Geography

The geography of Crete heavily influenced Minoan development, as the fertility of the island
and its climate contributed to their wealth and provided them with a variety of natural
resources. The isle of Crete is 260 km long and between 60 km and 12 km wide, making it
the largest (and hence most dominant) Mediterranean island. The coastline (especially the
north coast) is characterized by promontories, gulfs, bays, and capes, providing a multitude
of opportunities for harbours and ports. The island is also geologically unstable and prone to
earthquakes, which shapes religious beliefs.
As an island society, the Minoans were highly dependent on and culturally influenced by the
surrounding sea. The sea provided food (fish, octopus, shellfish) and raw materials for
industry (shells), as well as protecting the island people from invaders – a fact corroborated
by the lack of fortifications on Minoan towns. As the island was completely isolated by
water, shipbuilding, sailing, and navigation skills flourished, providing the Minoans with
many trade opportunities and possibly great naval power. The sea also has a clear influence
on art in Minoan society and religion. In fact, the sea had such an important influence on
Minoan Crete that it was considered a thalassocracy – a sea-faring empire where society has
been shaped and developed by the sea.
Crete is also defined by its mountainous landscape, with mountains as high as 2400m that
are snow-covered in winter and outcrops of limestone and gypsum throughout the island.
The west is particularly mountainous. In Minoan times the mountaintops became peak
sanctuaries to the sky gods and the cave systems in the mountains became shrines to the
underworld gods (including earthquake gods). Resources also came from the mountains,
including the semi-precious stones black steatite and green serpentine, which were used for
ritual vases. As the mountains and outcrops were predominantly made of limestone and
gypsum, these became the main building materials along with timber.
The slopes of the highlands are covered in forests, especially oak, myrtle, and cypress (the
most significant timbers). Different woods grow at different altitudes – willow and oleander
grow below 150m, oak grows between 150m and 1200m, cypress and maple grow between
900m and 1800m, and juniper and barberry grow above 1800m. The diversity of available
timber meant that the Minoans could specialise by selecting the perfect material for a
palace or ship.
Fertile valleys closer to the coastline were valuable sites for Minoan agriculture, especially
fruit cultivation and the domestication of livestock. As well as domesticated pigs, sheep,
goats, and cows, the Minoans also hunted wild game such as deer, boar, partridge, and
pigeon. More ‘luxurious’ plants such as carob (chocolate-esque) and herbs such as thyme,
sage, mint, dittany, and marjoram were also grown. Further agriculture occurred on the
drier plateaus, where crops such as barely, wheat, olives and grapes flourished. Olive oil for
was stored in Knossos using pithoi (tall storage vessels) and when it spilled in an earthquake,
it set alight and burned down the entire palace.
Social Structure
Minoan society was likely theocratic, with one or more rulers who were likely female. Even
if the ruler was male, the elite female priestess caste had a lot of power. There was also a
priest caste containing both males and females, and the ‘lower class’ of craftspeople and
farmers (also both male and female). When trying to understand Minoan social structure it
is important to remember that evidence is fragmentary and thus all conclusions are only
hypotheses!
Historians have a variety of viewpoints which are shaped by their contexts – for example,
early historians assumed Minoan society was heavily stratified just like the other societies of
the time (Mitanni, Hittites, Egyptians). They attributed the difference between the large
palaces and small houses to a divide between the rich and the poor, but now historians
believe the palaces could actually be religious complexes. The original archaeologist of Crete
was Arthur Evans, who excavated in the 1900s (Edwardian era) and was influenced by the
myth of the Minotaur. As such, he assumed the ruler of Minoan society was a ‘King Minos’.
This led him to disregard evidence that may have pointed towards other styles of ruling (e.g.
a female ruler) and interpret images such as the Prince of Lilies fresco (we don’t actually
know what the Prince of Lilies depicted).
Willets hypothesised “an extremely complex society with a shadowy, perhaps powerless
King [Wanax] as its figure-head and the ambiguous figure of the Lawagetas, the Leader of
the People, at his side with a troupe of noble Followers; there were also the Telestai,
possibly the religious leaders, and Klawiphoroi, the priestesses, controlling the all-important
temples”.
Later historians looked at the palaces to discover more about the social structure. As
Knossos was the largest palace Evans had assumed the King ruled from here – however,
Renfrew believed that each palace was ruled by a separate ‘chieftain’, making Minoan
society more of a collection of culturally identical but politically separate principalities.
Koehl also believed the palaces had their own aristocracies, while Warren believed that
while the palaces were separate Knossos was pre-eminent. If the palaces were separate
‘mini-nations’, these nations must have been united in some way seeing as there is no
evidence that different communities on the island ever fought each other.
The palaces were all build on a common model – open, opulent, and multi-functional. They
contained huge religious and political areas with great halls and throne rooms, but they also
contained industrial and domestic areas including space for huge amounts of storage. The
lack of defensive walls suggests that there is no dissatisfaction with the leader that could
cause rebellion.
The large size of the palaces and the wide range of domestic areas (such as communal
dining halls and nearby villas) suggest that the ruler was surrounded by Palace Elite, who
had a close political, social and economic relationship with the ruler and supported their
administration. The complex and multifunctional nature of the palaces and their connection
with trade suggest that a bureaucracy was in place, corroborated by the presence of records
kept by scribes.
The issue of gender in Minoan society is another contentious area. While Evans assumed the
ruler was a king, this was soon challenged by Jane Harrison, a Cambridge scholar who
proposed that Minoan Crete was a matriarchy. Over time, more modern revisionist
historians discovered evidence that she was probably correct. Warren and Castleden
suggested a theocratic Priest-Queen, and Waterhouse agreed with this but also suggested
that this was the reason for the Minoans’ peaceful nature! In contrast, Boulotis stuck with
the male king theory, citing the seal-stone images of the Master Impression/Athlete-King/
Young God as possibly depicting the ruler.
The next important class was that of the priests and priestesses, who are recognisable in
frescoes from their short cropped hair (men) or long crimped hair (women), a fringed
garment worn around the body (men), flounced skirts, open bodices (women), and the
carrying of a sacrificial axe. They were depicted in seal stones and ritual paintings, and
women were more prevalent than men.
The ‘lower classes’ included the craftspeople, artisans, and farmers who were responsible
for Crete’s industries: wool textiles, pottery, stoneware, metalwork, faience, ivory,
leatherwork, painting, sculpting, engraving, jewellery-making, building/masonry, carpentry,
fishing, olive oil, wine, and food. There was stratification in the artisan class based on level
of skill. The farmers who produced the olives, grapes, and other food substances lived
together in small farming communities and were essential. Fishermen were also important
as they gathered food and also molluscs for dye.
Palaces
There were many palaces, with the largest and most prominent being Knossos (22 000 m 2)
and others including Mallia, Zakro, Phaestos, and Hagia Triadha.
Palatial Periods were how Evans divided time in Minoan Crete.
- Pre-Palatial Period (<2000 BC)
- 1st Palatial Period (1900–1700 BC)
- 2nd Palatial Period (1700–1450 BC)
- Post-Palatial Period (1450–1100 BC)
The palaces were characterised by monumental size and highly-crafted building materials
(polished limestone). They had large paved Central Courtyard and smaller West Court, areas
in the west devoted to ritual activities, residential quarters and political areas in the east for
aristocrats, workshops in the northern industrial section, and storage magazines (long
corridors) holding up to 246 thousand litres of olive oil in pithoi.
The western side of Knossos contained Linear A evidence from the Old Palace period. It has
an upper floor which contained state rooms looking over the West Court and accessed by a
wide corridor (containing the Processional Fresco) and staircase. Beside the West Court was
the theatral area with steps to be sat on (possibly for drama performances or legal
proceedings) and the Royal Road led from there to the corridor.
There were also religious areas on the west side including shrines, storerooms, and
underfloor storage cists (stone-lined boxes). There was also a tripartite shrine and the Bull
Chamber, which was on the main floor (same level as Central Court) and contained the Bull
Relief Fresco. The Throne Room was a religious/political building on the western side,
accessed by a few steps down from the Central Courtyard. It had a low ceiling, no windows,
and a paved floor, and contained the stone throne, lustral basin, and griffin frescoes.
The northern industrial/economic sector of Knossos contained over 400 loom weights from
the Old Palace period, 18 oil-storage magazines full of pithoi, temple workshops, the
Schoolroom Workshop (containing benches), and a lapidary workshop for fine stonework
(Spartan basalt etc.) for rhytons, sealstones, and other religious stonework. Both Knossos
and Mallia contained large grain silos called kouloures.
The eastern sector of Knossos contained areas which Evans suggested as domestic quarters
for the aristocracy, such as the Hall of the Double Axes – a double chamber with an inner
and outer area and 11 double partitioned doors. Some argue that this is not the case
because it is on the lowest floor, near to the industrial sector, and lacking any light. The
Queen’s Megaron complex was also in this area, and contained a toilet room (with flushing
toilet), bathroom (with decorated terracotta bathtub), storeroom (containing food, water,
and wine), and light well that let in light. It is famous for the Dolphin Fresco.
Hagia Triadha: The most significant points about Hagia Triadha are its unusual
structure/debatable status, its importance in economy (storerooms) and administration
(writing), its religious value (sarcophagus), and its history with the Mycenaeans.
- Located near Phaistos, its status as a palace is unknown as it is L-shaped (rather than
square), has unusual decoration (dados not frescoes) and architecture (light wells in the
wrong place), and is smaller than the other palaces. However it still contained porticoes,
courtyards (such as the Court of Shrines), apartments, many storage magazines,
workshops, shrines, and a main hall.
- It was known as the Royal Villa, which could have been a ‘summer palace’ for the
Phaistos rulers or the seat of a chieftain. It was built in the Middle period and destroyed
at the same time as Knossos – only in use for max 150 years. The Mycenaeans then
rebuilt on top of the ruins, which were never looted. In this period it became much more
important, possibly overtaking Phaistos as the main palace of the time.
- Important finds included the Chieftain’s Cup, the Boxer Vase and Harvester’s Vase, and
an impressively large store of Linear A, including 147 tablets and a variety of small clay
‘nodules’ and roundels. The tablets are believed to contain agricultural records, while
the nodules were attached to objects such as produce or other documents.
- The presence of so many storerooms and records suggest its importance as an economic
and administrative centre for gathering and redistributing produce, supporting the
multi-functionality of the palaces and raising questions about social organisation.
- North of the palace is the town – including houses, shops, and a market square – and the
burial sites. The houses date from two distinct periods.
Economy
The palaces were the main economic centres in Minoan Crete. They had six functions:
1. Producers of craft
2. Consumers of food and goods
3. Administration of internal exchange
4. Regulation of external trade
5. Accumulators of agriculture
6. Redistributors of produce
PIE-CAR: producer/consumer of goods, internal/external traders, accumulator/redistributor
of agriculture.
The palace economy developed in the 1st and 2nd Palatial periods as the building of the
palaces brought in skilled and unskilled labour and administrators, and consumed building
materials. The palaces became centres of storage and later specialised distribution centres
for specialised crops. Some scholars suggest that the palaces were being exploitative by
taking all the profits! When the Mycenaeans arrived there was a bureaucratic regulation of
produce recorded in Linear B.
Most of the Minoan economy was based on agriculture. The Mesara and Pediada plains
were the main agricultural areas, and Gournia was an agricultural town. The Minoans also
had sophisticated agricultural technology, including terracing on the hills to maximise land
use. There was no major storage near the farms – instead the palaces, especially Knossos,
stored immense quantities of produce. Linear B records describe the types and extent of
crops (wheat, oil, wine, spice, flax, wool, 109 fig trees, 405 olive trees, 420 grapevines, 1770
fig trees, 100 000 sheep).
Towns also had a role in the economy. The most important town was Gournia, which was
well-placed for trade and communication with other towns as it had a commanding position
on a hill by the Bay of Mirabello. It is at the point where Crete is most narrow, giving it
access to the north and south. It contained a palatial complex with storage magazines (with
17 pithoi) and open areas for manufacturing (with stone balance-weights), as well as a
nearby harbour with buildings such as a ship-shed, pithoi, and a cobbled harbour road. In
the town itself, there are over 50 houses with production areas:
- 20 for pottery (with potter’s wheels, 11 kilns, and striped ‘Mirabello Ware’ pots)
- 18 for bronze (including a foundry with crucibles and iron flux)
- 15 for stone vases
- 14 for textiles
Fishhooks and agricultural tools were found around the town, suggesting food sources. The
main agricultural crops were grapes, olives, and grain – grapevines were grown on terraces
because they could survive near the sea. Normal houses had four or five pithoi to store the
year’s food, but most produce was stored in the palace. Of the original 34 houses excavated,
only 20 had storage vessels found in them.
Other important towns were located on islands in the Bay of Mirabello. Pseira had about 60
houses arranged irregularly and built of local stone. It had agriculture, but was most
important as a harbour and as a centre for stoneworking. Stone used included steatite,
serpentine, marble, calcite, quartz, and limestone (all from Crete) as well as travertine from
Pachia Ammos and white-spotted obsidian from Turkey. Pottery was also brought to the
island from mainland Crete as well as from the Cyclades and other nearby islands. Mochlos
was smaller and also an important trade ‘gateway’ site, joined to the coast by an isthmus in
ancient times. It had no space for agriculture and would have imported food from the
nearby coastal plains. Grey pottery and some stonework was produced here but it was most
important for producing gold jewellery. The gold was imported from northern Greece and
other materials such as carnelian and chalcedony from Egypt, ivory from Syria, and silver
from the Cyclades were also imported.
Other major economic centres were harbour towns, including Zakros and Kommos. Zakro in
the south-east was well-suited for trade with Syria and Lebanon and which had a small
palace complex with stonecarving, ivory, and metalworking workshops, surrounded by a
town in which oil and wine presses, grain-grinding, and metal foundries were found.
Kommos was well-positioned for trade with Egypt, and pottery from Cyprus and Canaan
containing traces of beer, meat, oils, incense, beans, fruit, and oats. A ship-shed containing
four anchors probably protected trading vessels. Distinctive ‘dark-on-light pottery was also
produced here. The port was associated with the nearby palace of Phaistos. Knossos also
had an associated port – Poros-Katsambas, which had workshops for obsidian-carving,
metalwork, and jewellery production. Although it is only now being investigated, it is clearly
an important industrial site.
Trade was also an essential part of the Minoan economy, and the association of ports with
the palaces emphasises how the economy was directed entirely by the rulers rather than
independent traders, similar to Egypt. This was known as ‘command economy’. All Bronze
Age trade was in the form of barter (exchange of goods) as there were no coins.
Minoan trading ships travelled the Mediterranean filled with trade goods from Crete such as
oil, textiles, pottery, stonework (e.g. rhytons), cypress, and perhaps copper (ingots,
metalwork, weapons). Some of the Minoan trading partners included Ebla (sheep, textiles,
silver, gold), Mari (tin and other metals), and Egypt. There is evidence of Minoan trade in
Egypt in reliefs such as the Theban Tombs, tomb of Rekhmire, and the statue-bases at Luxor.
As well as goods, there was also a trade of ideas: sistrums, sphinxes, Larnakes, and images
of African animals, papyrus plants, and rivers went from Egypt to Crete, while Minoan-style
painting, textile patterns, and images of monkeys and bulls went from Crete to Egypt and
were seen in the palaces of Malkata and Avaris. The tradition of depicting males with dark
skin and females with light skin was also common to both Egypt and Crete. Separately,
images of griffins and of gods fighting animals came from Mesopotamia to Crete.
Other evidence for Minoan trade comes in the form of shipwrecks. The Ulu Burun and Cape
Gelidonya shipwrecks contained Minoan amphorae, copper ingots, bronze implements, and
rhytons, as well as Egyptian gold jewellery (Nefertiti scarab), hippopotamus ivory, and ebony
and Greek diptych tablets. The Point Iria and Skindos Bay wrecks mainly contained Minoan
pottery, including amphorae, plates, bowls, cups, and ‘sauceboats’, as well as a lead bar
from Athens. These ships were probably Canaanite. The Pseira wreck, the only one found
near Crete, contained amphorae, pithoi, stylish pots, and simple cups.
Greek historian Thucydides credits the Minoans as establishing the first sea empire
(thalassocracy) and colonising islands such as Thera, Kythera, Melos, and Keos. However,
despite the presence of Minoan cultural influence on these islands and the support of
historians such as Evans and Cadogan, this remains only a theory that cannot be proven.
Starr argues that Thucydides was merely attempting to justify the Athenian/Classical Greek
sea empire of his time by linking it to the Minoans, and other scholars suggest that the
Minoan artefacts found in the Aegean islands were due to trade, not imperialism.
The technology of the Minoans was impressively sophisticated for the time. Minoan goods
were produced by a wide variety of crafts including stonecarving, ivory-carving, glasswork,
textiles, metalwork, and pottery.
Minoan stonecarving included the wide variety of vessels such as rhytons (including the
Harvester’s Vase, Crystal Zakros Rhyton, Bull’s Head Rhyton, and Alabaster Lioness Rhyton)
as well as prism-shaped or lentoid seal-stones which functioned as amulets and ‘signatures’.
They used native stones as well as imports, and Minoan stonework was considered luxury
items for trade. Ivory was also used for seal-stones as well as jewellery, and was imported
from Egypt – as such, ivory work often included Egyptian motifs.
Glass came in two types – the glass-like non-clay ceramic known as faience, which was made
with sand and copper and used to make the Snake Goddess, and normal glass which was
imported in the form of ingots and used in jewellery. Textiles were also extremely important
to the Minoans, and woollen textiles were sold in Egypt and Syria. The wool was spun into
thread, dyed, and woven on a vertical loom such as the ones found in Knossos and Myrtos.
Myrtos also contained spindles, dyeing tubs, and a large sheep population, suggesting it was
a specialised weaving town.
Minoan metalworking was extremely important both for jewellery and more practical
purposes. For practical purposes such as weapons and vessels the most important metal
was bronze, and Cretan bronze was known for its quality. Bronze was smelted in bowl
furnaces with clay chimneys, in locations such as Zakros and Knossos, and bronze goods
were typically made either via solid casting with moulds or out of beaten sheet metal.
Jewellery was made from gold imported from Egypt and the Greek mainland, and was worn
by both males and females. It was made from beaten sheet metal and wires or cast into
beads, and decorated with precious stones. The Bee Pendant is a Minoan masterwork
decorated with granules of gold which were made by pouring drops of gold into water and
were attached using copper salt and glue, that reduced to pure copper solder when heated.
Early Minoan pottery was made of slabs or coils, but later the invention of the potter’s
wheel allowed for more complex and quicker work. Some pottery was utilitarian but the
best was made in the palaces for the elite or for trade. The clay used was dug from clay pits
and had varying chemical compositions. Once made, the pottery pieces were dried, fired in a
cross-draught or up-draught kiln, and glazed with iron slip-clay. Kilns have been discovered
at Kommos, Zakros, Knossos, and Hagia Triadha. The glazed pots would then go through
oxidation and reduction in the kiln, turning the iron slip black and the clay red. Pyrgos Ware
was an early pottery style where the main pot was left red and figures were painted on in
black, while Kamares Ware was a style where the main pot was painted black and the
figures were painted over it in white calcium silicate slip and other bright colours.
Other pottery styles included Barbotine Ware, which was decorated with bumps, and the
four styles of the Second Palatial Period – Marine style, Floral style, Abstract and Geometric
style, and Alternating style (with repeating sacred symbols). These styles likely arose due to
the mingling of artistic ideas in the palaces and possible influences from paintings and trade.
Figurines such as the dancers and votive images were also made from pottery.
Minoans were also great builders, and used a measurement which we call a ‘Minoan foot’.
Building materials included limestone (at Knossos/Phaistos) and sandstone (Mallia). Outer
walls were faced with Ashlar masonry (smooth cut stone). Interior walls were rough and
sometimes rubble-filled, then coated with plaster. Wood was used as a bracing frame with
vertical and horizontal beams, which held in the rubble and resisted earthquakes. Upper
storeys were made of lighter building materials including sun-dried clay/mud bricks. They
were supported by wooden columns (tapering towards the base) which were also
decorative. Timber was used as beams for the floor and roof. Stone staircases had steps
which dovetailed into angled blocks. Light wells were deep openings cut into ceiling
structures that also provided ventilation.
There was impressive hydraulic and sanitary engineering at Knossos. Storm water flowed off
flat roofs and courtyards due to a complex system of drainage channels. There were
underfloor conduits which emerged below the Double Axe Hall in the Court of the Stone
Spout. As well as stone channels there were pottery pipes, settling pools to clean the runoff,
and a parabolic end channel to slow the water-flow. The Knossos water supply came down
from the nearby hills. There were also flushing toilets.
Everyday housing was smaller but also complex. The walls were made of wooden supporting
beams (shown by the faience houses) and probably filled with rubble. The Arkhanes clay
model is one of the best sources for houses, showing the flat roof, two storeys, tall windows
supported by pillars on the top floor and small barred windows on the bottom floor, plenty
of decorative/structural pillars, a pattern suggesting wooden beams, and even a small
balcony! Some houses also had light wells.
Culture and Writing
The Minoans were notable for their art and aesthetics, as noted by Evans, and this
appreciation of beauty and nature likely inspired our modern perception of them as
peaceful and happy. Minoan crafts display great artistic talent, but were likely only created
for the elite – we know little about the culture of the lower classes.
Our knowledge of Minoan culture is also limited by our inability to read their writing. Three
forms of distinct Minoan writing have been discovered: Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A, and
Linear B. Cretan hieroglyphs dating back to the Pre-palace period have been discovered, and
one of the most important hieroglyphic texts is the Phaistos Disk – a mysterious disk
stamped with symbols that may have been a star chart, a game board, or even a forgery and
hoax by archaeologist Pernier. Linear A was a simplified version of hieroglyphs that allowed
for more complex writing, and examples have been retrieved from all across Crete in the
form of tablets, storage vessels, and religious artefacts.
Only Linear B – an adaptation of Linear A which resembled Classical Greek and was only
introduced during the Mycenaean occupation – can be read, and the only Linear B texts that
have been discovered are simple inventories and lists. The symbols of Linear B represented
syllables, and were translated by architect and codebreaker Ventris. The ‘flowing’, cursive
style of Linear A and B suggests that typically it was painted on papyrus or other perishable
materials, and only temporary unimportant records were made on clay. These clay records
likely only survived because they were accidentally fired during the burning of the palaces.
It is considered unlikely that Minoans were literate, as there are few ‘public inscriptions’ and
there is no reason why the average Minoan peasant would need to read in their everyday
life. As such, being a scribe was likely a position of some power. Egyptian hieroglyphics and
cuneiform from the Near East were also discovered in Crete, likely due to trade.
Everyday Life
Leisure activities such as acrobatics (running, somersaulting/tumbling) and bull-leaping were
underpinned by values and ideals such as athleticism, fitness, aesthetic appreciation of the
body, rivalry/winning, and heroism/courage. Many leisure activities may also have has
religious undertones, such as dancing (done by priestesses).
Bull sports are not well understood – they were obviously important, but it isn’t certain that
they were religious, or even real. Platon suggests that it was a real sport that people
participated in, but had a high casualty rate. It is also possible that it was from a legend, a
feat only achievable by gods such as the Master of Animals. Hunting was likely a pastime of
the elite, although peasants may have hunted for food. It represents courage and skill, and
is exclusively a male activity. Koehl suggests it may have been a rite of passage. Animals
hunted included lions, bulls, wild goats, wild boars, and deer. Evidence for hunting includes
daggers (Lion Hunt dagger from Mycenae), sealstones (hunter and dog, hunter and slain
prey), cups (Vapheio cup with bull capture), and ivory objects.
Board games have been found at Knossos, but they are not well understood. Gaming was
likely the pastime of the elite due to the use of ivory, crystal, gold, and silver in the game
boards, the greater free time they likely had, and the fact that they were only found at
palaces. Seven 95 x 55 cm boards were found at Knossos along with markers in the shape of
cylinders, disks, cones, tiles, and marbles. Unlike other leisure activities, it reflected strategy
and intellect more than athleticism and bravery.
Music and dance were also common pastimes as attested by the amount they were
represented in art. Egyptian-style sistrums may have had religious purposes, and other
instruments such as single and double flutes, lyres, and singers were also depicted in
religious and non-religious scenes such as the Hagia Triadha Sarcophagus and the
Harvester’s vase.
Minoan health and diet is another important part of their everyday life. Evidence for this
comes in the form of 364 skeletons (mainly from Armenoi) and over 8000 disarticulated
bones (from Agios, Lasithi, and others). Wilson investigated the teeth of skeletons and
discovered 66% had enamel loss due to childhood illness, 48% had plaque, 29% had missing
teeth, and 18% had cavities. The incidence of cavities increased after more cereals, lentils,
honey, and other carbohydrates/sugars were added to their diet, especially in the Late
period. Enamel loss occurred in ‘lines’ where it stopped growing due to illness and fever,
then restarted.
Common Minoan diseases included Malta Fever (which spread via unpasteurised milk and
caused fever and depression), tuberculosis (which spread through the air and attacked
lungs), and Cooley’s disease (a hereditary anaemia which also causes diarrhoea).
Male lifespans decreased from 35 years in the Early period to 31 years when the
Mycenaeans ruled, possibly reflecting harsh treatment. Female lifespans remained constant,
with the average being around 25-28 due to childbirth, but some women living to 45 and
remaining healthier than men!
About 4.5% of the skeletons also showed fractures, mainly in the lower legs. There was
some evidence that fractures had been ‘set’ and healed, most imperfectly, but some
perfectly. There was also evidence of successful trepanation, where hole were drilled in
skulls to decrease the impact of brain trauma. This reveals extensive medical knowledge.
The Minoan diet contained a wide variety of foods and drinks. Beverages included barley
beer, and wine flavoured with herbs (laurel, lavender, sage) and resins. This is confirmed by
organic residues (grape skins, pips, and stalks) found in pithoi at Myrtos and other pottery at
Apodoulou.
Religion
Minoan religion was polytheistic and heavily intertwined with daily life, just like Egyptian
and Roman religion. Personal involvement in religious rituals were part of correct social
behaviour, reinforcing the social order. Priests and priestesses wielded considerable power
and probably had political influence. Nature was heavily involved in religion.
Deities: Female deities were associated with fertility, and were often associated with the
earth. They were sometimes depicted with griffins. Male deities were not as heavily
depicted and may be the sons or consorts of more prominent female deities. Some major
deities include:
- The Master of Animals: A male deity, possibly related to the Mistress of Animals, shown
as a young man often fighting lions.
- The Bull: Possibly an early aspect of Zeus, who would become ‘king of the gods’,
associated with power, strength and masculinity.

- Potnia: The ‘Great Goddess’ and ‘Lady of the Labyrinth’, guardian of cities and
households. A sanctuary at Knossos was dedicated to her. Her symbols include the
double-headed axe, the pillar, and the snake. The Dove Goddess, the Snake Goddess,
and the Mistress of Animals may all be her aspects:
o Mistress of Animals: Associated with mountains, peak sanctuaries, and the wild,
tamed all animals, shown surrounded by lionesses. Possibly an early Artemis.
o Snake Goddess: A household/domestic goddess, possible underworld goddess,
and Mother Goddess. Shown carrying two snakes.
o Dove Goddess: Shown with upraised hands and a poppy/bird/horned crown,
associated with the sky and doves, who are the messengers of the gods.
- Goddess of Myrtos: A fertility/motherhood goddess depicted as a pregnant woman with
a long stalk-like neck and carrying a jug.
It is possible that all the goddesses are in fact the same ‘mother goddess’! Castleden states
“We may eventually come to think in terms of a Minoan Universal Spirit, which manifested
itself in many different ways… yet somehow was regarded as a single deity”.
There are references to Demeter, a Classical Greek mother goddess. All the goddesses are
also shown with similar features, such as upraised arms and bare breasts to represent
fertility and the ability to sustain life by providing sustenance. Women are associated with
griffins, which are everywhere: the griffins in the throne room may suggest a female ruler,
and the Saffron-Gatherer Frescoes in Akrotiri (Thera) depict women and griffins in a ritual
involving blood – possibly an initiation and/or representing menstruation.
Seal-stones depict priestesses and goddesses (it is often hard to tell which is which). Some
seal-stones depict a tiny male figure in the background or two male figures dancing around
a larger central female. The males may be attendants of the mother goddess.
The symbols of the goddess all held particular significance. The double-headed axe (or
labrys – associated with the word labyrinth) may have been associated with the Bull and the
myth of the Minotaur as well as the goddess, and was probably used in religious
ceremonies. The snake was a symbol of protection, rejuvenation, and rebirth, and was
associated with the Underworld. Trees were another important religious symbol for the
Minoans, associated with life and fertility, and many carvings depict tree-worship.
Religious Places: Religion was also closely linked to the geography of Crete, with gods and
goddesses representing natural phenomena. Underground places (e.g. Cave of Eileithyia)
were associated with the underworld, and high peaks (e.g. Juktas of Knossos) were
associated with the gods. As such, sanctuaries were built in these holy places.
There are 25 peak sanctuaries, placed on top of mountains or steep hills often with a direct
line of sight to palace shrines. They were associated with birds and sky gods, but also held
images of bulls. Specific sanctuaries were also dedicated to healing, fertility, or rites of
passage. They were mainly open spaces, although walls delineated the ‘sacred area’.
Various votive objects (bulls, jewellery, Linear A, human figures) were found within them, as
well as ash which may have been from burnt offerings.
Some of the most significant sites include Mount Juktas by the palace of Knossos, which had
a sacred fissure; Atsipadhes Korakias in the western-central region, which had two terraces
to fit many people and may have been used for boy’s rites of passage; and the Avlemona
Shrine in the north-west, where over 50 bronze worshipper figurines were found.
There are 13 main cave sanctuaries, used to worship earth gods and especially the Mother
Goddess. Caves symbolised a link between the underworld/’spirit world’ and the lightness
of the everyday world. The sanctuaries were often difficult to access. Altars were outside or
made of natural stalagmites in the depths.
The most significant site is the Amnissos Cave/the Cave of Eileithyia, where the childbirth
goddess Eileithyia was worshipped, but others included Psychro, Idaean, and Skotino. The
Cave of Eileithyia contained a group of stalagmites surrounded by an ancient stone wall
(temenos) and pottery fragments from offerings.
Palaces such as Knossos, Phaestos, Mallia and Zakro also had specific shrines. These shrines
were often associated with pillars, which were worshipped as Earth symbols possibly
representing tree-trunks or stalagmites, and associated with the Mother Goddess. They had
central courtyards with altars as well.
Villas and houses such as the Little Palace at Knossos also contained ritual areas such as
pillars, columns, tripartite and other shrines, and adytons.
Horns of Consecration were giant stone or plaster bull-horns, probably commemorating bull
sacrifices. They were located in many sacred areas such as the Knossos palace, and carvings
of the horns were also found. Some of them had small holes between them for holding the
double-headed axes. They varied in size: huge ones adorned Knossos, medium ones marked
sacred sites, and small ones were votive offerings. The Hagia Triadha sarcophagus (Akrotiri)
also had painted depictions of them.
Tripartite shrines were three-part shrines with unknown functions – probably dedicated to
specific gods. There are only three of these known, one of which was at Knossos and the
other two at Gournia and Vathy Petra. They were small and contained three columns with
the central one being the highest. There are depictions of them in the evidence such as little
clay models, and they are usually seen with birds and sometimes horns.
There were also 6 round stones called Baetyls which may have ‘held the spirits’ of certain
deities and were hence worshipped. They were often depicted as surrounded by birds
(specifically doves and ravens) and butterflies, which were considered symbols of the sky
gods.
Ritual: There were a variety of rituals associated with Minoan religion.
Adytons (sunken rooms/pools) and lustral basins (stone bowls inside/near the adytons)
were structures built for ritual cleaning and purification. There is a lustral basin at Knossos
in the throne room, situated right in front of the throne, and every palace/villa appears to
have at least one. They are surrounded by religious frescoes and always approached by a
staircase. The stone walls were notable for their technological superiority.
Religious processions occurred at the palaces and there were dedicated courtyards for this.
Dance was also involved in rituals, as it was thought to induce a trancelike state, and special
circular dance platforms were built for this.
Images of the bull exist throughout Crete and especially at the palaces. Knossos has stylised
Horns of Consecration on its rooftops, and images of the bull appear in religious ritual,
especially on rhytons (small conical pouring vessels which may have held blood). One is
called the Bull’s Head Rhyton, and was made of steatite with ivory and gold. There is also a
rhyton called the Rhyton of Zakro, which depicted a peak sanctuary and horns of
consecration.
There was also a sculpture called the Ivory Acrobat depicting a bull-leaper – probably a
ritual, but also for entertainment. Bull-leaping was originally thought to have occurred in the
central courtyard of Knossos, but now is thought to have happened in the theatral district.
Bull sports may have been initiation rituals, or related to bull sacrifice. Sacrifices were
common – usually animal sacrifices, but occasionally human. The bones of four humans
were found in the temple of Anemospilia at Mount Juktas, probably sacrificed in an
earthquake; and the bones of two dismembered children (cut marks on the shins) were
found in the Little Palace at Knossos along with sheep bones and offerings of herbs. Also
Homer’s Iliad and the Legend of Theseus refer to human sacrifice.
After animal sacrifices (especially the very sacred bull sacrifices), the meat would often be
eaten in a religious feast. Wine or blood was also ‘sacrificed’ in the form of libations. This
occurred in many sacred places including the betyls. Offerings and libations were also placed
on specialised ‘offering tables’, or kernoi, which contained depressions to hold gifts.
Aside from food and wine, votive offerings (representative sculptures) were also given.
These included tiny gold, bronze, ivory, or lead labrys, and clay models of bulls and other
farm animals. A tiny pottery sistrum (rattle) was found in a child’s grave, perhaps to ward off
evil spirits.
Funerary Customs
Minoan bodies were buried in the foetal position, suggesting rebirth. They were surrounded
by grave goods such as cups and eating utensils, and food offerings were also left for the
dead. Bodies were buried in the ground (inhumation) in tombs, but when the flesh had
decomposed this signified that the spirit had left. Once the bodies had decayed the bones
were moved aside to leave room for future bodies. The head/skull was given extra respect
as the ‘site of individuality’.
Tombs were communal, large, and above-ground – the original tombs were caves. They also
had altars outside for offerings to be made to the dead. There were several types:
- Cist Tomb: Stone-lined box-shaped pits housing one body (e.g. Sphoungara)

- Cave Burials: Bodies left in natural caves/rock shelters, utilized natural cave features,
reflected sense of community and belief in underworld gods, (e.g. Kato Zakro ‘Valley of
the Dead’, Kastello Tzermiada)

- House Tomb: Rectangular free-standing structures mimicking domestic houses, one or

two rooms either long and parallel or square/oblong, some have no entrances and
others have proper frames and doors, located in rocky/infertile areas, used for the elite,
(e.g. Palaikastro, Gournes, Siva, Mochlos)

- Ossuary: Storehouse tombs, often round, added rooms over time, close to Tholos/
Chamber tombs, used for ‘second burial’ after flesh had disintegrated, contained up to
100 skeletons, reflected community, (e.g. Pyrgos II, Ossuary of Archanes)
.

- Tholos Tomb: Circular Mycenaean-esque tombs, 2.5-13m diameter, above-ground or

built into the hillside, vaulted/domed roof, entry passage called dromos, altar outside,
reflected respect for the dead, (e.g. Phourni, Phylaki = 11m dromos, Isopata)

- Chamber Tombs: Rectangular/round rock-cut underground tombs, sometimes with side

niches containing vase or statues, accessed through dromos, could be large or small,
reflected respect for the dead and underworld belief, common in later periods, (e.g.
Kalyvia = elite, Phylaki = square 3.5m chamber, Iera Petra = 2 skeletons)

- Monumental Tombs: Temple/Royal tombs, very large, pavilions, courtyards, pillar crypts,
halls, partially rock-cut and partially built, held luxurious grave goods, (e.g. Isopata,
Gypsades Hill)
Larnakes: Chest-like pottery sarcophagi, pithoi- or bathtub-shaped, some with lids or
painted with religious iconography (e.g. Hagia Triadha). Not every Minoan was buried in a
Larnax – some were on beds or in normal coffins.
Rituals, especially bull sacrifices, were associated with burial, and offerings were left for the
deceased both during and after the funeral. Goddesses were also associated with burial, as
seen on the iconography on the Hagia Triadha sarcophagus: one end has women in griffin-
drawn chariots, the other depicts a woman (goddess) and man (deceased) in a horse-drawn
chariot going to the afterlife. The long sides depict the narrative of the funeral.