Introduction to Fuel Cell

Course: Introduction to Electric Vehicles

B.Tech VII Semester 22/09/2023
 Outline
• History of fuel cell
• Introduction
• Basic components and working
• Battery and fuel cell
• Electrolysis and fuel cell
• Types of fuel cell
• Characteristics of fuel cell
• Water, thermal and fuel management problems
• Applications
• Future work

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 History
Humphry Davy (1801) Charles Langer and Ludwig Mond
William Grove (1838) invent
Demonstrate the (1889) researched fuel cells using
gas battery (1st fuel cell) coal gas as a fuel
principle

Francis Bacon (1932) General Electric (1950) NASA (1960) uses FCs
developed AFC developed PEMFC in space mission

US NAVY (1980) uses (1990) Large stationary

FCs in submarines FC were developed

2007 – FC begins to be sold commercially

2009 – Portable fuel cells saw the most
rapid rate of growth

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 Introduction
• Fuel cell is galvanic cell in which the chemical
energy of a fuel is converted directly into
electrical energy by means of electrochemical
processes
• Fuel cells are unique in terms of the variety of
their potential applications; they can provide
energy for systems as large as a utility power
station and as small as a laptop computer.

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 Basics
• It uses hydrogen fuel to produce electricity in a battery
like device
• The basic chemical reaction is:
2H2 + O2 −−−→ 2H2O
• The product is water, and energy
• There is no nitrous oxide produced by reactions
between the components of the air used in the cell.
• Direct conversion of free energy in the fuel into
electric energy, without undergoing combustion
• A fuel cell vehicle could be described as zero-emission

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 Basic components
• It consists of two electrodes (anode and cathode) with an
electrolyte between them
– The anode is supplied with a fuel (e.g. hydrogen)
– The cathode with the oxidant (e.g. oxygen or air)
• The fuel is oxidized (i.e. electrons are released) at the anode
and at the cathode; oxidant is reduced (i.e. electrons are
absorbed)
• Electrolyte is a solution/membrane it must permit only the
necessary ions to pass between the anode and cathode
• Each of the electrodes is coated on one side with a catalyst
layer that speeds up the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen.

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 Catalyst
• Catalyst is usually made of platinum powder very
thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth
• The catalyst is rough and porous so the maximum
surface area of the platinum can be exposed to
the hydrogen or oxygen
• Platinum-group metals are critical to catalyzing
reactions in the fuel cell, but they are very
expensive
• Researchers are working to reduce the use of
platinum in fuel cell or eliminate it altogether to
decrease the cost of fuel cells

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 Schematic of Fuel Cell

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How a Hydrogen Fuel Cell Works
 Chemical reactions
• Anode: H2 → 2 H+ + 2e- (Oxidation)

• Cathode: ½ O2 + 2 H+ + 2e- → H2O (Reduction)

• Overall Reaction: H2 + ½ O2 → H2O

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 In contrast to the a chemical battery
• Both batteries and fuel cells convert chemical potential energy
into electrical energy
• A battery holds a closed store of energy within it and once this is
depleted the battery must be discarded, or recharged by using an
external supply of electricity to drive the electrochemical reaction
in the reverse direction
• A fuel cell uses an external supply of chemical energy and can run
indefinitely, as long as it is supplied with a source of hydrogen and
a source of oxygen
• The fuel cell generates electric energy rather than storing it and
continues to do so as long as fuel supply is maintained
• Compared with the battery-powered Electric Vehicles, the
fuel-cell-powered vehicle has the advantages of a longer driving
range without a long battery charging time

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 Energy density Vs Power density

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 Electrolysis and Fuel Cell

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 Electrolysis

By providing energy from

a battery, water (H2O) can
be dissociated into the
diatomic molecules of
hydrogen (H2)
and oxygen (O2).

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 Electrolysis and Fuel Cell

Electrolyser Fuel Cell

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/electrol.html
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 Electrolysis and Fuel cell
• With electrolysis the enthalpy change is 285.8
kJ, and it is necessary to put in 23 kJ of energy
to drive electrolysis, and the heat from the
environment will contribute 48.7 kJ to
complete the reaction
• Contrary when a fuel cell operates, one gets
237 kJ as electric energy, and the energy 48.7
kJ is dumped into the environment

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 Fuel cell efficiency limit
The chemical energy released in a reaction can also be thought of as consisting of two
parts:
1) the entropy-free part (or the free energy, called ΔG)
2) a quantity of (rejected) heat

The maximum possible efficiency is the ratio:

ηmax = maxium power work/total heat of reaction = ΔG/ΔH

For a PEM fuel cell @ STP:

H2 + (0.5)O2→ H20 (l) ΔH = -285.8 kJ/mol of H2
ΔG = -237.2 kJ/mol - (0 + 0) = -237.2 kJ/mol

η = ΔG/ΔH = (-237.2 kJ/mol)/(-285.8 kJ/mol) = 0.83 = 83%

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 Fuel Cell Efficiency

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 Types of Fuel Cells

• Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)

• Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)
• Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)
• Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)
• Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
• Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC)

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Cont……..
Proton Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cell
(PEMFC)
Electrolyte: Proton conducting
membrane (Perfluorosulphonic
acid polymer)

Anode: H2 → 2H+ +2e−

Advantages
Cathode: ⚫ Solid electrolyte reduces corrosion & electrolyte
(1/2) O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2O management problems.
⚫ Low temperature
Overall reaction: ⚫ Quick start-up
H2 + (1/2) O2 → H2O ⚫ Longer lifetime and
⚫ Cheaper to manufacture
Applications Disadvantages
• Transportation
⚫ Expensive catalysts
• Backup power
⚫ Sensitive to fuel impurities
• Portable
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⚫ Low
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temperature waste heat 20
• Distributed generation
Cont……..
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

If operates on hydrocarbon such as natural gas, it reformed to form H2 by the

following reactions:

CH4 +H2O 3H2 + CO

CO+H2O H2 + CO2

Platinum catalyst has greater affinity for CO than oxygen

Electrode poisoning

The poison prevent hydrogen and oxygen from reaching to the catalyst

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Cont……..
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)

Electrolyte : Potassium
hydroxide(KOH) in water based
solution. KOH is alkaline.

At anode (Oxidation)
2H2 + 4OH− → 4H2O + 4e−

At cathode (Reduction) Advantages

O2 + 2H2O + 4e− → 4OH−
• High performance
Temperatures between 60oC and 230oC • Low cost components
• Simple structures
Disadvantages
Applications • Very clean fuel required.(Pure H2)
• Military • Sensitive to CO2 in fuel and air.
• Space (Poisoning effect)
• Forklift trucks and transportation
• Electrolyte management (water
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management)
Cont……..
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
(PAFC)
Electrolyte: Liquid phosphoric acid
(H3PO4). (Acidic electrolyte)

At anode (Oxidation)
2H2 → 4H+ + 4e−

At cathode (Reduction)
O2 + 4H+ + 4e−→ 2H2O

Temperature range of 150–220oC. Advantages

⚫ Cheap electrolyte
Phosphoric acid electrolyte must be ⚫ Higher temperature enables CHP.
kept above 42oC, which is its
⚫ Increased tolerance to fuel impurities.
freezing point. Every time fuel cell
is started, some energy is spend to Disadvantages
heat it up to operating temperature. ⚫ Costly Pt catalyst
⚫ Long start up time
Applications
• Distributed generation ⚫ Low current and power
• On-site stationary applications
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Cont……..
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

Electrolyte :Yttria stabilized zirconia

(YSZ) is the most commonly used.
(Hard ceramic material)

Overall reaction

O2 + H2 + CO H2O + CO2 Advantages

⚫ Fuel flexibility (CO and CH4 can be used as fuel)
⚫ Can use variety of catalysts
Applications ⚫ Solid electrolyte no corrosion
• Auxiliary power ⚫ Exhaust heat can be used for the generation of steam for
cogeneration
• Electric utility
⚫ Fast reaction kinetics because of high temperature
• Distributed generation
Disadvantages
⚫ High temperature places stringent requirements on the
materials of construction
⚫ High temperature operation requires long start up time and
limits

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Cont……..
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
(MCFC)
Electrolyte: molten carbonate salt
like lithium-potassium carbonate or
lithium sodium carbonate
At anode (Oxidation)
H2 + CO32− → H2O + CO2 + 2e−
At cathode (Reduction)
(1/2) O2 + CO2 + 2e− → CO32−
Advantages
Need to provide CO2 at cathode
⚫ High efficiency
which can be recycled from anode.
⚫ Fuel flexibility
It works at high temperature (650oC) ⚫ Can use a variety of catalysts
Disadvantages
Applications ⚫ Carbonates are alkaline and corrosive at
• Electric utility high temperature
• Distributed generation ⚫ Long start up time
• Industrial and military applications
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Cont……..
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
(DMFC)

•(DMFC) is promoted type of the

PEMFCs.
•Energy source of the DMFC systems
is methanol.

Anode Advantages
+ −
CH3OH + H2O → CO2 + 6H + 6e
• Reduced cost due to absence of fuel reformer.
Cathode Disadvantages
(3/2) O2 + 6e− + 6H+ → 3H2O • Dehydrating the membrane, less lifetime and
high temperature required for fuel
Methanol is a simplest organic fuel, vaporization.
most economical, easily obtain from Applications
agriculture products, easily stored • Replace batteries in mobiles; computers and
and distributed other portable devices, vehicular applications
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 Fuel Cell Technologies

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 Fuel Cell Technologies

PEMFC DMFC AFC PAFC MCFC SOFC

H2 H2, CO, CH4, H2, CO, CH4,

Fuel H2 CH3OH H2
hydrocarbons hydrocarbons
Potasium Phosporic Lithium and Solid oxide
Solid polymer Solid polymer
Electrolyte hydroxide acid (H3PO4 potassium (yttria,
(usually Nafion) (usually Nafion)
(KOH) solution) carbonate zirconia)
Charge carried in
H+ H+ OH- H+ CO3-2 O2-
electrolyte
Operational
temperature (oC) 50 – 100 50 - 90 60 - 120 175 – 200 650 1000
Efficiency (%) 35 – 60 < 50 35 – 55 35 – 45 45 – 55 50 – 60
Unit Size (KW) 0.1 – 500 << 1 <5 5 – 2000 800 – 2000 > 2.5
Installed Cost ($/kW) 4000 > 5000 < 1000* 3000 – 3500 800 – 2000 1300 - 2000

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 Comparison of Different Fuel Cell Technologies

⚫ Applications of fuel cells depend on the type of fuel cell to be used.

⚫ With various types of fuel cell technologies available, it is necessary

to clarify which technology is best suited to a specific application.

⚫ Fuel cells can produce a wide range of power from 1 to 10 MW;

hence they can be employed in almost any application that needs
power.

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 Other Fuel Cell Types
Regenerative Fuel Cells (RFCs)
⚫ Regenerative Fuel Cells (RFCs) are attractive as a closed-loop form of
power generation.
⚫ PEM and SOFC regenerative fuel cell system systems are currently in
development.
Zinc Air Fuel Cells (ZAFCs)
⚫ Zinc Air Fuel Cells (ZAFCs) combine zinc pellets and air with an
electrolyte to create electricity.
⚫ ZAFC systems have potential use in transport applications .
Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs)
⚫ Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) use the catalytic reaction of microorganisms
to convert virtually any organic matter (e.g. glucose, acetate and
wastewater) into fuel.
⚫ Enclosed in oxygen-free anodes, organic compounds are consumed by
bacteria or other microbes.
⚫ As part of the digestive process, electrons are pulled from the fuel and
conducted into a circuit with the help of inorganic mediator chemicals.
MFCs operate in mild conditions between 68-104⁰F.
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 Fuel Cell System
• System consist of four basic components:
– Fuel cell stack
– Fuel processor
– Current inverters and conditioners
– Heat recovery system

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 Fuel cell stack
• A single fuel cell produces enough electricity
for only the smallest applications.
• Therefore, individual fuel cells are typically
combined in series into a fuel cell stack.
• A typical fuel cell stack may consist of
hundreds of fuel cells.

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 Fuel Processor
• The fuel processor converts fuel into a form useable by the
fuel cell.
• If hydrogen is fed to the system, a processor may not be
required, or it may be needed only to filter impurities out of
the hydrogen gas.
• If the system is powered by a hydrogen-rich, conventional
fuel, such as methanol, gasoline, diesel, or gasified coal, a
reformer is typically used to convert hydrocarbons into a
gas mixture of hydrogen and carbon compounds called
"reformate."
• The reformate is then sent to another reactor to remove
impurities, such as carbon oxides or sulfur, before it is sent
to the fuel cell stack.

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 Power conditioning
• Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of
direct current (DC).
• Power conditioning includes controlling
current flow (amperes), voltage, frequency,
and other characteristics of the electrical
current to meet the needs of the application.

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 Heat recovery system
• Significant amounts of heat is generated by
some fuel cell systems—especially those that
operate at high temperatures, such as solid
oxide and molten carbonate systems
• Excess energy can be used to produce steam
or hot water or to be converted to electricity
via a gas turbine or other technology.

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 Polarization Curve of FC

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 Characteristics of Fuel Cell
⚫ The ideal standard potential of a hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell at standard state
conditions (25oC and 1 atm) is 1.229 V with liquid water product.

⚫ There are three types of irreversible losses, namely activation losses, ohmic
losses, and concentration losses. The output voltage of the single cell is given
by equation.

ENernst = thermodynamic potential of the cell

Vcell = ENernst -Vact - Vohmic – Vcon

Vact = activation losses

Vohmic = ohmic losses

Vcon = concentration losses

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 Activation loss
• The activation loss occurs because the chemical
process initially has not begun, thus activation energy
is necessary to insure that the reaction tends toward
the formation of water and electricity
• These losses are basically representative of a loss of
overall voltage at the expense of forcing the reaction
to completion, which is forcing the hydrogen to split
into electrons and protons, and for the protons to
travel though the electrolyte, and then combine with
the oxygen and returning electrons

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 Ohmic losses
• This type of loss occurs because of the
resistance to the flow of electrons in the
interconnect, the anode and the cathode.
• This loss, like all Ohmic losses, is directly
proportional to the current.

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 Concentration losses
• It essentially occurs because the fuel cell is
using fuel or oxygen faster than it can be
supplied
• If the hydrogen is being used at a very
vigorous rate at the anode then the partial
pressure of the hydrogen drops, thus slowing
the reaction rate
• This is also the same case that occurs at the
cathode with oxygen

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 Polarization Curve of FC
• Fuel cell power density increases
with increasing current density,
Reaches a maximum, and then falls
at still higher current densities.
• Fuel cells are designed to operate at
or below the power density
maximum.
• At current densities below the
power density maximum, voltage
efficiency improves but power
density falls.
• At current densities above the
power density maximum, both
voltage efficiency and power
density fall.

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 Efficiency with electric vehicle
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
oil (gasoline) -> IC engine 15%
BATTERY POWERED ELECTRIC VEHICLE
Oil-> power plant -> electricity ~=45%
transmission~=80%
battery charging ~=80%
electric drive system ~=80%
.45 x .8 x .8 x .8 = 23%
FUEL CELL POWERED ELECTRIC VEHICLE
Oil-> power plant-> electricity~=45%
electricity transmission ~=80%
H2 electrolyzer max efficiency ~=70%
H2 fuel cell max efficiency ~=50%
Electric drive system ~=80%
.45 x .8 x .7 x .5 x .8 = 10%
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 Hydrogen Energy Overview
⚫ The main fuel for fuel cells is hydrogen.

⚫ Hydrogen is a common element found in all fossil fuels and all organic
matter. In its pure molecular form, H2 (hydrogen) is a colourless,
odourless, nontoxic gas.

⚫ One pound of hydrogen holds 52,000 Btu, three times the energy of a
pound of gasoline.

Hydrogen Benefits
One advantage is that it stores approximately
⚫ Available 2.6 times the energy per unit mass as gasoline,
and the disadvantage is that it needs about 4
times the volume for a given amount of
⚫ Energy Security energy.

⚫ Clean and Green

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 Using Hydrogen
• Currently used primarily in the production of
Ammonia and methanol as well as for the
purpose of the refining industry
• Utilized in the metallurgical, electronic,
pharmaceutical and food industry
• In automobile industry, cars are being
developed using is as the carrier of the energy
necessary for propulsion

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 How is Hydrogen Produced?
• Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. However it is
always bonded with something else like oxygen (to make water) or
carbon (to make all plants). Hydrogen is all around us, but to use it, we
must first separate the hydrogen from the other things bonded to it.

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 Current global hydrogen production

• 48% from natural gas

• 30% from oil

• 18% from coal

• 4% from electrolysis of water

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 Hydrogen Production Processes
• Steam Methane Reforming
• Coal Gasification
• Partial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons
• Biomass Gasification
• Biomass Pyrolysis
• Electrolysis
• Thermochemical
• Photochemical
• Photobiological

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 Fuel cell and hydrogen economy

• H2 fuel cells coupled with electrolyzers and

renewable energy conversion technologies
provide a completely closed loop, pollution free
energy economy.

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 Photobiological
• This method involves using sunlight, a biological
component, catalysts and an engineered system.
• Specific organisms, algae and bacteria, produce
hydrogen as a byproduct of their metabolic
processes.
• These organisms generally live in water and
therefore are biologically splitting the water into its
component elements.
• Currently, this technology is still in the research and
development stage and the theoretical sunlight
conversion efficiencies have been estimated up to
24%.

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 Benefits of Fuel Cell
• Higher Energy Efficiency
• Clean and Eco-Friendly
• Installation Simplicity and Operating Stability
• Easy Maintenance
• Combined Heat and Power (CHP)

Challenges to Overcome
• Fuel Cell Cost and Durability
• Hydrogen Storage
• Hydrogen Production and Delivery
• Public Acceptance

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 Main Drawbacks
• Inability to store energy - difficult to cold start
• Output voltage is low varies with the load
-requires a boost stage with regulation
• Low slew rate - hampers dynamic
performance, needs backup energy storage.

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 Water Management
• Water plays an important role in PEM Fuel cells.
• Water is required for humidification and stack cooling
and it is produced by the fuel cell during power
generation.
• PEM Fuel membrane conductivity depends on
membrane humidity, hence water has to be fed into
the stack for good fuel cell good performance.
• Excess water has to be removed to avoid flooding of
the electrode pores, for good performance.
• Maintaining optimum water balance in the fuel cell
stack and entire system requires proper design,
control strategies.

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 Thermal Management
• Fuel cell produces lot of heat-Effective Utilization
of waste heat is a challenge-due to low operating
temp of PEM Fuel cell
• Due to low operating temp of PEM Fuel cell
operation (hence small difference between the
operating and ambient temperatures) large heat
exchangers are required for heat removal.
• Radiator fans, pumps for radiators use part of the
power that produced reducing overall system
efficiency.

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 Scope for Fuel Cells in Different
Fields
• Stationary

• Transportation

• Portable power

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 Stationary
Key technologies serving stationary are PEM, SOFC, Alkaline, Molten
Carbonate and Phosphoric Acid.

Stationary applications as follows:

• Commercial buildings
• Residential buildings
• Utilities (including electric power generation)

Transportation
Key technologies serving transportation are PEM, Alkaline and Phosphoric
Acid.

Transportation applications as follows :

• Passenger vehicles
• Auxiliary power units in passenger vehicles
• Heavy duty vehicles

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 Portable Power
Key technologies serving portable power Phosphoric Acid.
Portable power applications as follows:
• Mobile phones, notebook computers
• Smart cards
• Digital camera
• Battery chargers
• Scooters
Opportunity in Indian Market
Several Indian and MNC firms are working on fuel cell development.
• Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources (MNES)
• Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC), Indian Railways
• Indian Institute of Science and Central Glass & Ceramic Research
Institute,
• Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI),
• Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL) and
• Reva Electric Car Company
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• http://www.indiafuelcell.com/
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 Challenges for Fuel Cells in India
Marketing challenges
⚫ Cost of the fuel cell
⚫ Performance of the integrated system under Indian conditions
⚫ Government plans on supporting the Green initiatives
Technological challenges
⚫ Hydrogen storage technology, Fuel Cell system, Hydrogen and
battery energy storage improvements and advanced control systems
Fuel Producer
⚫ Major investment required in Hydrogen production
⚫ Infrastructure expansion: purification, compression and bottling
Safety management
⚫ Highway safety
⚫ Fuel safety (new standards for H2)
⚫ New local safety and zoning requirements for fuelling locations
Regulatory and statutory approvals
⚫ To transport hydrogen at pressures > 200bar
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capacity per site and mobile refuelled. 58
 Fuel Management

• With current production technologies, H2 is still

currently three to four times as expensive as gasoline
• PEM Fuel cell gets poisoned by impurities in fuel
–mainly by carbon monoxide
• Renewable fuel processing for hydrogen generation to
be developed
• More R&D required on water electrolysis-for reduction
of energy consumption-Water electrolysis using
renewable energy wind, solar, etc to be given priority.

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 Other barriers
• Air management-suitable compressors/blowers
for fuel cell applications-with high efficiency and
low cost is not available
• High efficiency inverters suitable for fuel cells
(with wide input voltage and low cost ) is not
available off the shelf
• Low cost mass flow controllers / gas feed systems,
load-matching gas feed systems not available
commercially.

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 Specific areas of cost reduction
• Material requirement reduction
• Lower-cost material
• Reducing the complexity of an integrated system
• Minimizing temperature constraints (which add
complexity and cost to the system)
• Streamlining manufacturing processes
• Increasing power density
• Scaling up production to gain economies through
increased market penetration

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 Future programs

• Development of Fuel cell stacks with high Power density

• Materials development for Fuel cells
• Reduction of precious metal requirement in Fuel cell
electrodes
• Development of CO tolerant catalysts
• High temperature membrane development for better water
management, increased tolerance to CO
• Development of Water electrolyses with high efficiency
• Development of Fuel cell based systems for
– portable, Stationary –Fuel cell based UPS, and Transport
applications -Fuel cell EV

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 Thank you

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