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 Higher Education
Finance Research
Policy, Politics, and Practice

A Volume in
Conducting Research in Education Finance:
Methods, Measurement, and Policy Perspectives

David C. Thompson, Kansas State University

Faith E. Crampton, Crampton & Associates
 Conducting Research in Education Finance:
Methods, Measurement, and Policy Perspectives
David C. Thompson and Faith E. Crampton, Series Editors
Higher Education Finance Research: Policy, Politics, and Practice (2014)
by Mary P. McKeown-Moak and Christopher M. Mullin
 Higher Education
Finance Research
Policy, Politics, and Practice

by

Mary P. McKeown-Moak
Moak, Casey & Associates

and
Christopher M. Mullin
American Association of Community Colleges

Information Age Publishing, Inc.

Charlotte, North Carolina • www.infoagepub.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

McKeown-Moak, Mary P., and Mullin, Chrisopher M.

Higher education finance research : policy, politics, and practice / by
Mary P. McKeown-Moak and Christopher M. Mullin.
pages cm. -- (Conducting research in education finance : methods,
measurement, and policy perspectives)
ISBN 978-1-62396-493-1 (paperback) -- ISBN 978-1-62396-494-8 (hardcover) --
ISBN 978-1-62396-495-5 (ebook) 1. Education, Higher--Finance--United
States--History. 2. Education, Higher--United States--Research--Methdology.
3. Education and state--United States--History. I. Title.
LB2342.M374 2013
378.1'06--dc23
2013037695

Copyright © 2014 IAP–Information Age Publishing, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, or by
photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise without written permission from
the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

 CONTENTS

About the Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

SECTION I: INTRODUCTION TO
HIGHER EDUCATION FINANCE RESEARCH

Introduction to Section I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. Organization of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Postsecondary Education Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Private Non-profit Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Public Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
For-profit Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Levels and Classification of
Postsecondary Education Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Institutional Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Admissions Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Remedial Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Student Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Revenues and Expenditures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2. Foundations of Fiscal Analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Funding Magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Headcount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Derived Student Counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Credit and Contact Hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Full-Time Equivalent (FTE) Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Using Student Counts in Research and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

v
vi CONTENTS

Weighting Student Counts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Which Count to Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Aligning Student Counts and Revenues or Expenditures. . . . . . 31
The Impact of Accounting Practices on Finance Data. . . . . . . . . . . 33
FASB and GASB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Data Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Federal Sources: Department of Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Other Federal Data Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Non-Governmental Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
State and Institutional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
IPEDS Finance Survey and Institutional Financial Statements . . . . 48
Revenue Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Expenditure Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

SECTION II: REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES

Introduction to Section II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3. Student-Oriented Revenues and Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Prior to Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
While Enrolled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
After Earning a Credential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Tuition and Fee Philosophies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Low Tuition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
High Cost, High Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Percent of the Cost of Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Tuition and Fees as Institutional Revenues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Tuition and Fee Amounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Tuition Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Tuition Discounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
How Students Pay for College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Federal Student Financial Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4. Institutional Revenues and Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Revenues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Federal Revenues: Federal Appropriations and
Contracts and Grants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
State and Local Appropriations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
State and Local Methods of Funding Higher Education . . . 106
Endowments, Investment Income, and Gift Funding . . . . . . . . 110
Institutional Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Setting of Institutional Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5. State Funding Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Funding Formula Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
 Contents vii

Development of Funding Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Economies of Scale and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Guiding Principles in Formula/Guideline Usage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Funding Formulas for 2-Year Colleges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Formulas by NACUBO Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Public Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Academic Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Student Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Institutional Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Operation and Maintenance of Physical Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Scholarships and Fellowships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Revenue Deduction Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

SECTION III: ACCOUNTABILITY AND

RETURN ON INVESTMENT

Introduction to Section III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

6. Accountability in Higher Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
“Accountability” Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Productivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Development of Accountability Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Establishing a Quality Assurance or Accountability Program . . . . 177
Reporting for a Quality Assurance or Accountability Program . . . 196
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Appendix: Performance Metrics Used by
Institutions and States in 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7. Performance-Based Approaches in Postsecondary Finance. . . . 221
Performance-Based Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Institutional Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Lessons Learned in Institutional Performance-Based
Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Success Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Indicators and Indicator Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Allocation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Funding Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Traditional Perspectives of Institutional Performance . . . . . . . 234
Emerging Perspectives on Institutional Performance . . . . . . . . 234
Student Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Programmatic Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Analyzing Fiscal Allocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
viii CONTENTS

Researching Institutional Performance Funding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8. Human Capital Development and Returns on Investment . . . . . 247
Human Capital Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Labor Market Returns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Earnings Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Types and Sources of Earnings Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Employment Outcome “Buckets” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Earnings Data in Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Other Labor Market Returns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Non-Labor Market Returns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Public Return on Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Economic Impact Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
9. Student Perspectives on College Costs and “Price” . . . . . . . . . . 277
The Various Definitions of “Price”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Tuition and Fees (Sticker Price) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Tuition and Fees and Room and Board (Published Price) . . . . 278
Price of Attendance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Personal Price (Foregone Earnings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Student Price Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Price and Affordability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Net Price. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Price and Family Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Price and Earnings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Developing Informed Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Consumer Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Three Approaches to Consumer Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Tensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
The Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) . . . . . . . . 292
Reasons for not Completing the FAFSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Influence of not Filing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

SECTION IV: PRESENTING RESEARCH

Introduction to Section Four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

10. The Influence of Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Time-Based Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Current and Constant Dollars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
The Consumer Price Index (CPI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
The Higher Education Price Index (HEPI). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
The Higher Education Cost Adjustment (HECA) . . . . . . . . . . . 300
 Contents ix

Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Percent Changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Monthly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Annualized Percent Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Annualized Year-to-Date Percent Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Moving Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Estimating Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Compounding Interest (Future Value) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Present Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Annuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Present Value of the Annuity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Compound Value of an Annuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
11. On Groups and Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Determining Peer Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Geographic Proximity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Membership in Athletic Conferences, Organizations, or
the Same Carnegie Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Criteria for Peer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Benchmarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Cohorts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Groups and Cross-Sectional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Groups and Longitudinal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Event-Based Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Synthetic Cohorts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Event History Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Regression Discontinuity Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
12. Presenting Research to an Audience of Policymakers . . . . . . . . 327
Informing and Educating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Informing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
A Single Data Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Multiple Data Points on a Topic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Multiple Data Points on Multiple Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Educating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Writing for a Policy Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Presenting to a Policy Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Communicating to a Policy Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Interacting With the Press and Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Data Visualization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Presenting Quantitative Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Elements of a Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Title of the Figure or Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Table Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
x CONTENTS

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Elements of a Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Presenting Qualitative Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Elements of Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Typeface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Sectors of postsecondary education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 3.1: Revenues and expenditures from the student
and institutional perspectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Figure 3.2: Estimated student aid by source, FY 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 3.3: How the typical family pays for college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Figure 5.1: Hypothetical cost curve between size of
institution and cost per Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Figure 6.1: (Appendix): Dashboard Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Figure 8.1: Investment in education and returns over
the lifecycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 8.2: Median weekly earnings and unemployment rate
by highest level of educational attainment. . . . . . . . . . . 252
Figure 8.3: South Carolina health insurance by
educational attainment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Figure 8.4: The flow of economic impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Figure 9.1: Various definitions of “price” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Figure 9.2: Pell Grants as a percentage of tuition, fees, room
and board, and the price of attendance for
full-time community college college students
living off-campus, 2001–2002 to 2011–2012 . . . . . . . . . 285
Figure 9.3: Proposed consumer information tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Figure 11.1: Three types of changes in temporal data. . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Figure 12.1: Two ways to depict the same data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

List of Tables
Table 1.1: Institutions, Students, and Revenues of
Higher Education, 1850 to 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Table 1.2: Carnegie Classifications of Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Table 1.3: Institutional Characteristics of Postsecondary
Institutions, by Control of Institution and Level:
Fall 2009. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Table 1.4: Academic Characteristics of Postsecondary
Institutions, by Control of Institution and Level:
Fall 2009. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
 Contents xi

Table 1.5: Headcount and FTE Enrollments by Sector,

Fall 1970 to Fall 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Table 1.6: Revenues of Postsecondary Institutions, 1850 to 2010 . . . 20
Table 1.7: Revenues by Sector, 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 1.8: Expenditures from 1930 to 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 1.9: Expenditures by Sector, 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 2.1: Weighted Enrollments and Tuition and
Fee Revenues for Three Colleges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Table 2.2: Undergraduate Enrollment, by Student Count and
Sector: 2007–2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Table 2.3: Preferred Measures for Standardizing Data
for Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Table 2.4: Revenues and Expenditures Collected on FASB
Forms for Private For-Profit Institutions, FASB
Forms for Private Non-Profit Institutions and
Some Public Institutions, and GASB Forms for
Public Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Table 2.5: Sources of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 2.6: Revenue and Expenditure Categories Used in
the Old Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Table II.1: Typography of Revenues and Expenditures. . . . . . . . . . . 60
Table 3.1: Average Tuition and Mandatory Fees by
Type of Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Table 3.2: Typology of Options for a Federal Role in
Financing Postsecondary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Table 3.3: Gates Funded Papers on Federal Financial Aid and
Their Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Table 4.1: Total Revenues for Higher Education Institutions,
by Sector, 2009-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Table 4.2: State Appropriations for Higher Education,
FY1988 Through FY2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Table 4.3: Percent Change in State Appropriations for
Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Table 4.4: State Appropriations per $1,000 of Personal Income
and Per Capita. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Table 4.5: Endowment, Investment Income, and Gift Revenues . . . 112
Table 4.6: 2010 Expenditures by Functional Category for
Public and Private Non-profit Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Table 5.1: States Using Formulas in 1984, 1992, 1996,
2006, and 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Table 5.2: Sectors to which formulas apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Table 5.3: Desired Characteristics of Funding Formulas . . . . . . . . . 140
Table 5.4: Examples of Credit Hour Weights or Costs for
Illinois, Ohio & Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
xii CONTENTS

Table 6.1: Most Common Accountability/Performance

Indicators Used by States, 1997–1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Table 6.2: Guiding Principles for Developing and
Establishing Institutional Performance Indicators . . . . . 175
Table 6.3 (Appendix): Performance Metrics Used by
Institutions and States in 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Table 7.1: Status of Higher Education Performance
Funding Among the States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Table 7.2: Performance Measures Used by Selected States
in 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Table 7.3: Student Incentive Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Table 7.4: Fiscal Equity Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Table 8.1: Average Rates of Return to Investment in
Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Table 8.2: Earnings Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Table 8.3: Median Earnings by Educational Attainment . . . . . . . . . 257
Table 8.4: Estimated Lifetime Earnings by Educational
Attainment (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Table 8.5: Federal Sources of Earnings Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Table 8.6: Earnings Outcomes for Fictitious Program
Completers With Located Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Table 8.7: Impact of a 1.0% Increase in the
Number of College Graduates in a
Community on Overall Wages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Table 8.8: Labor Force Participation by Education Attainment
for the Adult Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Table 8.9: Poverty Rate by Educational Attainment for
the Adult Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Table 8.10: Charleston Region Health Insurance by
Educational Attainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Table 8.11: Economic Impact Model Data Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Table 8.12: Sample Output for an Economic Impact Study . . . . . . 273
Table 9.1: Hours Worked Per Week by Total Income and
Dependency Type, 2007–2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Table 9.2: Net Price Calculator Required Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Table 10.1: Constant Dollar Conversions for Tuition and
Fees at Private Four-Year Institutions:
Academic Years 2000–2001 to 2010–2011 . . . . . . . . . . 299
Table 10.2: Federal Pell Grant Recipients at Public Institutions,
1999–2000 to 2008–2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Table 10.3: First Time Student Enrollment at College A
by Monthly, Annualized, and Annualized
Year-to-Date Percent Changes, 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Table 10.4: Comparison of Weighting Approaches at
College B Over Three Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
 Contents xiii

Table 11.1: General Variables/Criteria for Use in

Determining Peers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Table 11.2: Overview of Time-Based Groupings and Analysis. . . . . 324
Table 12.1a: Enrollment at Hudson University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Table 12.1b: Undergraduate Enrollment at Hudson
University: 2000–2001 to 2010–2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Table 12.2: Color Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
 ABOUT THE SERIES
D. C. THOMPSON AND
D. C. F. E. CRAMPTON
Thompson and F. E. Crampton

Education in the U.S. is a multibillion dollar enterprise that encompasses

preschool, elementary, secondary, and postsecondary institutions. Tax
revenues from the local, state, and federal levels combine to support edu-
cation across tens of thousands of communities nationwide. In particular,
public elementary and secondary schools are charged with educating all
children regardless of the challenges and additional costs incurred to
ensure equality of educational opportunity. At the same time, many
higher education institutions struggle to provide access to families and
students of modest economic means by controlling tuition increases with-
out compromising the quality of education students receive. However, tax
revenues are limited and must be divided among a host of other public
services we value as a society. The role of research in education finance is
one that systematically analyzes the equity, adequacy, efficiency, account-
ability, and stability of education funding so that legislators, policymakers,
educators, parents, communities, and other stakeholders can make
informed decisions on how best to allocate and deploy fiscal resources to
achieve multiple and sometimes competing educational goals. This series
is designed to address the challenging issues raised above. The first vol-
ume in this series, Higher Education Finance Research: Policy, Politics, and
Practice, bridges the constructs of efficiency and accountability. These are
research topics of great importance, and the authors bring their consider-
able expertise to readers in order to empower them in the conduct and
presentation of research in these domains.

Higher Education Finance Research: Policy, Politics, and Practice, pp. xv–xv
Copyright © 2014 by Information Age Publishing
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. xv
 FOREWORD

Three separate organizational structures, three levels of institution types,

various financing partners (including various levels of government, indi-
viduals, families, and industry), all within 50 unique states plus additional
territories and foreign operations, different philosophical assumptions,
economic theories, and a nuanced vocabulary—all of these factors con-
tribute to the complexity of financing postsecondary education in the
United States. It is easy to see why, over the last hundred years, a number
of books, papers, and position statements have been written about post-
secondary finance.
When we began this book, the hardest part was trying to find a way to
structure the text. We had a few ideas based upon the work that came
before us but decided that what we needed first was a framework and
guiding vision as to why we were writing. We came to the same idea from
two different perspectives.
Mary McKeown-Moak is an experienced higher education finance
researcher. A few accomplishments include being president of the Ameri-
can Education Finance Association (now the Association for Education
Finance and Policy), serving as the chief financial officer of the Arizona
Board of Regents, and penning an innumerable number of monographs
and reports as a researcher and consultant with MGT of America. She has
worked in almost every state in the country on both higher education and
K–12 finance issues, enabling her to talk in two worlds. For her this book
is about sharing what she has learned during her tenure.
On the other hand, the bulk of Christopher M. Mullin’s experience
and work in his role at the American Association of Community Colleges
has focused on community college finance in particular with a focus on

Higher Education Finance Research: Policy, Politics, and Practice, pp. xvii–xix
Copyright © 2014 by Information Age Publishing
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. xvii
xviii Foreword

federal student aid and the policy and politics of the federal role in fund-
ing education. Previously he conducted state level research for Illinois as a
member of the state’s P-20 research arm, the Illinois Education Research
Council. He has taught at three universities and regularly gives talks to
national, state, and institutional leaders. His hope for the book is to pro-
vide the foundational knowledge requisite to engage in postsecondary
finance discourse, as policies are decisions informed by financial consid-
erations. More information on Mary and Chris is included in the section
about the authors.
Together, we have developed this book to empower the reader. We do
not hide what we know, we do not attempt to push a perspective, and we
attempt to let the reader know when they may be being misled.
The book is structured in four parts. The first section provides a brief
history and description of the general organization of American higher
education, the sources and uses of funds over the last 100 years, and who
is served in what types of institutions. Definitions of terms that are unique
to higher education are provided, and some basic rules for conducting
research on the economics and finance of higher education will be estab-
lished. Although in some ways conducting research in higher education
funding is similar to that for elementary/secondary education, there are
some important distinctions that also will be provided.
The second section introduces guiding philosophies, sources of data,
data elements/vocabulary, metrics, and analytics related to institutional rev-
enues and expenditures. Chapters in this section focus on student-oriented
revenues, institutionally-oriented revenues, and funding formulas.
The third section introduces accountability-related concepts by first
comparing the accountability movement in higher education to that in
K–12. We then examine performance-based approaches applied in bud-
geting and funding, methods to determine public and private returns on
investment in postsecondary education, and we close with an examination
of finance from the perspective of the primary consumer: students.
The fourth and last section of the book focuses on presenting postsec-
ondary finance research to policy audiences. It is our attempt to assist in
connecting academic research and policymaking. Chapters focus on
accounting for time considerations in analysis, the placing of data in a
context to make the data and findings relevant, and ways to effectively
communicate your findings.
In putting this book together, we learned from each other, pushed our-
selves, built upon the wisdom and knowledge of decades of friendships
and scholarship, and diverted time away from our families.
Mary would like to thank her husband, Lynn Moak, for his support and
tireless dedication to the field of education finance. Mary also would like
to acknowledge the role of the many people from whom she learned
 Higher Education Finance Research xix

about education finance and who served her well as mentors and friends,
including Ron Brady, Fred Bradshaw, Bill McLure, Kent Caruthers, Kern
Alexander, Forbis Jordan, and Lucie Lapovsky. She treasures her many
friends in education finance, including state legislators, from whom she
has learned many lessons about the translation of research into policy.
Chris would like to acknowledge the critical role David S. Honeyman,
his doctoral advisor, played in his development as a scholar and person.
His parents, Robert T. (who passed away during the writing of this book)
and Jolie A. Mullin, introduced him early to the concepts of equity and
opportunity that serve as beacons during his journey. It is Chris’ hope
that he made his father proud. Finally, he would like to thank his wife,
Candide, and two children, Mila Jolie and Luke Hudson, for their under-
standing and support of this work. There were many missed dinners and
absent nights. He hopes they understand his rationale and reason for all
he does, is, and has always been to and for them.
 SECTION I

Introduction to
Higher Education Finance Research

Postsecondary education in the United States is a complex enterprise, with

almost 5,000 accredited degree- or certificate-granting institutions provid-
ing services to over 18 million undergraduate students and three million
graduate students. These institutions expended over $490 billion in aca-
demic year 2011–2012 to increase the nation’s human capital, conduct
research expanding knowledge, and provide services to the general public.
Revenues for the institutions came from the federal, state, and local gov-
ernments; tuition and fees; private gifts and grants; and other sources.
These revenues differ among institutional types and in each state.
Because of the complexity of the enterprise, research on the economics
and finance of higher education also is complex and requires an under-
standing of how and why higher education is funded, by whom, at what
cost, and who benefits.
This section of the book will provide a brief history of and describe the
general organization of American higher education, the sources and uses of
funds over the last 100 years, and who is served in what types of institutions.
Definitions of terms that are unique to higher education will be given, and
some basic rules for conducting research on the economics and finance of
higher education will be established. Although in some ways, conducting
research in higher education funding is similar to that for elementary/
secondary education, there are some important distinctions that also will be
provided.

Higher Education Finance Research: Policy, Politics, and Practice, pp. 1–1
Copyright © 2014 by Information Age Publishing
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. 1
 CHAPTER 1

ORGANIZATION OF
HIGHER EDUCATION

During 2011–2012, 4,599 postsecondary institutions enrolled 21.5 mil-

lion students (Snyder & Dillow, 2012), representing nearly 8.5% of all
Americans aged 15 or older (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). In fall 2011,
degree-granting institutions enrolled 18.6 million undergraduate and 2.9
million graduate students. Of the 18.6 million undergraduates, 57% were
enrolled in 4-year institutions, 41% in 3-year institutions, and 2% in less-
than-2-year institutions (Knapp, Kelly-Reid, & Ginder, 2012).
As an industry, a total of 3.8 million staff, including 1.5 million faculty
members, 240,000 administrators, and 1.7 million other staff, in addition
to countless other interested parties, engaged in the process of providing
educational opportunity at the collegiate level. Together, the postsecondary
education industry spent $497 billion in the 2009–2010 year (Snyder &
Dillow, 2012). Institutions conferred a total of 4.3 million degrees,
including 850,000 associate’s, 1.65 million baccalaureates, 693,000
master’s, and 159,000 doctoral degrees.
Yet, only a century earlier, the extent and cost of participation in
higher education was substantially less. In 1909–1910, just 2.8% of the
U.S. population aged 18 to 24 was enrolled in higher education, as
compared to 41.7% in 2009–2010 (Snyder, 1993; Snyder & Dillow,
2012). In 1910, approximately 951 public and private non-profit

Higher Education Finance Research: Policy, Politics, and Practice, pp. 3–23
Copyright © 2014 by Information Age Publishing
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4 Organization of Higher Education

colleges enrolled 355,000 students and received $76.9 million in

revenue (McCarthy & Hines, 1986).
Why has postsecondary education participation grown at such a rapid
rate? The answers to this question are as varied as the people and com-
munities engaged in the enterprise. This chapter provides an overview of
the diversity of institutions and funding partners created to enhance the
nation’s human capital, as well as information on the funding of higher
education at the industry level. Numerous actors involved in the funding
and provision of postsecondary education opportunities complicate an
already complex enterprise.
The expanding role of community colleges and for-profit institutions
over the last 50 years, the non-traditional students these institutions serve,
the rise of the sub-baccalaureate credential as a valued postsecondary
outcome, growing interest by policymaking bodies in regulating higher
education (i.e., gainful employment regulations of the U.S. Department of
Education), and the evolution of the 4-year university to use more selective
enrollment practices all necessitate a reframing of postsecondary finance.
This book reexamines traditional concepts and calculations in higher
education finance research, in some cases expanding them to illustrate the
diversity of funders and institutions. As background, this chapter provides
an overview of the who, what, where, when, and why of postsecondary
finance. It is intended for the novice, while also reframing research
perspectives for the experienced researcher or practitioner.

POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION SECTORS

Opportunities for postsecondary learning may occur in numerous settings

including businesses, professionally-affiliated conferences, workshops,
seminars, and community-based organizations. What makes postsecond-
ary education institutions different is their accreditation and statutory rec-
ognition. For example, for an institution to be eligible to participate in
federal student financial aid programs of the U.S. Department of Educa-
tion, it must meet certain eligibility criteria found in the Code of Federal
Regulations.
Diverse institutions offer educational opportunity in higher education
and were founded to meet the demand for, and supply of, human capital.
The intent of this section is to provide a foundational understanding of
the defining characteristics of postsecondary institutions.
Postsecondary education includes academic, career, technical, and
continuing professional education programs after high school. Institutions
that provide these programs are divided into sectors based on control or
governance: public, private non-profit, and private for-profit institutions. The
 Higher Education Finance Research 5

sectors are not determined by the primary source of the institution’s

revenues; many public institutions no longer receive the majority of their
support from public sources, and all accredited institutions (i.e., those that
report to the U.S. Department of Education) receive governmental
revenues in the form of federal student financial aid and in many cases may
receive state and/or local funds either for student financial aid or for
institutional operations. Not all institutions providing some form of
postsecondary education are accredited, and non-accredited institutions
are not included in the statistics in this volume.
For this book, a public institution is defined as “an educational institu-
tion whose programs and activities are operated by publicly elected or
appointed school officials and which is supported primarily by public
funds.” Public institutions in general are governed by boards that are
elected by the citizens of a state or appointed by governors or legislatures.
Community colleges, in particular, may be governed by elected boards or
by boards appointed by a governmental body.
Private institutions are not controlled, primarily supported, or operated
by public governments. Their private status allows them to operate
independently with fewer checks and balances than publicly controlled
institutions (Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, 1973). They may
be non-profit or for-profit in nature. A private institution is defined as: “An
educational institution controlled by a private individual(s) or by a
nongovernmental agency, usually supported primarily by other than public
funds and operated by other than publicly elected or appointed officials.”
A private non-profit institution is: “A private institution in which the
individual(s) or agency in control receives no compensation, other than
wages, rent, or other expenses, for the assumption of risk. These include
both independent not-for-profit schools and those affiliated with a religious
organization.” A for-profit institution is: “A private institution in which the
individual(s) or agency in control receives compensation other than wages,
rent, or other expenses for the assumption of risk.”
Private non-profit institutions generally are governed by boards of lay
people, or by representatives of the religious organization with which the
college is affiliated. For- profit institutions also may have a lay governing
board but may be controlled by a founder and/or the founder’s successors.
Table 1.1 displays the number of institutions, the enrollments, and the
revenues for institutions of higher education from 1850 to 2010. In 1910,
there were no community colleges, and statistics were not kept on the
number of private for-profit institutions providing postsecondary educa-
tion, so the data are somewhat limited for the early years.
While it may be argued that each of the sectors was present in some
form prior to the founding of the nation, we briefly trace the history of
legal recognition of institutional control for purposes of distinction
6 Organization of Higher Education

Table 1.1. Institutions, Students, and Revenues of

Higher Education, 1850 to 2010
Number of Colleges/ Total Income Revenues
Year Universities Number of Students (in thousands) per Student
1850 1,234 1,1,27,158 $$$$1,916 $$$71
1860 1,467 1,1,56,120 $$$$3,176 $$$57
1870 1,563 1,1,62,839 $$$21,464 $$$342
1880 1,811 1,115,850 $$$35,084 $$$303
1890 1,998 1,156,756 $$$76,883 $$$490
1900 1,977 1,237,592 $$$199,922 $$$841
1910 1,951 1,355,430 $$$554,511 $$1,560
1920 1,041 1,597,880 $$$715,211 $$1,196
1930 1,409 1,100,737 $$2,374,645 $$2,157
1940 1,708 1,494,203 $$5,785,537 $$3,872
1950 1,851 2,444,900 $21,515,242 $$8,800
1960 2,004 3,639,847 $58,519,981 $16,078
1970 2,525 8,004,660 $117,340,109 $14,659
1980 3,152 11,569,899 $128,501,638 $11,107
1990 3,535 13,538,560 $139,635,477 $10,314
2000 4,056 15,312,289 $282,261,455 $18,434
2010 4,599 21,016,026 $496,703,609 $23,635

Source: Snyder and Dillow (2012).

among types of institutions, rather than a treatise on their evolution. A

designation as “private” does not mean that the institution does not
receive public funds (local, state, or federal monies). As indicated above,
all institutions recognized as having students eligible for federal student
financial aid receive federal funds.

Private Non-profit Institutions

Prior to 1800, almost all the colleges in the nation were affiliated with
religious organizations. The first college in the “New World” (Harvard
College, now Harvard University) was founded in 1636 to prepare
ministers, and many of the small private colleges that exist today were
founded to prepare ministers to serve local communities (Snyder, 1993).
Even though these institutions were founded as private institutions, some
 Higher Education Finance Research 7

of these institutions received public funds. For example, 400 British pounds
for the establishment of Harvard and the president of the college’s salary
came from the Massachusetts General Court in 1636 and was thereafter
supplemented by bank taxes and tolls paid to cross the Charles River
(Cohen, 1998; Lucas, 1994; Roche, 1986). In another case, tracts of land,
taxes on tobacco, export duties on furs and skins, and a tax on peddlers were
directed toward the establishment and maintenance of William and Mary
College in 1693 (Cohen, 1998; Lucas, 1994; Roche, 1986). Harvard’s
revenues were predominately from private sources, but the college also
received public revenues. Other colleges of a private nature also were
supported in part by public funds; for example, the first publicly funded
university in Maryland was Washington College, which received colonial/
state funds for its operations although it is a private non-profit college. In
1850, the 234 colleges that existed received about 90% of their revenues
from private sources (McCarthy & Hines, 1986).
The tension between public fiscal support and public influence over
institutional policymaking, in combination with rising tensions over the
separation of church and state (given the predominant denominational
affiliation of many private colleges), led to litigation to determine if these
colleges were indeed private or public (Cohn & Leslie, 1980; Lucas,
1994). The United States Supreme Court in the case of Dartmouth Col-
lege and the State of New Hampshire determined that Dartmouth was
indeed a private college not controlled by the state. At question in the
case was whether the state could abolish the corporation that ran Dart-
mouth because the institution received public funds. This case established
the precedent that private colleges could receive public funds, provided
that those funds were not used for sectarian purposes.

Public Institutions

Public institutions existed in the years prior to the distinction made in

the Dartmouth case. In fact, four of the 37 colleges that existed prior to
1800 were public: the University of Georgia, University of North Carolina,
University of Virginia, and the University of Maryland. The Northwest
Ordinance of 1787 is seen by some as stimulating the growth of public col-
leges, although many of them struggled to remain solvent. Unlike private
colleges, these institutions did not have endowments or related groups such
as churches that provided funding. By 1860 there were 21 public colleges
in 20 states, funded in part by public monies (Snyder, 1993), but there was
no “national” or “federal” college.
Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, as well as the other first pres-
idents, were early proponents of a federally funded national university, not
8 Organization of Higher Education

state universities. Although a national university has never been established

in the manner that the founding fathers suggested, the service academies
(the Military Academy at West Point, the Naval Academy, and the Air Force
Academy) exist today as completely federally funded institutions as
opposed to state or locally funded public institutions.
Lucas (1994) suggests that what saved the fledgling public college was
the Morrill Act of 1862, which provided land grants for the creation and
maintenance of agricultural and mechanical colleges. The 1890 Morrill
Act provided annual federal appropriations lacking from previous efforts
to establish institutions of higher education. The Morrill Acts were to
function as an endowment of an educational system that eliminated the
need for continued federal funding (McCarthy & Hines, 1986). Spurred
on by a growing populist concern for agricultural advancements, Justin
Morrill introduced a bill in Congress to support the establishment of agri-
cultural and mechanical colleges with federal aid to the states (Roche,
1986). Up to and during this time, public financial support was sporadic
at best for postsecondary education, which relied heavily on student fees,
private gifts, and grants (Chambers, 1968; Cohen, 1998; Lucas, 1994;
Roche, 1986).
Within a context of sectional differences along economic and social
lines, Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Act of 1862 providing the
means for states to begin operating their own postsecondary education
institutions (Anderson, 1976; McDowell, 2001). The purpose of these new
institutions was specified in the fourth section of the act, which stated
“each State which may take and claim the benefit of this act, to the endow-
ment, support, and maintenance of at least one college … in order to pro-
mote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the
several professions and pursuits of life” (PL 37-108). The act was an effort
to extend the opportunity for education to individuals via institutions that
would reflect the unique local context and desires of each state (Eddy,
1957). In approximately twenty states, the land-grant college was an addi-
tion to an already present state college (Brubacher & Rudy, 1997). For
example, Michigan had already established the University of Michigan in
1817 when Michigan State University was chartered as a land-grant insti-
tution in 1863 (Anderson, 1976).
The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1947 (PL 346- 268, GI Bill) sig-
nificantly expanded enrollments at postsecondary education institutions,
along with the belief that everyone could go to college (Cohen, 1998). For
public higher education, the number of institutions expanded to include
66 land-grant colleges, 259 other undergraduate institutions, and 330
community colleges by 1950 (Mullin & Honeyman, 2008).
To assist in meeting the increased demand for participation in postsec-
ondary education, states took innovative action with the expansion of the
 Higher Education Finance Research 9

2-year public community college in postsecondary education structures to

provide educational opportunity (Longanecker, 2007). Termed “democ-
racy’s colleges,” these institutions were believed to have brought educa-
tional opportunity to the masses through their open-door philosophy,
proximity to a state’s citizens, and low cost to the student (Carnegie Com-
mission on Higher Education, 1970b). Medsker and Tillery (1971) attrib-
uted their growth to three other factors: (a) training programs of various
duration and focus were needed to meet the growing job market, (b) the
influx of participants taking advantage of the GI Bill, and (c) the perspec-
tive of adults after World War II that there was a broader world to which
they belonged and should learn about.
While the ideal of increased educational opportunity via open-access
institutions occurred at the end of the Second World War (Palmer, 1996),
universal access to postsecondary education via the creation of localized
institutions was not achieved until the decade spanning the years 1960 to
1969 (Lingenfelter, 2004; Longanecker, 2007); between 1960 and 1970
the number of community colleges grew from 412 to 909, an increase of
497 institutions or 121% (American Association of Community Colleges,
n.d.) while the number of other public postsecondary education institu-
tions remained constant.
The increased number of community colleges allowed undergraduate
public institutions to expand in areas commensurate with increased sta-
tus, such as graduate education, research, and research funding. As a
result, these undergraduate institutions could redirect less-qualified stu-
dents to community colleges by increasing their own admission standards
(Cohen, 1998). Community colleges accepted their role as providers of
postsecondary opportunity to those who were of lesser income, geograph-
ically bound, or older (Carnegie Commission on Higher Education,
1970a).
A salient theme in the evolution of the public American postsecondary
enterprise was the notion of access via the material realization of
institutions built to meet diverse needs, whether those needs were secular,
demographic, or geographic. Many of the first state colleges were normal
schools, established to train teachers for the rapidly expanding elementary
and secondary school population. These normal schools began as 2 year
institutions and could be considered the precursors to community colleges.

For-profit Institutions

The development of for-profit institutions is less well documented than

their public and private non-profit counterparts. Claims of education as a
profit-oriented business may be traced to antiquity, but like the origins of
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 66 THE BOOK OF HERBS hot, sharpe, biting taste. The
Germans and other Nations in times past used both the roote and
seede instead of Pepper to season their meates and brothes, and
found them as comfortable and warming." ^ Turner mentions
Lovage amongst his medical herbs and Culpepper says: **It is an
herb of the Sun, under the sign Taurus. If Saturn offend the throat .
. . this is your cure." Mallow (Malva). With many a curve my banks I
fret, By many a field and fallow And many a fair by foreland set,
With willow, weed and mallow. The Brook. — Tennyson. The spring
is at the door. She bears a golden store, Her maund with yellow
daffodils runneth o'er. After her footsteps follow The mullein and the
mallow. She scatters golden powder on the sallow. Sprivg Song, —
N. HoPPER. Parkinson praises mallows both for beauty and virtue.
'*The double ones, which for their Bravery are entertained
everywhere into every Countrywoman's garden. ' The Venice Mallow
is called Good-night-at-noone, though the flowers close so quickly
that you shall hardly see a flower blowne up in the day-time after 9
A.M." Some medical advice follows, in which " All sorts of Mallowes"
are praised. *' Those that are of most use are most common. The
rest are but taken upon credit,'''' The last remark comes quite
casually, and apparently those that were **but taken upon credit,"
would be comprehended in the "all sorts" and administered without
hesitation. French Mallows {Malva crispa) is ^ Parkinson.
 HERBS CHIEFLY USED IN THE PAST 67 most highly
recommended as an excellent pot-herb ! indeed all wild mallows
may be used in that capacity, and the Romans are said to have
considered them a delicacy. Marsh Mallow {Althaea officinalis) has
very soothing qualities, and was, and is, much used by country
people for inflammation outwardly and inwardly. It contains a great
deal of mucilage, in the root particularly. Timbs says: *'Dr Sir John
Floyer mentions a posset (hot milk curdled by some infusion) in
which althcea roots are boiled"; and it must have been a **
comforting "one. In France, the young tops and leaves are used in
spring salads. ** Many of the poorer inhabitants of Syria, especially
the Fellahs, the Greeks, and the Armenians, subsist for weeks on
herbs, of which the Marsh Mallow is one of the most common. When
boiled first, and then fried with onions and butter, they are said to
form a palatable dish, and in times of scarcity, consequent upon the
failure of the crops, all classes may be seen striving with eagerness
to obtain the much desired plant, which fortunately grows in great
abundance." ^ In Job XXX. 3, 4 we read : *' For want and famine
they were solitary, fleeing into the wilderness in former time
desolate and waste. Who cut up mallows by the bushes." Smith's *'
Dictionary of the Bible,'' however, casts doubt on this mallow being a
mallow at all, and though admitting that it would be quite possible,
decides that the evidence points most clearly to Atriplex Halimus.
Gerarde says the Tree Mallow " approacheth nearer the substance
and nature of wood than any of the others ; wherewith the people of
Olbia and Narbone in France doe make hedges, to sever or divide
their gardens and vineyards which continueth long ; " and these
hedges must have been a beautiful sight when in flower. The
Hollyhock, of course, belongs to this tribe, and 1 Hogg.
 68 THE BOOK OF HERBS was once apparently eaten as a
pot-herb, and found to be an inferior one. It has been put to other
uses, for Hogg says that the stalks contain a fibre, **from which a
good strong cloth has been manufactured, and in the year 1 82 1
about 280 acres of land near Flint in Wales were planted with the
Common Holyhock, with the view of converting the fibre to the same
uses as hemp or flax." It was also discovered in the process of
manufacture, that the plant " yields a blue dye, equal in beauty and
permanence to that of the best indigo." This experiment however
successful in results, cannot have been justified from a commercial
point of view, and was not often repeated, and there is now no trace
of its having been ever tried. In other languages, the Hollyhock has
very pretty names ; " in low Dutch, it was called Winter Rosefiy and
in French, Rose d'outr enter. ''^ I Marigold {Calendula Officinalis).
Hark ! hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings And Phoebus 'gins to
rise, His steeds to water at those springs On chalic'd flowers that lies
; And winking Mary-buds begin To ope their golden eyes.
Cymbeline^ ii. 3. The marigold that goes to bed wi' the sun, And
with him rises weeping. Winter's Tale, iv. 3. The purple Violets and
Marigolds Shall, as a carpet, hang upon thy grave While summer
days do last. Pericles, iv. I Marigolds on death-beds blowing. T1V0
Noble Kinsmen. Introd. Song. The Marigold observes the sun, More
than my subjects me have done.
 HERBS CHIEFLY USED IN THE PAST 69 So shuts the
marigold her leaves At the departure of the sun ; So from the
honeysuckle sheaves The bee goes when the day is done. Br.
Pastorals, book iii. But, maiden, see the day is waxen old, And 'gins
to shut in with the marigold. Br. Pastorals, book i. Open afresh your
round of starry folds Ye ardent marigolds ! Dry up the moisture from
your golden lids For great Apollo bids That in these days your praises
should be sung. I stood tiptoe, etc. — Keats. The marigold above, t'
adorn the arched bar, The double daisy, thrift, the button batchelor.
Sweet William, sops-in-wine, the campion. Polyolbion. Song XV. The
crimson darnel flower, the blue bottle nnd gold Which though
esteemed but weeds, yet for their dainty hues And for their scent
not ill, they for this purpose choose. I6id. The yellow kingcup Flora
then assigned. To be the badges of a jealous mind. The orange-
tawny marigold. Br. Pastorals. The Marigold has enjoyed great and
lasting popularity, and though the flower does not charm by its
loveliness, the indomitable courage, with which, after even a sharp
frost, it lifts up its hanging head, and shows a cheerful countenance,
leads one to feel for it affection and respect. In the end of January
(1903) here in Devon there were some flowers and opening buds,
though ten days before the ice bore for skating. The Latin name
refers to its reputed habit of blossoming on the first days of every
month in the year, and in a fairly mild winter this is no exaggeration.
Marigolds are dedicated to the Virgin, but this fact is not supposed
to have had anything to do with the giving of their name, which
 70 THE BOOK OF HERBS had probably been bestowed on
them before the Festivals in her honour were kept in England, **
Though doubtless," says Mr Friend, " the name of Mary had much to
do with the alterations in the name of Marigold, which may be
noticed in its history." There is an idea that they were appropriated
to her because they were in flower at all of her Festivals ; but on this
notion other authorities throw doubt. In ancient days Marigolds were
often called Golds, or Goules, or Ruddes ; in Provence, a name for
them was " Gauche-fer'^ (lefthand iron) probably from its brilliant
disc, suggestive of a shield worn on the left arm." Chaucer describes
Jealousy as wearing this flower : " Jealousy that werede of yelwe
guides a garland " ; and Browne calls the "orange-tawny marigold"
its badge. There was a very strong belief that the flowers followed
the sun, and many allusions are made to this; amongst them, two
melancholy lines which are said to have been drawn from some "
Meditations " by Charles I., written at Carisbrooke Castle. " The
marigold observes the sun, More than my subjects me have done."
Shakespeare refers often to this idea, and the flower was obviously "
to earlier writers the emblem of constancy in affection and sympathy
in joy and sorrow, though it was also the emblem of the fawning
courtier who could only shine when everything is bright." (Canon
Ellacombe). Marigolds have figured in heraldry, for Marguerite of
Valois, grandmother of Henri IV., chose for her armorial device a
marigold turning towards the sun, with the motto, Je fie veux suivre
que lui seul. About the fifteenth century the Marigold was called
Souvenir, and ladies wore posies of marigolds and heartsease
mingled, that is, a bunch of " happiness stored in ^ Ingram, " Flora
Symbolica."
 HERBS CHIEFLY USED IN THE PAST 71 recollections," a
very pretty allegorical meaning. But it has been the symbol of
memories anything but happy, for curiously enough, this sun's flower
means Grief in the language of flowers, and in many countries is
connected with the idea of death. This thought occurs in Pericles
and in the song in '*Two noble Kinsmen." In America, one name for
them is death-flowers, because there is a tradition that they " sprang
upon ground stained by the life-blood of these unfortunate Mexicans
who fell victims to the love of gold and arrogant cruelty of the early
Spanish settlers in America."^ However, to restore the balance of
happiness, one learns that to dream of Marigolds augurs wealth,
prosperity, success, and a rich and happy marriage ! In Fuller's **
Antheologia, or the Speech of Flowers " — a most amusing tale —
the Marigold occupies a prominent place. The scene opens with a
dispute in the Flowers' Parliament between the Tulip'and the Rose.
** Whilst this was passing in the Upper House of Flowers, no less
were the transactions in the Loiver House of the Herbs ; where there
was a general acclamation against Wormwood. Wormwood's friends
were casually absent that day, making merry at an entertainment,
her enemies (let not that sex be angry for making Wormwood
feminine) appeared in full body and made so great a noise, as if
some mouths had two tongues in them." Wormwood and the Tulip
were eventually both cast out of the garden, and lying by the
roadside addressed themselves to a passing Wild Boar, telling him of
a hole in the hedge, by which he may creep into the garden and
revenge them, and amuse himself by destroying the flowers. At the
moment he enters, " Thrift, a Flower-Herb, was just courting
Marigold as follows : * Mistress of all Flowers that grow on Earth,
give me leave to profess my sincerest affections to you. ... I have
taken signal notice of your 1 Folkard.
 72 THE BOOK OF HERBS accomplishments, and among
other rare qualities, particularly of this, your loyalty and faithfulness
to the Sun, . . . but we all know the many and sovereign virtues in
your leaves, the Herb Getter all in all pottage." He then proceeds to
praise himself, "I am no gamester to shake away with a quaking
hand what a more fixed hand did gain and acquire. I am none of
those who in vanity of clothes bury my quick estate as in a winding
sheet." The Marigold demurely hung her head and replied, " I am
tempted to have a good opinion of myself, to which all people are
prone, and we women most of all, if we may believe your opinions
of us, which herein I am afraid are too true." But she is not deceived
by his flattery. *' The plain truth is you love me not for myself, but
for your advantage. It is Golden the arrear of my name, which
maketh Thrift to be my suitor. How often and how unworthily have
you tendered your affections even to a Penny royal itself, had she
not scorned to be courted by you. But I commend the girl that she
knew her own worth, though it was but 2^ penny, yet it is a Royal
one, and therefore not a match for every base Suitor, but knew how
to value herself; and give me leave to tell you that Matches founded
on Covetousness never succeed." At this point in her spirited reply
the Boar approached. ** There is no such teacher as extremity ;
necessity hath found out more Arts than ever ingenuity invented.
The Wall Gillyflower ran up to the top of the Wall of the Garden,
where it hath grown ever since, and will never descend till it hath
good security for its own safety." Other thrilling scenes follow, and
finally the Boar is put an end to by the gardener and " a Guard of
Dogs." Marigolds stood as a standard of comparison, and Isaac
Walton uses the common saying, '* As yellow as a Marigold." Among
the various titles of different kinds of Marigold Gerarde gives the
oddest, for he calls one variety Jackanapes-on-horseback ; Fuller
calls it the
 HERBS CHIEFLY USED IN THE PAST ^'^ " Herb-Generall of
all pottage," and it was much esteemed in this capacity. Gay says:
Fair is the gillyflour, for gardens sweet, Fair is the marigold, for
pottage meet. The Squabble. " The yellow leaves of the flowers are
dried and kept throughout Dutchland against winter, to put into
broths, in physical potions, and for divers other purposes in such
quantity that in some Grocers or Spice Sellers houses are to be
found barrels filled with them and retailed by the penny more or
less, insomuch that no broths are well made without Marigolds." One
is reminded of the childish heroine in Miss Edgeworth's charming
story ** Simple Susan" and how she added the petals of Marigolds,
as the last touch, to the broth she had made for her invalid mother !
Parkinson observes that the flowers "green or dryed are often used
in possets, broths and drinks as a comforter to the heart and spirits,"
and that Syrup and Conserve are made of the fresh flowers ; also "
the flowers of Marigold pickt clean from the heads and pickled up
against winter make an excellent Sallet when no flowers are to be
had in a garden, which Sallet is nowadays in the highest esteem
with Gentles and Ladies of the greatest note." There is a tone of
patronage in this last remark which is rather irritating. "Some used
to make their heyre yellow with the floure of this herbe," says
Turner, and severely censures the impiousness of such an act. A
hundred years ago, according to Abercromby, the flowers were
chiefly used to flavour broth and to adulterate Saflron, but they must
be even less employed now than then. Dr Fernie says that the
flowers of Marigold were much used by American surgeons during
the Civil War, in treating wounds, and with admirable results. "
Calendula owes its introduction and first use altogether to
homoeopathic practice, as signally valuable for healing
 74 THE BOOK OF HERBS wounds, ulcers, burns, and other
breaches of the skin surface." Personal experience leads me to
suggest that it is an excellent household remedy. The Corn Marigold
(Chrysanthemum segetum) used to be called Guildes, and it was
once so rampant that a law was passed by the Scottish Parliament to
fine negligent farmers who allowed it to overrun their lands. Hence
the old Scots saying — The Gordon, the Guild, and the Watercraw
Are the three worst ills the Moray ever saw. Pennyroyal (Mentha
pulegium), Peniriall is to print your love, So deep within my heart,
That when you look this nosegay on My pain you may impart, And
when that you have read the same. Consider wel my woe. Think ye
then how to recompense Even him that loves you so. A Handful of
Pleasant Delites. C. Robinson. Then balm and mint helps to make up
My chapter, and for trial, Costmary, that so likes the cup, And next it,
pennyroyal. Muses' Elysium. Lavender, Corn-rose, Pennyroyal sate.
And that which cats ^ esteem so delicate After a while slow-pac'd
with much ado, Ground pine, with her short legs, crept hither too. Of
Plants, book ii. — Cowley. In France, Italy, and Spain, the children
make a creche de no'el at Christmas time ; that is, they make a shed
with stones and moss, and surround it with evergreens powdered
with flour and cotton-wool, to make a little landscape. In and about
this shed are placed the getis 1 Cat-mint.
 HERBS CHIEFLY USED IN THE PAST ^s de la creche ; little
earthen figures representing the Holy Family, and the Three Kings
with their camels, and the Shepherds with their flocks, the sheep
being disposed among the miniature rocks and bushes. On
Christmas eve, or else sometimes on Twelfth Night, I think, these
are saluted with the music of pipes and carol singing. De Gubernatis
says that the children of Sicily always put pennyroyal amongst the
green things in their creches, and believe that exactly at midnight it
bursts into flower for Christmas Day. Other names for it are PulioU
Royal and Puddinggrasse, " and in the west parts, as about Exeter,
Organs." It is still called organs in the " West parts," and organ-tea
used to be a favourite drink to take out to the harvesters. In Italy
pennyroyal is a protection against the Evil Eye, and in Sicily, they tie
it to the branches of the fig-tree, thinking that this will prevent the
figs falling before they are ripe. It is there also oflTered to husbands
and wives who are in the habit of ** falling out "with each other. "
The Ancients said that it causeth Sheepe and Goates to bleate when
they are eating of it." To produce all those wonderful effects, it must
have a great deal of magic about it. Gerarde says it grows "in the
Common neare London, called Miles End, about the holes and ponds
thereof in sundry places, from whence poore women bring plentie to
sell in London markets." Would that it could be found at *' Miles
End" now ! He gives in passing a sidelight on the comfort in
travelling, in the good old days : "If you have when you are at the
sea Penny Royal in great quantitie, drie and cast it into corrupt
water, it helpeth it much, neither will it hurt them that drinke
thereof." This inevitable state of things, in making a voyage, is faced
with philosophic calm. " A Garland of Pennie Royal made and worne
on the head is good against headache and giddiness."
 ^^ THE BOOK OF HERBS Purslane (Portulaca). The worts,
the purslane and the mess Of water-cress. Thanksgiving. —
HerRICK. De la Quintinye thought Purslane " one of the prettiest
plants in a kitchen-gar deny the red or golden being the most
agreeable to the eye and the more delicate and difficult to raise than
the green. The thick stalks of Purslain that is to run to seed, are
good to pickle in Salt and Vinegar for Winter Sallads." I do not agree
with him ; the leaves are pretty enough, but thick, fleshy, and of no
special charm. The graceful Coriander or the lace-like leaves of
Sweet Cicely are far more to be admired. But even Purslane, which
looks quite prosaic, was mixed up with magic long ago, for strewn
about a bed, it used^ "in olden times to be considered a protection
against evil spirits." Among a vast number of diseases, for all of
which it is highly recommended, " blastings by lightening, or planets,
and for burning of gunpowder" are named and Turner says, ** It
helpeth the teeth when they are an edged," so it had many uses !
Evelyn finds that *' familiarly eaten alone with Oyl and Vinegar,"
moderation should be used, but remarks that it is eminently moist
and cooling " especially the golden," and is *' generally entertained
in all our sallets. Some eate of it cold, after it has been boiled, which
Dr Muffit would have in wine for nourishment." Not a tempting dish,
by the sound of it ! The Purslanes are found from the Cape of Good
Hope and South America to the " frozen regions of the North." The
root of one variety Leuisia redeviva, called Tobacco root (because it
has the smell of tobacco when cooked), has great nutritive qualities.
It is a native of North America, and is boiled and eaten by the
Indians, and on long I Folkard.
 HERBS CHIEFLY USED IN THE PAST ^^ journeys it is of
special use, " two or three ounces a day being quite sufficient for a
man, even while undergoing great fatigue." (Hogg.) Ram-ciches
(Cicer Arietinum), Ram-ciches, Ramshead, or Chick Pea, gains the
two first names from the curious shape of the seed pods which are "
puffed up as it were with winde in which do lie two, or at the most
three seeds, small towards the end, with one sharp corner, not much
unlike to a Ram's head." Turner says that the plant is very ill for
newe fallowed ground and that '* it killeth all herbes and most and
sounest of all other ground thistel," which seems a loss one could
survive. According to Parkinson the seeds are '* boyled and stewed
as the most dainty kind of Pease there are, by the Spaniards," and
he adds that in his own opinion, " they are of a very good relish and
doe nourish much." They are still eaten and appreciated by the
country people in the south of France and Spain. Like Borage, Ram-
ciches is particularly interesting to students of chemistry ; for it is
said that " in very hot weather the leaves sparkle with very small
tears of a viscous and very limpid liquid, extremely acid, and which
has been discovered to be oxalic acid in its pure state." ^ Rampion
{Campanula Rapunculus). The Citrons, which our soil not easily doth
afford, The Rampions rare as that. Polyolbion Song, XV. De
Gubernatis tells a most curious story from Calabria almost exactly
that of Cupid and Psyche, but it begins 1 Hogg.
 78 THE BOOK OF HERBS by saying that the maiden,
wandering alone in the fields, uprooted a rampion, and so
discovered a stair-case leading to a palace in the depths of the
earth. One of Grimm's fairy tales is called after the heroine,
Rapunzel (Rampion), for she was given this plant's name, and the
whole plot hangs on Rampions being stolen from a magician's
garden. There is an Italian tradition that the possession of a rampion
(as that of strawberries, cherries, or red shoes), would excite
quarrels among children, which would sometimes go as far as "
murder." Even in a land of quick passions and southern blood, it can
hardly be thought that this tradition had much ground to spring
from, and I have not heard of it as existing further north. Parkinson
says that the roots may be eaten as salad or *' boy led and stewed
with butter and oyle, and some blacke or long pepper cast on them."
The distilled water of the whole plant is excellent for the complexion,
and " maketh the face very splendent." Evelyn thought Rampions
**much more nourishing " than Radishes, and they are said to have
a ** pleasant, nutty flavour"; in the winter the leaves as well as the
roots make a nice salad. Even if it is not grown for use, it might well,
with its graceful spires of purple bells, be put for ornament in
shrubberies. Parkinson has said of Honesty, that *' some eate the
young rootes before they runne up to flower, as Rampions are eaten
with vinegar and oyle"; but Evelyn warns us apropos of this very
plant (with others) how cautiously the advice of the Ancient Authors
should be taken by the sallet gatherer (Parkinson was probably
quoting from the *' Ancients" when he said this); "for however it
may have been in their countries, in England Radix Lunaria is
accounted among the deadly poisons ! " One cannot help wondering
if Parkinson or Gerarde ever knew those hardy individuals they
allude to as ** some," and who tried the experiment !
 HERBS CHIEFLY USED IN THE PAST 79 Rocambole (^Allium
Scorodoprasum). Rocambole is a kind of garlic, but milder in flavour,
and it is a native of Denmark. De la Quintinye seems to confuse it
with Shallots (^Allium ascatonium), as he writes of " Shallots or
Rocamboles, otherwise Spanish Garlick." Evelyn, speaking of Garlic
as impossible — one cannot help feeling with a smothered
wistfulness — says : ** To be sure, *tis not fit for Ladies' Palates,
nor those who court them, farther than to permit a light touch in the
Dish, with a Clove thereof, much better supplied by the gentler
Rocambole^'' Rocket {Eruca sativa). Various plants claim the name
of Rocket, but it was Eruca sativa that was used as a salad herb.
Parkinson explains the Italian name Ruchetta and Rucola Gentile
thus : " This Rocket Gentle, so-called from the Italians^ who by that
title of Gentle understand anything that maketh one quicke and
ready to jest, to play." It is certainly not specially gentle in the
ordinary sense of the words, for it has leaves " like those of Turneps,
but not neere so great nor rough"; and if eaten alone, "it causeth
head-ache and heateth too much." It is, however, good in Salads of
Lettuce, Purslane, *' and such cold herbes," and Turner observes
that " some use the sede for sauce, the whiche that it may last the
longer, they knede it with milke or vinegre, and make it into little
cakes." It has a strong peculiar smell, and is no longer used in
England ; though Loudon says that in some places on the Continent
it makes "an agreeable addition to cresses and mustard in early
spring." Culpepper found that the common wild Rocket was hurtful
used alone, as it has too much heat, but to " hot and choleric
persons it is less harmful" (one would have imagined that it would
have been the other way) and
 8o THE BOOK OF HERBS " for such we may say, a little
doth but a little harm, for angry Mars rules them, and he sometimes
will be rusty when he meets with fools." This is altogether a dark
saying, but it gives little encouragement to those who would make
trial of Rocket. London Rocket (^Sisymbrium Trio). This plant gained
its name in a singular way. It is said to have first appeared in London
in the spring following the Great Fire, " when young Rockets were
seen everywhere springing up among the ruins, where they
increased so marvellously that in the summer the enormous crop
crowding over the surface of London created the greatest
astonishment and wonder."^ Saffron (Crocus sativus). Nor Cyprus
wild vine-flowers, nor that of Rhodes, Nor Roses oil from Naples,
Capua, Saffron confected in Cilicia. Nor that of Quinces, nor of
Marjoram, That ever from the Isle of Coos came, Nor these, nor any
else, though ne'er so rare Could with this place for sweetest smells
compare. Br. Pastorals, Book I. Cloivn. I must have Saffron to colour
the Warden pies. Winter s Tale, iv. 2. You set Saffron and there
canrie up Wolfs bane. (Saying to express an action which has an
unexpected result.) Saffron has been of great importance since the
earliest days, and it is mentioned in a beautiful passage of the Song
of Solomon. **Thy plants are an orchard of Pomegranates, with
pleasant fruits, Camphire with Spikenard, Spikenard and Saffron,
Calamus and Cinnamon, with all trees of Frankincense, Myrrh and
Aloes, with all the chief spices," iv. 13, 14. 1 Folkard.
 HERBS CHIEFLY USED IN THE PAST 8i Canon Ellacombe
says that the Arabic name, Al Zahafaran was the general name for
all Crociy and extended to the Cclchicums, which were called
Meadow Saffrons. It is pointed out by Mr Friend that, further, the
flower has given its name to a colour, and had given it in the days of
Homer, and he remarks how much more exactly the expression "
SafFron-robed " morning describes the particular tints seen
sometimes before sunrise (or at sunset) than any other words can
do. Saffron Walden in Essex, whose arms are given on page loi, and
Saffron Hill in London (which once formed part of the Bishop of Ely's
garden), are also obviously named after it, and as is seen in the
former case it has given arms to a borough. As to its introduction
into England Hakluyt writes (1582): **It is reported at Saffron
Walden that a pilgrim proposing to do good to his country, stole a
head of Saffron, and hid the same in his Palmer's Staffe, which he
had made hollow before of purpose, and so he brought the root into
this realme with venture of his life, for if he had been taken, by the
law of the countrey from whence it came, he had died for the fact"
("English Voyages," vol. ii.). Canon Ellacombe thinks that it was
probably originally brought here in the days of the Romans, and
found **in a Pictorial Vocabulary of the fourteenth century, ' Hie
Crocus, An^^ Safryn,' so that I think the plant must have been in
cultivation in England at that time." In the work of *' Mayster Ion
Gardener," written about 1 440, one of the eight parts into which it
is divided is wholly devoted to a discourse, ** Of the Kynde of
Saferowne," which shows that Saffron must have been a good deal
considered in his day. The Charity Commission of 1 48 1 mentions
two Saffron-gardens ; and in the churchwarden's accounts at Saffron
Walden, in the second year of Richard III.'s reign, there is an entry, "
Payd to John Rede for pyking of Vunc Saffroni, xii." The
 82 THE BOOK OF HERBS town accounts of Cambridge show
that in 153T Saffron was grown there ; and at Barnwell in the next
parish the prior of Barnwell had ten acres. Some old wills, too, throw
some light on the subject. In the will of Alyce Sheyne of Sawstone,
in 1527, ''a rood of Saffron" is left to her son. In 1530(1533?) John
Rede, also of Sawstone, leaves his godson a ** rood of Saffron in
Church Field," and William Hockison of Sawstone, bequeathed in
1531, "to Joan, my wife, a rood of Saffron, and to my maid, Marger,
and my son, John, half an acre." As may be easily inferred from
these legacies. Saffron was very largely grown at Sawstone, and the
two adjoining parishes, as well as at Saffron Walden. The first man
to introduce it into Saffron Walden to be cultivated on a really large
scale was Thomas Smith, Secretary of State to Edward VI., and in
1565, it was grown in abundance. In 1557 Turner speaks of Saffron-
growing, as if this was very general, but it must be remembered that
he started life in Essex, farmed successively in Suffolk and Norfolk,
and returned to his native county to a farm at Fairstead, and having
never moved very far from the special home of the industry, he
naturally took as an ordinary proceeding, what would have been
very unusual in other parts of the country. It can never have been
very widely cultivated; for Turner, whose "Herbal" gives an immense
deal of information, and who wrote when the industry was in full
swing, omits all mention of Saffron, though he speaks of, and
evidently knew Meadow Saffron. This is a strong sign that cultivation
must have been confined to certain localities, chiefly in the eastern
counties, though in the west it was grown at Hereford and
surrounding districts to a very considerable extent. I do not mean to
imply that none was grown in neighbouring counties, but the
evidence is not easy to get,
 HERBS CHIEFLY USED IN THE PAST S^ and I have not
gone deeply enough into the subject to find it, but the Saffron of
Hereford was famed. At Black Marston in Herefordshire, in 1 506 and
again in 1528, leave was granted by the Prioress of Acornbury, to
persons to cultivate Saffron extensively. In 1582, in spite of a
continued demand for it, the cultivation of Saffron seems to have
decreased, for Hakluyt writes in his " Remembrances for Master S."
[what to observe in a journey he is about to undertake]. *' Saffron
groweth in Syria. . . . But if a vent might be found, men would in
Essex (about Saffron Walden) and in Cambridgeshire, revive the
trade for the benefit of setting the poore on worke. So would they
do in Herefordshire by Wales, where the best of all Englande is, in
which place the soil yields the wilde ** Saffron" commonly." The soil
there still yields the wilde Saffron so commonly that at the present
moment it is regarded with disfavour, as being quite a drawback to
some pasture lands, but it is no longer grown there for commercial
purposes. Neither Gerarde (1596) nor Parkinson (1640) mention
Saffron-growing as an industry, but in 168 T "I. W." gives directions
for cultivating and drying it. *' English Saffron," he says, **is
esteemed the best in the world; it's a plant very suitable to our
climate and soil." At Saffron Walden it continued to be grown for
commerce for over two hundred years, but has now been
uncultivated in that locality for more than a century. In
Cambridgeshire, however, it flourished to a later date, and the last
Saffron grower in England was a man named Knot, who lived at
Duxford in Cambridgeshire, and who grew Saffron till the year 1816.
This is Turner's advice for cultivating it. When harvest is gone, Then
Saffron comes on. A little of ground, Brings Saffron a pound.
 84 THE BOOK OF HERBS The pleasure is fine, The profit is
thine. Keep colour in drying, Well used, worth buying. And also : —
Pare SufFron between the two St Mary's days i Or set or go shift it,
that knoweth the ways . . . In having but forty foot, workmanly dight
Take Saffron enough for a lord or a knight. Augustus Husbandry.
From old records it seems to have been grown in small patches of
less than an acre, and to have been a most profitable crop. " I. W.,"
in his directions says, for drying it, "a small kiln made of clay, and
with a very little Fire, and that with careful attendance," is required.
" Three Pounds thereof moist usually making one of dry. One acre
may bear from seven to fifteen Pound, and hath been sold from 2os.
a Pound to jP^^ a Pound." The last price sounds as if it existed only
in his imagination, and one cannot really think that it was given
often ! But on one occasion, Timbs says, an even higher sum was
reached, for when Queen Elizabeth paid a visit to Saffron "Walden,
the Corporation paid five guineas for one pound of Saffron to
present to her. Though this was exceptional, the usual prices for it
were very high ; and to show this, and also the enormous amount
that was used in cooking, Miss Amherst quotes from some old
accounts of the Monastery of Durham: ** In 1 53 1, half a pound of
* Crocus' or Saffron was bought in July, the same quantity in August
and in November, a quarter of a pound in September, and a pound
and a half in October." So much for the quantity ; as to the price, a
merchant of Cambridgeshire charged them in 1539" 1540 for 6J lbs.
Crocus, ^7, 8s. Saffron used to be much employed to colour and to
flavour pies and cakes, and it was this reason that Perdita sent the
"Clown" to fetch some, when she was making ^ July 22nd and
August 15th.
 HERBS CHIEFLY USED IN THE PAST 85 ** Warden" (Pear)
pies for the sheep-shearing. Saffron cakes still prevail in Cornwall,
and come over the border into the next county, and a chemist, in
Somerset, said quite lately, that thirty years since, he used to sell
quantities of Saffron at Easter-time, but that much less is asked for
now. It seems to have been specially used in the materials for
feasting at this season. Evelyn tells us that the Germans made it into
** little balls with honey, which afterwards they dry and reduce to
powder, and then sprinkle over salads" for a *' noble cordial." For
medicinal purposes Saffron is imported, for in spite of ''I. W.'s "
praise, that grown in England is far from equalling that of Greece
and Asia Minor, though in any case it is only now used as a colouring
matter. The saying which survives, **So dear as Saffron," to express
anything of worth, is a proof of how great its value once was ; and it
is true that the plant was credited with powers nothing short of
miraculous. Perhaps Fuller tells us the most startling news: *' In a
word, the Sovereign Power of genuine Saffron is plainly proved by
the Antipathy of the Crocodiles thereunto. For the Crocodile's tears
are never true save when he is forced where Saffron groweth (when
he hath his name of y^oKogirXO or the Saffron-fearer) knowing
himselfe to be all Poison, and it all Antidote,^'' After this, Gerarde's
assertion that for those whom consumption has brought *' at death's
doore, and almost past breathing, that it bringeth breath againe,"
sounds moderate. On the doctrine of Signatures, Saffron was
prescribed for jaundice and measles, and it is also recommended to
be put into the drinking water of canaries when they are moulting.
Irish women are said to dye their sheets with Saffron, that it may
give strength to their limbs. Saffron has long been much esteemed
as a dye, and Ben Jonson tells us of this use for it in his days in lines
that literally rollick : —
 86 THE BOOK OF HERBS Give us bacon, rinds of walnuts,
Shells of cockles and of small nuts. Ribands, bells, and saffron'd
linen, All the world is ours to win in. The Gipsies Metamorphosed,
Gerarde says: **The chives (stamens) steeped in water serve to
illumine or (as we say) limme pictures and imagerie," and Canon
Ellacombe quotes from an eleventh century work, showing that it
was employed for the same purpose then. " If ye wish to decorate
your work in some manner, take tin, pure and finely scraped, melt it
and wash it like gold, and apply it with the same glue upon letters or
other places which you wish to ornament with gold or silver; and
when you have polished it with a tooth, take Saffron with which Silk
is coloured, moistening it with clear of egg without water j and when
it has stood a night, on the following day, cover with a pencil the
places which you wish to gild, the rest holding the place of silver." —
Theophilus, Hendrie's Translation. Meadow-SafFron, or Colchicum^
yields a drug still much prescribed, of which Turner uttered a caution
in 1568. He says it is a drug to **isschew." He warns those ** syke
in the goute " (for whom it was, and is, a standard remedy) that
much of it is " sterke poyson, and will strongell a man and kill him in
the space of one day." Drugs must, indeed, have been administered
in heroic measures at that time — if he really ever heard of such a
case at first hand. It is from the corm, or bulb, of the plant that
Colchkum is extracted. Samphire (Crithium maritwmm). Edgar. Half
way down Hangs one that gathers Samphire, dreadful trade I
Methinks he seems no bigger than his head. King Lear, iv. 6.
Samphire is St Peter's Herb, and gains the distinction
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accurate

TITi.E-PAGE OF GEKAKl> S ""HEKBAl,

 HERBS CHIEFLY USED IN THE PAST ^y either because it
grows on sea-clifFs, and so is appropriate to the patron of
fishermen, or more probably, because it flourishes on rocks, and its
roots strike deep into the crevices. The French call it Herbe de St
Pierre and Fierce-Pierre, from its peculiar way of growing ; and the
Italians have the same name, but call it Finocchio marino as well ;
and this title, translated to Meer-finckell, was also the German and
Dutch name, according to Parkinson. It is strongly aromatic, **
being of smell delightfule and pleasant, and hath many fat and
thicke leaves, somewhat like those of the lesser Purslane ... of a
spicie taste, with a certaine saltness." Gerarde praises it pickled in
salads. Edgar's words show that it must have been popular in
Elizabethan days, and so it was for more than a hundred years after
as ''the pleasantest Sauce"; and Evelyn considered it preferable to
"most of our hotter herbs," and ** long wonder'd it has not long
since been cultivated in the Potagere as it is in France. It groweth on
the rocks that are often moistened, at the least, if not overflowed
with the sea water," a verdict which tallies with the saying that
Samphire grows out of reach of the waves, but within reach of the
spray of every tide. I have found it growing in much that position on
rocks on the seashore in Cornwall. Two other kinds of Samphire,
Golden Samphire {Inula Crithmifolia) and Marsh Samphire
{Salicornia Herbacea), are sometimes sold as the true Samphire, but
neither of them have so good a flavour. Skirrets {Sium Sisannn). The
Skirret and the leek's aspiring kind, The noxious poppy-quencher of
the mind. The Salad. — Cowper. " This is that siser or skirret which
Tiberius the Emperour commanded to be conveied unto him from
Gelduba, a castle about the river of Rhine," and which
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