DAY 26

SSC TIER 2 - 2025

TOPICS: ◙ History ◙ Polity ◙ Geography ◙ Economics ◙ Biology ◙ English ◙ C A

HISTORY

The 1857 Uprising

◙ History of Indian National Congress and Pre- ● Theories of Origin:
Congress Associations ▪ Safety Valve Theory: Proposed by Lala Lajpat Rai,
suggesting INC was created to channel Indian
Pre-Congress Associations discontent safely.
These organizations laid the foundation for nationalist ▪ Lightning Conductor Theory: Advocated by Gopal
movements by addressing social, political, and regional Krishna Gokhale, viewing INC as an expression of
issues before the INC's formation. politically conscious Indians.
● Bangabhasha Prakashika Sabha (1836): Established ▪ Conspiracy Theory: Suggested by Rajani Palme
by associates of Raja Ram Mohan Roy to promote Dutt, implying British manipulation in INC’s
social and linguistic reforms. formation.
● East India Association (1866): Founded by Dadabhai ● Initial Context:
Naoroji in London to advocate for Indian interests in ▪ Preceded by the Ilbert Bill (1883), which allowed
British policy. Indian judges to try British subjects, sparking
● Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870): Initiated by Mahadev debates on judicial equality.
Govind Ranade to address public grievances and
promote social reforms. Key Figures in Early INC and Moderate Nationalism
● Indian League (1875): Created by Sisir Kumar Ghosh, (1885–1905)
linked to Amrita Bazar Patrika, to foster nationalist
The Moderate phase focused on constitutional reforms
sentiments.
through peaceful methods.
● Indian National Association (1876): Formed by
● W. C. Banerjee:
Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose to
▪ First INC president (1885, Bombay; 1892,
push for political reforms.
Allahabad).
● Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884): Established by M.
▪ Advocated for gradual political reforms.
Viraraghavachari, G. Subramanya Iyer, and P. Ananda
▪ Led the first INC session in 1885 in Bombay.
Charlu to represent regional interests.
● Dadabhai Naoroji:
● Bombay Presidency Association (1885): Founded by
▪ Known as the “Grand Old Man of India” and India’s
Pherozeshah Mehta, K. T. Telang, and Badruddin Tyabji
unofficial ambassador in England.
to advocate for administrative reforms.
▪ Presided over INC sessions (1886, Calcutta; 1893,
Lahore; 1906, Calcutta).
Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC)
▪ Presided over the second INC session in Calcutta
The INC was established to unify Indian voices for in 1886.
political reform and self-governance. ▪ Declared Swaraj as the INC’s goal at the 1906
● Establishment (1885): Calcutta session.
▪ Founded by Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British ▪ Authored Poverty and Un-British Rule in India
civil servant, in Bombay. (1901), introducing the Drain Theory (first
▪ First session held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit mentioned in 1867).
College with 72 delegates, including social ▪ First Indian born MP elected to the British House
reformers, journalists, and lawyers; no women of Commons.
attended. ▪ Introduced the term “Swaraj” (self-rule) at the
▪ Womesh Chunder Banerjee served as the inaugural 1906 Calcutta session.
president. ● Surendranath Banerjee:
▪ The INC was formed in Bombay in December 1885 ▪ Nicknamed “Indian Burke” for his oratory;
with 72 delegates, marking the start of organized opposed the 1905 Bengal Partition.
nationalism. ▪ Founded the Indian Association (1876) and
▪ Lord Dufferin, Viceroy of British India, hosted a tea convened the Indian National Conference (1883),
party for INC members in Calcutta in 1886. which merged with INC in 1886.

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 ▪ Second Indian to pass the Indian Civil Service (ICS) ▪ First president of the All India Trade Union
exam in 1869, after Satyendranath Tagore (1863). Congress (AITUC, 1920, Bombay).
▪ Presided over the 1895 Pune session, emphasizing ● Bipin Chandra Pal:
the need for a constitution. ▪ “Father of Revolutionary Thoughts”; founded New
● Gopal Krishna Gokhale: India (1901).
▪ Political mentor to Mahatma Gandhi; founded the ▪ Transitioned from Moderate to Extremist ideology.
Servants of India Society (1905, Pune) to train ● Aurobindo Ghosh:
Indians for public service.
▪ Active in the Swadeshi Movement; wrote New
▪ Presided over the 1905 Banaras session, endorsing
Lamps for Old (1893).
the Swadeshi Movement.
▪ Defended by Chittaranjan Das in the Alipore Bomb
● Other Moderates:
▪ A. O. Hume: First General Secretary of INC, Case (1908, also known as Manicktolla or
instrumental in its formation. Muraripukar conspiracy).
▪ Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, Pandit ▪ Authored works like Savitri, The Life Divine, and
Madan Mohan Malaviya: Advocated for Synthesis of Yoga.
constitutional reforms. ● Extremist Methods:
▪ G. Subramanya Aiyar: Promoted nationalism via ▪ Boycotted British institutions, promoted Swadeshi
Madras Mahajan Sabha and founded The Hindu goods, and established national education
and Swadesamitran. systems.
● Moderate Demands: ▪ Aimed for complete independence (Swaraj) rather
▪ Expanded legislative councils, increased Indian than self-government.
representation in ICS, judicial independence, and ● Surat Split (1907):
reduced land revenue. ▪ The INC split into Moderates and Radicals at the
▪ Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty, reduced
1907 Surat session due to ideological differences.
military spending, and freedom of speech and
association. Bengal Partition and Swadeshi Movement
● Moderate Methods:
The 1905 Bengal Partition fuelled nationalist agitation
▪ Employed petitions, prayers, protests, resolutions,
and the Swadeshi Movement.
meetings, pamphlets, and delegations.
● Partition of Bengal (1905):
▪ Aimed for gradual self-government; only major
success was the Indian Councils Act of 1892, ▪ Effective October 16, 1905, for “administrative
expanding legislative councils. convenience,” as claimed by the British.
▪ Sparked the rise of extremism; supported by the All
Rise of Extremism (1905–1916) India Muslim League (AIML).
Extremism emerged due to Moderate failures and ▪ Rabindranath Tagore organized Raksha Bandhan
oppressive British policies, aiming for complete (Rakhi Utsav) to promote Hindu-Muslim unity.
independence. ▪ Abanindranath Tagore painted Bharat Mata to
● Causes: symbolize national unity.
▪ Failure of Moderates to achieve significant ● Swadeshi Movement (1905):
reforms. ▪ Launched on August 7, 1905, at Calcutta Town Hall
▪ Famines and plagues (1896–97) causing during anti-partition agitation.
widespread suffering. ▪ Known as the Vande Mataram Movement in deltaic
▪ Lord Curzon’s policies: Calcutta Corporation Act
Andhra.
(1899), Universities Act (1904), Sedition Act,
▪ Involved boycotts of British goods, services, and
Official Secrets Act, and Bengal Partition (1905).
institutions, and promotion of Swadeshi products.
Extremist Leaders: ▪ Supported by Gokhale at the 1905 Banaras INC
● Bal Gangadhar Tilak: session (limited to Bengal).
▪ Known as “Lokamanya” and “Father of Indian ▪ Included a tricolor flag (red, green, yellow) with
Unrest” (per Valentine Chirol’s Indian Unrest). eight lotuses (representing eight provinces) and a
▪ Called “Maker of Modern India” by Gandhi.
crescent moon (symbolizing Hindu-Muslim unity).
▪ Published The Mahratta and Kesari; jailed and
● National Flag Developments:
deported to Mandalay (1908–1914).
▪ First national flag was hoisted on August 7, 1906,
▪ Founded the Home Rule League (1916, Poona),
at Parsee Bagan Square, Calcutta, with red, yellow,
declaring “Swaraj is my birthright.”
and green stripes and “Vande Mataram” text.
▪ Initiated public celebrations of Ganesh Chaturthi
(1893) and Shivaji Utsav (1894). ▪ Dadabhai Naoroji unfurled the Swaraj flag at the
● Lala Lajpat Rai: 1906 Calcutta session.
▪ “Lion of Punjab”led the Swadeshi Movement and ▪ Madam Bhikaiji Cama raised the Indian flag
founded the Indian Home Rule League in the US abroad on August 22, 1907.
(1916). ▪ Gandhi designed the Charkha (Swaraj) flag in
▪ Deported to Mandalay for sedition; died in 1928 1921.
from injuries sustained protesting the Simon ▪ The INC adopted a tricolor flag with a charkha
Commission. symbol made of khadi in 1931.

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 ◙ Key INC Sessions and Milestones
The following table summarizes the key INC sessions from 1885 to 1948, including year, location, president, and significant
events or remarks. All PYQ one-liners and solutions related to sessions are integrated in the "Remarks" column.
Year Location President Key Events and Remarks
First session with 72 delegates at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College. Established
1885 Bombay W. C. Banerjee the INC as a platform for political reform. Led by W. C. Banerjee, marking the
start of organized nationalism.
434 delegates attended; Drain Theory endorsed. Presided by Naoroji, who later
1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji
declared Swaraj as a goal. Naoroji introduced Swaraj as the INC’s objective.
First Muslim president; appealed for Muslim participation. Tyabji led the third
1887 Madras Badruddin Tyabji
session, promoting inclusivity.
First British president; criticized Indian Councils Act of 1892. Yule presided,
1888 Allahabad George Yule
highlighting legislative shortcomings.
Continued critique of Indian Councils Act. Banerjee returned as president,
1892 Allahabad W. C. Banerjee
focusing on reform demands.
Emphasized need for a constitution. Banerjee stressed constitutional
1895 Pune Surendranath Banerjee
development.
Vande Mataram sung by Rabindranath Tagore; Raihana Tyab became the first
1896 Calcutta Rahimatullah M. Sayani
Muslim woman to sing it. Tagore’s performance marked a cultural milestone.
1898 Madras Anand Mohan Bose Focused on regional representation.
1899 Lucknow Romesh Chunder Dutt Demanded permanent fixation of land revenue.
1901 Calcutta Dinshaw E. Wacha Gandhi appeared on the INC platform for the first time.
1903 Madras Lal Mohan Ghosh Addressed administrative reforms.
Proclaimed Swadeshi Movement against British policies. Gokhale endorsed
1905 Banaras Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Swadeshi, boosting nationalism.
“Swaraj” introduced; resolutions on Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott, and National
1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji
Education passed.
Surat Split between Moderates and Extremists; session adjourned. Split into
1907 Surat Rash Bihari Ghosh
Moderates and Radicals due to ideological differences.
1910 Allahabad William Wedderburn M. A. Jinnah criticized the 1909 separate electorate system.
1911 Calcutta B. N. Dhar Jana Gana Mana sung for the first time.
Raghunath Narasinha
1912 Bankipore Held in Bihar, presided by Mudholkar.
Mudholkar
Satyendra Prasanna Constitution amended to include Extremists. Sinha led, enabling broader
1915 Bombay
Sinha inclusion.
Ambica Charan Moderates and Extremists reunited; Lucknow Pact signed with AIML for Hindu -
1916 Lucknow
Mazumdar Muslim unity. Congress and Muslim League agreed on a joint front.
First woman president; Home Rule Movement gained traction. Besant became
1917 Calcutta Annie Besant
the first woman to lead INC.
Bombay
1918 Syed Hasan Imam Deliberated Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms.
(Special)
1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru Supported Khilafat Movement.
Calcutta
1920 Lala Lajpat Rai Gandhi moved Non-Cooperation resolution for Khilafat and Swaraj.
(Special)
1920 Nagpur C. Vijayaraghavachariar Reorganized working committees on linguistic basis; Jinnah left INC.
1922 Gaya Chittaranjan Das C. R. Das and others formed Swaraj Party after breaking from INC.
1924 Belgaum M. K. Gandhi Only session presided by Gandhi. Gandhi led the sole session he presided over.
1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu First Indian woman president. Naidu became the first Indian woman to lead INC.
Opposed Simon Commission boycott; adopted Purna Swaraj resolution. Set up
1927 Madras M. A. Ansari
All Parties Conference to draft a constitution.
1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru Formed All India Youth Congress; drafted Nehru Report for India’s constitution.
Declared Purna Swaraj; January 26, 1930, set as Independence Day; launched
1929 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru Civil Disobedience Movement. Passed Purna Swaraj resolution and celebrated
first Independence Day.
Endorsed Gandhi-Irwin Pact; nominated Gandhi for 2nd Round Table
Conference; adopted Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy resolutions;
1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel
introduced Khadi tricolor flag with Charkha symbol. Outlined framework for
India’s Constitution. Adopted tricolor flag with charkha in khadi.
1933 Calcutta Nellie Sen Gupta Third woman president.
1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad Focused on organizational reforms.
1936 Lucknow Jawaharlal Nehru Promoted socialist ideas. All India Kisan Sabha founded.
1937 Faizpur Jawaharlal Nehru First rural session, held in a village near Jalgaon, Maharashtra.
Established National Planning Committee under Nehru. Bose led, setting up key
1938 Haripura Subhas Chandra Bose
planning initiatives.
Re-elected but resigned due to Gandhi’s opposition; Rajendra Prasad appointed;
1939 Tripuri Subhas Chandra Bose Bose formed All India Forward Bloc. Bose defeated Pattabhi Sitaramayya in
presidential election.
Planned Civil Disobedience at an appropriate time; Azad served as president for
1940 Ramgarh Abul Kalam Azad
six years (1940–1946). Azad presided over 1923 special session at age 35.

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 Quit India Resolution passed on August 8, launching August Kranti movement.
1942 Bombay -
Ratified Quit India Resolution with Gandhi’s “Do or Die” speech.
Last session before independence. Kripalani was president during India’s
1946 Meerut J. B. Kripalani
independence in 1947.
1948 Jaipur Pattabhi Sitaramayya First session after independence.

Other Significant Movements and Events ▪ Congress Socialist Party: Founded in 1934 by Jai
Key movements and events strengthened the INC’s role in Prakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, and
the freedom struggle. Acharya Narendra Deva.
● All India Muslim League (AIML, 1906): ▪ Quit India Resolution: Passed on August 8, 1942, in
▪ Founded on December 30, 1906, in Dhaka by Bombay (Wardha), launching the August Kranti
Nawab Salimullah Khan, Aga Khan, and Nawab movement.
Mohsin-ul-Mulk. ▪ Constituent Assembly Demand: First proposed by
▪ Supported the Bengal Partition. M. N. Roy (1934); officially demanded by INC in
▪ Founded in Dhaka in 1906, supported Bengal 1935; All Parties Conference set up in 1927
Partition. (Madras) to draft a constitution.
▪ INC declared illegal in 1932–1933.
▪ Demanded “Independent States” for Muslims in
1940.
Notable Women and Muslim Leaders
▪ Observed Direct Action Day on August 16, 1946,
leading to communal violence. ● Women Leaders:
▪ Annie Besant: First woman president (1917,
● Surat Split (1907):
Calcutta).
▪ Ideological divide between Moderates and
▪ Sarojini Naidu: First Indian woman president
Extremists at the Surat session, presided by Rash
(1925, Kanpur).
Bihari Ghosh; session adjourned.
▪ Nellie Sen Gupta: Third woman president (1933,
● Lucknow Pact (1916):
Calcutta).
▪ Agreement between INC (led by Bal Gangadhar
▪ Kadambini Ganguli: First woman to address an INC
Tilak) and AIML (led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah) for
session (1890, Calcutta).
joint action against British rule, marking a step
● Muslim Presidents:
toward Hindu-Muslim unity.
▪ Badruddin Tyabji (1887, Madras).
▪ Signed by Congress and Muslim League for a
▪ Rahimatullah M. Sayani (1896, Calcutta).
representative government.
▪ M. A. Ansari (1927, Madras).
● Home Rule Movement (1916): ▪ Abul Kalam Azad (1940, Ramgarh; youngest
▪ Launched by Tilak (Poona, April 1916) and Annie president at 35 in 1923, Delhi).
Besant (Madras, September 1916) to demand self- ● British Presidents:
government within the British Empire. ▪ George Yule (1888, Allahabad).
▪ Led to the Montague Declaration (August 20, 1917), ▪ William Wedderburn (1889, 1910).
promising political reforms, ending the movement. ▪ Alfred Webb (1894).
● Swaraj Party (1923): ▪ Henry Cotton (1904).
▪ Formed by Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das ● Multiple-Term Presidents:
within INC after breaking away in 1922 (Gaya ▪ Dadabhai Naoroji: 1886, 1893, 1906.
session). ▪ Jawaharlal Nehru: 1929, 1936, 1937.
● Nehru Report (1928): ● Below are two tables extracting proper nouns
▪ Drafted by Motilal Nehru to propose a constitution referring to individuals and all numerical values from
for India. the provided notes on "History of Indian National
● Khilafat Movement (1919): Congress and Pre-Congress Associations." Each entry
▪ Supported by INC at the 1919 Amritsar session; All- includes a brief explanation (under 15 characters,
India Khilafat Conference held in Delhi (November including hyphen) describing its role or significance.
1919). Geographical names, institutions, and non-individual
● Non-Cooperation Movement (1920): terms are excluded from the names table, and all
▪ Launched after the Calcutta special session, moved numerical values, including ranges, are included in the
by Gandhi for Khilafat and Swaraj. numbers table as specified.
● Bengal Famine (1943):
▪ Major humanitarian crisis affecting INC’s ◙ Quick Revision:
activities. Name Explanation
● INC at Independence: Raja Ram Mohan Roy Social reformer
▪ J. B. Kripalani was president on August 15, 1947. Dadabhai Naoroji INC president
Mahadev Govind Ranade Social reformer
▪ Gandhi proposed dissolving INC and forming Lok
Sisir Kumar Ghosh Nationalist leader
Sevak Sangh, which was not implemented.
Surendranath Banerjee INC president
● Additional Notes:
Anand Mohan Bose Political reformer
▪ All India Khadi Board: Formed after the 1923 Delhi M. Viraraghavachari Regional leader
session; Khadi made compulsory at the 1926 G. Subramanya Iyer Nationalist
Guwahati session. P. Ananda Charlu Regional leader
▪ All India Youth Congress: Established in 1928, Pherozeshah Mehta INC leader
Calcutta session. K. T. Telang Administrative reform

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 Badruddin Tyabji INC president 1905 Bengal Partition
Allan Octavian Hume INC founder 1896–97 Famine years
Womesh Chunder Banerjee First INC president 1899 Calcutta Act year
Lord Dufferin British Viceroy 1904 Universities Act year
Lala Lajpat Rai Extremist leader 1908–1914 Tilak deportation
Gopal Krishna Gokhale INC president 1916 Home Rule League
Rajani Palme Dutt Conspiracy theorist 1893 Ganesh Chaturthi
Mahatma Gandhi INC leader 1894 Shivaji Utsav year
Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya Moderate leader 1928 Death of Lajpat Rai
G. Subramanya Aiyar Press nationalist 1920 AITUC founding year
Bal Gangadhar Tilak Extremist leader 1907 Surat Split year
Valentine Chirol British journalist October 16, 1905 Partition date
Bipin Chandra Pal Extremist leader August 7, 1905 Swadeshi launch
Aurobindo Ghosh Swadeshi activist 8 Lotuses on flag
Chittaranjan Das Swaraj Party founder August 7, 1906 Flag hoisted
Rabindranath Tagore Cultural nationalist August 22, 1907 Flag raised abroad
Abanindranath Tagore Artist 1921 Charkha flag year
Madam Bhikaiji Cama Flag hoister abroad 1931 Tricolor flag year
Rash Bihari Ghosh INC president December 30, 1906 AIML founding date
George Yule INC president August 16, 1946 Direct Action Day
Rahimatullah M. Sayani INC president April 1916 Home Rule launch
Raihana Tyab Vande Mataram singer September 1916 Home Rule launch
Romesh Chunder Dutt INC president August 20, 1917 Montague Declaration
Dinshaw E. Wacha INC president 1923 Swaraj Party year
Lal Mohan Ghosh INC president November 1919 Khilafat Conference
William Wedderburn INC president 1932–1933 INC illegal years
B. N. Dhar INC president 35 Azad’s age in 1923
Satyendra Prasanna Sinha INC president
Ambica Charan Mazumdar INC president
Annie Besant INC president
Syed Hasan Imam
Motilal Nehru
C. Vijayaraghavachariar
INC president
INC president
INC president
POLITY
Sarojini Naidu INC president
M. A. Ansari INC president
Jawaharlal Nehru INC president
Vallabhbhai Patel INC president Parliamentary Committees
Nellie Sen Gupta INC president
Rajendra Prasad INC president
Abul Kalam Azad INC president 1. Introduction to Parliamentary Committees
J. B. Kripalani INC president Parliamentary Committees, often termed "Mini
Pattabhi Sitaramayya INC president Parliaments," are critical for legislative oversight and
Nawab Salimullah Khan AIML founder expertise. They scrutinize regulations, rules, sub-rules, by-
Aga Khan AIML founder laws, and government activities, reporting findings to the
Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk AIML founder House. These committees ensure checks on the
Muhammad Ali Jinnah AIML leader government, provide detailed scrutiny, and enhance
Jai Prakash Narayan Socialist leader
legislative efficiency.
Ram Manohar Lohia Socialist leader
Acharya Narendra Deva Socialist leader
2. Types of Parliamentary Committees
Kadambini Ganguli INC speaker
Alfred Webb INC president Parliamentary Committees are divided into two main
Henry Cotton INC president categories: Standing Committees and Ad Hoc Committees.
2.1. Standing Committees
Numbers Explanation ● Nature: Permanent committees that cannot be
1836 Sabha founding year dissolved.
1866 Association founded
● Constitution: Constituted periodically through
1870 Sabha founding year
election/appointment by the House or nomination by
1875 League founding year
the Lok Sabha Speaker or Rajya Sabha Chairman.
1876 Association founded
● Operation: Function under the direction of the
1884 Sabha founding year
1885 INC founding year
Speaker/Chairman.
72 Delegates in 1885 ● Types: Six categories of Standing Committees:
1886 INC session year 1. Financial Committees
1883 Ilbert Bill year 2. Departmental Standing Committees
1869 ICS exam year 3. Committees to Enquire
1863 ICS exam year 4. Committees to Scrutinize and Control
1901 Book publication 5. Committees Relating to Day-to-Day Business of
1867 Drain Theory year the House
1906 INC session year 6. House-Keeping or Service Committees

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 2.2. Ad Hoc Committees 5. Other Key Committees
● Nature: Temporary committees that can be dissolved
after completing their purpose. 5.1. Committee on Private Members’ Bills
● Types: ● Chairman: The Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha, who
1. Inquiry Committees: Proposed by either House and automatically becomes Chairman of any committee
appointed by the Speaker/Chairman (e.g., Joint they are a member of.
Committees on stock market scams). ● Function: Reviews bills introduced by private members.
2. Advisory Committees: Focus on executing and 5.2. Official Language Committee
evaluating policies laid down by Parliament. ● Establishment: Formed in 1976 under the Official
● Exception: Not established for Government Language Act, 1963.
Assurances. ● Membership: 30 members (20 from Lok Sabha, 10 from
3. Financial Committees Rajya Sabha).
● Function: Oversees the implementation of official
Financial Committees are a vital subset of Standing
language policies.
Committees, comprising three types: Public Accounts
Committee, Estimates Committee, and Committee on 5.3. Committees Chaired by the Speaker
Public Undertakings. Common characteristics include: ● Business Advisory Committee
● Membership Restriction: No minister can be a ● Rules Committee
member; only private members are eligible. ● General Purpose Committee
● Term: One-year term, with members eligible for re- ● Chairperson: The Lok Sabha Speaker.
election.
● Election: Elected via Proportional Representation 6. Financial Funds
using the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system. Parliamentary Committees oversee financial matters
3.1. Public Accounts Committee related to the following funds:
● Establishment: Originated under the Government of 6.1. Consolidated Fund of India
India Act, 1919, and formalized in 1921. ● Article: 266(1).
● Strength: 22 members (15 from Lok Sabha, 7 from ● Nature: Permanent fund controlled by the President,
Rajya Sabha). maintained at the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
● Chairman: Appointed by the Lok Sabha Speaker; since ● Income: Taxes and non-tax revenues.
1967, traditionally from the opposition party. ● Expenditure: Requires prior parliamentary approval
● Function: Examines the annual audit reports of the through a passed bill.
Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) as per Article ● Charged Expenditure (Non-Votable): Includes:
148 (term inspired by the UK Constitution). ▪ Salaries, allowances, and pensions of the
3.2. Estimates Committee President, Vice-President, Lok Sabha
● Establishment: Formed in 1950 on the Speaker/Deputy Speaker, Rajya Sabha
recommendation of John Matthai, the first Railway Chairman/Deputy Chairman, Supreme Court/High
Minister of independent India and then Finance Court judges, Comptroller and Auditor General
Minister. (CAG), and Election Commission.
● Strength: 30 members, all from Lok Sabha (no Rajya ▪ Pensions of High Court judges.
Sabha representation). 6.2. Public Account of India
● Chairman: Appointed by the Lok Sabha Speaker, ● Article: 266(2).
always from the ruling party. ● Income: Deposits from post offices, banks, provident
● Function: Examines budget estimates and suggests funds, etc.
economies in public expenditure, earning the title ● Expenditure: Does not require parliamentary
"Continuous Economy Committee." approval.
3.3. Committee on Public Undertakings ● Purpose: Manages funds outside the Consolidated
● Establishment: Constituted in 1964 following the Fund.
Krishna Menon Committee’s recommendation. 6.3. Contingency Fund of India
● Strength: 22 members (15 from Lok Sabha, 7 from ● Article: 267(1) for Union; 267(2) for States.
Rajya Sabha). ● Nature: Emergency fund with a fixed corpus of ₹500
● Chairman: Appointed by the Lok Sabha Speaker,
crore, sourced from the Consolidated Fund.
always from the ruling party and Lok Sabha.
● Control: Managed by the Finance Secretary on behalf
● Function: Reviews reports and financial accounts of
of the President.
Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs).
● Expenditure: Requires parliamentary approval after
● Historical Note: Membership increased from 15 to 22
expenditure.
in 1974.
● Withdrawal: Authorized by the President’s signature.
4. Departmental Standing Committees
● Overview: Total of 24 committees, with 16 under Lok ◙ Quick Revision:
Sabha and 8 under Rajya Sabha.
● Membership: Each committee has 31 members (21 Table of Names
from Lok Sabha, 10 from Rajya Sabha). Name Explanation
● Term: One year. John Matthai Recommended Estimates Committee
● Functions: Examine demands for grants, bills, and Krishna Recommended Committee on Public
annual reports of respective ministries. Menon Undertakings

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 Table of Numbers ▪ Finland: Referred to as the "Land of Forests and
Number Explanation Lakes" due to extensive forest and water coverage.
1919 Government of India Act ● Global forest biomes:
1921 Public Accounts Committee formalized ▪ Temperate Evergreen Forests: Found in mid-
1950 Estimates Committee formed latitudinal coastal regions (e.g., southeastern USA,
1963 Official Language Act southern China, southeastern Brazil, coastal
1964 Committee on Public Undertakings formed Western Europe).
1967 Opposition chair for Public Accounts Committee ▪ Temperate Deciduous Forests: Located at 35°–50°
1974 Committee on Public Undertakings membership latitudes in eastern North America, Western
increased Europe, and Northeast Asia (Japan, China, Korea),
1976 Official Language Committee formed
with trees like oak, ash, beech, and fauna such as
22 Members in Public Accounts Committee
pheasants, monals, deer, foxes, and wolves.
15 Lok Sabha members in Public Accounts
▪ Taiga (Boreal): Coniferous forests in northern
Committee
latitudes, largely untouched.
7 Rajya Sabha members in Public Accounts
Committee ▪ Tundra: Cold, treeless regions beyond 70° N/S or
30 Members in Estimates Committee on high mountain slopes, with mosses, lichens,
22 Members in Committee on Public Undertakings dwarf shrubs, sedges, and grasses.
15 Lok Sabha members in Committee on Public ▪ Selvas: Tropical rainforests in South America, rich
Undertakings in biodiversity.
7 Rajya Sabha members in Committee on Public ● Forests influence climate, water cycles, air quality, and
Undertakings protect soil from erosion.
24 Total Departmental Standing Committees
16 Lok Sabha Departmental Standing Committees Forests in India: Governance and Policy
8 Rajya Sabha Departmental Standing ● Legislative Framework:
Committees ▪ The Indian Forest Act of 1927 established legal
31 Members in each Departmental Standing guidelines for forest management and
Committee conservation.
21 Lok Sabha members in Departmental Standing ▪ The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 shifted “forests”
Committees and “protection of wild animals and birds” from
10 Rajya Sabha members in Departmental
the State List to the Concurrent List, enabling
Standing Committees
central and state collaboration.
30 Members in Official Language Committee
▪ Article 48A (Directive Principles of State Policy)
20 Lok Sabha members in Official Language
Committee
mandates the state to protect and enhance the
10 Rajya Sabha members in Official Language environment, including forests and wildlife.
Committee ▪ Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duties) requires
266(1) Article for Consolidated Fund of India citizens to safeguard the natural environment,
266(2) Article for Public Account of India including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife.
267(1) Article for Union Contingency Fund ● National Forest Policy:
267(2) Article for State Contingency Fund ▪ First introduced in 1952, revised in 1988, targeting
₹500 crore Corpus of Contingency Fund of India 33% of India’s geographical area under forest or
1 Term length of Standing Committees (years) tree cover to maintain environmental stability and
ecological balance.
Key Initiatives:

GEOGRAPHY ● The National Mission for a Green India aims to

increase forest cover and restore degraded
ecosystems.
● Social Forestry, defined by the 1976 National
Commission on Agriculture, includes:
Forests, Grasslands, and Vegetation ▪ Urban Forestry: Planting trees in cities.
▪ Rural Forestry: Community-managed forests.
Management in India and Globally ▪ Farm Forestry: Tree cultivation on private
farmlands.
Forests: Global Context and Characteristics ▪ Promotes afforestation on barren lands for
● Forests span approximately 31% of Earth's land environmental, social, and rural development.
surface, critical for biodiversity, climate regulation, ● The Chipko Movement (1973), led by Sundarlal
and ecological balance. Bahuguna, emphasized community-driven forest
● The Taiga (boreal or coniferous forest) is the largest conservation in Uttarakhand.
global forest, covering 25% of the world’s forest land, ● World Forest Day: Observed annually on March 21 to
located in Europe, Asia, and North America between raise awareness about forest conservation.
50°–70° latitudes, featuring cone-bearing trees like India State of Forest Report (ISFR):
spruce, pine, fir, and hemlock. ● Published biennially by the Forest Survey of India,
● Notable forests include: under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
▪ Black Forest: Located in Germany, known for its Change.
temperate mixed forest with coniferous and some ● Headquartered in Dehradun, Uttarakhand; established
deciduous trees. in 1981, with the first report released in 1987.

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 ● 2021 ISFR (17th report) findings: ● Fauna:
▪ Total forest and tree cover: 24.62% of India’s ▪ Elephants, monkeys, lemurs, deer, one-horned
geographical area (21.71% forest cover, 2.91% tree rhinoceros.
cover). ● Semi-Evergreen Forests:
▪ Largest forest area: Madhya Pradesh, followed by ▪ Transitional between evergreen and deciduous
Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and forests, found in Meghalaya’s plateau, Sahyadri
Maharashtra. (Western Ghats), and Nicobar Islands, with species
▪ Highest forest cover percentage: Mizoram, like laurel, rosewood, mesua, and white cedar.
followed by Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya.
▪ Maximum forest cover increase: Andhra Pradesh, Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests)
followed by Telangana.
Characteristics:
▪ Maximum forest cover decrease: Arunachal
● Most prevalent forest type in India, located between
Pradesh, followed by Manipur.
the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, receiving 70–200
▪ Least forest cover: Haryana.
cm rainfall.
● Indian Forest Research Institute:
● Broad-leaf trees shed leaves for 6–8 weeks in dry
▪ Located in Dehradun, Uttarakhand, it conducts
summer, regrowing during monsoons; also called
research to support forest management and
Monsoon Forests.
conservation.
● Subdivided based on water availability:
Types of Natural Vegetation in India ▪ Moist Deciduous Forests: 100–200 cm rainfall; tall
● India’s natural vegetation is classified into five major trees with broad, branched trunks.
groups based on rainfall, altitude, and geography: ▪ Dry Deciduous Forests: 70–100 cm rainfall; trees
▪ Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen Forests. shed leaves completely, resembling vast
▪ Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests). grasslands in summer with solid grass and climber
▪ Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs. growth.
▪ Montane Forests. ● Locations:
▪ Littoral and Swamp Forests (Mangroves). ▪ Moist Deciduous: Northeastern states, Himalayan
● Definitions: foothills, eastern slopes of Western Ghats,
▪ Flora: Plant species specific to a region or time Jharkhand, West Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
period. Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra.
▪ Fauna: Animal species specific to a region or time ▪ Dry Deciduous: Rainier parts of the Peninsular
period.
Plateau, plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh,
● Vegetation Zones:
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
▪ India’s subtropical vegetation zone has a mean
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and from parts of
annual temperature of 17°C–24°C.
Rajasthan and West Bengal.
▪ Natural vegetation grows without human
● Flora:
intervention, including forests, grasslands, deserts,
▪ Moist Deciduous: Teak (dominant), sal, shisham,
tundra, and wetlands.
hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, sandalwood,
Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen Forests bamboos, arjun, mulberry, gutel, mundane.
▪ Dry Deciduous: Teak, sal, peepal, neem, tendu
Characteristics:
(Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb., Family Ebenaceae,
● Thrive in warm, humid areas with >200 cm annual
used for bidi production), palas, amaltas, bel,
rainfall and temperatures >22°C, typically near the
equator. khair, axlewood, maple, oak, elm.
● Dense, multi-layered forests with trees up to 60 ● Fauna:
meters, remaining green year-round due to staggered ▪ Moist Deciduous: Indian tiger, wolf, dhole, sloth
leaf shedding. bear, gaur (Indian bison), chousingha, blackbuck,
● Known as equatorial rainforests, covering 7% of chinkara.
Earth’s surface with the highest biodiversity. ▪ Dry Deciduous: Lizards, lions, snakes, tortoises,
● Stratified structure: deer.
▪ Top vertical: Tall trees. ● Uses:
▪ Middle vertical: Shrubs and medium-sized trees. ▪ Willow from deciduous forests is used for cricket
▪ Bottom vertical: Herbs, bushes, mosses, ferns. bats.
● Ground covered with organic matter, bushes, and ▪ Tendu leaves are harvested for bidi manufacturing.
creepers. ● Transitions:
● Locations: ▪ Moist deciduous forests transition to evergreen
▪ Western slopes of the Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu forests in wetter areas and thorn forests in drier
coast, northeastern hills (upper Assam, areas.
Meghalaya), Andaman and Nicobar Islands, ● Environmental Processes:
Lakshadweep, and central/southern islands of the ▪ Guttation: Water exudation through hydathodes,
Nicobar group. observed in deciduous forests.
● Flora:
▪ Rosewood, mahogany, ebony, rubber, cinchona, Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
aini, jackfruit, betel nut palm, jamun, mango, Characteristics:
hillock, white cedar, hollock, kail, laurel, mesua, ● Found in semi-arid regions with <70 cm rainfall,
epiphytes, and eucalyptus ("Green Gold," prominent
featuring dense, scrubby vegetation adapted to
in Nilgiri Hills).
conserve water.

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 ● Trees are short (<10 meters), leafless most of the year, ● Examples:
with water stored in stems; thorns are modified leaves ▪ Pampas: Argentina, featuring nutrient-rich Alpha
to minimize water loss. Alpha grass.
● Long roots penetrate deep into the soil; tussock grass ▪ Prairies: USA.
grows up to 2 meters. ▪ Veld: South Africa.
● Common in areas with black soil. ▪ Steppes: Europe, North Asia, Russia (temperate
● Locations: grasslands).
▪ Northwestern India (southwest Punjab, Haryana, ▪ Downs: Australia.
Rajasthan, Kachchh, Saurashtra), central Deccan ▪ Puszta: Hungary.
Plateau, Thar Desert, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, ▪ Canterbury: New Zealand.
Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, ● Indian Grasslands:
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu. ▪ Small grasslands on the slopes of the Lesser
● Flora: Himalayas in Jammu & Kashmir are called Marg.
▪ Acacia (babool), palms, euphorbias, cacti, spruce, ▪ Hubbardia heptaneuron, a grass species native to
caper, kokko, khajuri, ber, wild date palm, khair, Karnataka, India, is an annual grass g Palani hills,
neem, khejri, palas, and Euphorbia (perennial herb with temperate vegetation at 1500 m and
suited to arid conditions, also found in Siberia, subtropical at lower elevations.
Mongolia, China, Korea, Japan). ● Flora:
● Fauna: ▪ Chir (pine, dominant), oak, jamun, rhododendron,
▪ Rats, mice, rabbits, foxes, wolves, tigers, lions, wild magnolia, laurel, cinchona, wattle, mosses, lichens,
donkeys, camels, wild ass, horses. ferns, maple, black juniper, willow, spruce, birch.
● Climatic Context: ● Fauna:
▪ Found in dry desert and semi-arid regions with ▪ Kashmir stag (Hangul), spotted deer, wild sheep,
arid climatic conditions. jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard,
squirrels, shaggy horn wild ibex, bear, red panda,
Montane Forests sheep, goats with thick hair, elephants, sambar,
swamp deer, leopards, shou, Sikkim stag.
Characteristics: ● Specific Features:
● Occur in mountainous areas where temperature ▪ Shola forests: Tropical montane forests in the
decreases with altitude, mirroring vegetation shifts upper Western Ghats (Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
from tropical to tundra. Karnataka), including Nilgiris, Anaimalai, and
● Trees are conical to withstand heavy snowfall, Palani hills.
primarily softwood gymnosperms. ▪ Found in Northern middle Himalayas (1801–3001
● Vegetation belts by altitude: m) and Southern Nilgiri higher ranges with ferns,
▪ 1000–2000 m: Wet temperate forests with oak, and maple.
evergreen broad-leaf trees (oaks, chestnuts,
Chilauni, Machilus, Cinnamomum, Litsea, plum), Littoral and Swamp Forests (Mangroves)
receiving 150–300 cm rainfall, 11°C–14°C ● Characteristics:
temperatures, and >80% humidity. ▪ Coastal wetlands influenced by tides, comprising
▪ 1500–3000 m: Temperate forests with coniferous 7% of the world’s mangrove forests, thriving in
trees (pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce, cedar, blue tropical and subtropical latitudes near the
pine, birch, hemlock), primarily on southern equator due to intolerance to freezing
Himalayan slopes. temperatures.
▪ Above 3600 m: Alpine vegetation, including ▪ Trees feature viviparous roots (pneumatophores)
temperate forests, grasslands, silver fir, junipers, for breathing in waterlogged soils and thick,
pines, rhododendrons, birches, and tundra-like leathery, evergreen leaves.
mosses, lichens, and small shrubs. ▪ Halophytes: Plants adapted to grow in salty water,
● Alpine grasslands (Bugyal) and shrubs/scrubs are prevalent in mangroves.
used for grazing by nomadic tribes like Gujjars and ● Locations:
Bakarwals. ▪ Sundarbans delta (West Bengal, largest tidal
forest globally, named after Sundari trees), deltas
● Locations: of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Andaman
▪ Northern India: Himalayas (Jammu & Kashmir, and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, western
Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, coastal plains (Malabar to Konkan), desert regions
Tripura, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram), (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Kashmir, Ladakh), and
Purvanchal mountains. Coringa (Godavari backwaters, second-largest
▪ Southern India: Western Ghats, Vindhya range, mangrove forest in India, near Kakinada Bay).
Nilgiris, Anaimalai,rowing primarily in the ● Flora:
seasonally dry tropical biome, listed as near ▪ Sundari (dominant in Sundarbans), whistling
extinction due to environmental insensitivity. pines, mangrove dates, palms, bullet wood,
● Temperate Grasslands: coconut, keora, agar, Bella, Uppu ponna, Boddu
▪ Characterized by cold winters and warm summers ponna, Urada, Mada, Telli Mada, Gundu mada,
with 25–75 cm annual rainfall. Kadili.
▪ Feature short, nutritious grasses ideal for wheat ● Fauna:
cultivation (e.g., Prairies in the USA, known as the ▪ Royal Bengal tigers, saltwater crocodiles, marine
“wheat granaries of the world”). turtles, coconut crabs, lizards, snakes.

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 ● Key Regions: ▪ Waltre: Rajasthan.
▪ West Bengal has the largest mangrove forest area, ▪ Kuruwa: Jharkhand.
followed by Andhra Pradesh. ▪ Bewar/Dahiya: Madhya Pradesh.

Grasslands: Global and Indian Context Plantation Agriculture

● Characteristics:
Characteristics:
▪ Commercial farming of a single crop in tropical
● Terrestrial ecosystems dominated by grasses and
regions, including tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew,
herbs, situated between deserts and forests, with an
rubber, banana, and cotton.
upright biomass pyramid.
▪ Differs from food crops (wheat, rice, maize, millets)
● Types:
and fibre crops (jute, cotton).
▪ Tropical Grasslands (Savannahs): Warm year-
● Examples:
round with distinct dry and wet seasons, receiving
▪ Rubber: Malaysia, equatorial regions.
50–130 cm rainfall, featuring tall, non-nutritious
▪ Coffee: Brazil.
elephant grass.
▪ Tea: India, Sri Lanka.
▪ Temperate Grasslands: Cold winters, warm
summers with 25–75 cm rainfall, featuring short,
Forest Area Distribution in India
nutritious grasses ideal for wheat cultivation (e.g.,
Forest Type Percentage of Total
Prairies in the USA, known as the “wheat granaries
Forest Area
of the world”).
Tropical Moist Deciduous 37%
Global Grasslands: Tropical Dry Deciduous 28%
● Tropical: Tropical Wet Evergreen 8%
▪ Savannah: East Africa, Australia (noted for “Big Sub-Tropical Moist Hill 6%
Game Country” due to extensive poaching). Tropical Semi-Evergreen 4%
▪ Campos: Brazil. Others (e.g., Thorn, Montane) Below 4%
▪ Llanos: Venezuela (tropical grassland plain east of
the Andes in Colombia and Venezuela). Environmental and Ecological Adaptations
● Temperate: ● Halophytes: Plants adapted to saline environments,
▪ Pampas: Argentina (features nutrient-rich Alpha prevalent in mangrove ecosystems.
Alpha grass). ● Guttation: Water exudation through hydathodes in
▪ Prairies: USA. plants, common in deciduous forests.
▪ Veld: South Africa. ● Viviparous Roots (Pneumatophores): Mangrove roots
▪ Steppes: Europe, North Asia, Russia (temperate enabling respiration in waterlogged soils.
grasslands). ● Temperature and Altitude Effects:
▪ Downs: Australia. ▪ Subtropical vegetation in India maintains a mean
▪ Puszta: Hungary. annual temperature of 17°C–24°C.
▪ Canterbury: New Zealand. ▪ Himalayan vegetation transitions from tropical to
● Indian Grasslands: tundra as temperatures decrease with altitude due
▪ Small grasslands on the slopes of the Lesser to less dense air and reduced molecular collisions,
Himalayas in Jammu & Kashmir are called Marg. resulting in cooler conditions and snow cover at
▪ Hubbardia heptaneuron, a grass species native to higher elevations.
Karnataka, India, is an annual grass growing Forest Layering:
primarily in the seasonally dry tropical biome, ● Forests have distinct vegetation layers:
listed as near extinction due to environmental ▪ Uppermost Layer: Trees (not shrubs, correcting
insensitivity. Source 3’s Solution 443).
Shifting Cultivation ▪ Shrub Layer: Medium-sized shrubs and small trees.
● Characteristics: ▪ Herb Layer: Lowest layer, including herbs, ferns,
▪ Known as slash-and-burn agriculture, it involves and grasses.
clearing land by burning vegetation, which leads ● Soil Fertility:
▪ Deciduous forest biomes, found in Eastern North
to deforestation and reduced soil fertility,
America, Western Europe, and Northeast Asia,
detrimental to the environment.
have five zones based on tree heights and nutrient-
● Global Names:
rich, fertile soil.
▪ Ladang: Indonesia.
▪ Milpa: Mexico.
Miscellaneous
▪ Chena: Sri Lanka.
▪ Ray: Vietnam. ● Moist Tropical Forests:
▪ Roca: Brazil. ▪ Receive 200–250 cm rainfall annually with
▪ Konuko: Venezuela. temperatures of 24–27°C, featuring species like
● Indian Names: bamboo, epiphytes, aini, semul, gutel, and
▪ Jhum: Northeast India. mundane (distinct from moist deciduous forests).
▪ Kumari: Western Ghats. ● Alpine Forests:
▪ Pama Dabi/Bringa: Odisha. ▪ Found along the Himalayas at 2,900–3,500 m, with
▪ Penda/Podu: Andhra Pradesh. species like spruce and birch, and in Trans-
▪ Dipa: Bastar (Chhattisgarh), Andaman and Himalaya’s barren cold deserts with black juniper
Nicobar Islands. and willow.

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 ● Dry Tropical Forests: 37% Tropical moist deciduous forest share
▪ Found in northern hilly regions and some southern 28% Tropical dry deciduous forest share
states, with species like sal, acacia, and mangoes, 8% Tropical wet evergreen forest share
receiving 51–151 cm rainfall. 6% Sub-tropical moist hill forest share
● Tropical Savanna and Dry Thorny Scrub: 4% Tropical semi-evergreen forest share
50–130 cm Rainfall for tropical savannahs
▪ Tropical Savanna: Receives 50–100 cm rainfall,
25–75 cm Rainfall for temperate grasslands
part of dry tropical forests.
200–250 cm Rainfall for moist tropical forests
▪ Dry Thorny Scrub: Semi-arid, receives 25–50 cm
24–27°C Temperature for moist tropical forests
rainfall, distinct from desert regions (<25 cm).
51–151 cm Rainfall for dry tropical forests
● Viticulture: 50–100 cm Rainfall for tropical savanna
▪ Grape cultivation, a specialty of the Mediterranean 25–50 cm Rainfall for dry thorny scrub
region, grown on varied soils (gravelly sands to <25 cm Rainfall for desert regions
clays), not directly linked to India’s vegetation but 2,900–3,500 m Altitude for alpine forests
noted in global temperate grasslands context. 1801–1900 m Altitude for northern middle Himalayas
● Kelp: 1501 Temperate grassland cultivation temperature
▪ A large, brown seaweed in shallow, nutrient-rich
saltwater near coastal fronts, mentioned as part
of aquatic ecosystems (distinct from terrestrial

●
grasslands and forests).
Helianthus annuus:
CHEMISTRY
▪ Common sunflower, noted in contrast to
Hubbardia heptaneuron, not a threatened species.

◙ Quick Revision: Chemical Reactions and Processes

Name Explanation
Sundarlal Bahuguna Led Chipko Movement
Chemical Reaction Types
Table of Numbers ● Combination Reaction:
Number Explanation ▪ Two or more substances merge to form a single
31% Global forest land coverage product.
25% Taiga’s share of global forest land ▪ General form: A + B → C.
50°–70° Taiga latitude range ▪ Examples: C + O₂ → CO₂, H₂ + O₂ → H₂O, CaO +
35°–50° Temperate deciduous forest latitude range
H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ (slaking of lime).
70° Tundra latitude boundary
● Decomposition Reaction:
7% Equatorial rainforest coverage
▪ A compound breaks into two or more simpler
1927 Indian Forest Act
1973 Chipko Movement
substances.
1976 42nd Amendment Act
▪ Triggered by heat (thermal decomposition),
1952 First National Forest Policy electricity (electrolytic decomposition), or light
1988 National Forest Policy revision (photodecomposition).
33% Forest cover target ▪ General form: A → B + C.
1976 National Commission on Agriculture ▪ Examples: 2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂ (electrolysis), 2AgBr →
March 21 World Forest Day 2Ag + Br₂ (sunlight), CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂ (heat,
1981 Forest Survey of India established non-redox), 2Pb(NO₃)₂ → 2PbO + 4NO₂ + O₂ (emits
1987 First ISFR released brown nitrogen dioxide fumes).
2021 17th ISFR published ▪ Not all are redox; e.g., CaCO₃ decomposition
24.62% Total forest/tree cover (2021) involves no oxidation state change.
21.71% Forest cover (2021)
● Displacement Reaction:
2.91% Tree cover (2021)
▪ A more reactive element displaces a less reactive
>200 cm Rainfall for tropical evergreen forests
one from a compound.
>22°C Temperature for tropical evergreen forests
▪ General form: AB + C → A + BC.
60 meters Height of tropical evergreen trees
17°C–24°C Subtropical zone temperature range
▪ Example: CuSO₄ + Fe → Cu + FeSO₄ (iron displaces
70–200 cm Rainfall for tropical deciduous forests copper, solution changes from blue to green);
6–8 weeks Leaf shedding period for deciduous forests reverse (FeSO₄ + Cu) is not feasible.
100–200 cm Rainfall for moist deciduous forests ▪ Governed by the reactivity series: K > Na > Ba > Ca
70–100 cm Rainfall for dry deciduous forests > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Ni > Sn > Pb > H > Cu > Hg
<70 cm Rainfall for tropical thorn forests > Ag > Au > Pt (mnemonic: Mr. PSBC Mazintl).
<10 meters Height of thorn forest trees ● Double Displacement Reaction:
2 meters Height of tussock grass ▪ Two compounds exchange ions to form two new
1000–2000 m Altitude for wet temperate forests compounds.
150–300 cm Rainfall for wet temperate forests ▪ General form: AB + CD → AD + CB.
11°C–14°C Temperature for wet temperate forests ▪ Example: Na₂SO₄ + BaCl₂ → BaSO₄ (white
>80% Humidity for wet temperate forests
precipitate) + 2NaCl.
1500–3000 m Altitude for temperate forests
● Redox Reaction:
>3600 m Altitude for alpine vegetation
▪ Involves simultaneous oxidation and reduction via
7% Global mangrove forest coverage
electron transfer between reactants.

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 ▪ Example: CuO + C → Cu + CO (CuO reduced, C ▪ Cathode: Negative electrode where reduction
oxidized), 4NH₃ + 5O₂ → 4NO + 6H₂O (N oxidized, occurs (metals deposit, e.g., Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na).
O reduced). ● Example: Molten NaCl electrolysis produces Na at
● Disproportionation Reaction: cathode and Cl₂ at anode.
▪ A single substance undergoes both oxidation and
reduction. Reaction Kinetics
▪ Example: Cl₂ + 2NaOH → NaCl + NaOCl + H₂O. ● Order of Reaction:
● Substitution Reaction: ▪ Zero-Order: Rate independent of reactant
▪ An atom or group in an organic molecule is concentration, common when catalysts (e.g.,
replaced by another. platinum) or surfaces are saturated, e.g., ammonia
▪ Example: CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl. decomposition on hot platinum at high pressure.
● Neutralization Reaction: ▪ First-Order: Rate proportional to the first power of
▪ An acid reacts with a base to form salt and water. reactant concentration (Rate = k[A]).
▪ Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O. ▪ Second-Order: Rate proportional to the square of
● Reversible Reaction: concentration (Rate = k[A]²).
▪ Products can recombine to form reactants. ● Temperature Effect:
▪ Example: N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃. ▪ A 10°C rise in temperature roughly doubles the rate
● Irreversible Reaction: constant, enhancing reaction speed.
▪ Proceeds in one direction only.
▪ General form: A + B → C + D. Specific Chemical Processes
● Solvay Process:
Oxidation and Reduction ▪ Reaction: NaCl + H₂O + CO₂ + NH₃ → NaHCO₃
● Oxidation: (baking soda) + NH₄Cl.
▪ Addition of oxygen or a non-metal, removal of ▪ Produces sodium bicarbonate and ammonium
hydrogen or a metal, or loss of electrons. chloride as a by-product.
▪ Examples: 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO, Na → Na⁺ + e⁻. ● Rancidity:
● Reduction: ▪ Oxidation of fats and oils produces aldehydes and
▪ Addition of hydrogen or a metal, removal of ketones, causing bad smell and taste.
oxygen or a non-metal, or gain of electrons. ▪ Prevented by antioxidants and flushing with
▪ Examples: CuO + C → Cu + CO, Cl₂ + 2e⁻ → 2Cl⁻. nitrogen (e.g., in chip packaging).
● Oxidizing Agent: ▪ Misconception: Fats and oils do not “reduce” over
▪ Undergoes reduction, facilitating oxidation of time.
another substance. ● Photosensitive Decomposition:
▪ Example: CuO in CuO + C → Cu + CO. ▪ Silver chloride (AgCl) decomposes in sunlight to
● Reducing Agent: silver and chlorine, turning grey (not due to rusting
▪ Undergoes oxidation, facilitating reduction of or displacement).
another substance. ● Electrochemical Cells:
▪ Example: C in CuO + C → Cu + CO. ▪ Convert chemical energy to electrical energy via
● Cause of Redox: indirect redox reactions (e.g., galvanic/voltaic
▪ Electron transfer between reactants, e.g., 2Na + S cells).
→ Na₂S (Na oxidized, S reduced). ▪ Gibbs free energy from redox powers devices like
motors or heaters.
Ions and Electrolysis
● Ion: Physical vs. Chemical Changes
▪ An electrically charged atom or group with ● Physical Change:
unequal electrons and protons. ▪ Alters physical properties without forming new
● Types: substances, generally reversible.
▪ Cation: Positively charged, formed by electron loss ▪ Examples: Heating iron to red-hot, diesel
(e.g., Na⁺, Mg²⁺). evaporation, NH₄Cl sublimation, dissolving sugar,
▪ Anion: Negatively charged, formed by electron melting wax, boiling water.
gain (e.g., Cl⁻, O²⁻, CN⁻). ● Chemical Change:
● Electrolytes: ▪ Forms new substances, typically irreversible.
▪ Substances conducting electricity in molten or ▪ Example: Curdling of milk (lactic acid bacteria
aqueous states (e.g., acids, bases, salts). transform milk permanently).
▪ Strong Electrolytes: Fully dissociate into ions (e.g.,
NaCl, KCl, HCl, NaOH). Elements and Compounds
▪ Weak Electrolytes: Partially dissociate (e.g.,
Gases and Light Emission:
CH₃COOH, H₂CO₃, NH₄OH).
● Electric discharge ionizes gases, emitting
● Electrolysis:
characteristic colors:
▪ Chemical decomposition of an electrolyte via
▪ Neon: Red.
electric current.
▪ Hydrogen: Blue-violet.
● Components:
▪ Helium: Pink-orange.
▪ Anode: Positive electrode where oxidation occurs
▪ Argon: Violet.
(non-metals accumulate, e.g., Cl⁻ → Cl + e⁻ → Cl₂ in
▪ Krypton: Lavender.
NaCl electrolysis).

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 ● Nitrogen: ● Valency:
▪ Discovered in 1772 by Daniel Rutherford, C.W. ▪ Iron exhibits variable valency (e.g., Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺);
Scheele, and Henry Cavendish. sodium, sulfur, and magnesium do not.
▪ Odorless, colorless, tasteless, chemically ▪ Silver: Argentous (Ag⁺), argentic (Ag²⁺, valency +2).
unreactive, used in fertilizers, nitric acid, dyes, ● Electron Affinity of Halogens:
explosives. ▪ Order: Cl > F > Br > I (decreases down the group).
● Carbon Dioxide: ● Basic Strength of Anions:
▪ Colorless, odorless, non-flammable, density 1.87 ▪ Order: NO₃⁻ > Cl⁻ > Br⁻ > I⁻.
kg/m³ (1.5 times air), liquid below 31°C.
Boiling Points and Atomicity
▪ Used in baking (released by baking powder/soda),
● Boiling Points:
refrigerants, fire extinguishers, carbonated
▪ Water: 100°C at sea level (68°C at Mount Everest
beverages, greenhouses.
due to lower pressure).
▪ Contributes to climate change as a greenhouse
▪ Chloroform: 61.2°C (334 K), methane: -161.5°C (111
gas.
K).
▪ Formed in reactions like CaCO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O →
▪ Alkynes > alkanes > alkenes due to stronger
Ca(HCO₃)₂ (calcium hydrogen carbonate, an
London dispersion forces.
antacid).
▪ CaO (2850°C) > CaCl₂ (1935°C) > NaCl (1465°C) >
● Rubidium:
LiCl (1382°C).
▪ Used in Bose-Einstein Condensate experiments
● Atomicity:
(cooled to 10⁻⁷ K in 2018 on the ISS).
▪ Chlorine: Diatomic (Cl₂).
▪ Alkali metal, atomic number 37, used in
▪ Others: Monoatomic (noble gases), triatomic
photoelectric cells.
(ozone), polyatomic (S₈, C₆₀).
● Silver Compounds:
▪ Mercury(I) chloride (calomel, Hg₂Cl₂): Used as a Organic and Biochemical Compounds
lab reagent and depolarizer in dry cells. ● Oleic Acid:
▪ Silver chloride: Photosensitive, decomposes to ▪ Mono-unsaturated omega-9 fatty acid (C₁₈H₃₄O₂),
silver in sunlight. 55–80% of olive oil, used in cooking,
● Rust: pharmaceuticals, and aerosols.
▪ Hydrated ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃·xH₂O), formed by iron ● Benzene:
reacting with oxygen and moisture. ▪ 9 single bonds, 3 double bonds, planar hexagonal
▪ Copper corrodes but does not form rust; zinc oxide structure, used in plastics, resins, lubricants.
is not rust.
Dry Cell Components
● Granite Composition:
● Structure:
▪ Primarily quartz (SiO₂) and feldspar (Al₂O₃), with
▪ Zinc container (anode), carbon rod (cathode),
mica.
ammonium chloride paste (electrolyte),
● Carnotite:
manganese dioxide shield.
▪ Bright-yellow vanadium mineral, a key uranium
source.
◙ Names
● Neutral Oxides:
Name Explanation
▪ Neither acidic nor basic, e.g., N₂O, NO, CO.
Henri Becquerel Discovered radioactivity
▪ Na₂O is basic, not neutral. Marie Curie Co-recipient of 1903 Nobel for
radioactivity
Solutions and Solubility Pierre Curie Co-recipient of 1903 Nobel for
● Solid-in-Liquid Solutions: radioactivity
▪ Example: Tincture of iodine (2–3% iodine in Ernest Rutherford Discovered proton
alcohol-water, an antiseptic). James Chadwick Discovered neutron
▪ Others: Muddy water, salt water, sugar solution. J.J. Thomson Discovered electron
● Solubility of Anthracene: Otto Hahn Co-discovered nuclear fission
▪ Dissolves easily in benzene (C₆H₆, planar with Fritz Strassmann Co-discovered nuclear fission
Albert Einstein Proposed mass-energy equivalence
alternating single/double bonds, used in plastics,
Daniel Rutherford Co-discovered nitrogen
gasoline), not in water, methane, or NaCl.
C.W. Scheele Co-discovered nitrogen
● Fractional Crystallization:
Henry Cavendish Co-discovered nitrogen
▪ Separates soluble solids by dissolving in a hot
solvent and cooling slowly.
◙ Numbers
▪ Contrasts with azeotropic distillation (separates
azeotropic mixtures) and sublimation (solid-to- Number Explanation
gas transition, e.g., NH₄Cl, iodine, camphor). +1.6 × 10^-19 C Proton charge
-1.6 × 10^-19 C Electron charge
Electrochemistry and Valency 0 Neutron charge
<10^-12 nm Gamma radiation wavelength
● Hardy-Schulze Rule:
~10^8 K Nuclear fusion temperature
▪ Coagulation of colloidal solutions depends on the
1903 Nobel Prize for radioactivity
valency of the coagulating ion (higher valency 2–3% Iodine in tincture of iodine
increases coagulation power, e.g., Al³⁺ > Ba²⁺ > 10⁻⁷ K Temperature for Bose-Einstein Condensate
Na⁺). 37 Atomic number of rubidium

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 100°C Water boiling point at sea level Wave Properties
68°C Water boiling point at Mount Everest • Amplitude: Maximum displacement of a vibrating
61.2°C Chloroform boiling point particle from its equilibrium position.
334 K Chloroform boiling point • Wavelength: Distance between two consecutive points
-161.5°C Methane boiling point in the same phase (e.g., crests/troughs in transverse
111 K Methane boiling point waves, compressions/rarefactions in longitudinal
2850°C CaO boiling point
waves).
1935°C CaCl₂ boiling point
• Frequency: Number of oscillations per second.
1465°C NaCl boiling point
▪ Unit: Hertz (Hz).
1382°C LiCl boiling point
▪ Example: A wave with a period of 0.04 s has a
9 Single bonds in benzene
frequency of 1 / 0.04 = 25 Hz.
3 Double bonds in benzene
• Wave Speed: Rate of wave propagation.
55–80% Oleic acid in olive oil
1.87 kg/m³ Density of carbon dioxide
▪ Formula: v = n * λ, where v is speed, n is frequency,
31°C CO₂ liquid transition temperatur λ is wavelength.
▪ Unit: M/S.
• Phase of Vibration: Particle’s position and direction
relative to equilibrium at a given instant.

PHYSICS • Phase Difference: Time interval by which one wave

leads or lags another.
• Path Difference: Difference in distance traveled by two
waves.
Electromagnetic Waves
Wave and Periodic Motion • Characteristics: Transverse, neutral (uncharged),
travel at the speed of light, carry energy and
Periodic and Oscillatory Motion momentum.
• Periodic Motion : • Introduced by: James Clerk Maxwell.
▪ Motion that repeats at regular intervals. • Wavelength Range: 10^-14 m to 10^7 m.
• Oscillatory Motion (Vibratory Motion): • Divided into seven regions by increasing frequency
▪ A subset of periodic motion where a particle moves and energy.
back and forth around a fixed point within defined
Electromagnetic Spectrum
limits, repeating its path periodically.
• In descending order of frequency:
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) ▪ X-rays
• Oscillation about a fixed equilibrium point (mean ▪ Infrared
position) with acceleration proportional to ▪ Microwaves (wavelengths: 10^-3 m to 0.3 m)
displacement, directed toward the equilibrium. ▪ Radio waves (frequencies: 3 kHz to 300 GHz,
• Characteristics: Periodic, oscillatory. wavelengths: 1 mm to 100 km)
• Example: Motion of a mass on a spring or a pendulum. • Specific Examples:
▪ Visible Light: Wavelengths from 0.4 to 0.7 μm.
Simple Pendulum
▪ Radio Waves: Pioneered by Guglielmo Marconi
• Structure: A point mass (bob) suspended from a fixed
(1890s) for long-distance signal transmission
point by a massless, inextensible string.
(several kilometers).
• Exhibits SHM.
• Time Period: Non-Electromagnetic Waves
▪ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎:𝑇 = 2𝜋 ∗ √
𝐿 ● Include: Cathode rays, canal rays, alpha rays, beta
𝑔 rays, sound waves, ultrasonic waves.
▪ where l is string length, g is gravitational
acceleration. Special Phenomena and Applications
• Applications: Used in clocks and physics experiments. Doppler Effect
Wave Motion • Discovered by: Christian Doppler (1842).
• Transfer of energy through a disturbance that • Change in frequency of sound or light waves due to
propagates, causing local particle vibration in relative motion between source and observer.
mechanical waves or without a medium in • Example: Siren’s pitch shifts as it approaches or
electromagnetic waves.” recedes.
• Applications: Radar, astronomy.
Types:
• Mechanical Waves: Photoelectric Effect
▪ Require a medium (solid, liquid, or gas). • Light’s particle-like behavior where photons eject
▪ Longitudinal Waves: Particles vibrate parallel to electrons from a material.
wave direction (e.g., sound waves, spring waves). • Demonstrates: Wave-particle duality of light.
▪ Transverse Waves: Particles vibrate perpendicular • Applications: Solar cells, photodetectors.
to wave direction (e.g., waves on strings, water Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
surface waves). • Uses radio waves and strong magnetic fields to
• Non-Mechanical Waves (Electromagnetic Waves): visualize internal organs and structures.
▪ Propagate without a medium (e.g., light). • Application: Medical diagnostics.
▪ Consist of photons.

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 Earthquake Waves 10^-14 m Minimum electromagnetic wavelength
• L Waves (Surface Waves): 10^7 m Maximum electromagnetic wavelength
▪ Travel along Earth’s surface, distinct from body 10^-3 m to 0.3 m Microwave wavelength range
waves. 3 kHz to 300 GHz Radio wave frequency range
▪ Cause significant surface disruption. 1 mm to 100 km Radio wave wavelength range
0.4 to 0.7 μm Visible light wavelength range
1842 Doppler Effect discovery year
◙ Summary Table of Key Concepts
1890s Marconi’s radio wave experiments
Concept Definition Key Details Applications/
Facts
Periodic Motion Also called Basis for
Motion repeating at harmonic oscillatory
regular
intervals
motion systems
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Oscillatory Repetitive Vibratory, Seen in
Motion motion about within fixed pendulums,
a fixed point limits springs
Simple Oscillation Directed Simple SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT
Harmonic with toward pendulum
Motion acceleration equilibrium exhibits SHM
proportional
Q501.I have been in Chennai since a week, but I am
to planning to return now.
displacement (a) for (b) from
Simple Mass (bob) on T = 2 * π * Used in clocks, (c) in (d) No substitution required
Pendulum a string sqrt(l / g) physics Correct Answer: (a) for
undergoing experiments
Explanation:
SHM
Mechanica Require a Longitudinal Essential for
● Option (b) from: Incorrect, as "from a week" doesn’t fit
l Waves medium for (e.g., sound), sound, seismic with "have been"; "from" would need a starting point
propagation transverse studies like "from last week."
(e.g., water) ● Option (c) in: Incorrect, as "in a week" means within a
Electro Propagate Wavelength: Light, radio week’s time, not a duration starting a week ago.
magnetic without 10^-14 m to waves, MRI; ● Option (d) No substitution required: Incorrect, as
Waves medium, at 10^7 m pioneered by "since a week" is incorrect; "since" requires a specific
light speed Maxwell
point (e.g., "since Monday"), not a duration.
Wave Characteristic v = n * λ; 25 Frequency
Properties s like Hz for 0.04 s determines The underlined phrase "since a week" is incorrect; "for a week"
amplitude, period wave behavior is the correct preposition for a duration with present perfect
wavelength, tense. The corrected sentence is: "I have been in Chennai for a
frequency week, but I am planning to return now."
Doppler Frequency Discovered Used in radar,
Effect change due to by Doppler, astronomy Q502.Peter was brought in the penalty area.
relative 1842
(a) was brought down of the
motion
(b) was brought of the
Photo Light ejects Demonstrate Basis for solar
(c) was brought on the
electric electrons, s wave- cells,
Effect showing particle photodetector (d) was brought down in the
particle duality s Correct Answer: (d) was brought down in the
nature
Explanation:
MRI Imaging using Visualizes Critical in
● Option (a) was brought down of the: Incorrect, as "of
radio waves internal medical
the" is incorrect; "in the" is the correct preposition for
and magnets structures diagnostics
L Waves Surface waves Travel along Cause
a location like the penalty area.
in earthquakes Earth’s significant ● Option (b) was brought of the: Incorrect, as "brought
surface seismic of the" is incorrect, and "brought down" is the correct
damage idiom for being tackled in sports.
● Option (c) was brought on the: Incorrect, as "on the" is
◙ Quick revision: incorrect for the penalty area, and "brought" alone
doesn’t imply being tackled.
Table of Names
Name Explanation The underlined phrase "brought in the" is incorrect; "was
James Clerk Introduced electromagnetic waves brought down in the" is the correct idiom for being tackled in
Maxwell the penalty area. The corrected sentence is: "Peter was
Guglielmo Marconi Pioneered radio waves for brought down in the penalty area."
communication
Christian Doppler Discovered Doppler Effect Q503.Mahesh's attitude annoyed me and I blew into.
(a) annoyed me and I blew over
Table of Numbers
(b) annoyed me and I blew off
Number Explanation
(c) annoyed me and I blew down of
Pendulum time period formula
2𝜋 ∗ √
𝐿 (d) annoyed me and I blew up
𝑔 Correct Answer: (d) annoyed me and I blew up

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 Explanation: Correct Answer: (b) the storm knocked out the power
● Option (a) annoyed me and I blew over: Incorrect, as
Explanation:
"blew over" means to subside (e.g., a storm), not to lose
● Option (a) No substitution required: Incorrect, as
temper due to annoyance.
"knocked in the power" is incorrect; "knocked out" is
● Option (b) annoyed me and I blew off: Incorrect, as
the correct idiom for a power outage.
"blew off" means to ignore or dismiss, not to react
● Option (c) the storm knocked over the power:
angrily to annoyance.
Incorrect, as "knocked over" means to topple
● Option (c) annoyed me and I blew down of: Incorrect,
something, not to cause a power outage.
as "blew down of" is not a valid phrase and doesn’t fit
● Option (d) the storm knocked away the power:
the context of anger.
Incorrect, as "knocked away" means to push aside, not
The underlined phrase "blew into" is incorrect; "blew up" is the to disrupt power supply.
correct idiom for losing one’s temper due to annoyance. The
The underlined phrase "knocked in the power" is incorrect;
corrected sentence is: "Mahesh's attitude annoyed me and I
"knocked out the power" is the correct idiom for a storm
blew up."
causing a power outage. The corrected sentence is: "Since the
storm knocked out the power, we've been using candles to
Q504.No sooner did she shouted, than the thieves ran light our home."
away leaving all the jewellery on the table.
(a) No sooner do she shouts Q507. Could you please tell me which languages you are
(b) No sooner does she shout fluent in?
(c) No sooner had she shout (a) you may be fluent in speaking
(d) No sooner did she shout (b) you speak fluently
Correct Answer: (d) No sooner did she shout (c) you fluently speaking
Explanation: (d) you have been fluent in speaking
● Option (a) No sooner do she shouts: Incorrect, as "do Correct Answer: (b) you speak fluently
she shouts" is incorrect; it should be "does she shout," Explanation:
and "do" doesn’t match the past context. ● Option (a) you may be fluent in speaking: Incorrect, as
● Option (b) No sooner does she shout: Incorrect, as "may be fluent in speaking" is wordy; "speak fluently"
"does she shout" (present) doesn’t match the past tense is more concise and natural.
"ran away" in the sentence. ● Option (c) you fluently speaking: Incorrect, as "fluently
● Option (c) No sooner had she shout: Incorrect, as "had speaking" is incorrect; "speak fluently" is the correct
she shout" is incorrect; "shout" should be "shouted" word order for an adverb.
(past tense) after "had." ● Option (d) you have been fluent in speaking: Incorrect,
The underlined phrase "No sooner did she shouted" is as "have been fluent in speaking" is overly complex;
incorrect; "No sooner did she shout" corrects the verb to the "speak fluently" is simpler and fits.
base form "shout" after "did." The corrected sentence is: "No
The underlined phrase "which languages you are fluent in" is
sooner did she shout, than the thieves ran away leaving all the
correct but can be simplified; "you speak fluently" is more
jewellery on the table."
direct in this question. The corrected sentence is: "Could you
please tell me which languages you speak fluently?"
Q505.I don't think he can dance as wellest Elena.
(a) weller than (b) wellest
Q508.I enjoy learn languages because I like them.
(c) as well as (d) well than
(a) to learning (b) lean
Correct Answer: (c) as well as
(c) learning (d) No substitution required
Explanation: Correct Answer: (c) learning
● Option (a) weller than: Incorrect, as "weller" is not a
Explanation:
word; "better" would be the comparative, but "as well
● Option (a) to learning: Incorrect, as "enjoy to learning"
as" fits the structure.
is incorrect; "enjoy" takes the gerund form "learning,"
● Option (b) wellest: Incorrect, as "wellest" is not a word;
not "to learn."
"best" would be the superlative, but it doesn’t fit the
● Option (b) lean: Incorrect, as "lean" (to tilt) is incorrect
comparison structure.
and doesn’t fit the context of acquiring languages.
● Option (d) well than: Incorrect, as "well than" is
● Option (d) No substitution required: Incorrect, as
incorrect; "better than" would be correct for
"learn" (base form) is incorrect after "enjoy"; the
comparison, but "as well as" is intended.
gerund "learning" is required.
The underlined word "wellest" is incorrect; "as well as" is the
The underlined word "learn" is incorrect; "learning" (gerund) is
correct phrase for comparing dancing ability equally with
the correct form after the verb "enjoy." The corrected sentence
Elena. The corrected sentence is: "I don't think he can dance
is: "I enjoy learning languages because I like them."
as well as Elena."

Q509.Abraham narrated Reshma his last escapade in a

Q506.Since the storm knocked in the power, we've been
dramatic way.
using candles to light our home.
(a) exertion
(a) No substitution required
(b) ordeal
(b) the storm knocked out the power
(c) adventure
(c) the storm knocked over the power
(d) escape
(d) the storm knocked away the power
Correct Answer: (c) adventure

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 Explanation: Explanation:
● Option (a) exertion: Incorrect, as "exertion" means ● Option (a) on its dialectical varieties: Incorrect, as "on"
physical effort, not a thrilling experience that is incorrect for "handle," and "its" (singular) doesn’t
"escapade" implies. match "languages" (plural).
● Option (b) ordeal: Incorrect, as "ordeal" means a ● Option (c) with a dialectical varieties: Incorrect, as "a
painful experience, while "escapade" suggests a dialectical varieties" is incorrect; "a" doesn’t match the
playful or daring act. plural "varieties."
● Option (d) escape: Incorrect, as "escape" (noun) is too ● Option (d) with they dialectical varieties: Incorrect, as
literal; "escapade" means a daring adventure, better "they dialectical varieties" is incorrect; "their" is the
replaced by "adventure." correct possessive form.
The underlined phrase "narrated Reshma his last escapade" The underlined phrase "with its dialectical varieties" is
uses "escapade," which means a daring adventure; "adventure" incorrect; "with their dialectical varieties" corrects "its" to
is a suitable synonym. The corrected sentence is: "Abraham "their" to match the plural "languages." The corrected sentence
narrated Reshma his last adventure in a dramatic way." is: "Lewis can handle many of the European languages with
their dialectical varieties fluently."
Q510.Mr. Arvind was accused of beating up before the
students in the class. Q513. Despite having a broken leg, Sarah managed to
(a) accused of beating up off the finish the marathon on record time.
(b) accused of beating up of the (a) finish the marathon in record time
(c) accused of beating up a (b) finish a marathon on record time
(d) accused of beating up in the (c) finish the marathon to record time
Correct Answer: (c) accused of beating up a (d) finish the marathon at record time
Correct Answer: (a) finish the marathon in record
Explanation:
time
● Option (a) accused of beating up off the: Incorrect, as
"off the" is incorrect; "in the" is the correct preposition Explanation:
for the location (class). ● Option (b) finish a marathon on record time:
● Option (b) accused of beating up of the: Incorrect, as Incorrect, as "a marathon" is less specific than "the
"of the" is incorrect; "in the" is needed for the location marathon," and "on record time" should be "in record
of the incident. time."
● Option (c) finish the marathon to record time:
The revised sentence restructures this part to make it clear
Incorrect, as "to record time" is incorrect; "in record
that Mr. Arvind was accused of beating up a student, and it
time" is the correct phrase for speed.
happened in front of the entire class. "Beating up" means
physically assaulting someone, often repeatedly and a ● Option (d) finish the marathon at record time:
ressivel. Incorrect, as "at record time" is incorrect; "in record
time" is the standard preposition.
Q511. If we had moved to Italy when I was a child, I will The underlined phrase "finish the marathon on record time" is
had an Italian accent. incorrect; "finish the marathon in record time" uses the
(a) I will be have (b) I would has correct preposition "in" for speed records. The corrected
(c) I would have had (d) I am having sentence is: "Despite having a broken leg, Sarah managed to
Correct Answer: (c) I would have had finish the marathon in record time."

Explanation:
Q514. Himanshu is braver than intelligent.
● Option (a) I will be have: Incorrect, as "will be have" is
(a) more brave than intelligent
incorrect; "will have" would be correct, but "would have
(b) most brave than intelligent
had" fits the past conditional.
(c) braver than more intelligent
● Option (b) I would has: Incorrect, as "would has" is
(d) most brave than more intelligent
incorrect; "would have" is the correct form for a
Correct Answer: (c) braver than more intelligent
hypothetical past scenario.
● Option (d) I am having: Incorrect, as "am having" Explanation:
(present) doesn’t match the past hypothetical "if we ● Option (a) more brave than intelligent: Incorrect, as
had moved." "more brave" is less concise than "braver," and
"intelligent" needs "more" for comparison.
The underlined phrase "will had an Italian accent" is incorrect;
● Option (b) most brave than intelligent: Incorrect, as
"would have had" is the correct form for a third conditional
"most brave" (superlative) doesn’t fit a two-way
(past hypothetical). The corrected sentence is: "If we had
moved to Italy when I was a child, I would have had an Italian comparison, and "intelligent" needs "more."
accent." ● Option (d) most brave than more intelligent: Incorrect,
as "most brave" (superlative) is incorrect for
Q512. Lewis can handle many of the European languages comparing two qualities; "braver" is needed.
with its dialectical varieties fluently. The sentence is comparing Himanshu's bravery and
(a) on its dialectical varieties intelligence. We are trying to say that Himanshu is
(b) with their dialectical varieties more brave than intelligent, you could rephrase it as:
(c) with a dialectical varieties "Himanshu is more brave than intelligent." Therefore, the
(d) with they dialectical varieties correct comparative form of the sentence would be "more
Correct Answer: (b) with their dialectical varieties brave than intelligent."

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 Q515. It is nothing but pride. The underlined phrase "have the prospect of revolutionising"
(a) nothing ever is incorrect; "have the potential" is more idiomatic for the
(b) nothing else capability of technologies. The corrected sentence is: "The
integration of cutting-edge technologies into the healthcare
(c) nothing seldom
industry have the potential of revolutionising the way medical
(d) nothing so
professionals provide patient care."
Correct Answer: (b) nothing else
Explanation: Q518.Our teachers has planned of going for a picnic to
● Option (a) nothing ever: Incorrect, as "nothing ever" the Doon Valley.
means never anything, which doesn’t fit the context of (a) Our teachers has planned a picnic
specifying pride. (b) Our teachers has plan a picnic
● Option (c) nothing seldom: Incorrect, as "nothing (c) Our teachers is planned a picnic
seldom" means rarely nothing, which is illogical in this (d) Our teachers have planned a picnic
context. Correct Answer: (d) Our teachers have planned a
● Option (d) nothing so: Incorrect, as "nothing so" is picnic
incomplete and doesn’t convey the intended meaning
Explanation:
of only pride.
● Option (a) Our teachers has planned a picnic:
The underlined phrase "nothing but pride" means only pride; Incorrect, as "has" (singular) doesn’t match the plural
"nothing else" is a suitable synonym for "but" in this context. "teachers"; "have" is needed.
The corrected sentence is: "It is nothing else but pride." ● Option (b) Our teachers has plan a picnic: Incorrect,
as "has plan" is incorrect; "has planned" is correct, but
Q516.Sujata has not and can never in the good books of "has" doesn’t match "teachers."
her principal as she lacks honesty. ● Option (c) Our teachers is planned a picnic: Incorrect,
(a) has not been and can never be as "is planned" (passive) doesn’t fit, and "is" doesn’t
(b) has not been and can never been match the plural "teachers."
(c) has not be and can never be
The underlined phrase "Our teachers has planned of going" is
(d) has not be and can never been
incorrect; "Our teachers have planned a picnic" corrects the
Correct Answer: (a) has not been and can never be
verb agreement and simplifies the structure. The corrected
Explanation: sentence is: "Our teachers have planned a picnic to the Doon
● Option (b) has not been and can never been: Incorrect, Valley."
as "can never been" is incorrect; "be" (base form) is
required after "can." Q519.The new employee was quickly promoted due to their
● Option (c) has not be and can never be: Incorrect, as hard work and dedication.
"has not be" is incorrect; "has not been" is the correct (a) due to his hard work and dedication
present perfect form. (b) due to the hard work and dedication of him
● Option (d) has not be and can never been: Incorrect, (c) due to hard work and dedication
as "has not be" and "can never been" are both incorrect (d) due to giving hard work and showing dedication
verb forms. Correct Answer: (a) due to his hard work and
dedication
The underlined phrase "has not and can never in the good
books" is incorrect; "has not been and can never be" corrects Explanation:
the verb forms and adds "be." The corrected sentence is: ● Option (b) due to the hard work and dedication of him:
"Sujata has not been and can never be in the good books of Incorrect, as "of him" is awkward; "his" is more concise
her principal as she lacks honesty." and natural.
● Option (c) due to hard work and dedication: Incorrect,
Q517. The integration of cutting-edge technologies into as "hard work and dedication" lacks a possessive
the healthcare industry have the prospect of pronoun, making it unclear whose effort.
revolutionising the way medical professionals ● Option (d) due to giving hard work and showing
provide patient care. dedication: Incorrect, as "giving hard work and
(a) were the potential showing dedication" is wordy and less direct than "his
(b) have the potential hard work."
(c) has the prospect
The underlined phrase "their hard work and dedication" is
(d) will have potential
incorrect because "employee" is singular, so "their" (plural)
Correct Answer: (b) have the potential
should be "his" (singular). The corrected sentence is: "The new
Explanation: employee was quickly promoted due to his hard work and
● Option (a) were the potential: Incorrect, as "were" dedication."
(past) doesn’t match the present context, and
"integration" (singular) needs "has." Q520.I have been living in this country since last several
● Option (c) has the prospect: Incorrect, as "has the years but have never experienced any
prospect" fits grammatically, but "have the potential" discrimination.
aligns better with "technologies" (plural in context). (a) for the last several years
● Option (d) will have potential: Incorrect, as "will have (b) in the last several years
potential" (future) is less appropriate than present (c) by the last several years
tense for a general statement. (d) from the last several years
Correct Answer: (a) for the last several years

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 Explanation: correctly used after "distinguish." Overall, there’s no
● Option (b) in the last several years: Incorrect, as "in grammatical or structural error in the sentence.
the last several years" implies events within that
period, not a continuous state. Q704.Sentence: The children / laughed at / the clown. / No
● Option (c) by the last several years: Incorrect, as "by error
the last several years" is incorrect; "by" doesn’t fit with Options:
a duration in this context. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
● Option (d) from the last several years: Incorrect, as Answer: (d) 4 (No error)
"from the last several years" is incorrect; "for" is ● Corrected Sentence: The children laughed at the clown.
needed for a duration with present perfect. ● Explanation: There is no error. "The children" is a
correct plural subject, "laughed at" is an appropriate
The underlined phrase "since last several years" is incorrect;
verb-preposition combination for mocking or reacting
"for the last several years" is the correct phrase for a duration
with "have been living." The corrected sentence is: "I have been
to something amusing, and "the clown" is a clear
living in this country for the last several years but have nev er object. The sentence is grammatically sound and
experienced any discrimination." complete.
● Example: The audience clapped for the performer.
(Not The audience clapped at the performer.)

Spot the error Q705.Sentence: Had the plane not been delayed, / I will
reach here / in time for the function. / No error
Options:
Q701.Sentence: In India, / there are / many poors. / No (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
error Answer: (b) 2
Options: ● Corrected Sentence: Had the plane not been delayed, I
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 would have reached here in time for the function.
Answer: (c) 3 ● Explanation: The error is in "I will reach here." In a
● Corrected Sentence: In India, there are many poor third conditional sentence starting with "Had"
people. (indicating a hypothetical past situation), the result
● Explanation: The error is in "many poors." The word clause should use "would have reached," not "will
"poors" is incorrect because "poor" is an adjective, not reach," to reflect the unreal past outcome. Using "will"
a noun; the correct noun phrase is "poor people." creates a tense mismatch. Replacing "will reach" with
● Example: There are many homeless people in the city. "would have reached" corrects the conditional
(Not There are many homelesses in the city.) structure.
● Example: Had I studied, I would have passed. (Not Had
Q702.Sentence: I worked / as medical representative / for I studied, I will pass.)
eight months.
Options: Q706.Sentence: In India, hill stations / usually have /
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 beautiful sceneries. /
Answer: (b) 2 Options:
● Corrected Sentence: I worked as a medical (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
representative for eight months. Answer: (c) 3
● Explanation: The error is in "as medical ● Corrected Sentence: In India, hill stations usually have
representative." The noun phrase "medical beautiful scenery.
representative" is a singular countable noun and ● Explanation: The error is in "beautiful sceneries." The
requires the article "a" for grammatical correctness. noun "scenery" is uncountable in English and does not
Omitting the article "a" is incorrect in this context. take a plural form, so "sceneries" is incorrect. Using
Adding "a" before "medical representative" corrects the "scenery" as a singular uncountable noun corrects the
structure. form.
● Example: She works as a teacher. (Not She works as ● Example: The park has stunning scenery. (Not The park
teacher.) has stunning sceneries.)

Q703.Sentence: One must learn / to distinguish / good Q707. Sentence: She was ill for five days / when the doctor
from bad. / No error / was sent for./ No error
Options: Options:
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Answer: (c) 3 Answer: (a) 1
● Corrected Sentence: One must learn to distinguish ● Corrected Sentence: She had been ill for five days
good from bad. when the doctor was sent for.
● Explanation: The subject "One" is used in a general ● Explanation: The error is in "was ill for five days." The
sense, meaning anyone or everyone. The verb "must simple past "was" is incorrect because the illness
learn" correctly conveys necessity. "To distinguish occurred before the doctor was sent for, requiring the
good from bad" is a standard expression that means past perfect "had been" to show the sequence of past
to tell the difference between right and wrong or events. Using "was" creates a tense mismatch.
desirable and undesirable. The preposition "from" is Replacing "was" with "had been" corrects the tense for
proper sequence.

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 ● Example: He had been sick for days when help arrived. typically "felt" as physical vibrations, not "heard" as
(Not He was sick for days when help arrived.) sound (unless referring to a specific noise, which isn’t
implied here). Replacing "heard" with "felt" corrects the
Q708.Sentence: The United Nations / enquired for / a verb choice for accuracy in describing natural
cease fire. / No error phenomena.
Options: ● Example: We felt the tremor last night. (Not We heard
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 the tremor last night.)
Answer: (b) 2
● Corrected Sentence: The United Nations called for a Q712. Sentence: He walks / as if the earth / belonged to
ceasefire. him. / No error
● Explanation: The error is in "enquired for." The verb Options:
"enquired" is incorrect in this context, and "for" is non- (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
idiomatic; the standard phrase is "called for or Answer: (d) 4 (No error)
demanded for" when requesting a ceasefire. ● Corrected Sentence: He walks as if the earth belonged
Additionally, "cease fire" should be written as one to him.
word, "ceasefire." Replacing "enquired for" with "called ● Explanation: There is no error. "He walks" uses the
for" and correcting the spelling fixes the phrase. present tense correctly, "as if the earth" introduces a
● Example: They called for peace. (Not They enquired for hypothetical clause, and "belonged to him" correctly
peace.) uses the subjunctive mood ("belonged" instead of
"belongs") for an unreal situation. The sentence is
Q709.Sentence: Ghana, Nigeria and Gambia / each have grammatically sound.
parts to play / in the development of Africa. / No ● Example: She talks as if she knew everything. (Not She
error talks as if she knows everything.)
Options:
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 Q713. Sentence: Many a man / have come to India from
Answer: (b) 2 Bangladesh / to live here permanently. / No error.
● Corrected Sentence: Ghana, Nigeria, and Gambia each Options:
has a part to play in the development of Africa. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
● Explanation: The error is in "each have parts to play." Answer: (b) 2
The verb "have" is incorrect because "each" is singular, ● Corrected Sentence: Many a man has come to India
requiring "has." Additionally, "parts" should be "part" from Bangladesh to live here permanently.
to match the singular "each." Replacing "have" with ● Explanation: The error is in "have come." The verb
"has" and "parts" with "part" corrects the subject-verb "have" is incorrect because "many a man" is a singular
and noun agreement. construction, requiring the singular verb "has." Using
● Example: Each student has a role to play. (Not Each "have" creates a subject-verb agreement error.
student have roles to play.) Replacing "have" with "has" corrects the verb form.
● Example: Many a student has excelled. (Not Many a
Q710.Sentence: In these days of inflation / a ten rupees student have excelled.)
note will not buy you even an ordinary meal. / No
error Q714. Sentence: Our football team / comprises of / eleven
Options: skilled players. / No error
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 Options:
Answer: (b) 2 (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
● Corrected Sentence: In these days of inflation, a ten- Answer: (b) 2
rupee note will not buy you even an ordinary meal. ● Corrected Sentence: Our football team comprises
● Explanation: The error is in "a ten rupees note." The eleven skilled players.
phrase "rupees" is incorrect in this context; the correct ● Explanation: The error is in "comprises of." The verb
form is "ten-rupee," a compound adjective describing "comprises" does not take the preposition "of"; it
the note’s value. Using "rupees" is non-standard for directly takes the object (eleven skilled players). Using
currency denominations. Replacing "rupees" with "of" is redundant and incorrect with "comprise."
"rupee" corrects the adjective form. Removing "of" corrects the verb usage for standard
● Example: A five-dollar bill is enough. (Not A five English.
dollars bill is enough.) ● Example: The committee comprises five members. (Not
The committee comprises of five members.)
Q711. Sentence: Most of my friends / heard the earthquake
/ but I was totally unaware of it. / No error Q715. Sentence: Knowledge and wisdom makes / an
Options: individual truly complete and self-assured. / No
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 error.
Answer: (b) 2 Options:
● Corrected Sentence: Most of my friends felt the (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
earthquake, but I was totally unaware of it. Answer: (a) 1
● Explanation: The error is in "heard the earthquake." ● Corrected Sentence: Knowledge and wisdom make an
The verb "heard" is incorrect because earthquakes are individual truly complete and self-assured.

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 ● Explanation: The error is in "Knowledge and wisdom ● Corrected Sentence: The first innings of the match was
makes." The verb "makes" is incorrect because the very sensational.
compound subject "Knowledge and wisdom" is plural, ● Explanation: The error is in "The first inning." The word
requiring the plural verb "make." Using "makes" "inning" is incorrect in this context; in cricket (implied
creates a subject-verb agreement error. Replacing by the Indian context of prior questions), "innings" is
"makes" with "make" corrects the verb form. used for both singular and plural forms. Using "inning"
● Example: Courage and honesty make a leader. (Not is non-standard in cricket terminology. Replacing
Courage and honesty makes a leader.) "inning" with "innings" corrects the term for proper
usage.
Q716.Sentence: One of the boys / who always give the ● Example: The second innings was thrilling. (Not The
correct answer / is Samuel. / No error second inning was thrilling.)
Options:
Q720.Sentence: How long it takes / to travel from Chennai
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
to Trichy / by train? / No error.
Answer: (b) 2
Options:
● Corrected Sentence: One of the boys who always gives
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
the correct answer is Samuel.
Answer: (a) 1
● Explanation: The error is in "who always give." The verb
● Corrected Sentence: How long does it take to travel
"give" is incorrect because the relative pronoun "who"
from Chennai to Trichy by train?
refers to "one of the boys" (singular "one"), requiring
● Explanation: The error is in "How long it takes." In a
the singular verb "gives." Using "give" creates a
question, the structure requires subject-verb
subject-verb mismatch in the relative clause.
inversion, so "does it take" is correct, not "it takes."
Replacing "give" with "gives" corrects the verb form. Using "it takes" is incorrect for question formation.
● Example: One of the girls who sings well is here. (Not Adding "does" and reordering to "does it take" corrects
One of the girls who sing well is here.) the question structure.
● Example: How long does it take to finish? (Not How
Q717. Sentence: It is high time / we renovate / our old long it takes to finish?)
house. / No error.
Options: Q721.Sentence: One should respect / the religions of
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 others / as much as his own. / No error.
Answer: (b) 2 Options:
● Corrected Sentence: It is high time we renovated our (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
old house. Answer: (c) 3
● Explanation: The error is in "we renovate." After the ● Corrected Sentence: One should respect the religions
phrase "It is high time," the subjunctive mood is used, of others as much as one’s own.
requiring the past tense form of the verb "renovated" ● Explanation: The error is in "as much as his." The
to indicate a suggested action, even though the time is pronoun "his" is incorrect because the subject "one"
present. Using the base form "renovate" is incorrect. requires the gender-neutral possessive "one’s" for
Replacing "renovate" with "renovated" corrects the consistency in formal writing. Using "his" breaks
subjunctive mood. pronoun agreement. Replacing "his" with "one’s"
● Example: It is high time we acted. (Not It is high time corrects the pronoun for consistency.
we act.) ● Example: One must value one’s health. (Not One must
value his health.)
Q718.Sentence: Headmaster / has instructed / the
teachers to follow the rules of the school. / No error. Q722.Sentence: On a holiday / I prefer reading story
Options: books / than visiting my friends. / No error
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 Options:
Answer: (a) 1 (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Answer: (c) 3
● Corrected Sentence: The headmaster has instructed
● Corrected Sentence: On a holiday, I prefer reading
the teachers to follow the rules of the school
story books to visiting my friends.
● Explanation: The error is in "Headmaster." The noun
● Explanation: The error is in "than visiting my." The
"Headmaster" refers to a specific role and requires the
preposition "than" is incorrect after "prefer"; the
definite article "the" for clarity, especially since it’s a
correct structure is "prefer...to" when comparing two
particular headmaster giving instructions. Omitting
actions. Using "than" is non-idiomatic with "prefer."
"the" is incorrect in this context. Adding "the" before
Replacing "than" with "to" corrects the preposition for
"headmaster" corrects the noun phrase. proper usage.
● Example: The principal announced the decision. (Not ● Example: I prefer tea to coffee. (Not I prefer tea than
Principal announced the decision.) coffee.)

Q719.Sentence: The first inning / of the match / was very Q723.Sentence: I was / laying down / when the door bell
sensational. / No error / rang. / No error.
Options: Options:
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Answer: (a) 1 Answer: (b) 2

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 ● Corrected Sentence: I was lying down when the Options:
doorbell rang. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
● Explanation: The error is in "laying down." The verb Answer: (b) 2
"laying" is incorrect because it is transitive (requiring ● Corrected Sentence: Mohan leapt at the opportunity
an object, e.g., laying a book down), while "lying" is that came his way.
intransitive and means to recline, which fits here. ● Explanation: The error is in "on the opportunity." The
Additionally, "door bell" should be "doorbell" (one preposition "on" is incorrect; the idiomatic expression
word). Replacing "laying" with "lying" corrects the verb is "leapt at the opportunity," meaning to eagerly seize
choice. a chance. Using "on" is non-idiomatic in this context.
● Example: She was lying on the couch. (Not She was Replacing "on" with "at" corrects the preposition for
laying on the couch.) the standard idiom.
● Example: She leapt at the chance to travel. (Not She
Q724.Sentence: I told the teacher / that the homework set leapt on the chance to travel.)
for the day / was much too heavy for us to complete.
/ No error. Q728.Sentence: Water contamination has become more
Options: serious / since chemists have begun to use / new
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 substances. / No error.
Answer: (d) 4 (No error) Options:
● Corrected Sentence: I told the teacher that the (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
homework set for the day was too difficult. Answer: (d) 4 (No error)
● Explanation: Assuming the completed sentence, there ● Corrected Sentence: Water contamination has become
is no error. "I told the teacher" uses reported speech more serious since chemists have begun to use new
correctly, "that the homework set for the day" is a substances.
proper noun clause, and "was" aligns with the past ● Explanation: There is no error in the sentence. "Water
tense. The sentence is grammatically sound. contamination has become more serious" uses the
● Example: She said the task assigned was tough. (Not present perfect correctly to indicate a continuing
She said the task assign was tough.) issue. "Since chemists have begun to use" employs the
present perfect "have begun" appropriately with
Q725.Sentence: Someone, they don’t know / who, knocked "since" to denote a starting point in the past. "New
at / their door at midnight. / No error substances" is a clear and correct object. The sentence
Options: is grammatically correct.
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Answer: (a) 1 Q729.Sentence: Due to inflation / the cost of living /
● Corrected Sentence: Someone they don’t know escalated in the last one year. / No error
knocked at their door in the night. Options:
● Explanation: The error is in "Someone, they don’t know (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
who." The appositive phrase "they don’t know who" is Answer: (c) 3
awkward and redundant; a simpler relative clause ● Corrected Sentence: Due to inflation, the cost of living
"they don’t know" directly modifies "someone" without escalated in the last year.
needing "who." Rewriting the phrase corrects the ● Explanation: The error is in "in the last one year." The
structure for clarity and grammatical accuracy. phrase "one year" is incorrect; the standard expression
● Example: A man they didn’t know called. (Not A man, is "in the last year" without "one," as "last" already
they didn’t know who, called.) implies a single year. Using "one" is redundant and
non-standard in this context. Removing "one" corrects
Q726.Sentence: Seldom if ever / nature does operate / in the time expression.
closed and separate compartments. / No error. ● Example: Prices rose in the last year. (Not Prices rose
Options: in the last one year.)
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Answer: (b) 2 Q730.Sentence: Just as / I was entering the room, / the
● Corrected Sentence: Seldom if ever does nature family was going for a party. / No error
operate in closed and separate compartments. Options:
● Explanation: The error is in "nature does operate." The (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
word order is incorrect; with "seldom if ever" at the Answer: (d) 4 (No error)
beginning, inversion is required, placing "does" before ● Corrected Sentence: Just as I was entering the room,
"nature" (does nature operate). The current order the family was going for a party.
violates the inversion rule for negative adverbs like ● Explanation: Assuming the completed sentence, there
"seldom." Reordering to "does nature operate" corrects is no error. "Just as" is a correct conjunction for
the structure. simultaneous actions, "I was entering the room" uses
● Example: Seldom does she miss a deadline. (Not the past continuous correctly, and "the family was
Seldom she does miss a deadline.) going for a walk" is grammatically sound. The sentence
is correct and properly structured.
Q727. Sentence: Mohan leapt / on the opportunity / that ● Example: Just as he arrived, the meeting started. (Not
came his way. / No error Just as he arrives, the meeting started.)

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 ENGLISH VOCABULARIES

IDIOMS AND PHRASES

S.NO IDIOM MEANING EXAM

1126 Every cloud has a silver lining Even bad situations have something good hidden in them SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1127 Fair-weather friend A person who is only your friend in good times SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1128 Flash in the pan Something that starts well but fails quickly. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1129 For better or (for) worse Accepting outcomes whether they are good or bad. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1130 For good Forever; permanently SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1131 From cradle to grave Throughout one's life SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1132 Give cold shoulder To ignore or deliberately show no interest in someone. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1133 Go easy on something Use or do something sparingly or carefully SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1134 Got up on the wrong side of the bed To start the day in a bad mood for no clear reason. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1135 Grease someone’s palm To bribe someone secretly. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1136 Green light Official permission to go ahead or proceed. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
1137 Hale and hearty Healthy and full of energy SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1138 High time The right time or already overdue time for action SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1139 In full swing At the peak of activity SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1140 In queer street In financial trouble SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1141 In the heat of the moment Acting emotionally or impulsively without thinking clearly. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1142 In the same boat Facing the same problem or situation as others. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1143 Jumping through hoops To go through complicated procedures or tasks SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1144 Knuckle down To begin to work hard or focus on something SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1145 Lock horns Get into a serious argument or fight SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1146 On cloud nine Extremely happy and excited SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1147 On the spur of the moment Do something suddenly without planning SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1148 One’s cup of tea Something you like or enjoy. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1149 Provide a blueprint Give a detailed plan or guide SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1150 Quicken the pulse Cause excitement or strong emotion SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1151 Rome was not built in a day Important work takes time and patience SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1152 Sacred cow Something considered immune to criticism SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1153 Scratching their heads Feeling confused or unsure SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1154 The calm before the storm Peaceful moment before chaos SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1155 The lion’s share The largest and most important part. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1156 The movers and shakers Powerful or influential people SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1157 To beat a retreat To leave quickly or withdraw from a situation SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1158 To explore every avenue To try every opportunity SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1159 To foot the bill To pay the expenses. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1160 To get on the nerves To irritate or make someone very annoyed SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1161 To get wind of Hear a rumor or learn something secret SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1162 To go down in flames Fail spectacularly or suffer a dramatic and total defeat SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1163 To have a nodding acquaintance To know someone/something slightly or casually. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1164 To have bigger fish to fry To have more important work to do SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1165 To hit below the belt Attack someone unfairly SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

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 1166 To make up one’s mind Decide or come to a conclusion SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1167 To mind one's P's and Q's To be on one's best behavior, being careful with SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
manners and speech.

1168 To miss the bus Lose an opportunity. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1169 To play with fire To take unnecessary and risky chances. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

1170 To pull your weight To do your fair share of work in a group or team. SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION

S.NO WORD MEANING EXAM

751 Nascent Beginning to exist; newly formed SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
752 Natives People who belong to the same country SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
753 Nomad A group of people who wander from place to place SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
754 Odyssey A long wandering or voyage SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
755 Ordeal An unpleasant or difficult experience SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
756 Orthodox A person holding religiously strict traditional beliefs SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
757 Pacifist One who hates war and loves peace SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
758 Pandemic A disease that spreads worldwide SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
759 Parasite A living organism that steals nourishment from others SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
760 Portfolio A portable case for holding papers/drawings SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
761 Potable Fit to drink SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
762 Propaganda Biased/misleading information to promote a cause SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
763 Proscribe To forbid something, especially by law SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
764 Pungent Having a sharply strong taste or smell SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
765 Sabotage Act of destroying/damaging something SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1

766 Scapegoat One unfairly blamed for others' actions SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
767 Sculptor One who gives shape to stone SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
768 Serpentarium A place where snakes are kept SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
769 Sheath A case in which a blade is enclosed SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
770 Souvenir A thing that is kept as a reminder SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
771 Stall A small shop with one or more open sides SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
772 Suffrage Rights to vote in an election SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
773 Tadpole The young of a frog SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
774 Transparent That can be seen through SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
775 Trumpet The sound of elephants SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
776 Verbatim In exactly the same words SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
777 Virtue Ethically good behavior or use SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
778 Wardrobe A large cupboard to store clothes SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
779 Zodiac Diagram showing the path of planets SSC MTS 2022 Tier -1
780 Album Book for photos or stamps collection SSC SELECTION POST PHASE (IX) 2022

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

S.NO WORD MEANING SYNONYM ANTONYM EXAM

876 STRIFE Conflict or struggle Discord, Dispute Peace, Harmony SSC MTS 2021

877 SUCCINCT Briefly and clearly Concise, Terse, Laconic Wordy, Lengthy SSC MTS 2021
expressed

878 TAWDRY Showy but cheap and of Gaudy, Flashy, Garish Elegant, Tasteful SSC MTS 2021
poor quality

879 TIRADE A long, angry speech of Rant, Harangue, Praise, Compliment SSC MTS 2021
criticism Diatribe

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 S.NO WORD MEANING SYNONYM ANTONYM EXAM

880 VEHEMENT Showing strong feeling; Passionate, Intense, Mild, Apathetic SSC MTS 2021
forceful Fierce

881 XENOPHOBIA Dislike or prejudice Intolerance, Bias, Acceptance, Tolerance, SSC MTS 2021
against foreigners Bigotry Inclusiveness

882 SUBLIME Of very great excellence Majestic, Exalted, Noble Lowly, Inferior, SSC MTS 2021,SSC
or beauty Ordinary CHSL 2021

883 ACRIMONY Bitterness or ill feeling Bitterness, Hostility, Harmony, Kindness, SSC MTS 2022
Resentment Goodwill

884 AMBIVALENT Having mixed feelings or Uncertain, Conflicted Decisive, Certain SSC MTS 2022
contradictory ideas

885 AMIABLE Having a friendly manner Kind, Cordial, Pleasant Unfriendly, Rude, SSC MTS 2022
Unpleasant

886 ANOMALY Something that deviates Irregularity, Aberration, Regularity, Normality SSC MTS 2022
from what is standard, Deviation
normal, or expected.

887 ARREARS Money that is owed and Debt, Outstanding Paid, Settled SSC MTS 2022
overdue

888 ARTICULATE Able to express oneself Expressive, Fluent, Mumbled, Inarticulate, SSC MTS 2022
clearly Eloquent Hesitant

889 ASSIDUITY Constant effort and Diligence, Perseverance Laziness, Neglect SSC MTS 2022
attention

890 AVID Having a keen interest in Enthusiastic, Eager Apathetic, Indifferent SSC MTS 2022
something

891 AXIOM Self-evident truth Principle, Maxim Fallacy, Absurdity SSC MTS 2022

892 BACCHANAL A drunken feast or Revelry, Carousal, Orgy Sobriety, Abstinence SSC MTS 2022
celebration.

893 BUREAUCRACY A system of government Administration, Anarchy, Chaos SSC MTS 2022
with many state officials Governance

894 BURGEON Grow and expand rapidly Flourish, Thrive Shrink, Decline SSC MTS 2022

895 CASTIGATE Criticize harshly Reprimand, Scold Praise, Commend SSC MTS 2022

896 COMPLIANT Obeying rules Obedient, Submissive, Defiant, Rebellious, SSC MTS 2022
Docile Resistant

897 COTERIE Small, exclusive group of Clique, Inner circle Crowd, Public SSC MTS 2022
people

898 DENIZEN Inhabitant of a place Resident, Dweller Foreigner, Outsider SSC MTS 2022

899 DEPLETE To reduce significantly Exhaust, Drain, Consume Replenish, Restore, SSC MTS 2022
Refill

900 DIFFIDENT Shy and lacking Timid, Hesitant Confident, Bold SSC MTS 2022
confidence

901 DUPLICITY Deceitfulness Deception, Fraud Honesty, Integrity SSC MTS 2022

902 EDIBLE Safe to eat Consumable, Eatable Inedible, Toxic SSC MTS 2022

903 ENCROACH Intrude on someone’s Trespass, Infringe Respect, Refrain SSC MTS 2022
territory

904 EPITOME A perfect example of Embodiment, Archetype, Imperfection, Flaw, SSC MTS 2022
something. Quintessence Incompleteness

905 EQUANIMITY Mental calmness, Poise, Serenity Anxiety, Agitation SSC MTS 2022
composure

906 ERRONEOUS Incorrect Mistaken, Incorrect, Correct, Accurate, SSC MTS 2022
Inaccurate Precise

907 EXTRANEOUS Irrelevant or unnecessary Unrelated, Superfluous Essential, Necessary SSC MTS 2022

908 FATUOUS Silly and pointless Foolish, Inane Sensible, Intelligent SSC MTS 2022

909 FLAGRANT Conspicuously offensive Blatant, Egregious Subtle, Concealed SSC MTS 2022
or bad

910 FORBEARANCE Patience, self-control Restraint, Tolerance Impatience, Agitation SSC MTS 2022

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 PHRASAL VERBS

S.NO VERB MEANING

251 Look into To investigate
252 Look forward To anticipate pleasantly
253 Make off To conclude, depart hastily
254 Make up To settle
255 Make after To pursue
256 Make over To transfer
257 Make up To compensate
258 Make out To manage to see or understand
259 Make income To earn
260 Pull through Recover from illness

CURRENT AFFAIRS

Other Appointments

Appointee Role Organization Date Key Details

28th CGA, oversees accounts under Article 150.

Controller General of CGA, Ministry of Established 1976, headquartered in New Delhi.
SS Dubey March 2023
Accounts Finance Succeeded Bharati Das. First: C.S.
Swaminathan.
Oversees defence accounts. Established 1864,
Mayank Controller General of CGDA, Ministry of
March 2025 headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
Sharma Defence Accounts Defence
Pratap Kumar.
Enforces FEMA, PMLA. Established 1956,
In-charge (Acting) Enforcement September
Rahul Navin headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
Director Directorate 2023
Sanjay Kumar Mishra.
Justice Handles military justice. Established 2007,
November
Rajendra Chairman Armed Forces Tribunal headquartered in New Delhi. Re-appointed,
2023
Menon former Delhi HC Chief Justice.
Foreign intelligence, under Cabinet
Research and Analysis
Ravi Sinha Chief June 2023 Secretariat. Established 1968, headquartered
Wing
in New Delhi. Succeeded Samant Goel.
Technical intelligence, under NSA. Established
National Technical
Arun Sinha Chairman April 2023 2004, headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
Research Organisation
Anil Dhasmana.
Regulates aviation safety. Established 1927,
Vikram Dev Directorate General of
Director-General February 2023 headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded Arun
Dutt Civil Aviation
Kumar.
Regulates civil aviation safety. Established
Faiz Ahmed Directorate General of
Director General January 2025 1927, headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
Kidwai Civil Aviation
Vikram Dev Dutt.
First Dalit CIC, oversees RTI Act. Established
Heeralal Chief Information Central Information November
2005, headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
Samariya Commissioner Commission 2023
YK Sinha. First: Wajahat Habibullah.
Promotes integrity in public administration.
Praveen Kumar Central Vigilance Central Vigilance Established 1964, statutory status 2003,
May 2023
Srivastava Commissioner Commission headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
Suresh N Patel. First: Nittoor Srinivasa Rau.
25th DG, protects maritime interests.
Established 1978, under Ministry of Defence,
Rakesh Pal Director General Indian Coast Guard July 2023
headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded VS
Pathania. First: V.A. Kamath.

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 Appointee Role Organization Date Key Details

Promotes cooperative federalism. Established

BVR 2015, headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
CEO NITI Aayog February 2023
Subrahmanyam Parameswaran Iyer. First: Sindhushree
Khullar.
Advises on policy planning. Established 2015,
Vice-Chairman 2022, extended
Suman Bery NITI Aayog headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded Rajiv
(Ongoing) to 2025
Kumar.
Pension Fund Regulates pensions. Established 2003, under
Deepak March 2023 -
Chairperson Regulatory Ministry of Finance, headquartered in New
Mohanty June 20, 2025
Development Authority Delhi. Succeeded Supratim Bandyopadhyay.
Investigates corruption, motto: “Industry,
Central Bureau of Impartiality, Integrity.” Established 1963,
Praveen Sood Director May 2023
Investigation under Ministry of Personnel. Succeeded
Subodh Kumar Jaiswal.
First female chief, secures institutions.
Central Industrial December
Nina Singh Director General Established 1969, headquartered in New Delhi.
Security Force 2023
Succeeded Sheel Vardhan Singh.
Rajwinder Central Industrial Senior IPS officer, succeed Nina Singh.
Director General Sept 2024
Singh Bhatti Security Force Manages institutional security.
Protects PM, motto: “Sauryam Samarpanam
Special Protection November Suraksanam.” Established 1985,
Alok Sharma Chief
Group 2023 headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded S.
Suresh.
Enforces Competition Act 2002, operational
Competition since 2009. Established 2003, headquartered
Ravneet Kaur Chairperson May 2023
Commission of India in New Delhi. Succeeded Ashok Kumar Gupta.
First: Dhanendra Kumar.
Conducts geological surveys. Established 1851,
Janardan Geological Survey of
Director General June 2023 under Ministry of Mines, headquartered in
Prasad India
Kolkata. Succeeded Dr. S. Raju.
16th Attorney General, highest law officer
R.
Attorney General Government of India 2022 under Article 76. Headquartered in New Delhi.
Venkatramani
Succeeded KK Venugopal.
Handles environmental cases. Established
Prakash National Green
Chairperson March 2024 2011, headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
Shrivastava Tribunal
Justice Adarsh Kumar Goel.
Oversees nuclear energy, under PM.
Ajit Kumar Atomic Energy
Chairman May 2023 Established 1948, headquartered in Mumbai.
Mohanty Commission
Succeeded KN Vyas.
Conducts civil service exams. Established
Union Public Service
Manoj Soni Chairman May 2023 1926, headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
Commission
existing chairman. First: Ross Barker.
Union Public Service Aug 2024 - Apr Senior IAS officer, likely to succeed Soni.
Preeti Sudan Chairman
Commission 2025 Oversees UPSC examinations.
Union Public Service Senior IAS officer, likely to succeed Soni.
Ajay Kumar Chairman May 2025
Commission Oversees UPSC examinations.
Amrit Mohan September Senior IPS officer, likely to succeed Shukla.
Director General Sashastra Seema Bal
Prasad 2024 Manages border security.
Food Safety and Regulates food safety. Established 2008, under
Ganji Kamala V. December
CEO Standards Authority of Ministry of Health, headquartered in New
Rao 2022
India Delhi. Succeeded Arun Singhal.
Insurance Regulatory Regulates insurance. Established 1999,
Debasish
Chairman and Development March 2022 headquartered in Hyderabad. Succeeded
Panda
Authority of India Subhash Chandra Khuntia.
Manages Indian Railways. Established 1905,
Anil Kumar under Ministry of Railways. Succeeded VK
Chairman and CEO Railway Board January 2023
Lahoti Tripathi. First woman CEO: Jaya Varma Sinha
(2023).
National Bank for
Finances infrastructure projects. Established
Financing
KV Kamath Chairman October 2021 2021, headquartered in Mumbai. Succeeded
Infrastructure and
existing chairman.
Development

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 Appointee Role Organization Date Key Details

Manages highway development. Established

Santosh Kumar National Highways December
Chairman 1988, operational 1995, headquartered in New
Yadav Authority of India 2022
Delhi. Succeeded existing chairman.
New Delhi Promotes arbitration. Established 2019,
Justice Hemant December
Chairperson International headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
Gupta 2022
Arbitration Centre Justice Pradeep Nandrajog.
Advises on legal reforms, three-year term.
Justice Rituraj November Established 1955, headquartered in New Delhi.
Chairman 22nd Law Commission
Awasthi 2022 Succeeded Justice BS Chauhan. First: MC
Setalvad.
Indian Renewable Finances renewable energy. Established 1987,
Pradip Kumar Chairman and
Energy Development 2023 under MNRE, headquartered in New Delhi.
Das Managing Director
Agency Succeeded existing CMD.
Handles cotton trade. Established 1970, under
Lalit Kumar Chairman and Cotton Corporation of
2023 Ministry of Textiles, headquartered in Mumbai.
Gupta Managing Director India
Succeeded Pradeep Kumar Agarwal.
Advises on OBC welfare, constitutional status
Hansraj National Commission December 2018 (Article 338B). Established 1993,
Chairman
Gangaram Ahir for Backward Classes 2022 headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
Bhagwan Lal Sahni.
First woman chairperson, administers direct
Mamta Central Board of November
Chairperson taxes, under Ministry of Finance. Succeeded
Upadhyay Direct Taxes 2024
Ravi Agrawal.
June 2023, Internal security. Established 1887,
Tapan Kumar
Director Intelligence Bureau extended to headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded Arvind
Deka
June 2025 Kumar.
Advocates for women’s rights. Established
Vijaya Kishore National Commission
Chairperson October 2024 1992, headquartered in New Delhi. Succeeded
Rahatkar for Women
Rekha Sharma.
Handles securities law appeals. Established
Justice Dinesh Securities Appellate September
Presiding Officer 1997, headquartered in Mumbai. Succeeded
Kumar Tribunal 2024
existing officer.

Political and Administrative Roles Table

Individual Role State/Organization Date Key Details

Led India’s delegation to 9th BRICS

Harivansh Parliamentary Forum,
Deputy Chairperson, Rajya Re-elected in
Narayan Parliament of India Johannesburg. Rajya Sabha,
Sabha September 2020
Singh established 1952, upper house of
Parliament.
Presides over Rajya Sabha,
Vice President and Rajya
Jagdeep August 2022, appointed Vice President. Succeeded
Sabha Chairperson Parliament of India
Dhankhar extended to 2025 M. Venkaiah Naidu. Constitutional
(Ongoing)
role under Article 63.
Founded TVK, slogan: “Pirappokkum
Ellaa Uyirkkum.” Actor-turned -
President, Tamilaga Vettri Tamilaga Vettri politician. Other actor-founded
Vijay February 2024
Kazhagam Kazhagam (TVK) parties: AIADMK (M.G.
Ramachandran), TDP (N.T. Rama
Rao).
Science and Congress Rajya Sabha MP from
Jairam Chairperson, Parliamentary Technology, Karnataka. Committee oversees
September 2023
Ramesh Committee Environment, Forests, policy review, established under
Climate Change parliamentary rules.
Congress President, appointed
Mallikarjun Leader of Opposition, Rajya Leader of Opposition in Rajya
Parliament of India February 2024
Kharge Sabha Sabha. Succeeded Jairam Ramesh in
opposition leadership role.

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