetric threats: Peacekeeping frameworks are ill-
equipped to handle insurgents and terrorists.
o Eg: In Somalia, Al Shabab’s fluid tactics outmatch traditional setups like
AUSSOM.

Relevance of UN peacekeeping in a multipolar world

1. Platform for collective burden-sharing: Peacekeeping offers legitimacy through

multilateral consensus.
o Eg: India, Bangladesh, and Nepal contribute ~30% of troops, while funding
comes from US, China, EU (Source: UN Report 2024).
2. Instrument of soft power diplomacy: Middle powers leverage peacekeeping to
project global responsibility.
o Eg: India’s leadership of UNIFIL-2 reinforces its role as a net security
provider.
3. Counterweight to unilateral interventions: UN peacekeeping promotes rules-based
order over unilateral force.
o Eg: UNMIK in Kosovo provided legitimacy lacking in 1999 NATO-led
action.
4. Adapting to hybrid conflict environments: Multipolarity necessitates mandate
flexibility for newer threats.
o Eg: UN’s Action for Peacekeeping (A4P) initiative (2018) emphasises
political solutions and adaptive mandates.
5. Symbol of post-WWII global governance: Peacekeeping remains a key legacy of
collective security under the UN Charter.
o Eg: Despite flaws, UNFICYP in Cyprus has prevented direct conflict
between Greece and Turkey since 1964.

82
Conclusion
In an increasingly fractured world, UN peacekeeping is not a perfect tool but a necessary one.
Reforms in funding, mandate clarity and adaptive responses can ensure it remains a
stabilising force amidst shifting geopolitical tectonics.

83
 Secure Synopsis compilation for May-2025
General Studies-2
Table of contents

Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments,

significant provisions and basic structure. ----------------------------------------------------------- 5
Q. Explain how contempt jurisdiction safeguards the rule of law in India. Analyse the risks of
its misuse and suggest institutional mechanisms for balancing judicial authority with federal
accountability. (15 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
Q. Discuss the scope and limitations of the Supreme Court’s advisory jurisdiction under
Article 143. How is it distinct from its adjudicatory powers? (10 M) -------------------------------7
Q. “Freedom of expression is not just a right—it is essential to democratic governance”.
Discuss. (15 M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
Q. The Supreme Court's ability to invoke Article 142 to enforce constitutional accountability
is not an encroachment but a necessity. Discuss. (15 M) --------------------------------------------- 10
Q. Criminalising criticism corrodes constitutional democracy. Comment. How can Indian
laws strike a balance between state interest and civil liberties? (10 M) --------------------------- 13
Q. In recent years, constitutional posts have become battlegrounds of political partisanship.
Evaluate how the politicisation of high constitutional authorities affects India’s federal
balance and democratic ethos. Suggest institutional mechanisms to restore neutrality and
public trust. (15 M)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 15
Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges
pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of powers and finances up to local levels and
challenges therein.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
Q. Centrally sponsored schemes are increasingly becoming instruments of policy
centralisation. Examine the structural and procedural factors driving this trend. Assess its
implications for cooperative federalism. Propose mechanisms to reconcile national priorities
with subnational autonomy in shared domains. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------- 17
Q. Financial centralisation weakens the spirit of decentralised governance. Analyse the
constitutional limits of fiscal control by the Union. Examine its consequences for State
autonomy. Suggest mechanisms to ensure equitable federal fiscal relations. (15 M) ----------- 19
Q. India’s development journey cannot be linear when regional disparities remain
multidimensional. Discuss how NITI Aayog addresses these disparities through its initiatives.
(15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal mechanisms and
institutions.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23

1
Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries. --------------23
Parliament and State legislatures—structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers &
privileges and issues arising out of these. -----------------------------------------------------------23
Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary—Ministries
and Departments of the Government; pressure groups and formal/informal associations
and their role in the Polity. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------25
Q. Public Interest Litigation has evolved into a vehicle of constitutional transformation in
India. Analyse its judicial evolution and the concerns arising from its misuse. Suggest reforms
to restore its original democratic purpose. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------- 25
Q. How can India strike a balance between judicial independence and transparency in
misconduct inquiries? Suggest institutional reforms drawing from comparative global
models. (15 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
Q. Constitutional morality lies in restraint, not rivalry, among institutions. Analyse this in the
context of judiciary–executive relations and explain how do protocol lapses disrupt
constitutional balance? Suggest steps to strengthen cooperative federalism. (15 M) ----------- 29
Q. “Judicial vacations are a colonial legacy that no longer serves the needs of a 21st-century
democracy”. Critically examine. (10 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------- 31
Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act. -------------------------------------------33
Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of
various Constitutional Bodies.-------------------------------------------------------------------------33
Q. “Though constitutionally envisioned to uphold judicial accountability, the process of
impeachment in India has remained largely ineffective in practice”. Examine the provisions
governing judicial impeachment in India. What are the key challenges in its implementation,
and how can the process be strengthened? (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------- 33
Q. What are the core issues affecting the effective functioning of State Human Rights
Commissions in India? Examine institutional and procedural weaknesses. Propose a model
framework for strengthening these bodies. (15 M)---------------------------------------------------- 35
Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies. Government policies and
interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and
implementation. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
Q. Discuss the institutional challenges in securing time-bound justice under the Protection of
Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) framework. Analyse how delayed trials affect
rehabilitation of minor victims. (10 M)------------------------------------------------------------------ 37
Development processes and the development industry —the role of NGOs, SHGs, various
groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders. -----------38
Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the
performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for
the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections. --------------------------------------38
Q. “Regulating OTT content requires a synthesis of legal clarity, technological
understanding, and social sensitivity”. Analyse the challenges in creating such a regulation.
Examine the role of tripartite collaboration in policymaking. Suggest ways to ensure user
protection without compromising free speech. (15 M) ----------------------------------------------- 38

2
 Q. How does the implementation of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) reflect broader issues in India’s public service delivery
system? Suggest measures to enhance convergence, efficiency, and accountability. (15 M) -- 40
Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to
Health, Education, Human Resources. --------------------------------------------------------------42
Q. While affordability in school education is crucial, excessive fee regulation risks
undermining quality. Examine this dilemma. Suggest how India can balance affordability
with quality in private education. (10 M) --------------------------------------------------------------- 42
Q. Assess the role of online learning in facilitating entrepreneurial and gig-economy
aspirations. What support structures are needed to make such learning sustainable and
impactful? (10 M) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 44
Q. Evaluate the relevance of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act, 2016 in
ensuring inclusive schooling. How far has it been implemented across Indian states? (10 M) 45
Q. Examine the key lifestyle and behavioural factors contributing to rising infertility. How
can public health systems respond proactively? (10 M)---------------------------------------------- 47
Q. What are the key institutional and policy limitations in India’s palliative care ecosystem?
How can decentralised health governance address these gaps? (10 M) --------------------------- 48
Q. “Foundational learning is not achieved solely through classroom instruction—it requires a
whole-of-society approach”. Examine the role of parents and communities in supporting
India’s Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) goals. Highlight gaps in current parental
and community engagement in FLN and suggest institutional measures to strengthen their
participation. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
Q. “Strengthening primary healthcare is the first line of defence against future pandemics”.
Comment. Why is India still underperforming in this area? (10 M) ------------------------------ 52
Issues relating to poverty and hunger. ---------------------------------------------------------------53
Q. “Maternal health must begin before motherhood.” Discuss the significance of
preconception care and nutrition in shaping public health outcomes. Analyse the structural
gaps in addressing maternal malnutrition. Suggest a framework for integrated early
interventions. (15 M) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
Important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability, e-governance-
applications, models, successes, limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency
& accountability and institutional and other measures. ------------------------------------------55
Q. Why has there been persistent legal resistance to bringing political parties under the RTI
Act? Examine the democratic consequences of opaque political financing. Suggest a viable
institutional framework to ensure financial transparency without undermining party
autonomy. (15 M)-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
Q. “When truth becomes the first casualty in the race for virality, democracy loses its moral
compass”. Evaluate the threats posed by the viral spread of misinformation to institutional
credibility. In what ways does this affect citizen trust and democratic participation? (10 M) 57
Q. Administrative inefficiency in India is not just a management issue, but a governance
failure. Examine this statement. Discuss the role a dedicated efficiency department can play
in remedying this. What safeguards are needed to preserve democratic accountability? (15 M)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 59

3
Role of civil services in a democracy. ----------------------------------------------------------------61
India and its neighborhood- relations. ---------------------------------------------------------------61
Q. What are the major obstacles to regional integration in South Asia? How has the India-
Pakistan conflict exacerbated them? (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------- 61
Q. “Small neighbours are the first test of big power diplomacy”. Analyse this in the context of
India-Maldives ties post-2023. How is India leveraging diplomacy to rebuild trust? (10 M) - 62
Q. “Cross-border disinformation is the new non-traditional threat in South Asia”. Examine
its impact on inter-State relations. Suggest mechanisms to counter such digital aggression. (10
M) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting
India’s interests. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------65
Q. Examine the evolution of India’s policy towards foreign aid since independence. Analyse
how the shift from aid-receiving to aid-giving has impacted its international image. Also
evaluate the implications of this transition on India’s developmental partnerships with the
Global South. (15 M)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Q. What is the significance of the Bandung Conference for India’s post-independence foreign
policy identity? Why does its neglect matter today? How can its core principles be
reinterpreted to suit India's current geopolitical aspirations? (15 M) ---------------------------- 67
Q. “The Arctic is no longer a zone of scientific cooperation but a strategic theatre of
multipolar competition”. Examine. How should India prepare for the emerging Arctic
dynamics? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 69
Q. How does India utilise inter-parliamentary diplomacy to complement its foreign policy
goals? Assess the role of platforms like the BRICS Parliamentary Forum. (10 M) ------------- 71
Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests,
Indian diaspora.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------72
Q. In the wake of increasing regional militarisation in West Asia, assess the challenges to
India’s energy security and diaspora safety. (10 M) -------------------------------------------------- 72
Q. “Unequal peace settlements risk legitimising aggression and weakening international
norms”. Analyse how this applies to the Russia-Ukraine conflict. How should India balance
non-alignment with adherence to sovereignty principles? ------------------------------------------- 74
Q. “Peace processes cannot succeed when framed through maximalist positions and unilateral
preconditions”. Analyse this in the context of Russia’s negotiating stance and its implications
for conflict resolution. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76
Important International institutions, agencies and fora - their structure, mandate. --------78
Q. “Global financial institutions are increasingly performing security functions in South
Asia”. Comment. (10 M) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 78

4
Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution,
features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure.
Q. Explain how contempt jurisdiction safeguards the rule of law in India.
Analyse the risks of its misuse and suggest institutional mechanisms for
balancing judicial authority with federal accountability. (15 M)

Introduction
In a constitutional democracy, judicial directions must be obeyed to uphold the sanctity of
law. Contempt jurisdiction acts as a constitutional tool to secure compliance, especially
against powerful actors defying judicial authority.

Body

How contempt jurisdiction safeguards rule of law

1. Ensures compliance with court orders: It enforces binding decisions under Article
141 and Article 144, preserving judicial supremacy.
o Eg: Punjab-Haryana Bhakra water dispute where Punjab officials faced
contempt threat for blocking BBMB functioning in defiance of HC orders.
2. Protects judicial independence: It prevents undue interference or intimidation from
executives or citizens.
o Eg: Prashant Bhushan case upheld that criticism crossing limits can erode
public faith in judiciary.
3. Upholds constitutional morality: It ensures elected governments function within
legal bounds, not majoritarian impulses.
o Eg: Krishna Kumar Singh v. State of Bihar ruled repeated ordinance
repromulgation without legislature approval as undermining rule of law.
4. Preserves public trust in justice delivery: It reinforces that courts are not merely
advisory, but enforceable institutions.
o Eg: Delhi garbage crisis case saw SC hold officers accountable for contempt
when they ignored its directions.
5. Secures federal balance through neutrality: High Courts ensure equitable
enforcement in inter-state disputes.
o Eg: Cauvery dispute enforcement where SC ordered Karnataka to comply
with tribunal allocation, despite state protests.

Risks and criticisms of misuse

1. Potential threat to free speech: Vague definition of ‘scandalising the court’ may
deter legitimate criticism.
o Eg: Law Commission of India (274th Report) called for repeal of
‘scandalising’ as a ground for contempt.
2. Judicial overreach and self-interest: Judges being complainant, prosecutor and
adjudicator raises conflict of interest concerns.

5
 o Eg: CJI Gogoi’s suo motu contempt initiation raised ethical questions about
internal accountability.
3. Chilling effect on media and civil society: Fear of contempt curbs investigative
journalism and dissenting voices.
o Eg: Rajdeep Sardesai contempt threat during farmers' protest reporting led
to debate on media freedoms.
4. Inconsistent invocation across jurisdictions: There’s no standard threshold,
leading to selective targeting.
o Eg: Arnab Goswami’s contempt proceedings contrasted with leniency
shown in similar remarks by others.
5. Undermines federal trust when overused against states: Contempt threats to state
officials may escalate Centre-State tensions.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu NEET-related contempt threats (2023) were criticised for
bypassing legislative will of elected government.

Institutional mechanisms for balance

1. Codify clear contempt parameters: Amend Contempt of Courts Act, 1971 to

define limits, especially for civil vs criminal contempt.
o Eg: Law Commission 2018 recommended deleting ‘scandalising’ and
narrowing contempt scope to wilful disobedience.
2. Establish judicial accountability norms: Create a judicial conduct oversight
mechanism for fair use of contempt powers.
o Eg: Judicial Standards and Accountability Bill proposed independent
scrutiny of judicial behaviour.
3. Strengthen cooperative dispute resolution: Use bodies like Inter-State Council
and River Boards Act to resolve conflicts before courts intervene.
o Eg: BBMB’s role in Bhakra water dispute (2025) needs reassertion through
neutral interstate forums.
4. Enhance judicial training and restraint norms: Promote internal codes of conduct
to prevent impulsive contempt triggers.
o Eg: Supreme Court’s Restatement on Judicial Ethics advises restraint in
responding to criticism.
5. Digital transparency in judicial orders: Ensure real-time public access to court
orders and compliance status, limiting political misinterpretation.
o Eg: National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG) model can be expanded to track
contempt compliance.

Conclusion
Contempt powers must remain a moral compass, not a coercive stick. To preserve both
judicial integrity and democratic values, India must move towards a transparent,
restrained and federal-sensitive contempt regime.

6
Q. Discuss the scope and limitations of the Supreme Court’s advisory jurisdiction
under Article 143. How is it distinct from its adjudicatory powers? (10 M)

Introduction
Article 143 empowers the President to seek non-binding advice from the Supreme Court,
enabling constitutional guidance in complex or unprecedented matters.

Body

Scope of Article 143

1. Covers both law and fact: The President can refer both legal and factual questions of
public importance.
o Eg: The 2025 Presidential reference raised 14 questions, including on
Articles 142, 131 and judicial discipline.
2. Applicable to hypothetical situations: Questions “likely to arise” can be referred,
even if they are not yet part of litigation.
o Eg: In the 1994 Special Reference, the SC gave an opinion on the
Ramakrishna Mission's minority status, though no case was pending.
3. Constitution Bench mandatory: Article 145(3) requires a Bench of at least five
judges to hear a reference.
o Eg: The Third Judges Case (1998) was heard by a 9-judge Bench for clarity
on judicial appointments.
4. Assists executive decision-making: Offers legal clarity to the President when the
executive faces constitutional dilemmas.
o Eg: The Berubari Union reference (1960) guided the Nehru government on
the procedure to cede territory to Pakistan.

Limitations of Article 143

1. Not binding in nature: Opinions under Article 143 are not enforceable and do not
carry the weight of judicial precedents.
o Eg: The 2012 reference on 2G spectrum allocation did not alter the 2G
judgment, despite overlapping concerns.
2. No parties, no remedy: There are no litigants and the court does not issue
enforceable directions or resolve actual disputes.
o Eg: The Cauvery Water Disputes reference (1991) clarified that Article 143
cannot be used to review existing rulings.
3. Court can return unanswered: The SC may decline to answer a reference if it is no
longer relevant or expedient.
o Eg: In Special Reference No. 1 of 1982, the SC returned the question on the
J&K Resettlement Bill unanswered.
4. Can’t override judicial decisions: Article 143 cannot be used to appeal or dilute a
settled judgment of the court.

7
 o Eg: In the Cauvery opinion, the SC held that Article 143 is not a backdoor
for review of judicial verdicts.

Distinction from adjudicatory jurisdiction

1. Purpose and enforceability: Advisory opinions are consultative, while adjudicatory

decisions are binding under Article 141.
o Eg: The 2025 Presidential reference on timelines for assent will not overturn
the April 8, 2025 R.N. Ravi judgment, as the latter is adjudicatory.
2. No litigants or remedies in advisory matters: Advisory jurisdiction does not
involve opposing parties or enforce rights or liabilities.
o Eg: In the Berubari Union case (1960), the SC clarified territorial cession
procedures without adjudicating between two parties.
3. Cannot strike down laws: Unlike adjudicatory jurisdiction, Article 143 cannot be
used to invalidate statutes or executive actions.
o Eg: In the 1993 Ayodhya reference, the SC declined to answer the question
on temple existence as it would affect pending Title Suit proceedings.

Conclusion
Article 143 serves as a constitutional compass in uncharted territories, but must not be
misused to bypass or challenge the judiciary’s authoritative verdicts.

Q. “Freedom of expression is not just a right—it is essential to democratic

governance”. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction
Freedom of expression is the bedrock of an open society, ensuring that power is questioned
and democratic participation is meaningful. Without it, constitutional democracy risks
descending into silent compliance.

Body

Freedom of expression as the foundation of democratic governance

1. Enabler of participatory governance: It empowers citizens to critique state actions

and engage in decision-making.
o Eg: RTI Act, 2005 was born from campaigns led by Mazdoor Kisan Shakti
Sangathan, using free speech to demand government transparency.
2. Promotes electoral accountability: A robust public discourse shapes rational voter
behaviour and deters misuse of state power.
o Eg: Election Commission's censure of hate speech during 2024 Lok Sabha
polls showcased the value of regulated but open political dialogue.
3. Fosters policy innovation through dissent: Critical voices help improve governance
by highlighting blind spots.

8
 o Eg: The Farmers' protests (2020–21) led to repeal of the farm laws,
reflecting dissent’s role in policy reversal.
4. Strengthens judicial independence and review: Legal criticism fosters
jurisprudential clarity and people’s trust in the judiciary.
o Eg: Debates post the Sabarimala judgment helped the Court reconsider
balancing rights and tradition.
5. Enables civil society and activism: It ensures space for NGOs, academics, and
citizens to advocate for the marginalised.
o Eg: Shaheen Bagh movement demonstrated peaceful protest as legitimate
democratic expression under Article 19(1)(a).

Challenges to freedom of expression

1. Misuse of penal provisions: Broad and vague laws enable arbitrary arrests and
censorship.
o Eg: Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita charges against a professor for a social media
post highlight this risk.
2. Institutional censorship and surveillance: State agencies increasingly monitor
dissent under the guise of national security.
o Eg: Pegasus spyware revelations (2021) showed unlawful surveillance of
journalists and activists.
3. Shrinking academic and campus freedoms: Universities face external pressure over
critical research and political speech.
o Eg: The resignations from Ashoka University (2021–24) revealed indirect
suppression of academic expression.
4. Digital platform regulation without safeguards: Governmental control over online
content risks curtailing independent voices.
o Eg: IT Rules, 2021 were challenged in multiple High Courts for enabling
executive overreach in content takedown.
5. Mob violence and social backlash: Majoritarian pressures suppress unpopular or
minority viewpoints.
o Eg: Bengaluru violence over a Facebook post showed how public outrage
can spiral into silencing of expression.

Way forward

1. Codify speech-related protections: Enact clear statutory guidelines on what

constitutes protected speech under Article 19.
o Eg: Law Commission of India (267th Report) suggested narrowly tailoring
sedition and similar laws to prevent misuse.
2. Judicial oversight on arrests: Mandate pre-arrest judicial review for speech-related
offences.
o Eg: SC judgment in Arnesh Kumar vs State of Bihar (2014) discourages
routine arrests under cognisable offences.

9
 3. Strengthen institutional autonomy: Ensure independence of universities, media, and
cultural institutions from executive control.
o Eg: U.G.C. Guidelines 2022 stress non-interference in academic research and
curriculum design.
4. Promote civic education and digital literacy: Citizens must be educated to tolerate
opposing views and verify misinformation.
o Eg: NCERT’s 2023 revised civics syllabus includes modules on media
literacy and democratic dialogue.
5. Establish independent media and speech regulators: Create a non-partisan
commission to oversee speech-related disputes and ensure proportionality.
o Eg: The UK’s Ofcom model balances free speech with content regulation,
avoiding excessive executive control.

Conclusion
Democracy without free expression is rule without voice. Ensuring constitutional,
institutional, and cultural protections for expression is vital to preserve India’s democratic
soul in the face of rising pressures.

Q. The Supreme Court's ability to invoke Article 142 to enforce constitutional

accountability is not an encroachment but a necessity. Discuss. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s constitutional democracy is founded on the doctrine of checks and balances. Article
142, a unique feature of the Indian Constitution, enables the Supreme Court to do
‘complete justice’ when the constitutional machinery or silence causes impasse or injustice.

Body

The Supreme Court’s use of Article 142 as a necessity

1. Ensures functioning of constitutional machinery: Prevents legislative paralysis

when executive fails to act.
o Eg: In Tamil Nadu Governor Assent Delay Case (2025), SC invoked
Article 142 to deem 12 Bills as passed after a 3-year delay by the Governor.
2. Bridges constitutional silence: Fills voids where Constitution provides no remedy or
timelines.
o Eg: In Union Carbide Case (1991), SC awarded compensation using Article
142 due to lack of statutory disaster response mechanism.
3. Preserves legislative mandate: Upholds the supremacy of the elected legislature’s
will over executive inaction.
o Eg: In Krishna Kumar Singh v. State of Bihar (2017), SC declared re-
promulgation of ordinances without legislative approval as unconstitutional.
4. Checks misuse of discretion: Acts as a corrective against arbitrary use of
constitutional powers.

10
 o Eg: In Bihar Assembly Dissolution Case (2006), SC invalidated improper
use of Article 356 and emphasized constitutional accountability.
5. Upholds constitutional morality: Interprets Constitution in the spirit of justice,
liberty, and equality.
o Eg: In Sabarimala Verdict (2018), SC allowed women's entry into the
temple using Article 142 to enforce gender equality and dignity.

Issues associated with use of Article 142

1. Judicial overreach concerns: Risks blurring separation of powers by venturing into

executive or legislative domains.
o Eg: In the 2025 TN Bills case, critics argue that SC’s intervention via Article
142 curtailed the Governor’s Article 200 discretion.
2. Vague scope and definition: “Complete justice” lacks definition, leading to varied
interpretations.
o Eg: In Supreme Court Bar Assn. v. Union of India (1998), SC held that
Article 142 cannot override express statutory provisions.
3. Short-circuiting constitutional processes: May sidestep review, curative or
legislative procedures.
o Eg: Instead of filing a review or curative petition, the Union moved a
presidential reference under Article 143.
4. Provokes institutional tension: Use of Article 142 may be viewed as judiciary
encroaching on executive decisions.
o Eg: Article 143 reference by the Union post-TN judgment seen as an attempt
to counter judicial authority.
5. Absence of constitutional safeguards: Article 142 powers are not explicitly bounded
by procedural constraints.
o Eg: Justice Verma in Vishaka case (1997) acknowledged the risk but
justified it to ensure justice where laws were absent.

Way forward

1. Define doctrinal limits via larger benches: Clarify the permissible boundaries of
Article 142.
o Eg: Navtej Singh Johar Case (2018) used Article 142 cautiously while
striking down Section 377 IPC with emphasis on rights and restraint.
2. Codify timelines for executive assent: Prescribe legal time limits under Articles 200
and 201.
o Eg: SC in 2025 TN case suggested a 3-month limit for Governor's decision
on Bills; similar provision can be statutorily introduced.
3. Promote inter-institutional dialogue: Resolve tensions through conventions rather
than confrontations.
o Eg: Punchhi Commission (2010) recommended formal conventions for
Governor's role in assent to State legislation.

11
 4. Strengthen legislative remedies: Allow judicial restraint by ensuring legislative
procedures are not delayed.
o Eg: States can amend rules to provide internal timelines for reintroducing
returned Bills to prevent misuse of constitutional silence.
5. Use Article 142 sparingly and transparently: Retain it as a constitutional fail-safe,
not a routine tool.
o Eg: Justice Jeevan Reddy in Second Judges Case (1993) stressed judicial
self-restraint even while invoking Article 142.

Conclusion
Article 142 is a constitutional valve to prevent the collapse of justice when all else fails.
But its future use must be principled, rare, and anchored in constitutional morality to preserve
institutional harmony and democratic legitimacy.

Q3. Criminalising criticism corrodes constitutional democracy. Comment. How can

Indian laws strike a balance between state interest and civil liberties? (10 M)

Introduction
Democracy thrives not on consensus, but on constructive dissent. The criminalisation of
criticism turns disagreement into disloyalty, eroding the foundations of constitutional
morality.

Body
Criminalising criticism and its threat to democracy

1. Violation of Article 19(1)(a): Arbitrary arrests for speech infringe on the

fundamental right to free expression.
o Eg: In Tejender Pal Singh vs State of Rajasthan (2024), the High Court
cautioned against using Section 152 of BNS to suppress legitimate dissent.
2. Erosion of public accountability: Silencing criticism weakens institutional checks
and fosters authoritarianism.
o Eg: The 2025 Pune student arrest for an Instagram story on Operation
Sindoor led to Bombay HC’s rebuke of police overreach.
3. Chilling effect on civic participation: Fear of legal action discourages public debate
and weakens democratic engagement.
o Eg: NCRB 2022 reported over 8,000 arrests for “anti-government activities,”
many linked to online posts .
4. Judicial concern over misuse of law: Courts have repeatedly struck down or
restricted laws used to stifle dissent.
o Eg: In Shreya Singhal vs Union of India (2015), SC struck down Section
66A of IT Act as unconstitutional for being vague and arbitrary.
5. International reputational costs: Democratic backsliding due to speech curbs affects
India’s global image and human rights ratings.

12
 o Eg: Freedom House Report 2024 downgraded India’s civil liberties score
citing “growing intolerance of dissent”.

Striking the balance: safeguarding both liberty and security

1. Proportionality and necessity test: Laws must pass the SC’s triple test—legality,
necessity, proportionality.
o Eg: SC reaffirmed this in Anuradha Bhasin vs Union of India (2020) while
assessing internet curbs in J&K.
2. Sunset clauses in restrictive provisions: Time-bound application can prevent
permanent misuse.
o Eg: Srikrishna Committee on Data Protection (2018) recommended sunset
clauses in surveillance frameworks.
3. Clear legal drafting and definitions: Avoid vague terms like “anti-national” or
“public mischief” without precise scope.
o Eg: Law Commission of India (2023) advised replacing sedition law with
narrowly-defined hate speech provisions.
4. Independent oversight mechanisms: Statutory bodies must monitor police and
executive action on speech offences.
o Eg: Justice Lokur’s 2022 recommendation for an autonomous Free Speech
Ombudsman under NHRC.
5. Judicial training and police sensitisation: Enhance understanding of constitutional
freedoms among enforcement agencies.
o Eg: As per MC Mehta Environmental Foundation (2023), police modules
now include judicially-led training on Article 19 rights.

Conclusion
Dissent is not disorder; it is the heartbeat of democracy. India must uphold liberty while
ensuring order, through constitutionally faithful laws, vigilant courts, and rights-aware
institutions.

Q. Criminalising criticism corrodes constitutional democracy. Comment. How

can Indian laws strike a balance between state interest and civil liberties? (10 M)

Introduction
Democracy thrives not on consensus, but on constructive dissent. The criminalisation of
criticism turns disagreement into disloyalty, eroding the foundations of constitutional
morality.

Body

Criminalising criticism and its threat to democracy

1. Violation of Article 19(1)(a): Arbitrary arrests for speech infringe on the

fundamental right to free expression.

13
 o Eg: In Tejender Pal Singh vs State of Rajasthan (2024), the High Court
cautioned against using Section 152 of BNS to suppress legitimate dissent.
2. Erosion of public accountability: Silencing criticism weakens institutional checks
and fosters authoritarianism.
o Eg: The 2025 Pune student arrest for an Instagram story on Operation
Sindoor led to Bombay HC’s rebuke of police overreach.
3. Chilling effect on civic participation: Fear of legal action discourages public debate
and weakens democratic engagement.
o Eg: NCRB 2022 reported over 8,000 arrests for “anti-government activities,”
many linked to online posts .
4. Judicial concern over misuse of law: Courts have repeatedly struck down or
restricted laws used to stifle dissent.
o Eg: In Shreya Singhal vs Union of India (2015), SC struck down Section
66A of IT Act as unconstitutional for being vague and arbitrary.
5. International reputational costs: Democratic backsliding due to speech curbs affects
India’s global image and human rights ratings.
o Eg: Freedom House Report 2024 downgraded India’s civil liberties score
citing “growing intolerance of dissent”.

Striking the balance: safeguarding both liberty and security

1. Proportionality and necessity test: Laws must pass the SC’s triple test—legality,
necessity, proportionality.
o Eg: SC reaffirmed this in Anuradha Bhasin vs Union of India (2020) while
assessing internet curbs in J&K.
2. Sunset clauses in restrictive provisions: Time-bound application can prevent
permanent misuse.
o Eg: Srikrishna Committee on Data Protection (2018) recommended sunset
clauses in surveillance frameworks.
3. Clear legal drafting and definitions: Avoid vague terms like “anti-national” or
“public mischief” without precise scope.
o Eg: Law Commission of India (2023) advised replacing sedition law with
narrowly-defined hate speech provisions.
4. Independent oversight mechanisms: Statutory bodies must monitor police and
executive action on speech offences.
o Eg: Justice Lokur’s 2022 recommendation for an autonomous Free Speech
Ombudsman under NHRC.
5. Judicial training and police sensitisation: Enhance understanding of constitutional
freedoms among enforcement agencies.
o Eg: As per MC Mehta Environmental Foundation (2023), police modules
now include judicially-led training on Article 19 rights.

Conclusion
Dissent is not disorder; it is the heartbeat of democracy. India must uphold liberty while

14
ensuring order, through constitutionally faithful laws, vigilant courts, and rights-aware
institutions.

Q. In recent years, constitutional posts have become battlegrounds of political

partisanship. Evaluate how the politicisation of high constitutional authorities
affects India’s federal balance and democratic ethos. Suggest institutional
mechanisms to restore neutrality and public trust. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s constitutional architecture relies on the neutral functioning of high offices to

preserve democratic legitimacy and federal harmony. When these posts turn partisan, they
distort institutional balance and erode citizen trust.

Body

Impact on federal balance

1. Undermining cooperative federalism: Partisan conduct disrupts Centre–State

coordination and disturbs federal harmony.
o Eg: The withholding of assent by governors in cases like Tamil Nadu’s
NEET Exemption Bill (2021) weakened the spirit of federal cooperation.
2. Erosion of institutional checks: Constitutional authorities act as federal safety
valves, but politicisation weakens their role.
o Eg: Lack of consultation with States in setting up inter-state river boards,
e.g., Cauvery dispute, undermined cooperative mechanisms.
3. Central overreach through constitutional offices: These posts are often misused to
interfere in State-level politics.
o Eg: The imposition of President’s Rule in Arunachal Pradesh (2016) was
struck down by the Supreme Court as unconstitutional overreach.
4. Stalling of state legislations: Political bias leads to delay in giving assent or referring
bills to the President.
o Eg: Kerala’s University Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2022 was delayed by the
Governor, impacting State autonomy.
5. Misuse of discretionary powers: Discretionary powers are used in a politically
selective manner, leading to asymmetry.
o Eg: Delay in deciding disqualification petitions by the Speaker in
Maharashtra (2022) disrupted constitutional continuity.

Impact on democratic ethos

1. Loss of public faith in impartiality: Perceived bias damages citizen confidence in

constitutional institutions.

15
 o Eg: The 2024 ADR report flagged public distrust in institutions like the ECI
during model code violation cases.
2. Manipulation of legislative processes: Presiding officers act in a partisan manner,
undermining deliberative democracy.
o Eg: Rajasthan Assembly Speaker’s conduct (2020) in delaying
disqualification decisions raised neutrality concerns.
3. Weakening of electoral integrity: Politicised authorities tilt the electoral playing
field and affect free and fair elections.
o Eg: In Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India (2023), the SC ordered an
independent panel for EC appointments to ensure neutrality.
4. Subversion of separation of powers: When offices exceed their constitutional
mandate, it disturbs institutional boundaries.
o Eg: The Governor’s meeting with opposition leaders in Maharashtra
(2019) undermined the neutrality of Raj Bhavan.
5. Stifling of opposition space: Constitutional mechanisms are used selectively to target
opposition-led states and leaders.
o Eg: Frequent ED/CBI raids against opposition leaders with tacit institutional
backing (Source: PRS, 2024) reflect institutional bias.

Institutional mechanisms to restore neutrality and trust

1. Independent appointment commissions: Ensure bipartisan and transparent selection

for key constitutional roles.
o Eg: The 2023 Supreme Court directive created a panel including PM, LoP
and CJI for appointing Election Commissioners.
2. Fixed and secure tenure safeguards: Reduces political pressure and enhances
independence of officeholders.
o Eg: The Second ARC (2007) recommended fixed tenure for constitutional
authorities and civil servants.
3. Parliamentary oversight and accountability: Increases transparency through
bipartisan legislative review.
o Eg: The UK model of parliamentary scrutiny of public appointments
ensures neutrality through cross-party checks.
4. Judicially enforceable codes of conduct: Clearly define constitutional roles and
ensure adherence to ethical standards.
o Eg: The Venkatachaliah Commission (2002) recommended binding codes of
conduct for constitutional functionaries.
5. Strengthening institutional autonomy: Financial and administrative independence is
essential to reduce executive influence.
o Eg: The 255th Law Commission Report (2015) suggested placing ECI
expenditure under the Consolidated Fund to enhance autonomy.

Conclusion

16
The health of a constitutional democracy lies in the non-partisan conduct of its highest
offices. Institutionalising neutrality, transparency, and public accountability is vital to renew
the citizen’s trust and sustain the spirit of the Constitution.

Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues

and challenges pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of
powers and finances up to local levels and challenges therein.

Q. Centrally sponsored schemes are increasingly becoming instruments of policy

centralisation. Examine the structural and procedural factors driving this trend.
Assess its implications for cooperative federalism. Propose mechanisms to
reconcile national priorities with subnational autonomy in shared domains. (15
M)

Introduction

India’s federal system is marked by a delicate balance of power between the Centre and
states. The growing role of centrally sponsored schemes (CSS) in shaping state-level
policies is raising concerns over policy centralisation in domains constitutionally shared.

Body

Structural and procedural factors driving centralisation

1. Unequal fiscal powers under Article 268–293: The Centre’s control over major
taxes limits states’ financial independence.
o Eg: As per 15th Finance Commission, Centre controls over 60% of total tax
revenue, making states heavily dependent.
2. Top-down design of CSS: Many schemes are designed with pre-fixed objectives,
outputs and fund allocation formulas by the Centre.
o Eg: PM SHRI schools mandate MoUs and adherence to NEP 2020, limiting
state curriculum freedom.
3. Conditional fund transfers: Release of funds often tied to compliance with central
terms and performance metrics.
o Eg: Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan funds were withheld in 2024 to states not
aligning with central reforms.
4. Limited role in planning bodies: The shift from Planning Commission to NITI
Aayog reduced negotiated planning and state-specific tailoring.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s vertical template approach to reforms like health index
rankings side-lines regional contexts.
5. Central control over concurrent subjects: Education, agriculture, and health—
shared domains—see increasing unilateral reforms from the Centre.

17
 o Eg: Digital Health Mission and PM KISAN were launched without state
legislature consultation.

Implications for cooperative federalism

1. Erosion of state autonomy: States have little say in policy shaping despite their
implementation responsibility.
o Eg: Punchhi Commission (2010) warned of central overreach eroding
executive federalism.
2. Rise of competitive rather than cooperative federalism: Central incentives induce
states to compete, rather than collaborate.
o Eg: Aspirational districts programme pushes rankings over equity-based
development.
3. Policy misalignment and inefficiency: Uniform CSS norms often mismatch state-
specific needs and ground realities.
o Eg: National Education Policy 2020 faces resistance over imposition of
Hindi and centralised content.
4. Politicisation of development aid: Opposition-ruled states allege discrimination in
fund distribution.
o Eg: RBI State Finances Report 2024 notes fund delays to certain states over
compliance disputes.
5. Judicialisation of federal disputes: Centre-state financial and administrative disputes
increasingly reach courts.
o Eg: States moved Supreme Court in 2025 over withholding of CSS funds
violating cooperative principles.

Mechanisms to reconcile national priorities and subnational autonomy

1. Institutionalising inter-governmental negotiation: Activate bodies like Inter-State

Council under Article 263 for policy harmonisation.
o Eg: Sarkaria Commission recommended regular meetings and consensus-
building forums.
2. Revamping CSS design framework: Include flexible, modular CSS components
tailored to regional priorities.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s Draft CSS Rationalisation Framework (2023) proposed
differentiated models for states.
3. Link devolution with transparency, not alignment: De-link fund release from
political compliance; follow Finance Commission norms.
o Eg: 15th FC recommended performance-linked grants but warned against
punitive transfers.
4. Strengthen legislative oversight of concurrent subjects: Require joint policy
reviews by Parliamentary and State Assemblies.
o Eg: Rajya Sabha report on health federalism recommended bipartisan
monitoring bodies.

18
 5. Create co-financed schemes through state demand: Allow states to co-design
schemes and suggest reforms through sectoral committees.
o Eg: POSHAN 2.0 incorporates state-specific innovations like Odisha’s Mo
Chhatua initiative.

Conclusion

India’s federalism must evolve from central dictation to negotiated collaboration.

Respecting regional diversity while pursuing national development goals is essential for a
resilient and inclusive democracy.

Q. Financial centralisation weakens the spirit of decentralised governance.

Analyse the constitutional limits of fiscal control by the Union. Examine its
consequences for State autonomy. Suggest mechanisms to ensure equitable
federal fiscal relations. (15 M)

Introduction

India’s quasi-federal structure leans towards centralisation, but excessive fiscal dominance
by the Union risks eroding the autonomy of States, especially in a post-GST and post-
COVID fiscal context.

Body

Constitutional limits of fiscal control by the Union

1. Concurrent nature of taxation powers: Though the Union collects most taxes, the
Constitution mandates revenue sharing under Article 270 and Article 280.
o Eg:– Finance Commission (15th FC) recommended 41% vertical
devolution to States from Central taxes (2021–26 period).
2. Restrictions on conditional grants-in-aid: Article 275 allows grants-in-aid, but
arbitrary or politically motivated conditionalities violate the federal spirit.
o Eg:– Tamil Nadu’s 2025 Supreme Court suit challenged Centre's linkage of
Samagra Shiksha funds with NEP 2020 compliance.
3. Role of Finance Commission as constitutional check: Article 280 ensures an
impartial mechanism for fiscal transfers, limiting Union discretion.
4. Article 282 and Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS): Allows Centre to spend on
State subjects, but overuse infringes on State legislative space.
o Eg:– Over 60% of Union education spending in 2023 was through CSS,
limiting States’ control over priorities .

Consequences for State autonomy

1. Erosion of policy-making independence: Conditional fund disbursals distort State

priorities and localised planning.

19
 o Eg:– PM SHRI scheme implementation was rejected by Kerala and Tamil
Nadu due to its binding NEP conditions (2025).
2. Vertical and horizontal fiscal imbalances: Centre controls majority of tax powers,
while States bear expenditure responsibilities.
o Eg:– In 2022-23, Centre held 62% of total revenues, while States managed
58% of total expenditure (RBI State Finances Report 2023).
3. Political discrimination in fund allocation: Fund flow is often aligned with political
considerations, not performance or need.
o Eg:– CAG (2021) flagged discrepancies in Smart Cities Mission fund
allocation skewed towards politically aligned States.
4. Dependence on off-budget borrowings and loans: Restrictive transfers force States
to seek costly borrowings, deepening debt crises.
o Eg:– Punjab and Andhra Pradesh saw debt-to-GSDP ratios exceed 45% in
2024, with over 25% off-budget liabilities.
5. Fragmentation of development initiatives: Scheme overlaps and Centre-driven
designs dilute State-specific solutions.
o Eg:– In agriculture, over 15 Central schemes coexist with State schemes,
leading to poor convergence (NITI Aayog Evaluation Report 2023).

Mechanisms for equitable federal fiscal relations

1. Strengthening Inter-State Council and GST Council: These forums must become
deliberative and consensus-based for fiscal planning.
o Eg:– Punchhi Commission recommended regular meetings of Inter-State
Council for centre-state fiscal dialogue.
2. Make Finance Commission recommendations binding: Avoid selective acceptance
of devolution and grants by the Union.
o Eg:– 15th FC’s suggestion for performance-linked incentives on SDG
targets can promote objective fund distribution.
3. Reform of Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS): Allow States flexibility in design
and implementation of schemes.
o Eg:– NITI Aayog’s 2022 paper proposed classifying CSS into Core,
Optional, and State-Designed Models.
4. Transparent criteria for fund allocation: Use objective indicators like poverty,
HDI, climate vulnerability.
o Eg:– National Health Mission's fund formula includes IMR, MMR, and
health infrastructure gaps, serving as a best practice.
5. Encouraging fiscal responsibility at State level: Incentivise States for maintaining
fiscal discipline and tax reforms.
o Eg:– FRBM Act performance-linked transfers proposed by 14th Finance
Commission as a reform path.

Conclusion

20
A robust federal democracy demands not just fiscal transfers but trust, transparency, and
equity. India must reimagine its fiscal federalism through cooperative mechanisms that
uphold State autonomy and development diversity.

Q. India’s development journey cannot be linear when regional disparities

remain multidimensional. Discuss how NITI Aayog addresses these disparities
through its initiatives. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s socio-economic diversity ensures that development cannot follow a single path;
bridging regional gaps requires multi-sectoral, location-specific interventions. NITI Aayog
has become pivotal in crafting such decentralised models of progress.

Body

Nature of India’s multidimensional regional disparities

1. Intra- and inter-state divergence in human development: Access to education,

healthcare, and sanitation varies widely across regions.
o Eg: As per NITI Aayog’s SDG Index 2023, Kerala scored 80, while Bihar
lagged at 52, revealing deep social disparity.
2. Economic unevenness in industrial and service hubs: Growth remains concentrated
in few states while others remain agrarian.
o Eg: Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu contribute over 25% of India’s GDP,
while states like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh contribute under 2%.
3. Asymmetric infrastructure development: Basic services like electricity, water, and
internet are unequally distributed.
o Eg: Telangana and Gujarat achieved near-universal power access, while
north-eastern states lag in transmission (MoP, 2023).
4. Unequal devolution of fiscal and administrative powers: Weak local governments
hinder bottom-up development.
o Eg: 15th Finance Commission (2021) noted low fund utilisation and staffing
gaps in urban and rural local bodies.
5. Subnational social exclusion and gender gaps: Caste, tribe, and gender-based
disparities persist across geographies.
o Eg: NFHS-5 (2021) showed tribal women in Odisha and Chhattisgarh face
far lower maternal healthcare access than national average.

NITI Aayog’s initiatives to address regional disparities

1. Aspirational Districts Programme (ADP): Targets lagging districts based on multi-

sector indicators and real-time performance.
o Eg: Malkangiri (Odisha) improved maternal health through Anganwadi
transformation, reducing IMR (ADP Dashboard, 2024).

21
 2. SDG India Index and localisation strategy: Encourages states to align with UN
SDGs and benchmark each other.
o Eg: The SDG Index 2023–24 triggered state-level action plans; Himachal
Pradesh aligned tourism and environment goals under SDG 8 and 13.
3. Atal Innovation Mission (AIM): Develops entrepreneurial ecosystems even in
backward districts and tribal belts.
o Eg: Over 7,100 Atal Tinkering Labs were set up in Aspirational Districts,
fostering rural student innovation (NITI Aayog Repor).
4. Aspirational Blocks Programme (ABP): Launched to focus on 500 most backward
blocks using decentralised data-driven governance.
o Eg: Maddikera block (Andhra Pradesh) showed gains in school
infrastructure under ABP in 2023–24 pilot phase.
5. Composite indices for policy targeting: Developed Health Index, Education Index,
and Water Index to inform state-level decision-making.
o Eg: The Composite Water Management Index enabled Rajasthan to
reallocate funds for drought mitigation in water-stressed districts.

Way forward for reducing regional disparities

1. Empowering third-tier institutions and local capacity: Strengthen panchayats and

urban bodies with funds, functions, and functionaries.
o Eg: MoPR’s SVAMITVA Scheme (2021) empowered gram panchayats with
land ownership data for better planning.
2. Regionally differentiated planning models: Tailor developmental models based on
agro-climatic, cultural, and demographic factors.
o Eg: Bundelkhand package customised development strategies around
drought-resilience and livestock-based economy.
3. Fiscal federalism reforms and performance-based transfers: Incentivise outcome-
based results through tied grants.
o Eg: 15th Finance Commission introduced performance-linked grants for
sanitation, solid waste, and education.
4. Horizontal and vertical equity in digital infrastructure: Ensure equal access to
digital services and tech-based delivery systems.
o Eg: BharatNet Phase II (2023) aimed to connect 6 lakh villages, enabling
remote governance in lagging areas.
5. Mainstreaming social equity into all policy interventions: Embed caste, tribe, and
gender audits in all centrally sponsored schemes.
o Eg: Jaga Mission (Odisha) mapped land tenure in slums using social
vulnerability indicators, now replicated in Assam and Tamil Nadu.

Conclusion
India’s transformation cannot be top-down or uniform. It demands that national ambitions
like Viksit Bharat rest on regional justice, empowered local governance, and context-
sensitive interventions—a principle that NITI Aayog is now shaping into action.

22
Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal
mechanisms and institutions.

Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other

countries.
Parliament and State legislatures—structure, functioning,
conduct of business, powers & privileges and issues arising out of
these.
Q3. Public Interest Litigation has evolved into a vehicle of constitutional transformation
in India. Analyse its judicial evolution and the concerns arising from its misuse. Suggest
reforms to restore its original democratic purpose. (15 M)

Introduction
PIL in India redefined judicial outreach by dismantling procedural barriers and empowering
the judiciary to act on behalf of the voiceless, laying the groundwork for a more inclusive
constitutional jurisprudence.

Body

Judicial evolution of PIL in India

1. Liberalisation of locus standi: Courts allowed any public-spirited citizen to approach

the judiciary for collective rights enforcement.
o Eg:– In S.P. Gupta v. Union of India (1981), the SC allowed lawyers to file
PILs on behalf of undertrial prisoners, expanding access to justice.
2. Expansive interpretation of Article 21: PILs enabled the judiciary to include socio-
economic rights within the ambit of right to life.
o Eg:– In M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1987), SC declared clean
environment as part of Article 21, leading to vehicular emission controls.
3. Enforcement of Directive Principles: Courts used PILs to give legal force to Part
IV of the Constitution.
o Eg:– In Unnikrishnan v. State of Andhra Pradesh (1993), the SC held that
right to education is implicit under Article 21, influencing the 86th
Constitutional Amendment.
4. Judicial legislation in policy gaps: In absence of laws, the judiciary issued binding
guidelines via PILs.
o Eg:– Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997) laid down norms on sexual
harassment, later codified in the POSH Act, 2013.
5. Judicial monitoring and governance: Courts began overseeing policy
implementation and executive functions through continuing mandamus.

23
 o Eg:– In Right to Food case (PUCL v. Union of India, 2001), the SC directed
mid-day meals implementation across states.

Concerns arising from misuse

1. Rise of frivolous and publicity-seeking PILs: Increasing misuse by individuals

seeking media attention or political mileage.
o Eg:– In State of Uttaranchal v. Balwant Singh Chaufal (2010), SC
criticised misuse and laid down guidelines to curb “Publicity Interest
Litigations”.
2. Judicial overreach and activism: PILs sometimes lead courts into policy domains,
undermining legislative and executive prerogatives.
o Eg:– In Common Cause v. Union of India (2018), judicial interference in
coal allocation was criticised for bypassing due executive process.
3. Flooding of judiciary with non-genuine cases: Delays in core constitutional matters
due to PIL overload.
o Eg:– As per 2023 SC data, 25% of listed PILs were dismissed at admission
stage due to lack of public interest.
4. Elite capture and poor representation: PILs often filed by elite actors without real
stakeholder engagement.
o Eg:– Jean Dreze criticised some nutrition-related PILs for overlooking on-
ground community insights.
5. Accountability gaps in follow-up: Courts lack the capacity to enforce compliance
with orders issued under PILs.
o Eg:– In Yamuna pollution PIL, SC orders since 1994 have seen weak
execution due to inter-agency paralysis.

Reforms to restore original democratic purpose

1. Strict scrutiny of admissibility: High Courts and SC must implement pre-hearing

filters based on SC guidelines.
o Eg:– Justice Lokur Committee (2018) proposed a multi-tier screening
process for PILs.
2. Mandatory stakeholder consultation: Encourage community or beneficiary
representation in PIL filing.
o Eg:– Supreme Court Legal Services Committee model can be replicated to
vet grassroots-driven PILs.
3. Penalty for frivolous petitions: Disincentivise misuse by imposing fines and
sanctions.
o Eg:– In Khushboo v. Kanniamal (2010), SC upheld Rs. 25,000 fine for
abusing PIL route.
4. Institutional capacity for compliance: Create PIL monitoring cells in courts for
follow-up on orders.

24
 o Eg:– Delhi HC PIL Cell, tracking status of PIL directives, is a best practice
model.
5. Judicial restraint in policy space: Courts must act only when there is clear
constitutional failure.
o Eg:– In Divisional Manager v. Arti Devi (2009), SC emphasised restraint in
interfering with administrative discretion.

Conclusion
PIL must remain a tool of justice for the marginalised, not a channel for private interest or
judicial supremacy. Reviving its constitutional intent demands judicial discipline,
stakeholder inclusion, and institutional reform.

Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the

Judiciary—Ministries and Departments of the Government;
pressure groups and formal/informal associations and their role
in the Polity.
Q. Public Interest Litigation has evolved into a vehicle of constitutional
transformation in India. Analyse its judicial evolution and the concerns arising
from its misuse. Suggest reforms to restore its original democratic purpose. (15
M)

Introduction
PIL in India redefined judicial outreach by dismantling procedural barriers and empowering
the judiciary to act on behalf of the voiceless, laying the groundwork for a more inclusive
constitutional jurisprudence.

Body

Judicial evolution of PIL in India

1. Liberalisation of locus standi: Courts allowed any public-spirited citizen to approach

the judiciary for collective rights enforcement.
o Eg:– In S.P. Gupta v. Union of India (1981), the SC allowed lawyers to file
PILs on behalf of undertrial prisoners, expanding access to justice.
2. Expansive interpretation of Article 21: PILs enabled the judiciary to include socio-
economic rights within the ambit of right to life.
o Eg:– In M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1987), SC declared clean
environment as part of Article 21, leading to vehicular emission controls.
3. Enforcement of Directive Principles: Courts used PILs to give legal force to Part
IV of the Constitution.

25
 o Eg:– In Unnikrishnan v. State of Andhra Pradesh (1993), the SC held that
right to education is implicit under Article 21, influencing the 86th
Constitutional Amendment.
4. Judicial legislation in policy gaps: In absence of laws, the judiciary issued binding
guidelines via PILs.
o Eg:– Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997) laid down norms on sexual
harassment, later codified in the POSH Act, 2013.
5. Judicial monitoring and governance: Courts began overseeing policy
implementation and executive functions through continuing mandamus.
o Eg:– In Right to Food case (PUCL v. Union of India, 2001), the SC directed
mid-day meals implementation across states.

Concerns arising from misuse

1. Rise of frivolous and publicity-seeking PILs: Increasing misuse by individuals

seeking media attention or political mileage.
o Eg:– In State of Uttaranchal v. Balwant Singh Chaufal (2010), SC
criticised misuse and laid down guidelines to curb “Publicity Interest
Litigations”.
2. Judicial overreach and activism: PILs sometimes lead courts into policy domains,
undermining legislative and executive prerogatives.
o Eg:– In Common Cause v. Union of India (2018), judicial interference in
coal allocation was criticised for bypassing due executive process.
3. Flooding of judiciary with non-genuine cases: Delays in core constitutional matters
due to PIL overload.
o Eg:– As per 2023 SC data, 25% of listed PILs were dismissed at admission
stage due to lack of public interest.
4. Elite capture and poor representation: PILs often filed by elite actors without real
stakeholder engagement.
o Eg:– Jean Dreze criticised some nutrition-related PILs for overlooking on-
ground community insights.
5. Accountability gaps in follow-up: Courts lack the capacity to enforce compliance
with orders issued under PILs.
o Eg:– In Yamuna pollution PIL, SC orders since 1994 have seen weak
execution due to inter-agency paralysis.

Reforms to restore original democratic purpose

1. Strict scrutiny of admissibility: High Courts and SC must implement pre-hearing

filters based on SC guidelines.
o Eg:– Justice Lokur Committee (2018) proposed a multi-tier screening
process for PILs.
2. Mandatory stakeholder consultation: Encourage community or beneficiary
representation in PIL filing.

26
 o Eg:– Supreme Court Legal Services Committee model can be replicated to
vet grassroots-driven PILs.
3. Penalty for frivolous petitions: Disincentivise misuse by imposing fines and
sanctions.
o Eg:– In Khushboo v. Kanniamal (2010), SC upheld Rs. 25,000 fine for
abusing PIL route.
4. Institutional capacity for compliance: Create PIL monitoring cells in courts for
follow-up on orders.
o Eg:– Delhi HC PIL Cell, tracking status of PIL directives, is a best practice
model.
5. Judicial restraint in policy space: Courts must act only when there is clear
constitutional failure.
o Eg:– In Divisional Manager v. Arti Devi (2009), SC emphasised restraint in
interfering with administrative discretion.

Conclusion
PIL must remain a tool of justice for the marginalised, not a channel for private interest or
judicial supremacy. Reviving its constitutional intent demands judicial discipline,
stakeholder inclusion, and institutional reform.

Q. How can India strike a balance between judicial independence and

transparency in misconduct inquiries? Suggest institutional reforms drawing
from comparative global models. (15 M)

Introduction
While judicial independence is essential to democracy, unchecked autonomy without
transparency risks eroding public confidence. Recent disclosures of Supreme Court judges'
assets in 2025 have reignited the debate on balancing independence with accountability.

Body

Challenges in balancing independence and transparency

1. Opaque internal inquiry process: In-house mechanisms lack statutory backing,

timelines, or public disclosure.
2. High threshold for impeachment: The removal process under Articles 124(4) and
217 is procedurally complex and seldom used.
o Eg: Justice Soumitra Sen resigned before full vote despite Rajya Sabha
approving his removal
3. Excessive judicial immunity laws: Broad protection under the Judges (Protection)
Act, 1985 limits accountability even in serious misconduct cases.
o Eg: Despite asset-related controversies in 2023–25, no judge faced action
under the Lokpal Act

27
 4. CJI-centric prosecution clearance: The K. Veeraswami judgment mandates prior
CJI approval before criminal cases can be registered against judges.
o Eg: Veeraswami v. Union of India (1991) was reaffirmed by SC in 2019 to
protect judicial independence
5. Lack of deterrent through public censure: Internal committee findings are rarely
made public, weakening their impact as a deterrent.
o Eg: The 2025 asset disclosures by SC judges were not followed by any
disciplinary action.

Institutional reforms to protect independence while ensuring accountability

1. Independent judicial complaints authority: A multi-stakeholder body with ex-

judges, jurists, and citizens can filter complaints fairly.
o Eg: UK’s Judicial Conduct Investigations Office processes complaints
while preserving judicial dignity
2. Statutory asset disclosure law: Make annual disclosures mandatory with penalties
for non-compliance.
o Eg: South Korea enforces compulsory judge asset filings and makes them
public
3. Conflict of interest disclosure norms: Judges should declare personal or familial
interests in cases to prevent perceived bias.
o Eg: Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct recommend disclosure of any
conflict that can impact impartiality
4. Digital transparency and public access: An online portal should host complaints,
asset disclosures, and inquiry outcomes.
o Eg: US Federal Judiciary's financial disclosure system allows online public
access to annual filings
5. Legislate the in-house mechanism: Codifying the existing informal inquiry process
would ensure due process, timelines, and review.
o Eg: 195th Law Commission Report (2006) proposed a National Judicial
Oversight Committee to formalise misconduct inquiries

Drawing from global models

1. Judicial council model: Independent councils deal with misconduct without

judiciary’s direct involvement.
o Eg: Canadian Judicial Council investigates complaints and publishes
findings independently.
2. Hybrid disciplinary bodies: Involve both judicial and political stakeholders to ensure
balance.
o Eg: Germany’s Federal Judicial Service Commission includes judiciary
and elected representatives.
3. Ombudsman model: Judicial ombudsman offers confidential complaint resolution.

28
 o Eg: New Zealand’s Judicial Conduct Commissioner acts as an independent
ethics gatekeeper.
4. Publish redacted inquiry outcomes: Summarised reports can uphold transparency
without naming complainants or compromising dignity.
o Eg: UK and New Zealand release redacted misconduct outcomes annually.
5. Institutional whistleblower channels: Ethical cells within the judiciary can receive
and investigate internal misconduct alerts.
o Eg: South Korea’s judiciary uses structured grievance cells for internal
reporting.

Conclusion
Balancing independence with transparency requires India to move from personality-based
oversight to institutionalised accountability. A hybrid model blending external scrutiny,
legal backing, and global best practices is the path to restoring public trust while
safeguarding judicial integrity.

Q. Constitutional morality lies in restraint, not rivalry, among institutions.

Analyse this in the context of judiciary–executive relations and explain how do
protocol lapses disrupt constitutional balance? Suggest steps to strengthen
cooperative federalism. (15 M)

Introduction
India’s Constitution provides a framework of institutional separation with interdependence.
Its true strength lies in the spirit of constitutional morality—anchored in mutual respect, not
assertion of dominance.

Body

Constitutional morality and judiciary–executive relations

1. Doctrine of separation of powers: It mandates functional independence along with

institutional respect among organs.
o Eg: Kesavananda Bharati (1973) upheld the basic structure doctrine,
including separation of powers as essential to constitutional governance.
2. Morality as restraint, not assertion: Mutual deference ensures checks without
confrontation or institutional superiority.
o Eg: CJI B.R. Gavai (May 2025) emphasised that “the Constitution is
supreme, not the judiciary or executive,” urging all pillars to uphold dignity.
3. Checks through conventions, not confrontation: The spirit of the Constitution
prefers healthy boundaries over adversarial assertions.
o Eg: Constituent Assembly Debates reveal repeated warnings by Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar against institutional overreach as a threat to democracy.
4. Balance through functional complementarity: Judiciary interprets laws, executive
implements—morality demands they do so without undermining each other.

29
 o Eg: NJAC Judgment (2015) struck down executive role in appointments, but
urged dialogue for future mechanisms respecting both sides.
5. Non-interference in judicial autonomy: Respecting court orders, appointments, and
judgments is core to the executive’s moral responsibility.
o Eg: Delay in judicial appointments (2016–2023) underlined growing
mistrust and triggered debates on executive encroachment on judiciary’s
independence.

Protocol lapses and disruption of constitutional balance

1. Erosion of mutual respect: Ignoring formal protocol weakens the legitimacy and
perception of constitutional offices.
o Eg: In May 2025, top Maharashtra officials skipped the CJI's felicitation,
seen as a symbolic disregard for the judiciary (Source: The Hindu, May 18,
2025).
2. Undermining public trust: Visible disregard for inter-institutional etiquette can
alienate citizens from state institutions.
o Eg: Constitution Day boycott (2021) by some Chief Ministers signalled
tensions with the Centre, affecting the image of cooperative governance.
3. Normalization of institutional disregard: Repeated breaches in protocol risk
making disrespect an accepted norm, weakening democratic culture.
o Eg: Governor–CM stand-offs in states like Punjab, West Bengal, and
Kerala (2022–2024) showed recurring violations of institutional respect.
4. Fracturing of constitutional conventions: Non-observance of unwritten practices
can undermine the trust and continuity of constitutional functioning.
o Eg: Absence of consultation during judicial transfers has led to silent
protests within the judiciary, eroding internal cohesion.
5. Weakening of cooperative federalism: Disrespect in protocol reflects deeper power
struggles, distorting vertical and horizontal federal balances.
o Eg: Delhi LG-CM tussles (2018–2022) highlighted frequent breakdowns in
Centre–State executive-judicial coordination, undermining governance.

Measures to strengthen cooperative institutional federalism

1. Codify inter-institutional protocol norms: Establish formal guidelines for protocol

involving constitutional functionaries.
o Eg: Recommendation by Punchhi Commission (2010) to build robust
conventions for Centre-State respect and coordination.
2. Institutionalise inter-organ dialogue: Regular forums between judiciary, legislature
and executive can resolve friction.
o Eg: All India Judicial Conference (AIJC) model can be revived to foster
dialogue and coordination on federal challenges.
3. Embed constitutional values in administrative training: Induct civil servants and
police officials with modules on inter-organ respect and decorum.

30
 o Eg: LBSNAA training reforms now include ethics and Constitution modules
to sensitise future administrators.
4. Encourage non-partisan public protocol practices: Limit political interference in
official ceremonies to preserve neutrality and institutional dignity.
o Eg: Best practice from UK, where constitutional conventions guide
interactions among Crown, judiciary, and Parliament with decorum.
5. Judicial restraint in contentious executive domains: Courts must avoid governance
micromanagement to retain institutional credibility.
o Eg: Rafale judgment (2018) showed judicial restraint by refusing to interfere
in executive defence decisions, maintaining institutional lines.

Conclusion
True constitutional harmony lies in dignified boundaries and respectful engagement, not
institutional assertion. A mature democracy must embed mutual courtesy in practice and
protocol to uphold the spirit of the Constitution.

Q. “Judicial vacations are a colonial legacy that no longer serves the needs of a
21st-century democracy”. Critically examine. (10 M)

Introduction:
India’s judiciary continues to observe extensive vacations rooted in colonial traditions.
However, with over 82,000 pending Supreme Court cases (2024), the practice increasingly
invites calls for reform.

Body

Why judicial vacations are outdated in today’s democracy

1. High pendency undermines access to justice: Prolonged breaks delay urgent and
constitutional hearings.
o Eg: SC pendency touched 82,887 cases in August 2024 (SC Case Status
Report).
2. Colonial legacy misaligned with Indian realities: The system evolved from colonial
British administrative norms, not democratic accountability.
o Eg: Constituent Assembly Debates criticised judicial vacations as an elitist
colonial hangover.
3. Erodes public trust in judiciary: Perception of inaccessibility during vacations
affects legitimacy and public confidence.
o Eg: Justice Krishna Iyer had called such breaks “a luxury in a land of law’s
delays.”
4. Creates burden asymmetry with lower judiciary: Trial courts operate without long
breaks, widening institutional inefficiencies.

31
 o Eg: India Justice Report 2023 flagged trial court vacancy rates at over
30% while SC took ~7 weeks' break.
5. Global practices favour continuous functioning: Most constitutional courts abroad
avoid long recesses.
o Eg: The US Supreme Court functions year-round with justices rotating for
urgent cases.

Why judicial vacations are still relevant

1. Mental health and fatigue management: Judges handle intense, high-stakes matters,
necessitating recuperation.
o Eg: In 2023, Madras HC noted the risk of burnout from extended
constitutional hearings.
2. Utilised for non-courtroom work: Vacations are used to write judgments, conduct
research, and clear pending chamber work.
o Eg: During Justice D.Y. Chandrachud’s tenure, several key judgments were
finalised post-vacation.
3. Emergency benches function during recess: Vacation Benches handle urgent
constitutional and fundamental rights issues.
o Eg: CJI Gavai (2025) announced 21 benches to operate during the SC
summer recess.
4. Facilitates peer deliberation and legal scholarship: Time off allows consensus-
building and internal legal reflection.
o Eg: Deliberations for the NJAC judgment (2015) occurred partly during
informal recess consultations.
5. Coordination with academic/legal calendars: The break aligns with legal education
and legal practice cycles.
o Eg: BCI and law universities like NLSIU follow synchronized vacation
calendars with courts.

Way forward

1. Reduce vacation duration, not abolish: Rationalise breaks to align with current
caseload demands.
2. Institutionalise structured vacation benches: Mandate year-round availability of
constitution benches on rotation.
3. Leverage AI for time-sensitive listing: Use tech-based systems to manage hearings
during vacation periods.
o Eg: SUVAAS tool used by the SC helps prioritize cases using sentiment and
complexity analysis.
4. Create a consultative reform framework: Engage Bar Councils, judiciary, and
Law Ministry to redesign the court calendar inclusively.

32
Conclusion:
The challenge lies not in abandoning judicial breaks but in modernising them. A well-
calibrated model—balancing citizen access with judicial stamina—is vital for a responsive
and future-ready justice system.

Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act.

Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions
and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies.
Q. “Though constitutionally envisioned to uphold judicial accountability, the
process of impeachment in India has remained largely ineffective in practice”.
Examine the provisions governing judicial impeachment in India. What are the
key challenges in its implementation, and how can the process be strengthened?
(15 M)

Introduction

Judicial integrity is the cornerstone of constitutional democracy, but India’s impeachment

process, while legally robust, has rarely translated into accountability due to institutional,
procedural, and political inertia.

Body

Provisions governing judicial impeachment in India

1. Constitutional mandate: Judges can be removed only for proved misbehaviour or

incapacity under Articles 124(4) and 218.
o Eg: Justice V Ramaswami case (1993) was the first attempt under these
provisions but failed in the Lok Sabha due to political abstention.
2. Statutory framework: The Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968 lays out the detailed
procedure for investigation and recommendation.
o Eg: A three-member inquiry committee is constituted after a motion signed by
50 (RS)/100 (LS) MPs is admitted by the Speaker/Chairman.
3. Parliamentary procedure: Impeachment motion must pass both Houses with a
special majority (2/3rd present and voting + majority of total strength).
o Eg: No judge has ever been removed under this threshold despite serious
allegations, including in Justice Soumitra Sen case (2011).
4. Presidential assent: The final removal requires approval by the President of India,
completing the constitutional process.
o Eg: The role is largely formal but reinforces the involvement of all three
organs of government.

Challenges in implementation

33
 1. High political threshold: The special majority makes it almost impossible without
bipartisan consensus.
o Eg: In Justice Ramaswami’s case, Congress MPs abstained, leading to the
motion’s failure despite strong evidence.
2. Lack of post-removal liability: Judges escape criminal or civil liability after
resignation/removal due to judicial immunity.
o Eg: No legal proceedings were initiated against Justice Sen even after Rajya
Sabha passed the motion.
3. Delay and opacity: The process is time-consuming and shrouded in confidentiality,
eroding public confidence.
o Eg: The case of Justice Yashwant Varma (2024-25) witnessed delay despite
serious allegations and a CJI-led inquiry committee.
4. Judiciary’s internal reluctance: Informal conventions and peer deference prevent
strict internal action.
o Eg: Law Commission 195th Report (2006) flagged “in-house” mechanisms
as insufficient for ensuring transparency.
5. Absence of continuous oversight: No independent body exists to monitor ethical
conduct or take complaints against judges.
o Eg: Unlike UK’s Judicial Conduct Investigations Office, India lacks a
dedicated institutional ethics watchdog.

What can be done to strengthen the process

1. Establish National Judicial Complaints Authority: A permanent body to receive,

examine, and recommend disciplinary action.
o Eg: Law Commission 121st Report (1987) proposed a National Judicial
Commission for appointment and disciplinary oversight.
2. Introduce intermediate sanctions: Not all violations warrant impeachment; graded
penalties can deter misconduct.
o Eg: Second ARC (2007) recommended a statutory code of ethics and mid-
level punitive options for judges.
3. Enable post-retirement scrutiny: Judges must face consequences for corruption
even after tenure.
o Eg: UK and USA allow post-retirement investigation and prosecution for
criminal misconduct.
4. Increase transparency in inquiries: Publish inquiry findings (except sensitive cases)
to foster public trust.
o Eg: SC Collegium (2024) began publishing minutes and candidate reasons,
setting a transparency precedent.
5. Strengthen judicial ethics training and culture: Institutionalising ethics education
at National Judicial Academy.
o Eg: US Federal Judicial Center includes modules on ethical dilemmas and
accountability.

34
Conclusion

An unaccountable judiciary risks undermining constitutional democracy. A graded,

independent, and transparent accountability framework must evolve alongside judicial
independence to maintain public trust.
Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.

Q. What are the core issues affecting the effective functioning of State Human
Rights Commissions in India? Examine institutional and procedural weaknesses.
Propose a model framework for strengthening these bodies. (15 M)

Introduction
Despite their critical mandate under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, most State
Human Rights Commissions (SHRCs) suffer from neglect, underfunding, and lack of
enforcement capacity, limiting their role in ensuring human dignity.

Body

Core issues affecting SHRC functioning

1. Vacancies and delayed appointments: Many SHRCs operate with incomplete

benches, weakening decision-making.
o Eg: As of March 2024, 7 states including Jharkhand and Tripura had no
chairperson or members (NHRC Annual Report, 2024).
2. Lack of autonomy from state governments: SHRCs often rely on the executive for
funding and staff.
o Eg: Odisha SHRC was criticised for dependence on the state home
department for sanctioning investigations .
3. Limited enforcement powers: SHRC recommendations are not binding, leading to
low compliance by authorities.
o Eg: In Uttar Pradesh, less than 30% of SHRC recommendations were
implemented between 2018–2022 (PRS Legislative Research).
4. Restricted mandate over armed forces violations: SHRCs cannot inquire into
allegations against central security forces.
o Eg: Chhattisgarh SHRC was barred from acting on alleged paramilitary
excesses in Bastar.
5. Inadequate infrastructure and human resources: SHRCs lack investigation wings,
research staff, and modern IT systems.
o Eg: Punjab SHRC functions with less than 50% sanctioned staff, affecting
case disposal rates (Punjab State Data Portal, 2023).

Institutional and procedural weaknesses

1. Ambiguity in jurisdiction and overlaps: Confusion exists between SHRC and

NHRC mandates and with other regulatory bodies.

35
 o Eg: In Delhi, both NHRC and SHRC took parallel cognisance of custodial
deaths, causing procedural delays (Legal Services India, 2022).
2. Poor grievance redressal system: Citizens lack awareness and support for filing
complaints in regional languages or online.
o Eg: Karnataka SHRC received less than 1000 complaints in 2023 due to
digital access gaps in rural areas.
3. Delays in inquiry and reporting: Investigations are delayed due to staff shortages
and non-cooperative departments.
o Eg: West Bengal SHRC took over 2 years to conclude cases related to post-
poll violence .
4. Lack of suo motu vigilance: SHRCs rarely exercise their suo motu powers to
investigate systemic human rights violations.
o Eg: Unlike NHRC, few SHRCs initiated suo motu action during the COVID-
19 migrant crisis (NHRC 2021 review).
5. Weak performance monitoring: No independent audit or performance benchmarks
for SHRCs.
o Eg: Justice J.S. Verma Committee (2013) noted the absence of
accountability standards for SHRC functioning.

Model framework to strengthen SHRCs

1. Make recommendations binding with review clauses: Empower SHRCs to enforce

compliance through legal mechanisms.
o Eg: Amend Section 18 of PHRA, 1993 to include mandatory compliance
reports by state authorities within 90 days.
2. Independent appointment and finance commission: Constitute a non-partisan
selection committee and a dedicated fund.
o Eg: Adopt the Lokpal model for appointment and funding under a
consolidated Human Rights Fund.
3. Establish regional benches and mobile outreach units: Ensure rural and tribal
access to grievance redressal.
o Eg: Kerala SHRC’s mobile human rights van model increased complaint
registration in Wayanad and Idukki .
4. Strengthen investigation and legal arms: Set up specialised units with digital tools
and legal experts.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu SHRC uses forensic teams and public prosecutors on
deputation for field investigations.
5. Interlink SHRCs with NHRC and civil society platforms: Improve coordination
and early warning systems.
o Eg: NHRC-SHRC digital integration pilot launched in Maharashtra
(2023) to track rights violations in real-time.

Conclusion
Empowering SHRCs is essential for decentralised human rights protection. A robust,

36
independent, and well-equipped SHRC structure can serve as the constitutional conscience
of the states in safeguarding dignity and justice.

Statutory, regulatory and various quasi-judicial bodies.

Government policies and interventions for development in various
sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation.
Q. Discuss the institutional challenges in securing time-bound justice under the
Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) framework. Analyse how
delayed trials affect rehabilitation of minor victims. (10 M)

Introduction
Despite statutory provisions under the POCSO Act mandating trials to conclude within a
year, NCRB 2022 data reveals over 1.6 lakh pending POCSO cases, indicating deep-
rooted institutional lapses in delivering swift justice to child victims.

Body

Institutional challenges in securing time-bound justice under POCSO

1. Inadequate number of exclusive POCSO courts: Many districts lack dedicated

courts, leading to overburdening and long delays.
o Eg: As per Law Ministry 2024, only 779 out of 1023 sanctioned fast-track
special POCSO courts were functional across India.
2. Shortage of child-sensitive judicial personnel: Judges, prosecutors, and staff are
often not trained in child psychology or trauma handling.
o Eg: NCPCR 2023 noted lack of trained POCSO prosecutors as a major factor
behind low conviction rates.
3. Delays in forensic and medical evidence processing: Slow FSL reports and flawed
medico-legal practices delay charge-sheeting.
o Eg: AIIMS 2022 audit showed over 60% delay in FSL reports in Delhi NCR
POCSO cases.
4. Poor inter-agency coordination: Lack of seamless cooperation between police,
CWCs, child protection officers, and judiciary hinders timelines.
o Eg: Justice Verma Committee (2013) emphasised convergence for timely
justice but implementation remains weak.
5. Frequent adjournments and accused absconding: Weak trial monitoring allows
procedural abuse by defence or delays due to absenteeism.
o Eg: In the 2025 Chengalpattu case (The Hindu), trial proceeded only after
persistent police follow-up to ensure accused appearance.

Impact of delayed trials on rehabilitation of minor victims

1. Psychological re-victimisation: Each delay prolongs trauma and forces victims to

repeatedly relive abuse.
37
 o Eg: TISS 2022 report found 57% survivors of delayed trials suffered long-
term mental health disorders.
2. Disruption of education and social life: Court attendance affects schooling and
alienates children from peers and normalcy.
o Eg: HAQ 2023 study found victims of delayed trials had 2x higher dropout
risk than peers.
3. Withdrawal of complaints and informal settlements: Families lose faith in legal
redress and opt out of the process under social pressure.
o Eg: Madhya Pradesh Legal Services Authority (2024) noted 400+
retractions due to trial fatigue and stigma.
4. Access to victim compensation is delayed: Rehabilitation funds and psychological
support are tied to conviction or trial progress.
o Eg: NCRB 2022 showed only 33% of POCSO victims received
compensation within 6 months.
5. Institutional distrust and social stigma: Prolonged cases result in loss of trust in
law, deepening the child’s isolation and public scrutiny.
o Eg: NHRC 2023 observed delayed POCSO trials as a “double punishment”
on child survivors.

Conclusion
Justice delayed in POCSO cases undermines not just constitutional guarantees but also the
child’s long-term healing. Institutional convergence, child-centric capacity-building, and
strict trial monitoring are critical to uphold both justice and dignity.

Development processes and the development industry —the role

of NGOs, SHGs, various groups and associations, donors,
charities, institutional and other stakeholders.
Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the
Centre and States and the performance of these schemes;
mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the
protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections.
Q. “Regulating OTT content requires a synthesis of legal clarity, technological
understanding, and social sensitivity”. Analyse the challenges in creating such a
regulation. Examine the role of tripartite collaboration in policymaking. Suggest
ways to ensure user protection without compromising free speech. (15 M)

Introduction
The rise of OTT platforms post-2020 has transformed content access, but it has outpaced
regulatory mechanisms rooted in traditional media. Designing laws that are flexible, rights-
based, and technologically updated has become a constitutional and policy imperative.

38
Body

Challenges in creating a balanced OTT regulation

1. Lack of clear regulatory jurisdiction: Institutional overlaps between MIB, MeiTY,

and TRAI create confusion.
o Eg: The TRAI Act ruling (TDSAT, Oct 2024) excluded OTTs from telecom
regulation, but MIB still tries to regulate content via the Broadcasting Bill
2023.
2. Outdated regulatory frameworks: Existing laws like the Cinematograph Act 1952
or Cable Television Networks Act 1995 are unsuited for dynamic digital platforms.
o Eg: The IT Rules 2021 were extended from social media norms, failing to
account for content autonomy of OTTs (Vidhi Centre analysis, 2025).
3. Technological complexities and evolving content models: Algorithms,
recommendation engines, and decentralised production challenge fixed models of
control.
o Eg: Netflix’s AI-based adaptive streaming and genre blending do not fit into
legacy age-rating categories.
4. Inconsistent grievance redressal and accountability: The 3-tier grievance system
lacks publisher-side appeal, making it asymmetric.
o Eg: Publishers under IT Rules 2021 have no appellate mechanism, unlike
complainants .
5. Evolving societal norms on obscenity and expression: Definitions of “objectionable
content” vary across time, region, and community.
o Eg: SC in Aveek Sarkar v. State of West Bengal (2014) stressed on context-
based tests for obscenity, not societal morality.

Role of tripartite collaboration in policymaking

1. Legal expertise from MeiTY and judiciary: Essential to frame content-neutral,

rights-respecting frameworks within the IT Act and constitutional provisions.
o Eg: Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015) struck down Section 66A for
being vague and chilling speech.
2. Content regulation insights from MIB: Can guide age-rating, content classification,
and OTT registration mechanisms.
o Eg: Broadcasting Bill 2023 proposes registration of OTTs under content-
based norms like film certifications.
3. Technological and infrastructural lens from TRAI: Useful in defining boundaries
of control between infrastructure (ISPs) and content (OTTs).
o Eg: TRAI Consultation Paper (2022) recommended separation of platform-
based and carrier-based regulations.
4. Need for a dedicated inter-sectoral body: A composite authority with experts from
all three sectors and civil society to ensure synergy.

39
 o Eg: Srikrishna Committee (2018) recommended cross-sectoral coordination
for digital data and platform regulation.
5. Stakeholder consultations to avoid over-centralisation: Collaboration with
creators, platforms, and public is vital to avoid arbitrary censorship.
o Eg: EU’s Audiovisual Media Services Directive mandates platform
consultation in framing codes of conduct.

Ensuring user protection without compromising free speech

1. Precise definition of harmful content: Terms like “obscene” or “offensive” must be

narrowly and contextually defined.
o Eg: SC in Kartar Singh v. State of Punjab (1994) held vague laws violate
Article 19(1)(a).
2. Co-regulation with robust self-regulation: Encourage internal mechanisms like
editorial boards, grievance cells, and AI-based content moderation with oversight.
o Eg: UK’s Ofcom model supports co-regulation by accredited self-regulatory
bodies.
3. Transparent, accountable grievance redress mechanisms: Publishers should be
given the right to appeal.
o Eg: Amendment to IT Rules 2021 must include publisher appeals to prevent
one-sided enforcement.
4. Use of ethical AI tools with human oversight: Employ profanity filters and flagging
tools while ensuring due process.
o Eg: Amazon Prime India uses AI scanners and human curation jointly to
assess content risk.
5. Regular review and public scrutiny of regulatory norms: Legal norms should
evolve with social and technological changes.
o Eg: Periodic review clauses in OTT codes proposed in Broadcasting Bill
2023 to ensure relevance.

Conclusion
As OTT platforms redefine India’s content ecosystem, the legal response must be nuanced,
collaborative and constitutionally guided. Future-ready regulation must safeguard
creativity while ensuring accountability, reflecting a democratic digital age

Q. How does the implementation of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural

Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) reflect broader issues in India’s
public service delivery system? Suggest measures to enhance convergence,
efficiency, and accountability. (15 M)

Introduction

40
MGNREGS has become a mirror to India’s welfare governance—while legally guaranteeing
work, its execution exposes critical gaps in fund allocation, decentralisation, inclusion, and
state capacity.

Body

Issues in public service delivery reflected in MGNREGS

1. Funding without demand linkage: Allocations are supply-driven, ignoring ground-

level demand trends.
o Eg: In 2025, only ₹86,000 crore was allocated against ₹2.64 lakh crore
recommended by PAEG (People’s Action for Employment Guarantee).
2. Technological exclusion of beneficiaries: Digitisation has led to denial of rights due
to Aadhaar errors, payment failures, and deletions.
o Eg: Between 2022–24, 7.8 crore job cards were deleted, but only 1.92 crore
added—LibTech India Report (2025).
3. Administrative delays and wage backlogs: Payments are routinely delayed,
violating the 15-day limit under the Act.
o Eg: Parliamentary Standing Committee on Rural Development (2023)
flagged delays in 90% of wage payments beyond the legal deadline.
4. Poor local capacity and decentralisation: Panchayats often lack technical staff to
prepare labour budgets or monitor works.
o Eg: CAG Audit (2022) found that labour budget preparation was missing
in over 40% of Gram Panchayats.
5. Regional disparity in outcomes: Delivery varies widely across states due to
inconsistent Centre-State coordination.
o Eg: In FY 2024–25, Odisha (-34.8%) saw a sharp fall in person-days, while
Maharashtra (+39.7%) saw a rise—LibTech India.

Measures to enhance convergence

1. Asset-based convergence with allied schemes: Link with PMAY-G, Jal Jeevan
Mission for durable, demand-linked works.
o Eg: Rajasthan (2023) integrated MGNREGS with water conservation and
rural housing, increasing productivity and workdays.
2. Unified planning through GPDP: Integrate MGNREGS labour budget into Gram
Panchayat Development Plans (GPDPs).
o Eg: Kerala’s Kudumbashree model aligns MGNREGS with NRLM for
women’s self-help work convergence.
3. Digital convergence platforms: Use interoperable MIS systems for fund flow and
activity tracking across schemes.
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh’s e-FMS portal links MGNREGS with livelihoods and
housing schemes, improving fund release efficiency.

41
Measures to improve efficiency

1. Timely and adequate fund release: Adopt dynamic formula-based budgeting linked
to real-time demand and inflation.
o Eg: SEWA and PAEG proposed indexing allocations to consumer price
index and actual person-day demand.
2. Decentralised procurement and execution: Empower Gram Sabhas to approve
works and maintain transparency.
o Eg: Jharkhand's community-driven procurement policy under
MGNREGS helped reduce leakages and delays.
3. Skill and capacity enhancement of field staff: Regular training and MIS literacy for
Rozgar Sahayaks and Panchayat Secretaries.
o Eg: UNDP-District Collector initiative in Tamil Nadu (2024) trained field
staff on digital job card tracking and MIS tools.

Measures to strengthen accountability

1. Legally mandated social audits with penalty enforcement: Make audit findings
binding with consequences for non-compliance.
o Eg: MoRD Social Audit Guidelines (2023) call for State Audit Units with
independent staffing and legal mandate.
2. Grievance redressal through Lokpal strengthening: Appoint district-level Lokpals
with powers to enforce decisions.
o Eg: MGNREG Act Section 27 provides for Lokpals, but only 15% of
districts had active Lokpals by end of 2024—MoRD data.
3. Citizen-led monitoring through ICT tools: Enable workers to track attendance,
wages, and raise complaints in local languages.
o Eg: Maharashtra’s Kaamgaar mobile app (2023) allows real-time tracking
of job status and wage slips by workers.

Conclusion

MGNREGS must evolve from a stop-gap rural safety net to a model of participatory,
accountable, and convergent welfare delivery. Its success lies in empowering citizens,
decentralising decisions, and restoring trust in welfare guarantees.

Issues relating to development and management of Social

Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.
Q. While affordability in school education is crucial, excessive fee regulation
risks undermining quality. Examine this dilemma. Suggest how India can
balance affordability with quality in private education. (10 M)

Introduction:
India’s school education system faces a paradox—expanding access without diluting

42
quality, especially in private unaided schools that operate without state funding but serve
growing middle-class aspirations.

Body

Fee regulation vs quality: Understanding the dilemma

1. Erosion of financial autonomy: Excessive regulation limits schools’ ability to invest

in infrastructure and faculty.
o Eg: Delhi’s 2025 Fee Bill may restrict unaided schools from improving
facilities due to caps on operational costs (Indian Express, May 2025).
2. Disincentive for innovation: Capping fees may discourage adoption of digital or
pedagogical reforms.
o Eg: Private schools investing in STEM labs and AI-enabled classrooms may
scale down such efforts under rigid cost structures (NITI Aayog EdTech
Report, 2022).
3. Risk to teacher quality and salaries: Limited revenue affects hiring and retention of
qualified educators.
o Eg: NSSO (2017-18) shows average teacher salaries in unaided schools in
Delhi are 2–3 times higher than in government schools, funded through fees.
4. Unequal regulatory burden: Government schools face no cost control scrutiny but
are subsidised; this creates an uneven playing field.
o Eg: UDISE+ 2023 shows government schools constitute 57.1% of enrolment
in Delhi but with far lower per-student costs.
5. Reduction in diversity of schooling models: Overregulation homogenises school
choices, especially harming low-cost innovative private models.
o Eg: Budget private schools offering flexible learning models in UP and
Telangana have faced shutdowns due to compliance burdens (Centre for Civil
Society, 2023).

Balancing affordability with quality

1. Transparent cost audits, not price caps: Establishing norms for rational fee
structures based on expenditure heads.
o Eg: TSR Subramanian Committee (2016) proposed setting up a Regulatory
Body for Private Schools to ensure transparency and curb profiteering.
2. Performance-linked state support: Subventions or tax rebates for schools
maintaining affordability and quality standards.
o Eg: Himachal Pradesh’s PPP school model offers grants to private schools
meeting learning outcome benchmarks.
3. Encouraging public-private competition: Strengthen government schools so parents
have viable, quality alternatives.
o Eg: Delhi government school reforms (2015–24) led to increased enrolment
and NAS 2021 performance improvement in languages and maths.

43
 4. School fee tribunals with parental representation: For time-bound grievance
redress and participatory regulation.
o Eg: Maharashtra’s Fee Regulation Act mandates Divisional Fee Regulation
Committees with parents and experts.

Conclusion:
Affordability must not come at the cost of excellence. A facilitative, accountable
framework—not blanket control—is key to fostering equity and quality in India’s
evolving school landscape.

Q. Assess the role of online learning in facilitating entrepreneurial and gig-

economy aspirations. What support structures are needed to make such learning
sustainable and impactful? (10 M)

Introduction
Online learning today offers rapid, modular, and low-cost skilling for India's expanding
freelance and startup workforce, enabling real-time application of knowledge in dynamic
sectors.

Body

Role of online learning in entrepreneurial and gig aspirations

1. Just-in-time skilling: Gig workers access learning as per immediate task needs
o Eg: UpGrad’s short AI modules helped freelance consultants pitch data
solutions
2. Affordable and low-risk experimentation: Enables entrepreneurs to explore new
domains without large investments
o Eg: Coursera’s ₹2500/month pricing allows founders to trial fintech or
blockchain before pivoting
3. Portfolio-building opportunities: Capstone projects double as demonstrable
prototypes or business ideas
o Eg: Google Career Certificates now include capstone ventures like app
mockups or data dashboards
4. Flexibility to learn amid irregular work cycles: Caters to unpredictable schedules
of gig and solo workers
o Eg: LinkedIn Learning sees peak usage in non-standard hours among
freelancers.
5. Peer and mentor-led ecosystems: Builds social capital beyond traditional classrooms
o Eg: T-Hub Hyderabad’s ed-tech partnership offers mentorship with each
online module .

Support structures needed for sustainability and impact

44
 1. Integrated digital credential recognition: Formalise micro-certifications into
national skill frameworks
o Eg: NCVET under MSDE recommended integration of online badges into
Skill India credits .
2. Subsidised access for informal workers: Bridge affordability gap through vouchers
or co-pay models
o Eg: PM-DAKSH portal offers free skill courses in gig-relevant sectors like
logistics and hospitality
3. Localized language and content support: Improve uptake in Tier-2/3 towns with
vernacular courses
o Eg: Swayam’s recent partnership with IIT Madras launched regional
language AI modules.
4. Startup–ed-tech co-innovation models: Encourage platform tie-ups for domain-
specific entrepreneurship
o Eg: SIDBI’s MSME skilling pilot with online platforms for ‘business finance
for solopreneurs’.
5. Gig-specific learner financing models: EMI and income-share agreements tailored
to gig income cycles
o Eg: Leap Finance and GrayQuest introduced flexible financing for working
learners in 2024

Conclusion
To unlock India's entrepreneurial dividend, online learning must evolve from being
accessible to being integrated, inclusive, and institutionally backed—creating a resilient
foundation for a gig-led economy.

Q. Evaluate the relevance of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act,
2016 in ensuring inclusive schooling. How far has it been implemented across
Indian states? (10 M)

Introduction
The RPwD Act, 2016 marked a rights-based departure from the earlier medical model of
disability, positioning inclusive education as a legal obligation under India’s constitutional
and international commitments.

Body

Relevance of the RPwD Act in inclusive schooling

1. Legal mandate for inclusion: Section 16 ensures non-discriminatory education with

necessary support services
o Eg: Section 16 of the RPwD Act mandates curriculum modification, trained
educators, and infrastructure for children with disabilities.

45
 2. Constitutional reinforcement: Strengthens Article 21A and Article 15(2) for
educational equity
o Eg: In Avinash Mehrotra v. UoI (2009), the Supreme Court linked schooling
with dignity, a principle strengthened by RPwD.
3. NEP and RTE convergence: Aligns disability inclusion with NEP 2020 and RTE
Act, 2009
o Eg: NEP 2020 proposes resource rooms and special educators, echoing
RPwD's vision of full participation and reasonable accommodation.
4. Broader disability recognition: Includes invisible and neurodevelopmental
conditions beyond physical disability
o Eg: Conditions like autism, learning disabilities, and mental illness now
qualify for educational accommodations under the Act.

Extent of implementation across Indian states

Successes

1. Digital screening initiatives: Some states have integrated early identification into
schools
o Eg: Delhi’s PRASHAST app (2025) enables real-time teacher-led screening
for 21 disabilities under Samagra Shiksha.
2. Integrated state models: Some states are building support infrastructure with
healthcare links
o Eg: Andhra Pradesh has launched neurodiversity centres and added
screening tools to school health check-ups since 2023.
3. Teacher training expansion: Inclusion-related training is being institutionalised in
some regions
o Eg: Nagaland (2024) began specialised training modules for teachers to
identify neurodevelopmental signs in classrooms.
4. Civil society engagement: NGO collaboration is enhancing awareness and access
o Eg: Bihar (2023) partnered with NGOs to raise disability awareness among
parents and teachers in government schools.

Failures

1. Lack of special educators: Implementation is weak due to inadequate human

resources
o Eg: The CAG report (2022) revealed that over 70% of schools in UP and
Jharkhand lacked even one trained special educator.
2. Poor physical infrastructure: Most schools fail to meet accessibility standards
o Eg: As per UDISE+ 2023, only 26% of schools had ramps with handrails, and
under 10% had tactile flooring.
3. Delays in clinical follow-up: Bureaucratic bottlenecks hinder continuity of care

46
 oEg: In Delhi (2025), PRASHAST-flagged students had UDID appointments
scheduled for 2026, delaying therapy access.
4. Stigma and parental resistance: Social barriers limit post-identification support
o Eg: Teachers in low-income areas of Delhi report many parents refuse special
interventions due to fear or misinformation.

Conclusion
The RPwD Act offers a transformative legal pathway for inclusive schooling, but uneven
institutional readiness threatens its outcomes. Realising its potential requires bridging policy
and practice through state accountability, capacity building, and community trust.

Q. Examine the key lifestyle and behavioural factors contributing to rising

infertility. How can public health systems respond proactively? (10 M)

Introduction
India is witnessing a silent surge in infertility, driven by invisible lifestyle shifts, rising stress,
and delayed parenthood—demanding a preventive public health response beyond clinical
treatment.

Body

Lifestyle and behavioural factors contributing to rising infertility

1. Obesity and poor dietary habits: Excess body fat disrupts hormonal balance in both
men and women, affecting ovulation and sperm health.
o Eg: A 2023 ICMR study linked high BMI and trans-fat intake with rising
infertility among urban couples in Mumbai and Delhi.
2. Sedentary work culture: Long hours of physical inactivity and screen time reduce
sperm motility and alter ovulatory cycles.
o Eg: Plos One (2023) found a 30.7% infertility rate (2015–16) correlated
with sedentary occupational patterns in Tier 1 cities.
3. Substance abuse: Consumption of tobacco, alcohol and recreational drugs lowers
sperm count and affects egg quality.
o Eg: AIIMS study found chronic alcohol use among males led to a 47%
higher risk of azoospermia (absence of sperm in semen).
4. Mental health and chronic stress: High stress levels elevate cortisol, disturbing
reproductive hormone cycles and delaying conception.
o Eg: Genome Fertility Centre observed that counselling-induced stress
reduction improved IVF success rates by 21%.
5. Delayed parenthood and late marriages: Increasing age affects both ovarian reserve
in women and sperm quality in men.
o Eg: According to NFHS-5, average urban age of first childbearing increased
to 27.6 years in 2020–21, impacting fertility outcomes.

47
Public health system’s proactive responses

1. Integration of fertility care in primary healthcare: Include fertility screenings,

awareness, and counselling in NHM sub-centres.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu's UHC pilot (2024) integrated preconception counselling,
reducing infertility referrals by 18% in 6 months.
2. National fertility awareness campaigns: Use mass media and schools to spread
awareness about early detection, male infertility, and lifestyle links.
o Eg: Kerala’s ‘Niyamitham Jeevitham’ (2023) campaign focused on
lifestyle-linked reproductive health among adolescents.
3. Insurance and subsidy for fertility treatments: Expand Ayushman Bharat to
include basic fertility diagnosis and counselling.
o Eg: NITI Aayog’s 2024 report suggested subsidised ART and fertility care
inclusion under PM-JAY to bridge access gaps.
4. Workplace reproductive wellness programs: Mandate employers to offer
reproductive health leave, routine check-ups, and lifestyle monitoring.
o Eg: Infosys Fertility Wellness Program (2023) provided pre-IVF
counselling, showing up to 30% natural conception rates among employees.
5. Mental health and reproductive counselling integration: Make mental health
support mandatory in ART and infertility clinics.
o Eg: Genome Fertility Centre (2025) integrated trauma-informed therapy,
reducing post-IVF depression by 40%.

Conclusion
Infertility must be reframed as a public health concern, not a private misfortune. A system
that prioritises prevention, mental well-being, and access will make reproductive justice a
reality.

Q. What are the key institutional and policy limitations in India’s palliative care
ecosystem? How can decentralised health governance address these gaps? (10 M)

Introduction

India records over 6 million cases of serious health-related suffering annually, yet less
than 2% of its population has access to palliative care (Lancet Commission, 2023), reflecting
critical systemic neglect.

Body

Institutional and policy limitations in India’s palliative care ecosystem

1. Weak implementation of NPPC: The National Programme for Palliative Care

(NPPC) lacks operational consistency, funding, and accountability across states.

48
 o Eg:– A 2023 MoHFW status report showed that only 24% of Indian
districts had any functional palliative care services despite NPPC being
launched in 2012.
2. Lack of integration with primary healthcare: Palliative care remains isolated from
PHCs and district health systems, limiting last-mile access.
o Eg:– A NITI Aayog review (2022) found that only 2% of PHCs provided
any form of palliative support.
3. Medical education gap: Palliative care is not part of mainstream medical training,
leading to poor clinical capacity in dealing with end-of-life care.
o Eg:– The 2023 National Medical Commission (NMC) curriculum includes
only 2–3 hours of palliative care content in MBBS programmes.
4. Over-reliance on NGO models: In most states, palliative services are driven by civil
society, with limited government participation or scaling efforts.
o Eg:– A 2023 study by AIIMS-Delhi showed that over 70% of palliative care
units in north India are run by NGOs with no state funding.
5. Narrow perception of palliative care: It is still viewed as cancer-centric or end-of-
life care, rather than holistic chronic care.
o Eg:– WHO 2022 observed that Indian states rarely extend palliative care to
non-cancer chronic illnesses like dementia or stroke.

Role of decentralised health governance in addressing these gaps

1. Empowering local bodies to run care units: Panchayats and ULBs can manage
home-based care through trained community health workers.
o Eg:– Under Kerala’s Neighbourhood Network in Palliative Care (NNPC),
over 70% of patients receive home-based services managed by local bodies.
2. Strengthening community health volunteer networks: Decentralisation can enable
volunteers to deliver emotional and physical support at household level.
o Eg:– The Kozhikode palliative care model, supported by panchayats, trained
over 5,000 community volunteers since 2005.
3. Localized budgetary allocation: Allowing district-level planning and budgeting for
palliative services ensures tailored response.
o Eg:– The Arogya Kerala initiative allocates specific grants to LSGs for
primary and palliative healthcare integration.
4. Inter-sectoral coordination at the district level: Decentralisation allows
convergence of social welfare, health, and disability support at the grassroots.
o Eg:– In Malappuram district, a joint task force of health and social justice
departments runs integrated care for elderly patients.
5. Training and capacity-building at local level: Decentralised health missions can
fund continuous capacity-building of ASHAs and ANMs in palliative care.
o Eg:– The State Health Systems Resource Centre, Kerala, developed
training manuals used by over 14,000 health workers at block level.

Conclusion

49
India must shift from a hospital-centric, curative approach to a compassionate,
decentralised model of care that integrates palliative services into its public health system,
ensuring dignity in dying as a right, not privilege.

Q. “Foundational learning is not achieved solely through classroom instruction—

it requires a whole-of-society approach”. Examine the role of parents and
communities in supporting India’s Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN)
goals. Highlight gaps in current parental and community engagement in FLN
and suggest institutional measures to strengthen their participation. (15 M)
Introduction
India’s Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) goals under the NIPUN Bharat
Mission aim for universal proficiency in reading and arithmetic by Class 3 by 2026–27. Yet,
over 45 million children in India lack FLN skills (UNICEF, 2024), highlighting the need
for active parental and community engagement beyond classrooms.

Body

Role of parents and communities in supporting FLN goals

1. Home as the first learning space: Parents shape early reading, vocabulary, and
number sense even before formal schooling.
o Eg: The NIPUN Bharat guidelines (2021) recommend storytelling and
interactive activities at home to foster FLN skills.
2. Bridging language and cultural barriers: Community actors can mediate where
school instruction language differs from local dialects.
o Eg: In Kupwara (J&K), community support helps Class 3 children
understand Math in their native dialects.
3. Promoting attendance and consistency: Community involvement reduces seasonal
dropouts and boosts child-school engagement.
o Eg: In Dhar, Madhya Pradesh, SRF Foundation’s CSR programme
improved attendance by 20% through village meetings and trust-building.
4. Inclusive support for special needs: Parental volunteers enables differentiated
instruction for children with learning difficulties.
o Eg: At Mogappair school in Chennai, parents of children with autism and
dyslexia assist in daily reading and writing tasks.
5. Augmenting school infrastructure and content: Communities can contribute
resources, remedial material, and peer-learning spaces.
o Eg: SMCs in Tamil Nadu developed laminated grammar and Math sheets,
improving daily engagement beyond the state-provided workbooks.

Gaps in current parental and community engagement

1. Low awareness of early-grade learning value: Many parents underestimate the

importance of Class 1–3 education.

50
 o Eg: In Sehore district, a parent told field researchers that “there’s nothing
much to study in Class 1,” reflecting a widespread attitude.
2. Parental illiteracy and economic constraints: educational background and labour
obligations prevent academic involvement.
o Eg: The ASER Report (2023) states that over 55% of rural parents in India
have not studied beyond Class 8.
3. Language mismatch in tribal and conflict areas: Instructional languages often
diverge from those spoken at home.
o Eg: PARAKH baseline tests (2024) found underperformance in tribal belts
of Odisha and NE due to textbook–language mismatch.
4. Lack of structured parental roles in schools: FLN programmes rarely define
measurable tasks or feedback loops for parents.
o Eg: Only 18% of School Management Committees (SMCs) conduct regular
learning reviews, according to a NITI Aayog 2022 study.
5. Breakdowns in trust and communication: Misunderstandings between parents and
teachers reduce consistent participation.
o Eg: In Dhar, MP, SRF Foundation reported students lying about teacher
absence or homework, highlighting trust gaps.

Institutional measures to strengthen participation

1. Parental orientation and FLN training modules: States must run regular awareness
drives through Anganwadis and schools.
o Eg: Central Square Foundation supports 11 states in conducting SMC
orientation sessions and home-based learning material.
2. Community-led attendance and learning tracking: Involve local volunteers, SHGs,
and youth in student follow-up and performance logs.
o Eg: Himachal’s Samarth Mission uses village education committees to
track child progress and re-engage dropouts.
3. Integrating FLN indicators into SMC audits: Mandate periodic parent–teacher
meetings and feedback mechanisms for SMCs.
o Eg: Tamil Nadu SED revised SMC bylaws in 2024 to include FLN progress
reviews and parent mentorship groups.
4. Localized multilingual content: Encourage development of FLN materials in local
dialects and pictorial formats.
o Eg: NCERT’s new bilingual workbooks include local tribal vocabulary in
Math and language primers for Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
5. Incentivising community involvement: Offer recognition and micro-rewards for
regular parental participation in school activities.
o Eg: Telangana’s Mana Ooru Mana Badi programme gives certificates
and local awards to active SMC and parent volunteers.

Conclusion
Building foundational learning requires social capital as much as curriculum reform. A

51
decentralised, inclusive, and informed community framework will make the FLN mission
truly resilient and sustainable in India’s education landscape.

Q. “Strengthening primary healthcare is the first line of defence against future

pandemics”. Comment. Why is India still underperforming in this area? (10 M)

Introduction
Pandemics expose the fragility of centralised health systems. A strong primary healthcare
network ensures early detection, localised containment, and equitable access—critical
pillars of health resilience.

Body

Significance of primary healthcare in pandemic defence

1. Early detection and surveillance: Local health centres can detect outbreaks early
through syndromic surveillance.
o Eg: Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) flagged H1N1
clusters in Rajasthan (2023) through primary-level reporting.
2. Decentralised containment: PHCs enable timely isolation, triaging, and community-
level management.
o Eg: Kerala’s PHC-based COVID response model (2020) limited spread
through localised isolation and testing, as noted by The Lancet.
3. Essential service continuity: PHCs ensure vaccination, maternal health, and chronic
care during crises.
o Eg: Chhattisgarh’s HWC network maintained antenatal care and NCD
screening during COVID-19 surges (MoHFW, 2022).
4. Community trust and communication: Local health workers can drive risk
communication and reduce misinformation.
o Eg: ASHA workers in Bihar used door-to-door IEC campaigns to counter
COVID vaccine hesitancy (UNICEF India, 2021).
5. Cost-effective preparedness: Primary care is a low-cost investment for long-term
epidemic readiness.
o Eg: Economic Survey 2021-22 stated that PHC investments yield high
returns on morbidity and mortality reduction.

Causes for underperformance in India’s primary healthcare

1. Low public health expenditure: India spends only around 1.28% of GDP on public
health (NHA, 2023).
o Eg: High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) in rural India is due to poor
PHC service quality, per NSSO 76th round.
2. Infrastructure and HR shortfall: Many PHCs lack basic infrastructure, trained
personnel, and diagnostic facilities.

52
 o Eg: Rural Health Statistics 2022-23 reported 26% shortfall in PHC doctors
and 37% in lab technicians.
3. Fragmented governance and delivery: Overlapping jurisdictions between Centre
and States weaken accountability.
o Eg: 15th Finance Commission Health Grant implementation has faced
delays due to unclear fund utilisation frameworks.
4. Neglect of urban primary care: Urban health is largely privatised, leaving poor
communities underserved.
o Eg: National Urban Health Mission remains underfunded with less than
20% coverage in tier-2 cities (MoHUA, 2023).
5. Technology and data gaps: Absence of real-time data from PHCs limits predictive
responses.
o Eg: eSanjeevani telemedicine covers only limited rural zones, with large
data gaps in non-digitised regions (NHA 2023).

Conclusion
Primary healthcare is not an auxiliary layer but the backbone of health resilience. India must
adopt a “PHC-first” strategy, backed by legal mandate, adequate funding, and tech-enabled
surveillance to future-proof against pandemics.

Issues relating to poverty and hunger.

Q. “Maternal health must begin before motherhood.” Discuss the significance of
preconception care and nutrition in shaping public health outcomes. Analyse the
structural gaps in addressing maternal malnutrition. Suggest a framework for
integrated early interventions. (15 M)

Introduction
Over 40% of Indian women aged 15–49 suffer from anaemia and poor nutritional status
(NFHS-5, 2021). Strengthening maternal health before pregnancy is now recognised as a
cornerstone for ensuring national health security and intergenerational well-being.

Body

Significance of preconception care and nutrition

1. Improves neonatal and infant outcomes: Adequate nutrition before conception

reduces risks like low birth weight and neural tube defects.
o Eg: WHO 2020 guidelines underline preconception folic acid intake to
reduce neural tube defects.
2. Breaks intergenerational cycle of malnutrition: Undernourished mothers often give
birth to underweight children, perpetuating poverty and ill-health.
o Eg: Lancet 2024 analysis found maternal BMI and anaemia as key predictors
of stunting in South Asia.

53
 3. Reduces maternal morbidity and mortality: Better metabolic and micronutrient
status lowers risks like gestational diabetes and eclampsia.
o Eg: IIPS 2022 data shows strong correlation between preconception anaemia
and maternal mortality in rural India.
4. Contributes to national human capital formation: Early life nutrition influences
cognitive development, productivity, and disease resistance.
o Eg: World Bank Human Capital Index 2023 ranks India low (score: 0.49),
citing early childhood deficiencies.
5. Aligns with SDGs and constitutional values: Ensures health equity, gender justice,
and right to life under Article 21.
o Eg: SDG-3 (Good Health and Well-being) and SDG-5 (Gender Equality)
hinge on maternal health.

Structural gaps in addressing maternal malnutrition

1. Fragmented policy focus: Preconception care is absent in most maternal and child
health programmes.
o Eg: RMNCH+A strategy (2013) begins from antenatal stage, neglecting
adolescent and preconception phase.
2. Inadequate nutritional surveillance: Lack of real-time nutrition data for adolescent
girls and newly married women.
o Eg: POSHAN Abhiyaan dashboards lack age-disaggregated pre-pregnancy
nutritional metrics (NITI Aayog Review, 2023).
3. Limited convergence between departments: Poor coordination between Women
and Child Development, Health, and Education Ministries.
o Eg: CAG Report (2022) flagged siloed implementation of ICDS and NHM
in Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.
4. Low community awareness and social norms: Cultural taboos delay healthcare-
seeking behaviour among young women.
o Eg: NFHS-5 (2021) reports only 21.3% of women in rural India have
autonomy in healthcare decisions.
5. Gaps in targeting overnutrition: Emerging urban obesity trends among women are
not addressed in government nutrition schemes.
o Eg: The Lancet Regional Health (2024) flagged rising overweight rates
(>25%) among urban South Asian women pre-conception.

Framework for integrated early interventions

1. Lifecycle-based RMNCAH+N policy: Expand RMNCH+A to include adolescence

and preconception phases with dedicated schemes.
o Eg: NITI Aayog Health Vision 2047 recommends life-stage continuity in
women’s health policies.
2. School-to-pregnancy continuum for nutrition: Universal screening and
supplementation in schools and anganwadis for adolescent girls.

54
 o Eg: Weekly Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation (WIFS) can be linked to
pre-marital health counselling.
3. Integrated data platforms and surveillance: Link POSHAN Tracker, HMIS, and
Aadhaar-based health IDs for real-time targeting.
o Eg: Aspirational Districts Programme piloted integrated dashboards in
Jharkhand and Odisha (2023).
4. Community-based behavioural interventions: Use ASHAs and self-help groups for
early outreach, counselling, and referral.
o Eg: Karnataka’s Mathrupoorna Yojana integrates SHG-led kitchen
gardens and nutrition counselling (2022 impact report).
5. Public-private partnerships in diagnostics and outreach: Mobile health vans and
apps for adolescent screening, especially in underserved areas.
o Eg: ‘Project Nand Ghar’ by Vedanta Foundation partners with WCD
Ministry to deliver digital health services to tribal girls.

Conclusion
A truly resilient health system must invest where life begins—before pregnancy. Strategic
convergence, timely care, and life-stage nutrition can transform maternal health into a driver
of India’s long-term growth.

Important aspects of governance, transparency and

accountability, e-governance- applications, models, successes,
limitations, and potential; citizens charters, transparency &
accountability and institutional and other measures.
Q. Why has there been persistent legal resistance to bringing political parties
under the RTI Act? Examine the democratic consequences of opaque political
financing. Suggest a viable institutional framework to ensure financial
transparency without undermining party autonomy. (15 M)

Introduction
Despite their central role in shaping public policy and controlling legislatures, political
parties in India remain outside the RTI framework—undermining efforts to ensure financial
transparency and public accountability.

Body

Reasons for resistance to RTI inclusion

1. Threat to internal autonomy: Parties fear RTI will compromise their organisational
independence and internal strategies.
o Eg: Post-2013 CIC order, six national parties including BJP and Congress
rejected RTI applicability citing Article 19(1)(c) protections.

55
 2. Absence of statutory backing: RTI Act Section 2(h) does not list political parties as
public authorities.
o Eg: Under the Representation of the People Act, 1951, parties are registered,
not constituted by statute.
3. Fear of political misuse: Parties argue that rivals may exploit RTI to target internal
communication and decision-making.
o Eg: In response to the 2019 PIL by Ashwini Upadhyay, parties warned of
potential “information harassment”.
4. Judicial and executive inertia: Long delays in judicial adjudication reflect deeper
institutional hesitation.
o Eg: The SC deferral came after over a decade of pending PILs by ADR since
2013.
5. Tax exemption without disclosure: Parties enjoy significant financial exemptions,
reducing incentive for transparency.
o Eg: Under Section 13A of IT Act, parties need not disclose donations below
₹20,000.

Democratic consequences of opaque political financing

1. Skewed electoral field: Lack of donor transparency benefits large parties with
disproportionate corporate support.
o Eg: ADR report (2024) revealed that over 70% of donations went to top two
national parties.
2. Violation of citizen’s right to information: Voters cannot make informed choices
without knowing funding sources.
o Eg: In its 2024 judgment, SC struck down electoral bonds, affirming the
Article 19(1)(a) right to know.
3. Black money and quid pro quo: Anonymous funding allows unaccounted political-
business nexus.
o Eg: Companies could donate unlimited funds without disclosure under the
Finance Act, 2017 amendments.
4. Policy capture and conflicts of interest: Lack of oversight creates space for interest-
driven legislation.
o Eg: Controversies over electoral trusts show untraceable donations
influencing regulatory decisions.
5. Loss of public trust in institutions: Opaque financing fosters perceptions of
corruption and undermines democratic legitimacy.
o Eg: ADR Survey (2023) found 85% of respondents demanded full
disclosure of political donations.

Institutional framework for transparency without undermining autonomy

1. RTI amendment with protective clauses: Amend Section 2(h) to include political
parties with safeguards for internal deliberations.

56
 o Eg: The 2nd ARC Report (2007) suggested selective inclusion under RTI to
ensure strategic confidentiality.
2. Amend RPA to mandate donor disclosure: Strengthen Section 29C to require real-
time reporting of all donations.
o Eg: Inspired by the US Federal Election Commission model, which enforces
strict quarterly disclosures.
3. Independent regulatory authority: Create a Political Finance Oversight
Commission under the Election Commission’s supervision.
o Eg: Law Commission (255th Report, 2015) proposed such a body for
oversight without encroaching on party functions.
4. Conditional tax exemptions: Link Section 13A benefits to annual audits and public
disclosures of income.
o Eg: Canada links public funding eligibility to full transparency of donor
records and expenditures.
5. Digital transparency dashboard: Election Commission to manage a central portal
for donations and expenditure logs.
o Eg: UK Electoral Commission provides real-time online access to party
finance data to ensure public scrutiny.

Conclusion
India’s electoral democracy demands transparency at the source of power—its political
parties. A balanced framework rooted in statutory clarity, digital disclosure, and institutional
independence can achieve transparency without compromising party autonomy.

Q. “When truth becomes the first casualty in the race for virality, democracy
loses its moral compass”. Evaluate the threats posed by the viral spread of
misinformation to institutional credibility. In what ways does this affect citizen
trust and democratic participation? (10 M)

Introduction

The unchecked spread of misinformation has eroded trust in public institutions and distorted
democratic processes, making it harder for citizens to distinguish facts from manipulations in
a hyperconnected digital space.

Body

Threats posed by viral misinformation to institutional credibility

1. Undermining credibility of constitutional authorities: Misinformation targeting

constitutional bodies reduces public faith in their impartiality and independence.
o Eg:– The 2024 misinformation campaign against the Election Commission
during Lok Sabha polls alleging rigged EVMs was debunked by FACTLY,
but severely damaged public trust in electoral institutions.

57
 2. Erosion of judicial legitimacy: Viral content misrepresents judicial verdicts,
weakening the rule of law and creating polarisation.
o Eg:– A fake viral post about the Supreme Court’s 2023 order on same-sex
marriage misled citizens, prompting backlash despite no such directive being
issued.
3. Discrediting expert-led public institutions: Scientific and regulatory bodies face
delegitimisation due to anti-intellectual misinformation.
o Eg:– During the COVID-19 second wave, false claims about vaccine
inefficacy circulated widely, challenging ICMR’s credibility and delaying
public uptake.
4. Weakening of public accountability mechanisms: Institutions such as RTI bodies
and media regulators suffer due to narrative manipulation online.
o Eg:– A 2022 viral video misquoting the CIC ruling on PM CARES Fund
damaged public confidence in transparency mechanisms, despite later
clarifications.
5. Politicisation of bureaucracy: Misinformation spreads targeted attacks against civil
servants, affecting their neutrality.
o Eg:– In Manipur 2023, doctored videos targeting district officials led to
administrative paralysis and community distrust.

Impact on citizen trust and democratic participation

1. Erosion of electoral integrity: Citizens influenced by misinformation are less likely

to engage meaningfully in democratic processes.
o Eg:– The deepfake video of a senior political leader in 2024 Karnataka
elections, flagged by AltNews, manipulated voter perceptions and turnout in
key constituencies.
2. Polarisation and loss of deliberative culture: Viral falsehoods intensify identity
divides and reduce space for constructive dialogue.
o Eg:– The 2023 misinformation surrounding CAA protests led to
community clashes in Delhi, weakening participatory platforms and citizen
forums.
3. Diminished engagement in public policy: False narratives dissuade citizens from
trusting or participating in welfare schemes.
o Eg:– Fake news claiming Aadhaar-linked data was sold to corporates in
2023, refuted by UIDAI, led to withdrawal of rural beneficiaries from DBT
schemes.
4. Amplification of fringe over fact: Sensational content overshadows reasoned voices,
disincentivising informed participation.
o Eg:– Viral content from unverified influencers during the 2023
Chandrayaan-3 landing spread conspiracy theories, marginalising ISRO’s
scientific briefings.
5. Normalisation of disinformation ecosystems: Repeated exposure to falsehoods
normalises apathy or cynicism in the citizenry.

58
 o Eg:– A 2022 study by Microsoft Research found that 63% of Indian users
were unsure how to identify fake news, weakening democratic vigilance.

Conclusion

When disinformation is allowed to pollute civic life, the very foundation of democratic
legitimacy cracks. A combined push for institutional transparency, civic digital literacy
and ethical algorithmic governance is key to restoring trust.

Q. Administrative inefficiency in India is not just a management issue, but a

governance failure. Examine this statement. Discuss the role a dedicated
efficiency department can play in remedying this. What safeguards are needed to
preserve democratic accountability? (15 M)

Introduction

India’s governance suffers from process inflation, where outdated, redundant, and
unaccountable mechanisms persist despite decades of reforms. Efficiency is not just an
operational issue but a reflection of institutional intent and capacity to deliver public
goods.

Body

Administrative inefficiency as a governance failure

1. Redundant SOPs and legacy processes: Outdated procedures continue even when
irrelevant.
o Eg: Postal verification for pension updates continues despite Aadhaar-based
digital life certificates (MeitY, 2024).
2. Bureaucratic resistance to change: Legacy structures obstruct innovation and
citizen-centric models.
o Eg: Jeevan Pramaan’s digital system faces non-compliance by field officials
in States like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar (DARPG, 2023).
3. Weak citizen interface mechanisms: Poor service design and fragmentation reduce
access and trust.
o Eg: While Passport Seva has gone fully digital, birth and death certificates
still require physical visits in over 400 districts (NITI Aayog, 2024).
4. Inadequate inter-ministerial coordination: Siloed governance prevents integrated
service delivery.
o Eg: Urban transport policy remains fragmented across MoHUA, MoRTH,
and Ministry of Railways, leading to planning delays.
5. Discretion over accountability: Governance becomes rule-centric rather than
outcome-oriented.

59
 o Eg: The CAG 2023 Report noted ₹1.4 lakh crore in underutilised welfare
funds due to excessive bureaucratic layering and poor fund flow design.

Role of a dedicated efficiency department

1. Institutionalising process audits: Identify inefficiencies and rework across

Ministries.
o Eg: Private sector use of Lean Six Sigma led to 30% cost savings in Tata
Steel Jamshedpur (2022), which can be adapted in public schemes.
2. Digital infrastructure reuse: Create modular, cross-sector platforms to avoid
duplication.
o Eg: A Unified Digital Service Portal can reuse existing Aadhaar-DBT-stack
like Passport Seva reuses DigiLocker and eSign APIs.
3. Repository of best practices: Serve as a knowledge hub to replicate proven
governance models.
o Eg: GatiShakti’s multi-ministerial dashboard for infrastructure can be
replicated for health and education convergence.
4. Cost-effectiveness in public spending: Reduce administrative waste and increase
outcome per rupee.
o Eg: A 2024 study by NIPFP estimated 24% administrative expenditure in
schemes like PMAY could be reduced with process redesign.
5. Inter-ministerial workflow integration: Break silos through standardised templates
and protocols.
o Eg: A shared State-Centre task dashboard under the efficiency department
can mirror GSTN's success in collaborative real-time reporting.

Safeguards to preserve democratic accountability

1. Parliamentary oversight: Place the department under Cabinet Secretariat, with

reporting to Standing Committees.
o Eg: Like the CVC presents annual performance reports, efficiency outcomes
can be tabled in Parliament.
2. Audit and transparency mechanisms: Mandate annual audits of reform impact by
third-party bodies.
o Eg: Involve CAG and independent evaluators like NITI Aayog’s DMEO for
real-time auditing of process reforms.
3. Civil society participation: Include feedback loops from users and stakeholders.
o Eg: Platforms like MyGov and Janaagraha can be integrated to monitor
service improvements from the citizen's perspective.
4. State-level autonomy safeguards: Respect federal principles through customisable
efficiency modules.
o Eg: Kerala’s e-Hospital and Telangana’s T-Hub models show how States
can localise central frameworks without losing efficiency goals.

60
 5. Prevent overreach and technocracy: Clearly define mandate to reform processes,
not policymaking.
o Eg: The Second ARC (2008) warned against confusing administrative reform
bodies with executive control agencies.

Conclusion

True governance reform lies in enabling fast, transparent, and citizen-driven delivery
while safeguarding the democratic fabric. A well-structured efficiency department can
bridge this gap—if it is embedded with accountability, not detached from it.

Role of civil services in a democracy.

India and its neighborhood- relations.
Q. What are the major obstacles to regional integration in South Asia? How has
the India-Pakistan conflict exacerbated them? (10 M)

Introduction
Despite its geographic proximity and shared cultural ties, South Asia remains one of the
least integrated regions globally, largely due to geopolitical mistrust and economic
fragmentation.

Body

Major obstacles to regional integration in South Asia

1. Political mistrust and bilateral conflicts: Historical and ideological rifts prevent
collective regional cooperation.
o Eg: The SAARC summit has not been held since 2014, largely due to India-
Pakistan tensions after the Uri attack (2016).
2. Weak institutional framework of SAARC: Decisions based on unanimity stall
progress due to individual country vetoes.
o Eg: Under Article 10 of the SAARC Charter, any member can block
initiatives; India-Pakistan rivalry has frequently halted key proposals.
3. Low intra-regional trade and tariff barriers: Trade within SAARC countries
remains underutilised due to high tariffs and limited transit routes.
o Eg: Intra-SAARC trade is under 5% of total trade (World Bank, 2024),
compared to 25% in ASEAN.
4. Infrastructure and logistics gaps: Poor connectivity hampers seamless trade and
regional mobility.
o Eg: Absence of operational SAARC Motor Vehicles Agreement contrasts
with ASEAN’s effective cross-border transport systems.
5. Asymmetry in economic size and influence: Smaller nations fear domination by
India, leading to diplomatic caution.

61
 o Eg: Nepal’s 2015 blockade crisis reflected dependency on Indian routes,
straining trust and regional sentiment.

How the India-Pakistan conflict exacerbates them

1. Collapse of bilateral trade: Hostility leads to suspension of formal and informal

trade links.
o Eg: After the 2025 Pahalgam attack, India banned all trade with Pakistan,
freezing even third-country re-exports via Wagah border.
2. Disruption of regional supply chains: Trade bans and transit restrictions affect
neighbouring countries.
o Eg: Bangladesh’s garment exports and Afghanistan’s fruit trade via
Pakistan to India were blocked due to route shutdowns.
3. Paralysis of regional platforms: Political deadlock prevents multilateral decisions
and dialogues.
o Eg: The failure to revive SAFTA and SAARC summits reflects how Indo-
Pak tensions erode institutional efficacy.
4. Investor and diplomatic uncertainty: Regional instability discourages long-term
investment and trust.
o Eg: Bangladesh and Nepal face declining FDI inflows due to fears of
escalated cross-border disruptions post-2025 crisis.
5. Shift toward alternative groupings: India’s strategic pivot weakens inclusive South
Asian cooperation.
o Eg: India promotes BIMSTEC over SAARC post-2016, excluding Pakistan
and diluting broader regional unity.

Conclusion
Unless India and Pakistan reconcile or insulate SAARC from bilateral hostilities,
regionalism in South Asia will remain a stunted dream. Reviving trust and flexible
mechanisms is the only path to economic and strategic resilience in the region.

Q. “Small neighbours are the first test of big power diplomacy”. Analyse this in
the context of India-Maldives ties post-2023. How is India leveraging diplomacy
to rebuild trust? (10 M)

Introduction
Maldives, a strategically placed island nation, has emerged as a diplomatic litmus test for
India’s regional statecraft in the Indian Ocean, especially amidst rising Chinese influence and
post-election policy shifts in 2023.

Body

Why small neighbours test big power diplomacy

62
 1. Assertion of sovereign autonomy: Smaller nations often resist permanent foreign
presence, fearing erosion of sovereignty.
o Eg: President Muizzu’s 2023 demand for the removal of Indian troops
symbolised a pushback against perceived external influence).
2. Regime instability and foreign policy swings: Elections in small states can
drastically alter diplomatic stances.
o Eg: Ibrahim Solih’s pro-India stance was swiftly replaced by Muizzu’s
pro-China alignment post the 2023 Maldives elections (MEA Annual
Report).
3. Geostrategic vulnerability to third powers: small neighbours can act as geopolitical
swing states in power rivalries.
o Eg: China’s growing footprint through projects like the Sinamale Bridge
under BRI gave Beijing leverage over Male (CERI).
4. High sensitivity to asymmetry in size and power: Disparity with India often breeds
domestic political opposition.
o Eg: Maldivian politicians used anti-India rhetoric in elections to mobilise
nationalist sentiment (Observer Research Foundation).
5. Expectations of non-reciprocal assistance: smaller states expect support without
conditionalities, testing big power flexibility.
o Eg: India has often extended grant-based aid, contrasting with China’s loan-
based approach, to retain goodwill (MEA, 2024).

How India is rebuilding trust post-2023

1. De-militarisation through calibrated withdrawal: India diffused tension by

replacing troops with civilians.
o Eg: In March 2024, India replaced military personnel with technical
experts to continue operating surveillance aircraft (MEA).
2. Development-based re-engagement strategy: India continued infrastructure support
through unconditional grants.
o Eg: 13 MoUs signed in May 2025 under Indian grant assistance cover
healthcare, education, and community infrastructure (MEA).
3. Activation of institutional diplomacy: India revived structured mechanisms to
monitor and deliver on commitments.
o Eg: The High-Level Core Group (HLCG) met in May 2025 to track the
Economic and Maritime Security Vision Document.
4. Financial handholding and budgetary support: India offered stabilising financial
help to avoid a vacuum.
o Eg: In April 2025, India rolled over a $50 million Treasury Bill to support
Maldives’ fiscal position.
5. Reframing security within cooperative regionalism: India promoted inclusive
frameworks like SAGAR and MAHASAGAR.
o Eg: Under the MAHASAGAR vision, India emphasised holistic growth and
maritime security over military dominance.

63
Conclusion
India’s approach to Maldives post-2023 reflects strategic maturity rooted in trust-building
and calibrated engagement. Sustained diplomacy and institutional anchoring are key to
managing volatility in small neighbours.

Q. “Cross-border disinformation is the new non-traditional threat in South

Asia”. Examine its impact on inter-State relations. Suggest mechanisms to
counter such digital aggression. (10 M)

Introduction
Weaponised disinformation has evolved into a low-cost, high-impact tool for destabilising
South Asia’s fragile diplomacy, exploiting communal divides and digital vulnerabilities.

Body

Impact on inter-State relations

1. Escalation of bilateral hostility: Disinformation inflames tensions by spreading fake

military actions or provocations.
o Eg: In May 2025, fabricated videos of Indian airstrikes on Karachi and
Islamabad circulated on Pakistani media, straining diplomatic outreach.
2. Undermining peace processes: Public misinformation disrupts backchannel talks and
derails trust-building.
o Eg: False claims of Pakistan’s strikes on Delhi airport hampered post-
Pahalgam diplomacy, delaying proposed bilateral talks.
3. Manipulation of public opinion: Misinformation campaigns polarise societies and
influence foreign policy stances.
o Eg: In Bangladesh, disinformation following the Pahalgam attack shifted
public opinion pro-Pakistan, despite official neutrality.
4. Communal spillover across borders: Hate content destabilises minority relations
and deepens regional mistrust.
o Eg: Anti-Hindu narratives in Pakistani state media post-Pahalgam worsened
India-Pakistan social perception gap.
5. Collapse of regional trust mechanisms: Disinformation disrupts SAARC-like
forums by fuelling mutual suspicion.
o Eg: SAARC ministerial coordination 2024 was derailed amid fake news
about Indian sabotage in Nepal elections.

Mechanisms to counter digital aggression

1. Regional cyber disinformation pact: Develop a legal framework under

SAARC/BIMSTEC to tackle cross-border digital manipulation.
o Eg: Use the UNDP’s South Asia Digital Cooperation Project (2023) as a
foundation for multilateral information integrity protocols.

64
 2. Bilateral fact-verification hotlines: Set up secure communication lines for verifying
viral military or communal content.
o Eg: India-Bangladesh Digital Trust Dialogue (2023) helped prevent
escalation after a border clash-related misinformation surge.
3. Joint civil society campaigns: Promote coordinated efforts between independent
fact-checkers across countries.
o Eg: Alt News (India) and Media Matters for Democracy (Pakistan)
cooperated during 2022 cricket matches to counter communal hate.
4. Algorithmic accountability frameworks: Push for regional regulations mandating
transparency in content recommendation systems.
o Eg: India's Digital India Bill, 2024, includes provisions for curbing
algorithm-driven hate during cross-border crises.
5. Media literacy initiatives: Institutionalise awareness campaigns to build public
resilience against digital disinformation.
o Eg: Bangladesh’s “Truth Seekers” programme (2023) in schools
empowered youth to detect fake news during political unrest.

Conclusion
In the age of digital warfare, truth must become the shared regional currency. A united South
Asia needs not just borders, but boundaries of trust, transparency, and technological
cooperation.

Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving

India and/or affecting India’s interests.
Q. Examine the evolution of India’s policy towards foreign aid since
independence. Analyse how the shift from aid-receiving to aid-giving has
impacted its international image. Also evaluate the implications of this transition
on India’s developmental partnerships with the Global South. (15 M)

Introduction:
India’s transition from a major aid recipient to a proactive donor reflects its evolving
economic power and strategic assertion, redefining its global development role.

Body

Evolution of India’s policy towards foreign aid

1. Early dependence on Western aid (1950s–60s): Aid was critical for Five-Year
Plans and infrastructure building.
o Eg: PL-480 food aid from the US supported India's food security during
drought years (1954–1965).
2. Bilateral-multilateral diversification (1970s–80s): India sought aid from multiple
blocs to retain strategic autonomy.

65
 o Eg: Indira Gandhi’s NAM policy balanced aid from both USSR and
Western blocs.
3. Liberalisation and reduced dependence (1991 onwards): Economic reforms
reduced aid dependence, with focus shifting to FDI and trade.
o Eg: Post-1991 reforms under Manmohan Singh prioritised market-based
capital over concessional aid.
4. Rising donor identity post-2000: India launched development partnerships and soft
loan schemes to other nations.
o Eg: Establishment of Development Partnership Administration (DPA) in
2012 under MEA.
5. Current era of selective acceptance: India now rejects conditionalities tied to aid
and accepts only sector-specific or multilateral support.
o Eg: India declined UK bilateral aid in 2015, citing self-sufficiency.

Impact on international image

1. Assertion of sovereign parity: India's refusal of unsolicited aid portrays confidence

and equality among global powers.
o Eg: India rejected Pakistan's 2005 quake relief offer, citing sovereignty.
2. Emerging donor status: India is now recognised as a “South-South donor”,
especially in Asia and Africa.
o Eg: India extended $1 billion line of credit to Mongolia for oil and rail
infrastructure (2015).
3. Soft power enhancement: Aid via capacity-building improves goodwill and cultural
influence.
o Eg: Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme
trained over 200,000 professionals globally.
4. Strategic autonomy in global forums: India's stand on aid shapes its role in forums
like BRICS, G20, and ISA.
o Eg: India led International Solar Alliance with concessional finance to
Africa and island nations.
5. Perception challenges in emergencies: Refusal to accept aid during disasters
sometimes draws criticism.
o Eg: In Kerala floods (2018), India rejected UAE’s ₹700 crore aid, sparking
domestic debate.

Implications for partnerships with the Global South

1. Model of South-South cooperation: India provides demand-driven, non-

conditional aid, unlike OECD donors.
o Eg: Pan Africa e-Network Project linked 48 countries with India’s tele-
education and telemedicine.
2. Shift from donor-recipient to partnership: Focus now lies on mutual growth and
shared technology.

66
 o Eg: India-Bhutan Hydropower cooperation is based on joint development
and benefit-sharing.
3. Trust-building via humanitarian aid: India delivers timely disaster relief to
neighbours, enhancing regional solidarity.
o Eg: Operation Sagar (2020) delivered COVID-19 aid to 5 Indian Ocean
countries.
4. Capacity and infrastructure challenges: Lack of a dedicated development agency
limits India’s scale and coordination.
o Eg: RIS (2022) report flagged the need for a statutory development
cooperation body akin to USAID.
5. Balancing aid with strategic interests: India must align aid with foreign policy goals
while avoiding debt-trap diplomacy.
o Eg: India’s $500 million credit to Sri Lanka (2022) came with a fuel and
food supply agreement during crisis.

Conclusion
India’s transformation into a development partner enhances its strategic influence and moral
leadership. Building transparent, scalable aid systems will cement India’s role as a trusted
anchor of the Global South.

Q. What is the significance of the Bandung Conference for India’s post-

independence foreign policy identity? Why does its neglect matter today? How
can its core principles be reinterpreted to suit India's current geopolitical
aspirations? (15 M)

Introduction
The 1955 Bandung Conference symbolised India’s emergence as a moral voice among
postcolonial nations and laid the intellectual foundations of non-alignment and South-
South solidarity, giving India global prominence despite limited material power.

Body

Significance of Bandung Conference for India’s post-independence foreign policy

1. Moral leadership in postcolonial diplomacy: India led efforts to resist bipolarity

through peaceful, principle-driven engagement.
o Eg: India, under Jawaharlal Nehru, co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement
(1961), promoting strategic autonomy and peaceful coexistence.
2. Institutionalisation of anti-colonial solidarity: The conference created a platform
for decolonised nations to collaborate on global issues.
o Eg: India supported African countries’ liberation movements in the 1960s–
70s, projecting itself as a champion of global justice.
3. Alternative development vision: India advocated self-reliant industrialisation and
inclusive democracy, rejecting both US capitalism and Soviet socialism.

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 o Eg: The Second Five-Year Plan (1956–61) reflected Nehruvian ideals rooted
in Bandung’s developmental ethos.
4. Strengthening multilateralism: Bandung paved the way for India’s active role in the
UN, G77, and NAM, enhancing collective voice for the Global South.
o Eg: India’s 1974 speech at the UNCTAD supported a New International
Economic Order, resonating Bandung principles.

Why its neglect matters today

1. Erosion of strategic consistency: Ignoring Bandung reflects India’s drift from its
historic identity as a principled and autonomous actor.
o Eg: India’s absence of official commemoration of Bandung@70 in 2025
weakened its soft power narrative.
2. Loss of South-South leadership: India risks losing credibility among developing
nations who once viewed it as their voice.
o Eg: India’s low engagement with Africa and Latin America in recent
summits has been criticised by ORF and RIS.
3. Personality-driven diplomacy replacing institutions: Over-personalisation
undermines India’s institutional credibility and long-term strategy.
o Eg: The over-reliance on leader-level summits has weakened India’s
diplomatic corps and continuity .
4. Reactive foreign policy posture: Departure from long-term principles in favour of
short-term deals dilutes India’s geopolitical influence.
o Eg: India’s delayed response to Gaza ceasefire proposals (2023) was seen
as inconsistent with its historic peace advocacy.
5. Undermining domestic foreign policy consensus: Foreign policy is increasingly
used for domestic political optics, not national interest.
o Eg: Ceasefire talks with Pakistan announced by Washington in 2021 led
to criticism of India's diplomatic marginalisation .

Reinterpreting Bandung principles for today’s geopolitical context

1. Reviving strategic autonomy through multipolarity: India can update non-

alignment into multi-alignment with autonomy.
o Eg: India’s role in I2U2, BRICS, and SCO shows potential to balance
relations with all major powers (MEA Annual Report 2024).
2. Positioning as leader of Global South 2.0: India must reclaim leadership on climate
justice, equitable trade, and tech ethics.
o Eg: India’s Global South Voice Summit 2023, proposing reforms in global
financial architecture, reflected this shift.
3. Investing in South-South development cooperation: Bandung ideals can guide new
developmental partnerships.
o Eg: India’s Development and Diplomacy division under MEA launched in
2022 funds digital and health infrastructure in Africa and Pacific Islands.

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 4. Reasserting multilateral credibility: India must reinforce its image as a responsible
stakeholder in global governance.
o Eg: India's G20 Presidency in 2023 used the theme “One Earth, One
Family, One Future” rooted in inclusive internationalism.
5. Using soft power and education diplomacy: Bandung’s intellectual solidarity can be
revived through capacity-building and academic partnerships.
o Eg: Study in India programme (revamped in 2024) expanded scholarships
for Global South students, reviving India’s educational diplomacy.

Conclusion
India cannot afford strategic amnesia about Bandung. Reclaiming its essence—moral clarity,
strategic autonomy, and inclusive multilateralism—will not only enhance India’s global
standing but also offer a coherent framework for navigating a fractured world order.

Q. “The Arctic is no longer a zone of scientific cooperation but a strategic theatre

of multipolar competition”. Examine. How should India prepare for the
emerging Arctic dynamics?

Introduction

The post-Cold War idea of Arctic exceptionalism is eroding, with nations like Russia, China,
and the US asserting hard interests over scientific collaboration, triggering the rise of a new
polar geopolitics.

Body

From scientific cooperation to multipolar competition

1. Polar militarisation and strategic alignments: Arctic states are deploying naval and
air assets; joint drills are increasingly military-focused.

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 o Eg: Russia-China naval patrols in Arctic waters (2023) underscored
growing Sino-Russian military coordination in the region.
2. Weaponisation of governance institutions: Russia’s limited engagement post-2022
has paralysed Arctic Council decision-making.
o Eg: Post-Ukraine war deadlock in the Arctic Council (Source: Arctic
Council, 2024) has stalled several multilateral scientific missions.
3. Resource and route competition: Thawing ice has unlocked critical minerals and
new sea lanes, intensifying strategic rivalries.
o Eg: US push to secure Greenland (2025) is linked to control over Arctic
resources and shipping lanes.
4. China’s ‘near-Arctic state’ doctrine: Despite no territorial claim, China has ramped
up infrastructure and polar research as part of its Polar Silk Road.
o Eg: China’s white paper on the Arctic (2018) outlines its ambition to
become a “Polar Power”, reinforced by its Yamal LNG investments.
5. NATO’s expansion and new alignments: Sweden and Finland’s entry into NATO
alters the regional military balance.
o Eg: Sweden and Finland joining NATO in 2023 intensified Arctic-Russia
standoffs ( NATO Reports, 2023).

India’s preparation for evolving Arctic dynamics

1. Strengthening Arctic scientific diplomacy: Expand polar research infrastructure and

collaborative studies under India’s Arctic Policy (2022).
o Eg: India’s Himadri Station in Svalbard facilitates climate studies and
showcases peaceful Arctic engagement.
2. Leveraging observer status for strategic dialogue: Use its role in Arctic Council to
push for inclusive, multilateral governance.
o Eg: India’s statement at the Arctic Council (2023) called for
demilitarisation and sustainable development principles.
3. Building Arctic resource partnerships: Collaborate with Norway, Canada on
mining, green hydrogen and shipping to gain early foothold.
o Eg: India-Norway MoU (2022) focused on sustainable ocean economy with
Arctic linkages (MoEFCC).
4. Integrating Arctic into national security thinking: Incorporate Arctic into maritime
and climate security doctrines under NDMA and NMF.
o Eg: National Maritime Security Coordinator framework (2022) enables
wider maritime domain awareness including polar regions.
5. Promoting rule-based polar governance: Advocate UNCLOS-based norms and
oppose unilateral military assertions by any power.
o Eg: India’s Arctic Policy (2022) emphasizes “respect for international law”
and global commons principles.

Conclusion

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India’s Arctic vision must balance science, sustainability, and strategic foresight. As the
Arctic warms geopolitically and climatically, India's role must evolve from passive observer
to proactive shaper of cooperative polar governance.

Q. How does India utilise inter-parliamentary diplomacy to complement its

foreign policy goals? Assess the role of platforms like the BRICS Parliamentary
Forum. (10 M)

Introduction

India increasingly uses parliamentary diplomacy to reinforce its global identity as a

democratic, consensus-building, and norm-shaping actor — a vital complement to
conventional state-led diplomacy.

Body

India’s use of inter-parliamentary diplomacy for foreign policy

1. Showcasing democratic values globally: Parliamentary delegations project India’s

pluralistic credentials in international arenas.
o Eg: 2023 G20 Parliament Speakers’ Summit (P20) in New Delhi
highlighted India’s parliamentary strength and federal balance.
2. Diversifying diplomatic channels: Legislator-led forums provide alternate routes to
navigate sensitive issues.
o Eg: India-China Parliamentary Friendship Group (2021) helped maintain
engagement post-Galwan tensions.
3. Advancing global south solidarity: MPs advocate equitable development,
technology access, and debt reform.
o Eg: Indian MPs at 2022 Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) demanded
vaccine equity and technology transfer for developing nations.
4. Gaining support for strategic priorities: Parliamentary outreach builds backing for
India’s UNSC and multilateral reform agenda.
o Eg: Commonwealth Parliamentary Association (CPA) 2022 saw Indian
MPs push for reforms in global governance institutions.
5. Institutionalising long-term partnerships: Regular parliamentary exchanges create
sustained goodwill beyond changing governments.
o Eg: India-EU Parliament Dialogue (2023) institutionalised cooperation on
climate, cyber law, and trade ethics.

Role of BRICS Parliamentary Forum

1. Platform for reform-oriented advocacy: It helps India push for restructuring of

global institutions like the UN and IMF.
o Eg: Om Birla’s 2025 address in Brasilia stressed reform of multilateral
peace and security architecture.
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 2. Legitimising emerging economy consensus: Facilitates BRICS-wide legislative
support for economic multipolarity.
o Eg: Joint 2025 BRICS Forum declaration backed a new development model
centred on sustainability and equity.
3. Addressing transnational policy concerns: Forums offer shared space to discuss
challenges like AI, climate, and health.
o Eg: Plenary session on Responsible AI (2025) positioned India as a leader in
ethical digital governance.
4. Strengthening South-South inter-parliamentary ties: Builds convergence among
diverse democratic and semi-democratic systems.
o Eg: 2023 BRICS Forum hosted by South Africa facilitated strategic
cooperation on food security and green energy.
5. Enhancing India’s diplomatic bandwidth: Parliamentary tracks complement MEA
diplomacy and widen India’s global engagement capacity.
o Eg: BRICS Parliamentary Track (since 2015) allows India to influence
policy debates even outside executive summits.

Conclusion

Parliamentary diplomacy enables India to act as a voice of consensus and democracy in a

fragmented global order. The BRICS Parliamentary Forum strengthens this effort by aligning
legislative influence with strategic vision.

Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing

countries on India’s interests, Indian diaspora.
Q. In the wake of increasing regional militarisation in West Asia, assess the
challenges to India’s energy security and diaspora safety. (10 M)

Introduction
India’s strategic footprint in West Asia is being tested by the spillover of conflicts beyond
Gaza, where militarisation now threatens vital energy routes and the safety of over 9 million
Indian expatriates.

Body

Challenges to energy security

1. Disruption of maritime oil supply routes: Increased missile and drone attacks in the
Red Sea and Persian Gulf threaten key chokepoints like the Strait of Hormuz.
o Eg: In April 2025, Houthis targeted oil tankers in the Red Sea, delaying
shipments to India and prompting rerouting via longer Cape routes .
2. Volatility in global oil prices: Geopolitical tensions elevate market uncertainty,
affecting India's import bills and fiscal deficit.

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 o Eg: After the May 2025 Ben Gurion airport strike, Brent crude surged
past $95/barrel, impacting India’s energy import bill .
3. Delays in energy investments: Instability deters Indian public and private energy
firms from expanding stakes in West Asian oil fields.
o Eg: ONGC Videsh put on hold its exploration proposal in Iran’s Farzad-B
gas field due to geopolitical risks post-2023 (Ministry of Petroleum).
4. Insurance and freight costs surge: Military activity near ports leads to higher risk
premiums and delayed shipping.
o Eg: Post attacks on Yemeni coastal ports in 2024, freight costs from UAE
to India rose by 20%, affecting refiners like IOC (EXIM Council Report,
2024).

Challenges to diaspora safety

1. Exposure to direct conflict zones: Indian workers in UAE, Israel, and Gulf states
face rising risks from missile strikes and unrest.
o Eg: In May 2025, Air India diverted flights due to the missile near Tel
Aviv’s Ben Gurion airport, affecting hundreds of Indian workers.
2. Evacuation and repatriation difficulties: Sudden escalations overwhelm diplomatic
missions and strain evacuation logistics.
o Eg: During the Israel-Hamas conflict in October 2023, over 18,000 Indians
were stranded before Operation Ajay ensured phased evacuation ( MEA
briefing).
3. Social backlash and xenophobia: Rising nationalism in host countries during
conflict may lead to exclusionary practices targeting migrants.
o Eg: In 2024, some Indian construction workers in Bahrain reported wage
delays and discriminatory policing after local tensions flared (ILO field
report).
4. Psychological distress and economic uncertainty: Extended conflict disrupts
income streams and causes long-term distress for families dependent on remittances.
o Eg: India’s remittances from West Asia dropped by 7% in Q2 FY24, due to
job losses and uncertainty (RBI Bulletin, 2024).

Way forward

1. Diversification of energy sources: Expand energy imports from Latin America,

Central Asia, and Africa to reduce dependence on West Asia.
o Eg: India signed a long-term LNG deal with Mozambique’s Rovuma basin
in 2024 to diversify its energy basket (Source: Ministry of Petroleum).
2. Strengthening strategic oil reserves: Accelerate capacity building of SPRs to buffer
against supply shocks during regional crises.
o Eg: India added 1.33 MMT capacity at Chandikhol SPR site in 2025,
targeting 90 days of coverage (Source: Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves
Ltd).

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 3. Institutionalised diaspora protection: Deploy permanent crisis response teams in
high-risk countries and strengthen Pravasi Bharatiya Sahayata Kendras.
o Eg: MEA's e-Migrate portal and 24x7 helplines were upgraded in 2024 to
assist distressed migrants during emergencies (Source: MEA Annual Report
2024).
4. Maritime security partnerships: Enhance naval presence and intelligence-sharing
through platforms like IONS and SAGAR for safe trade routes.
o Eg: INS Sumedha's deployment in the Gulf of Aden in 2025 under
Operation Sankalp ensured safe passage for Indian tankers (Source: Indian
Navy).

Conclusion
India must proactively shield its critical energy lifelines and protect its citizens abroad
through resilient diplomatic, military, and economic mechanisms. Strategic autonomy must
now translate into strategic agility.

Q. “Unequal peace settlements risk legitimising aggression and weakening

international norms”. Analyse how this applies to the Russia-Ukraine conflict.
How should India balance non-alignment with adherence to sovereignty
principles?

Introduction

Peace built on submission erodes global trust in law-based order. The current war diplomacy
reflects a tension between realpolitik and the principles of sovereignty.

Body

How unequal peace settlements weaken international norms

1. Breach of UN Charter fundamentals: It violates Article 2(4) which prohibits

forceful acquisition of territory.
o Eg:– Russia’s annexation of Crimea (2014) defied UNGA Resolution
68/262, weakening international consensus on sovereignty.
2. Rewarding aggression undermines deterrence: Acceptance of occupation
encourages similar behaviour by other powers.
o Eg:– China’s post-Crimea assertiveness in South China Sea shows how
weak responses embolden territorial revisionism .
3. Undermines legitimacy of global institutions: It marginalises the authority of the
UN and OSCE in conflict mediation.
o Eg:– UNSC’s failure to enforce peace in Ukraine due to veto politics has
weakened trust in collective security frameworks.
4. Creates long-term instability: Unresolved or unjust settlements risk recurring
conflicts.

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 o Eg:– Minsk Agreements (2014-15) failed to prevent escalation due to
unequal enforcement and vague accountability.
5. Erodes normative power of liberal democracies: Their silence or complicity
reduces their global moral credibility.
o Eg:– Fracturing EU consensus on Ukraine aid amid energy dependence
reflects internal contradictions .

Application to Russia-Ukraine conflict

1. Territorial integrity compromised: Peace talks that accept Russian control over
Crimea and Donbas validate occupation.
o Eg:– Putin’s 2025 Istanbul conditions include recognition of seized
territories and NATO neutrality for Ukraine.
2. Legal accountability sidelined: War crimes and human rights violations risk being
ignored in pursuit of ceasefires.
o Eg:– UNHRC’s 2023 report documented crimes in Bucha, yet no prosecution
framework has emerged in talks.
3. Moral imbalance in negotiations: Ukraine appears coerced to concede for aid or
peace, distorting negotiation equity.
o Eg:– Zelenskyy’s 30-day ceasefire offer (May 2025) was rejected, showing
asymmetry in bargaining power.
4. Strategic optics over justice: Peace may serve as tactical pause rather than just
resolution.
o Eg:– Russia’s continued drone strikes during ceasefire talks indicate
instrumental use of diplomacy for battlefield regrouping.

India’s balancing approach

1. Reaffirming commitment to sovereignty: India must consistently uphold territorial

integrity as per UN norms.
o Eg:– India’s cautious support for Ukraine at UNGA in 2022 reasserted this
position without naming Russia.
2. Maintaining principled non-alignment: India should avoid bloc politics while
supporting international law.
o Eg:– India’s abstention on UN votes balanced its ties with Russia and G7
democracies.
3. Promoting multilateralism and dialogue: India can call for inclusive frameworks
like a UN-led peace process.
o Eg:– India’s G20 presidency (2023) emphasised diplomacy and peaceful
conflict resolution without endorsing unilateral aggression.
4. Leveraging strategic neutrality for mediation: India can act as a bridge in peace
negotiations to enhance credibility.
o Eg:– EAM S. Jaishankar’s call for a “rules-based global order” during
Raisina Dialogue 2024 suggested proactive but balanced engagement.

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 5. Avoiding precedent for regional implications: India must resist any global
precedent that may legitimise border changes elsewhere.
o Eg:– Concerns over LoC or LAC changes being normalised through silence
on Ukraine would weaken India’s own border positions.

Conclusion

India must neither legitimise aggression nor appear passive. Upholding sovereignty while
advancing strategic autonomy is the new frontier of credible non-alignment.

Q. “Peace processes cannot succeed when framed through maximalist positions

and unilateral preconditions”. Analyse this in the context of Russia’s negotiating
stance and its implications for conflict resolution. (10 M)

Introduction

Maximalist diplomatic positions ignore reciprocity and mutual security interests, often
leading to failed negotiations. The Russia-Ukraine war illustrates how rigid preconditions
have obstructed peace-building and exacerbated military escalation.

Body

Maximalist positions in Russia’s negotiation strategy

1. Demilitarisation of Ukraine as a precondition: Russia demands complete

dismantling of Ukraine’s military capacity as a precondition to talks.
o Eg:– In May 2025 Istanbul talks, Russia insisted on Ukrainian
demilitarisation and withdrawal of Western security guarantees.
2. Permanent annexation claims: Russia refuses to negotiate over annexed regions,
treating occupied territories as non-negotiable.
o Eg:– In 2025, Russia reaffirmed sovereignty over Crimea, Donetsk, and
Zaporizhzhia, stalling any progress in negotiations.
3. Preclusion of multilateral mediation: Russia limits negotiation formats to bilateral
channels, blocking third-party interventions.
o Eg:– In 2023, Russia opposed EU and UN mediation, preferring isolated
bilateral talks with Ukraine .
4. Security guarantees demanded unilaterally: Russia demands Western non-
involvement in Eastern Europe without offering reciprocal concessions.
o Eg:– Russia rejected NATO expansion and demanded formal neutrality for
Ukraine without backing off from its offensives.

Implications for conflict resolution and peace prospects

1. Breakdown of negotiation credibility: Unilateral demands prevent genuine dialogue

and erode diplomatic credibility.

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 o Eg:– Ukraine called Russia’s May 2025 stance “unacceptable”, citing the
absence of mutual ground.
2. Failure of ceasefire diplomacy: Ceasefire initiatives collapse when one side imposes
inflexible terms.
o Eg:– Ukraine’s 30-day ceasefire proposal was blocked by Russia’s
preconditions, intensifying frontline conflict.
3. Undermining alliance coherence: Western allies struggle to coordinate responses
when faced with rigid and unrealistic terms.
o Eg:– In 2025, differences emerged between Trump’s U.S. approach and
EU’s ceasefire advocacy, weakening collective pressure
4. Prolongation of human and strategic costs: Maximalism leads to drawn-out wars,
humanitarian crises, and global instability.
o Eg:– Despite battlefield losses, Russia continued strikes in eastern Ukraine,
worsening refugee crises and global inflation .

Way Forward

1. Prioritise phased, reciprocal negotiations: Begin with modest deals on

humanitarian access and POW exchanges to build trust.
o Eg:– 1,000 prisoners of war were exchanged by both sides during the
Istanbul 2025 talks .
2. Encourage multilateral mediation formats: Neutral mediators like the Pope,
Türkiye, or India should facilitate structured dialogue.
o Eg:– Türkiye hosted the first post-2022 direct talks, signalling scope for
regional mediation .
3. Incorporate security guarantees for both parties: Any peace deal must
accommodate mutual non-aggression frameworks and sovereignty safeguards.
o Eg:– 2015 Minsk II Accord had proposed autonomy for Donbas with respect
to Ukrainian sovereignty.
4. Align peace talks with international legal norms: UN Charter principles of
territorial integrity and non-aggression should anchor future frameworks.
o Eg:– UNGA Resolution 2022 reaffirmed Ukraine’s sovereignty and
territorial integrity against illegal annexation.

Conclusion

Peace cannot be dictated—it must be earned through reciprocal compromise and legal
legitimacy. Only by abandoning rigid preconditions can durable peace be rebuilt on shared
security and trust.

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Important International institutions, agencies and fora - their
structure, mandate.
Q. “Global financial institutions are increasingly performing security functions
in South Asia”. Comment. (10 M)

Introduction

In South Asia’s conflict-prone landscape, multilateral financial institutions like the IMF and
World Bank are now indirectly influencing regional security by acting as tools of strategic
de-escalation, conditional diplomacy, and geopolitical balance.

Body

Global financial institutions performing security functions

1. Conflict de-escalation through financial leverage: Loans are used as tools to

incentivise peace or ceasefire.
o Eg: In May 2025, the IMF approved a $2.4 billion bailout to Pakistan
during peak hostilities post-Pahalgam attack to help stabilise the situation.
2. Geostrategic prioritisation over fiscal discipline: Funding is increasingly aligned
with the interests of major powers rather than technocratic benchmarks.
o Eg: US influence in IMF decision-making was visible in facilitating
Pakistan's bailout to maintain regional stability and counterbalance China’s
CPEC influence.
3. Conditionalities linked to security governance: Loan terms now include clauses on
terrorism financing and corruption.
o Eg: IMF’s 2025 package to Pakistan included a Governance and Corruption
Diagnostic Assessment to probe illicit financial flows.
4. Climate finance being used in fragile states: Security-linked regions receive
funding via new instruments like RST despite governance failures.
o Eg: $1.4 billion from IMF's RST was allocated to flood-hit Pakistan despite
its 18% increase in defence budget.

Issues associated with this trend

1. Dilution of institutional neutrality: Strategic use of financial tools compromises

credibility and trust in global institutions.
o Eg: India’s diplomatic protest after the IMF bailout highlighted concerns over
indirect legitimisation of proxy actors.
2. Moral hazard in fiscal behaviour: Bailouts create perverse incentives, discouraging
reforms and enabling military spending.
o Eg: Despite 24 IMF programmes since 1958, Pakistan’s tax-to-GDP ratio
remains under 10%.

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 3. Weak enforcement of conditionalities: States hedge against governance reforms by
selectively complying or delaying disclosures.
o Eg: Pakistan’s Cabinet Committee stalled full GCDA report release in
March 2025.
4. Undermining regional deterrence frameworks: Financial interventions may shield
aggressors from consequences, weakening bilateral agreements.
o Eg: India suspended the Indus Waters Treaty post-Pahalgam attack,
signalling dissatisfaction with soft international responses.

Way forward

1. Decoupling finance from geopolitical influence: Multilateral institutions must

insulate loan decisions from strategic manipulation by dominant shareholders.
o Eg: Proposal for weighted voting reforms in IMF under discussion in G20
Finance Track (2024-25).
2. Enforcing binding compliance to governance benchmarks: Conditionalities like
anti-corruption audits or terror-finance assessments must be tied to phased
disbursements.
o Eg: World Bank’s STAR Initiative ties release of funds to proven anti-
money laundering reforms in African states.
3. Integrating regional voices in security-linked funding: Consultations with directly
affected neighbours (like India) must be institutionalised.
o Eg: African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) used in conflict finance
decisions by African Development Bank.
4. Creating safeguards for dual-use climate finance: Climate-linked instruments like
RST must include defence-spending audits and transparency clauses.
o Eg: IMF Internal Review (2024) recommended stricter transparency for RST
allocations in fragile states.

Conclusion

If global institutions wish to preserve credibility in an unstable world, they must uphold
principled neutrality while adapting to geopolitical realities. South Asia’s security cannot be
built on soft bailouts — it demands structural reform backed by transparent, enforceable
multilateralism.

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