CHAPTER 1: FOOD SAFETY

Chapter Description
This chapter explains the different types of food risks, their causes, and how to prevent or control food hazards. It also
teaches students how to handle food properly based on industry standards.

Chapter Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
• Identify and describe the three main types of food contaminants
• Explain the basic idea behind Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP)
• Provide guidelines for controlling and preventing food hazards
• Follow a food safety program based on the needs of a business

Introduction
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), many people around the world still lack access to safe and
nutritious food. Each year, about 1 in 10 people globally get sick from eating unsafe food. This is often caused by harmful
bacteria, parasites, viruses, or chemicals in the food.

Unsafe food mostly affects children, the elderly, and people with weak immune systems. It can lead to serious diseases
and also harm a country’s economy, tourism, and trade.

The Food Contaminants

I. Biological Contaminants
These are caused by harmful microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi. When these come in contact
with food and are eaten, they may lead to illness.

A. Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms without a nucleus. They are found everywhere, including inside the human
body. While some bacteria are helpful, others can spoil food or cause sickness.

Bacteria reproduce through a process called binary fission, where one cell splits into two. This happens very quickly—
one bacterium can become millions in just a few hours. Some bacteria can also form spores, which are protective layers
that help them survive extreme conditions like heat, cold, or acidity.

Classification of Bacteria
• Spoilage Bacteria
These cause food to look, smell, and taste bad. While they don’t always cause illness, they make the food
unacceptable to eat.
• Pathogenic Bacteria
These are harmful bacteria that cause disease when eaten.
• Producer Bacteria
These are used in making products like cheese, yogurt, vinegar, and wine through fermentation.

Common Shapes of Bacteria

• Coccus or Cocci – spherical-shaped
• Bacillus or Bacilli – rod-shaped
• Spirilla or Spirilli – spiral-shaped
When the conditions are right, bacteria can grow very fast. Even a
single bacterium can multiply quickly if the environment supports
its growth.
6 Favorable Conditions for Pathogens to Grow and Multiply
For bacteria and other pathogens to grow and multiply, certain conditions must be present. These six conditions are:

1. Food
Bacteria are living organisms, so they need food to survive and grow. They rely on nutrients such as carbohydrates and
proteins. Fats also provide energy for some bacteria.

2. Acidity
Bacteria usually grow best in environments that are slightly acidic to neutral, with a pH level between 4.6 and 7.5.
Most bacteria cannot grow in very acidic conditions (below pH 4.6). However, some special types, called acidophilic
bacteria, can survive by forming protective coverings known as spores.

3. Time
Time plays a major role in bacterial reproduction. When food stays in the Temperature Danger Zone (between 41°F and
140°F) for more than 5 hours, bacteria can multiply quickly. A good rule to remember is the "2-hour rule":
• If food is kept at room temperature for more than 2 hours, it should be eaten, stored properly, or discarded.

4. Temperature
Most bacteria grow rapidly between 41°F and 140°F, which is known as the Temperature Danger Zone. To kill bacteria,
food must be cooked at the right temperature. To prevent bacteria growth:
• Keep hot foods hot
• Keep cold foods cold

5. Oxygen
Some bacteria need oxygen to survive, while others grow in environments without it. Because of these differences,
controlling oxygen levels is difficult, but it is a factor in bacterial growth.

6. Moisture
Bacteria thrive in moist environments. Water helps them grow and multiply. Removing moisture through drying or
dehydration is one way to slow or stop bacterial growth.

Illnesses Caused by Bacteria

The following table shows common types of bacteria, the illnesses they cause, their sources, and how to prevent them:

Clostridium Botulinum Campylobacter Jejuni

• Illness: Botulism • Illness: Campylobacteriosis
• Symptoms: Double or blurred vision, drooping • Symptoms: Watery or bloody diarrhea, fever,
eyelids, slurred speech, trouble swallowing, dry nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, headache, and
mouth, weak muscles, and paralysis. If untreated, it muscle pain
may cause respiratory failure and death. • Sources: Raw or contaminated poultry or meat,
• Sources: especially chicken liver; unpasteurized milk;
o Garlic and herb-infused oils kept warm too long contaminated water
o Baked potatoes in foil stored at unsafe • Prevention:
temperatures o Cook meat thoroughly
o Improperly canned or home-canned foods o Wash hands
• Prevention: o Use separate cutting boards
o Throw away swollen cans o Sanitize utensils
o Avoid using homemade canned foods
o Don’t store garlic in oil
o Sauté onions as needed
o Don’t store potatoes in foil
Escherichia Coli (E. coli) Shigella Bacteria
• Illness: E. coli infection • Illness: Shigellosis
• Symptoms: Severe diarrhea (sometimes bloody), • Symptoms: Bloody diarrhea, stomach pain or
stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, and in severe cramps, fever
cases, kidney failure or death • Sources: Contaminated food or water, especially
• Sources: Undercooked meat, especially ground from infected food handlers or ready-to-eat foods
beef; contaminated water like salads and sandwiches
• Prevention: • Prevention:
o Fully cook meat o Wash hands properly
o Wash hands before handling food o Avoid bare-hand contact with food
o Control pests like flies
Listeria Monocytogenes
• Illness: Listeriosis Staphylococcus Aureus
• Symptoms: Fever, muscle aches, nausea, diarrhea • Illness: Staphylococcal Illness
• Sources: Hotdogs, deli meats, raw or uncooked • Symptoms: Diarrhea, stomach pain or cramps, fever
meats, and contaminated vegetables • Sources: Foods touched by bare hands during
• Prevention: preparation
o Wash vegetables thoroughly • Prevention:
o Maintain a clean kitchen o Practice personal hygiene
o Use gloves
Clostridium Perfringens o Tie hair and avoid touching food with bare
• Illness: Perfringens Foodborne Illness hands
• Symptoms: Diarrhea, stomach cramps, nausea,
vomiting
• Sources: Food cooked in large batches and held too
long in the Temperature Danger Zone
• Prevention:
o Cook food to the proper temperature
o Store food correctly

B. Viruses
Viruses are unique because they behave like both living and non-living things. They are everywhere—floating in the air,
on surfaces, or attached to objects. When viruses come in contact with people, animals, plants, or even bacteria, they
begin to reproduce and infect.

A virus is made up of genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protective shell called a capsid or viral coat. Some
viruses also have an outer layer called an envelope.

Viruses are the smallest microbes. Compared to bacteria, they are about 10,000 times smaller. Unlike bacteria,
viruses cannot reproduce on their own. They need a living host—a human, animal, or plant cell—to multiply. Once they
enter the host cell, they release their genetic material and start reproducing.

Foodborne Viruses
Most foodborne viruses live in the human intestines. If a food handler who is infected prepares food, the virus may
contaminate the food and spread to others. Viruses that spread through food and water are a serious health concern.
What makes viruses dangerous is that normal food safety methods may not be enough to stop them:
• Chilling, freezing, preservatives, and radiation usually do not kill foodborne viruses.
• Some viruses, like norovirus and hepatitis A, can survive temperatures up to 60°C.
• They can also survive in acidic environments (pH 3), which means they can live in acidic fruits like strawberries or
even in pickled foods like vinegar and yogurt.
• Viruses can also withstand high sugar levels and alcohol content.
C. Parasites
Parasites depend on a living host to survive. They live, reproduce, and feed inside the host’s body, and then excrete
waste. Parasites can spread through soil, feces, animals, food, or even people. Many diseases caused by parasites can be
serious, requiring hospitalization or even leading to death. These include symptoms like migraine, diarrhea, and
depression. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), parasites are found not only in
developing countries but also in places like the United States.

Parasites can range from tiny, single-celled organisms to worms as long as 10 meters. Two major types of parasites are:
• Protozoa
• Tapeworms
Animals like pigs, cows, birds, and even household pets are common carriers of parasites. Examples of harmful parasites
include Trichinella and Cryptosporidium, which may enter the body through food or water contaminated with animal
feces. Young animals, such as puppies and kittens, are more prone to parasites like roundworms and hookworms.
People can also get parasites by swallowing contaminated water. This often happens in lakes or rivers where crabs,
mollusks, and fish carry parasites. Eating undercooked meat or seafood, or even raw vegetables and fruits, can also lead
to parasite infections. Poor hygiene in food service, especially by workers in unclean environments, can also spread
parasites through food.

D. Fungi
Fungi are complex organisms that can be either multicellular or unicellular. They are found everywhere but mostly live
on land. Fungi are classified based on:
• The spores they produce
• Their structure
• Their life cycle
In food, fungi cause spoilage and make it unsafe to eat. This is often due to molds that grow on fruits and vegetables.
These molds release enzymes that break down the protective layers of the food, reducing both its appearance and
nutritional value.

Causes of Biological Contaminants

Biological contamination usually happens due to one or more of the following:
1. Time-Temperature Abuse
2. Cross-Contamination
3. Poor Personal Hygiene

Time-Temperature Abuse
Time and temperature both affect how fast bacteria grow. Bacteria multiply quickly when food is kept in the
Temperature Danger Zone (between 40°F and 140°F or 4°C to 60°C). This environment is ideal for their survival and
reproduction. Food is said to be abused when it stays in the danger zone for more than 4 hours.

Examples of Time-Temperature Abuse:

• Food is not stored or received at the right temperature
• Food is not properly cooled or reheated
• Cooking or reheating does not reach a temperature high enough to kill bacteria
• Food is not cooled down fast enough
• Food that is on hold is not kept at a safe internal temperature

2/4 Rule:
• 4 hours – Food should be discarded
• 2 hours – Food should be eaten, cooked, or refrigerated

Potentially Hazardous Foods (High-Risk Foods)

These are foods that spoil easily and are more likely to cause illness if not handled properly. They are prone to bacterial
growth when temperature and time are not controlled.
Characteristics of High-Risk Foods:
• High moisture content (water activity ≥ 0.85)
• Contains protein
• pH level between 4.6 and 7.5 (slightly acidic)

Examples of Potentially Hazardous Foods:

• Raw meat (beef, pork, poultry) • Warm food stored below 60°C
• Seafood (fish, shellfish) • Salads and cut meat held above 5°C
• Dairy (milk, custard, unbaked cheesecake) • Pre-cut sandwiches and rolls
• Fruits and vegetables (salads, melons) • Sushi
• Cooked pasta and rice • Grilled chicken, roast duck, pork on display
• Foods with eggs, beans, or high-protein • Sandwiches with cream or custard fillings
ingredients

Cross-Contamination
Cross-contamination happens when harmful microbes move from one place to another. This can occur through:
• People handling food
• Contaminated food coming into contact with clean food
• Using dirty equipment or utensils
According to a study by the Pakistan Journal of Medical Science, 97% of foodborne illnesses in restaurants and homes
are caused by improper food handling.

Examples of Cross-Contamination:
• Not washing hands properly
• Touching food with bare hands
• Wearing jewelry while handling food
• Using dirty kitchen tools or working in unclean areas

Poor Personal Hygiene

Good food quality and safety always begin with good personal hygiene. Our bodies carry bacteria in areas like the hair,
skin, mouth, nose, hands, throat, digestive system, and even our clothing. If a food handler is sick or has open wounds,
they should never handle food. Doing so can easily lead to food contamination.

When Food Handlers Should Not Work

Anyone handling food should stay at home if they are sick with the following:
• Hepatitis A
• Shigella spp.
• Shiga-toxin-producing E. coli (STEC)
• Salmonella Typhi
• Norovirus

Hand Hygiene
The World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes that handwashing is the most important way to prevent infection and
food contamination. According to a 2014 study in the Pakistan Journal of Medical Science, poor food handling—
including improper hand hygiene—is responsible for 97% of foodborne illnesses in homes and food service.

Common Hand Hygiene Issues:

• Not washing and drying hands properly before handling food
• Handling food with uncovered cuts or wounds
• Touching food bare-handed instead of using disposable gloves
• Wearing jewelry while preparing food
• Handling both ready-to-eat and raw food carelessly
Controlling and Preventing Hand-to-Food Cross-Contamination
To avoid spreading harmful microbes from hands to food:
• Wash hands properly and regularly
• Wash before wearing gloves and change gloves
when switching tasks
• Cover all cuts, sores, and wounds
• Avoid wearing jewelry (except for a plain wedding
band)
• Avoid using nail polish or fake nails
The best prevention is to maintain personal
hygiene and wash hands properly at all times.

Steps for Proper Handwashing (According to WHO)

1. Wet hands with water
2. Apply soap and cover all hand surfaces
3. Rub palm to palm
4. Rub the back of both hands
5. Interlace fingers and rub
6. Rub backs of fingers with opposing palms
7. Rub thumbs in circular motion
8. Rub fingertips in circular motion on palms
9. Rinse hands with water
10. Dry thoroughly with a towel
11. Turn off tap using elbow or towel
12. Steps 3-8 should take at least 15 seconds

Naturally Occurring Food Toxins

Some natural chemicals in food are part of its normal composition—like vitamins, proteins, and carbohydrates.
However, other natural chemicals can be dangerous. Some foods develop toxins naturally to defend against pests or due
to poor handling (like temperature abuse).

Examples of Naturally Occurring Toxins:

• Food Allergens – Found in common foods like milk, egg, chicken, fish, soy, peanuts, wheat, and shellfish. They
cause allergic reactions such as swelling of the lips, tongue, or mouth, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, difficulty
breathing, and in severe cases, death. Food allergies have no cure.
• Ciguatoxin – Found in tropical reef fish like barracuda, mahi-mahi, bonito, and snapper. These fish eat algae that
contain the toxin. Symptoms: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and shortness of breath.
• Scombroid (Scombrotoxin) – Found in spoiled or temperature-abused red-meat fish. This causes histamine
poisoning. Symptoms include dizziness, facial rash, burning sensation, peppery taste, and shortness of breath.
• Shellfish Toxins – Found in contaminated shellfish. These accumulate in their body and can be toxic to humans.
• Mycotoxins (Fungi) – Produced by molds and yeasts, especially in spoiled food. They survive in extreme
conditions and can cause foodborne illnesses. Some, like aflatoxin, may even cause cancer.
• Amygdalin – Found in apricot or peach kernels. Converts to cyanide in the stomach, causing illness.
• Ipomeamarone – From sweet potatoes attacked by insects. Causes a bitter taste and can be harmful.
• Furocoumarins – Found in parsnips. May cause stomach pain, diarrhea, or skin reactions.
• Glycoalkaloids – Found in green potatoes or potato sprouts. Can cause vomiting, hallucinations, and even death.
• Beans (Kidney, Lima, Peas) – Contain lectins. Raw beans are toxic. Must be soaked and cooked thoroughly.
• Trypsin – Found in raw soybeans. It slows down growth in animals and possibly humans.
• Oxalic Acid – Found in rhubarb. Can cause seizures, breathing issues, and coma in severe cases.
• Cucurbitacins – Found in wild zucchini. Causes vomiting, cramps, or collapse. Avoid bitter-tasting zucchini.
• Cyanogenic Glycosides – Found in raw cassava and bamboo shoots. Can be toxic if not processed properly.
• Goitrogen – Found in cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, and canola. Can cause goiter, but is destroyed by cooking.
II. Chemical Contaminants
Chemical contamination happens when harmful substances enter food, either accidentally or through careless handling.
One example is melamine, a chemical used in plastics that has caused food poisoning incidents.

Sources of Chemical Contamination:

• Pesticides – Agricultural food products may carry chemicals from pesticides or animal feed additives.
• Cleaning Chemicals – Not all cleaning agents are safe for kitchen tools. If misused, they can contaminate food.
• Transporting Food – Food should not be transported with chemicals or near diesel or petroleum fumes.
• Storage and Equipment – If tools like slicers or mixers are lubricated with unsafe substances, they may
contaminate food.
• Unsafe Cookware – Cookware made with cadmium, zinc, lead, and similar metals is unsafe, especially with
acidic foods like vinegar or lemon.

Effects of Chemical Contamination:

• Changes in food taste
• Vomiting
• Internal damage to organs like the esophagus, stomach, or intestines
• May cause cancer
• In severe cases, may result in death

III. Physical Contaminants

Physical contaminants are unwanted objects in food that can cause injury or discomfort. For example, a strand of
hair, plastic, or piece of metal found in a dish is not only disgusting—it’s also a safety risk. These contaminants may also
carry harmful microbes.

Common Sources of Physical Contamination:

• Building materials – Paint flakes, broken tiles, bricks
• Equipment – Screws, bolts, metal pieces
• Packaging – Paper, plastic, staple wire
• Food handlers – Hair, fingernails, buttons, earrings
• Insects – Flies, ants, or animal droppings

Responsibility of Food Handlers

Food safety depends on the awareness and actions of food handlers. Mistakes often come from negligence or failure to
follow safety protocols. Food handlers must understand the risks, recognize hazards, and know how to respond and
remove threats.

Proper training, awareness, and immediate reporting of any unsafe situation to a manager or supervisor are key to
preventing contamination.

Establishing Control Measures to Food Hazards

Every food service worker has a role in making sure food is safe. This means:
• Cooking food at the correct temperature
• Sanitizing kitchen tools
• Keeping the area clean

Controlling Hazard for Purchasing

• Choose only approved and reliable suppliers
• Check the safety practices of growers, manufacturers, and distributors
• Make sure suppliers are FDA-approved and follow legal standards
• Build good relationships with suppliers and ask about their food safety practices
• Review inspection reports and HACCP compliance
• Visit the supplier’s warehouse regularly
Controlling Hazard for Delivery
• Schedule deliveries to avoid peak hours
• Ensure staff is available to inspect deliveries immediately
• Train employees on how to receive and check food
• Delivery trucks must be clean and have proper refrigeration
• Use leak-proof and sanitized containers
• Keep raw meat, fruits, vegetables, and dry goods in separate storage areas

Controlling Hazard for Receiving

• Train staff on receiving procedures
• Only authorized personnel should handle deliveries
• Check documentation (quality, date, etc.) during delivery
• Inspect trucks for signs of contamination or temperature issues
• Reject food that does not meet quality or safety standards
• Immediately move items to proper storage (avoid the Temperature Danger Zone of 41°F to 140°F)
• Use a calibrated thermometer for meat and refrigerated goods

Controlling Hazard for Storage

Dry Storage Cold Storage
• Keep temperature between 50°F–70°F with • Do not overload the fridge
proper air circulation • Allow air circulation
• Keep storeroom clean, dry, and pest-free • Label food with name, storage date, and
• Store all items 6 inches off the floor and away expiration
from walls • Use clean, non-absorbent, sealed containers
• Use tight-fitting, labeled containers with name, • Cool hot food before refrigerating (e.g., ice bath
date, and expiration method)
• Follow the “First In, First Out” rule • Keep dairy away from strong odors like onions
• Store chemicals separately from food or seafood
• Watch for spoiled, infested, or damaged items • Separate fruits and vegetables from each other
and remove them • Keep raw and cooked food separate
• Never let raw meat juices touch other food

Controlling Hazard for Preparation

Preparation is a high-risk stage for cross-contamination since it often happens at room temperature. To reduce risk:
• Wash hands before preparing food
Color-Coded Cutting Boards
• Work in small batches; avoid preparing food too early
Color Use
• Refrigerate food immediately after prepping
• Wash fruits and vegetables before peeling or cooking White Dairy products only
• Keep raw food separate from ready-to-eat food Red Raw meat only
• Clean and sanitize knives and chopping boards before and after use Blue Seafood only
• Throw away any leftover batter or marinade used for raw meat Yellow Cooked meat
• Wear single-use gloves properly and dispose of them after use Brown Vegetables only
• Use color-coded cutting boards for different types of food Green Fruit, herbs, salads

Thawing Food Safely

Thawing must be done carefully to avoid exposing food to bacteria. Use these methods:
1. Inside the refrigerator
2. Under cold running water (less than 20°C) for small portions
3. In the microwave, then cook food immediately
Important Reminders:
• Do not re-freeze thawed food
• Do not thaw on countertop, in a bowl or sink
• These bad practices promote bacterial growth
Controlling Hazard for Cooking
• Cook food to its proper internal temperature and time
• Use an accurate food thermometer (never use mercury-based ones)
• Do not overcrowd fryers
• Stir food to ensure even heat
• Cut meat and vegetables into even sizes
• Never stop cooking halfway—it may cause bacterial growth
• Use clean spoons or utensils for tasting
• Use serving utensils or single-use gloves to avoid cross-contamination

Calibrating the Thermometer Cooking Requirements for Specific Foods

Cold Calibration Product Minimum Internal Cooking Temperature
• Fill a container with ice and cold water (50/50)
Poultry (whole & ground) 165°F – 212°F
• Let stand 5 minutes
Stuffing, Stuffed Meat 165°F
• Insert the probe for 2 minutes
Dishes with raw & cooked food 165°F
• Reading should be 0°C. If not, adjust or replace
the thermometer Ground meat (beef, pork, fish) 155°F
Hot Calibration Pork, beef, veal, lamb 145°F
• Boil water, insert probe, and wait 2 minutes Fish 145°F
• Temperature should be 100°C Shell eggs 145°F

Controlling Hazard for Holding & Serving

Holding Hot Food
• Use hot-holding equipment to maintain food temperature above 141°F at all times.
• Cold foods (e.g., salad) must be placed on top of an ice bath, ensuring temperatures do not exceed 40°F.
• Stir food periodically to distribute heat evenly.
• Keep food covered at all times.
• Check the internal temperature every two hours using a calibrated, sanitized thermometer.
• Do not serve food that has been in the Temperature Danger Zone (41°F to 140°F) for more than 4 hours.
• Avoid mixing freshly cooked food with leftovers.
• Do not use hot-holding equipment for reheating purposes.
Holding Cold Foods
• Use equipment that can maintain food at 41°F or lower.
• Always cover food to protect it from contaminants.
• Do not place food directly on ice. Instead, use pans or plates.

Controlling Hazard for Serving Food

• Use serving utensils with long handles to prevent hand contact.
• Ensure all serving utensils are clean and sanitized before use.
• Wash hands thoroughly before serving.
• Avoid bare-hand contact with cooked and ready-to-eat food.
• Handle glassware and dishes carefully.
• Hold utensils and flatware by their handles to prevent contamination.
• Use scoops or tongs (plastic or metal) to get ice.
• Never use a cleaning cloth for multiple purposes, especially not for food spills and general cleaning.
• Do not stack dishes or glassware when serving.
• Minimize task-switching by assigning employees to only one role per shift if possible.

Controlling Hazard for Cooling and Reheating

• When cooling food in the refrigerator, cover loosely to allow proper air circulation.
• Use shallow, pre-chilled pans (not exceeding 4 inches in depth) to allow faster cooling.
• Prefer stainless steel containers over plastic as they cool faster.
• Use a quick-chill unit if available instead of a regular refrigerator.
 • Pre-chill hot food in the freezer for about 30 minutes before transferring to the fridge.
• Do not allow food to cool at room temperature for long periods.
• Reheat food only once and ensure it reaches 165°F for at least 15 seconds.
• Avoid mixing leftover food with freshly cooked items.

Two-Step Rule for Cooling Hot Food

Proper cooling of hot food is critical in preventing the growth of harmful microorganisms. The cooling process must be
done following the two-step rule:
• Step 1: Hot food should be cooled from 60°C (or above) down to 21°C within 2 hours. Food must be removed
from the cooking equipment such as a stove or oven before cooling begins.
• Step 2: Once the food reaches 21°C, it must be placed inside the refrigerator to continue cooling down to 5°C (or
below). It may also be stored in the freezer to achieve the necessary temperature quickly.
Important Reminder: Improperly cooled food should be discarded to avoid the risk of foodborne illness.

The Use of Single-Use Items

A single-use item is designed to be used once with food and then thrown away. These items must not be reused, even if
cleaned. Their purpose is to prevent contamination and promote food safety.

Examples of single-use items:

• Take-away food and drink containers
• Drinking straws
• Disposable gloves
• Plastic cutlery
• Food wrappers for hamburgers and other take-out menu items

Requirements for Single-Use Items

1. Usage Limitation: Single-use items must only be used once by the business. Customers may reuse them at home
if they choose.
Note: Single-use containers may be reused for non-food purposes (e.g., storing dirty cutlery).
2. Protection from Contamination: These items must be stored or displayed in a way that prevents contamination
from:
o Flies, pests, and vermin
o Infected food handlers
o Airborne contamination
o Physical contamination
o Customers
3. If contamination is suspected or confirmed: The item must not be used. This includes:
o Items touched by customers
o Items dropped or found on the ground
o Items with damaged packaging
4. Clean Condition: Single-use items must be visibly clean and free from any form of contamination, including food
particles.

Practical Measures for Handling Single-Use Items

• Avoid preparing takeaway containers (e.g., pizza boxes) in advance and leaving them open.
• Store drinking straws in containers that allow dispensing one at a time without touching others. Alternatively,
use individually wrapped straws.
• Store takeaway containers upside down to protect the food contact surface.
• Store container lids in a manner that protects the food-contact side.
• Cover or individually wrap disposable cutlery.
• Individually wrap toothpicks.
• Dispose of any portion control units (like sauces or condiments) that have been damaged or touched by
customers.
Follow Food Safety Program
The Safety Program is a proactive system used in many commercial food establishments. It contains specific practices
and procedures created by an institution to manage food safety based on their unique needs. A food business
that serves or processes potentially hazardous food must comply with this program. This includes institutions that serve
vulnerable populations like the elderly, hospital patients, children in daycare, as well as hotels, restaurants, and catering
services. To guide food businesses, a Food Safety Program (SFP) must follow HACCP principles:
• Analyze potential hazards that may arise in foodservice operations.
• Identify proper approaches to control these hazards.
• Keep a daily log of monitoring measurements and observations at each stage of control.
• Provide corrective methods when a hazard is no longer under control.
• Continuously review and analyze the program to ensure it remains effective.
• Have a written document detailing food safety procedures. This is useful when no supervisor is available. The
document should include:
o Cleaning and sanitizing procedures for equipment and work areas
o Personal hygiene requirements
o Health monitoring of food handlers
o Maintenance of equipment and facilities
o Pest control measures
o Proper waste disposal
o Thermometer use and calibration
(Source: Food Standards Australia New Zealand, 2007)

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)

Developing a Food Safety Program Based on HACCP
A successful food safety program must have the full support of the organization. This includes applying Standard
Operating Procedures (SOP) that describe the necessary environmental and operational conditions for implementing the
plan. These procedures act as pre-requisite programs at the establishment. The purpose is to make sure the food safety
system is implemented properly and effectively.

What is HACCP?
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a food safety system designed to control and prevent food hazards. It is
widely used by food businesses to identify risks and create action plans. HACCP looks at each step of the foodservice
process and finds ways to reduce hazards to an acceptable level. A HACCP plan is customized for each facility, even for
the same type of product, since the processes and risks may differ from place to place.

The HACCP approach began in the 1980s and is now accepted globally as a quality assurance method in food safety. It
emphasizes continuous monitoring at critical points in the process where hazards can be controlled.

Pre-requisite Programs
Pre-requisite programs, also known as Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), form the foundation for implementing
HACCP. These provide the basic environmental and operational conditions necessary for food safety and must already
be in place before starting the HACCP process.

Examples of Pre-requisite Programs:

1. Proper personal hygiene practices
2. Proper facility design
3. Supplier selection
4. Cleaning and sanitation program
5. Equipment maintenance program
Once these programs are established, the HACCP principles can be applied.
7 HACCP Principles
1. Conduct Hazard Analysis – Identify potential hazards in the food process.
2. Determine Critical Control Points (CCPs) – Identify points where hazards can be controlled.
3. Establish Critical Limits – Set maximum or minimum values (e.g., temperature) to control hazards.
4. Establish Corrective Actions – Create steps to take if a critical limit is not met.
5. Establish Monitoring Procedures – Regularly check CCPs to ensure they are controlled.
6. Establish Verification Procedures – Ensure the HACCP system is working as planned.
7. Establish Record-Keeping Procedures – Maintain documents to show food safety is being managed.

Principle 1: Hazard Analysis

Hazards may happen at any point in the food service flow. These hazards may come from:
• Microbial contamination, often caused by poor hygiene or cross-contamination.
• Chemical contamination, such as improper use of cleaning agents.
• Physical contamination, like metal shavings or hair strands.
• Time-temperature abuse, when food is not held, cooked, or cooled properly.
Conducting a hazard analysis is one of the most critical steps in the HACCP system. If hazards are not identified and
managed, it may result in unsafe food. When analyzing hazards, the following must be considered:
• The ingredients used and other raw materials added.
• The equipment that comes in contact with food.
• The food preparation process.
• The employees handling the food.
• The type of storage used.

Common Causes of Hazards (Examples):

Supplier Selection: Preparation:
• No approval from the Food and Drug • Poor hygiene of food handlers.
Administration (FDA). • No handwashing before food handling.
• Poor warehouse inspection. • Bare-hand contact with ready-to-eat foods.
• Unsafe supplier practices. Cooking:
Receiving: • Incorrect cooking temperature.
• Improper food inspection upon delivery. • Food handlers with diseases.
• Unauthorized personnel handled receiving. • Continued poor hygiene practices.
• Food exposed to temperature danger zones. Holding:
• Contaminated food was accepted. • Food held in the danger zone (41°F–140°F).
Storage: • Unclean containers.
• Dirty storage area. • Exposure to flies.
• No "First In, First Out" system followed. Serving:
• Infestation with vermin. • No handwashing before serving.
• Unclean utensils.
• Bare-hand contact with food.

Principle 2: Critical Control Point (CCP)

After identifying potential hazards in Principle 1, the next step is to find out where control is most important in the
foodservice flow. A Control Point is any point in the process where a hazard (physical, chemical, or biological) can be
reduced or eliminated. For example, checking the internal temperature of chicken before using it in a salad is a Control
Point.

A Critical Control Point (CCP) is more specific. It is the step where control must be applied to remove or reduce a hazard
to a safe level. Not all steps are CCPs. To determine if a step is critical, ask:
• Is the control necessary for safety?
• Does it eliminate or reduce the hazard?
• Can the risk go beyond acceptable levels?
• Will the following steps still be able to control it?
Example CCP Determinations:
Food Item Hazard Control Measure
Ground beef Metal fragments Visual inspection, metal detector
Freshly produced E. coli Inactivation using chemical sanitation
Pork Parasites Cook thoroughly to required internal temperature
Source: Schmidt & Newslow, 2016

Principle 3: Establish Critical Limit

Critical limits are specific standards that define what is acceptable in controlling hazards. These limits are measurable
and help identify when food safety is at risk. Examples include temperature, time, humidity, water activity, and pH level.
Establishing minimum and maximum levels for these factors helps manage biological, physical, and chemical hazards.

Example of critical limits for roasted chicken:

• Receiving: Chicken must be received at 0°C to 5°C.
• Storage: Store at cold storage between -18°C to 0°C. Store immediately upon receipt, up to 2 days.
• Cooking: Internal cooking temperature must be between 165°F to 212°F.
• Holding: Keep in hot-holding equipment between 65°C to 80°C for 2–4 hours.

Principle 4: Establish Monitoring Procedures for Critical Control Points

Monitoring ensures that critical control points (CCPs) are functioning properly and within their defined limits. It is a
systematic process of observing and measuring to verify food safety compliance.

Monitoring program guidelines:

• Trained personnel must be responsible for performing monitoring.
• Use appropriate tools like thermometers, timers, pH meters, and water activity meters.
• Ensure each control point has a clear critical limit.
• Set proper monitoring intervals based on the volume of production.

Principle 5: Establish Corrective Actions

Corrective actions are predetermined steps to take when a critical limit is not met. These actions help prevent unsafe
food from reaching consumers.

Examples of corrective actions:

• Discard mushroom soup left in the Temperature Danger Zone for 4 hours.
• Reject frozen ground beef if large ice crystals are present.
• Continue cooking meat until it reaches the required minimum internal temperature.

Principle 6: Establish Verification Procedures

Verification confirms that the HACCP system is working effectively. It ensures that control points and critical limits are
appropriate and that the system can prevent food hazards.

Verification includes checking:

• Whether CCPs and critical limits are effective.
• If employees follow established procedures.
• If monitoring alerts are functioning properly.
• If corrective actions successfully prevent hazards.
• If updates to menus, equipment, or processes are needed.

Principle 7: Establish a Record System

A proper recordkeeping system is essential for tracing ingredient history, identifying deviations, and maintaining
accountability. Records help identify problems and document the corrective steps taken.
Sections included in a HACCP record:
1. Hazard analysis
2. Control points
3. Critical limits
4. Corrective actions
5. Results of verification activities

Reporting Risk Beyond Control

When a hazard is identified and it is beyond the control of the staff, it must be reported immediately to the appropriate
authority. A verbal report should be made first, followed by written documentation through email, phone, face-to-face,
or completed forms. Reports must be based on factual observations or personal experiences. They must include specific
details such as:
• Date and time of the incident
• Temperature readings (if applicable)
• Name of the supplier
• Name of the food product
• Name of the menu item
• Name of the staff involved
Required Documents and Records:
• List of approved suppliers
• Delivery and receiving forms
• Goods rejected form
• Ready-to-eat food display log (based on daily temperature monitoring)
• Hot display temperature log
• Cold display temperature log (for refrigerated cabinets)
• Equipment calibration log

Summary
• Foodborne illnesses are major global health concerns and can significantly affect the productivity and well-being
of individuals.
• There are three main types of food hazards:
o Biological: caused by harmful microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi.
o Physical: caused by foreign objects such as hair, plastic, metal shavings.
o Chemical: caused by substances like pesticides, cleaning agents, and excess food additives.
• The most common causes of foodborne illnesses include:
o Cross-contamination
o Time-temperature abuse
o Poor personal hygiene
• These can be prevented by:
o Practicing good personal hygiene
o Sanitizing equipment and surfaces
o Keeping food away from the Temperature Danger Zone (41°F–140°F or 5°C–60°C)
• Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a food safety system used by food businesses to manage risks. It
helps prevent hazards and maintain food safety.
• Seven HACCP Principles:
1. Conduct Hazard Analysis
2. Determine Critical Control Points
3. Establish Critical Limits
4. Establish Monitoring Procedures for Critical Control Points
5. Establish Corrective Actions
6. Establish Verification Procedures
7. Establish Record Keeping