Indian Geography for Prelims

Prelims Syllabus
1. Major Landforms - Mountains, Plateaus, Plains
2. Mechanism of Monsoon and Rainfall distribution.
3. Major Rivers and Lakes.
4. Major Crops - Wheat, Rice, Cotton, Sugarcane, Tea and Coffee.
5. Major Minerals - Iron ore, Manganese, Bauxite, Mica
6. Power Resources - Conventional and Non - Conventional
7. Major Industrial regions.
8. National Highways and Major Transport Corridors.

India: General Introduction

Location – India is located in Northern and Eastern Hemisphere. India is a major country of South Asia.
Shape of India – Quadrangular
Area – 32,87,263 sq km (New Data - 32,87,469 sq km)
(32.8 lakh sq km)
(3.28 million sq km) (Note 1 million = 10 Lakh)
(328.7 million ha) (Note 1 sq km = 100 Hectare)
2.4% of world’s total area.
Area wise India is world’s 7th largest country.
Population
According to Census 2011, the population of India is around 121 crores. India is on 2nd position in terms of Population.
India’s population is 17.5% of the world’s total population.
Extension of India -
The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is around 30° but the distance between the Northernmost and Southernmost
point is 3214 km whereas the distance between the Easternmost and Westernmost point is only 2933 km because the
distance between two longitudes decreases towards the poles whereas the distance between latitudes remains the same.
India's southernmost point - Indira Point
India's Northernmost point - Indira Col
India's Westernmost point - Guhar moti village
India's Easternmost point - Kibithu village
Tropic of Cancer passes through the eight states of India – Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram.
Tropic of Cancer (ToC) divides India into two parts. The southern part of India lies in the tropical zone and the northern
part lies in the Subtropical or the warm temperate zone.
Capital cities close to ToC.
1. Ranchi (Closest Capital)
2. Aizawl
3. Bhopal
4. Gandhinagar
5. Agartala
Udaipur City of Tripura is the closest city to the ToC but it is not a state capital. Other Cities close to ToC are Ahmedabad,
Ujjain, Jabalpur, Shahdol of M.P, Ambikapur in Chhattisgarh, Hooghly in W.B, Banswara in Rajasthan.
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 Indira Point was earlier called Parson Point and
Pygmalion Point.

Indian Standard Time (IST)

82°30’ East longitude which passes through Mirzapur near Prayagraj (Allahabad) has been selected as the standard
meridian of India. Indian standard time is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

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82 ½ ° E passes through five states of India – Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh.
Because of 30° longitudinal extension the sun rises two hours earlier in the Northeastern states as compared to the
westernmost states. Tropic of Cancer and 82 ½ ° E longitude intersect at Koriya district in Chhattisgarh.

Longest to shortest coastline.

1. Andaman Nicobar (1962 km)
2. Gujarat (1214.70 km)
3. Andhra Pradesh (973.70 km)
4. Tamil Nadu (960.90 km)
5. Maharashtra (652.60 km)
6. Kerala (569.70 km)
7. Odisha (476.70 km)
8. Karnataka (208 km)
9. West Bengal (157.50 km)
10. Lakshadweep (132 km)
11. Goa (101 km)
12. Puducherry (47.60 km)
13. Daman – Diu (42.50 km)

Coastline
Longest coastline – Andaman Nicobar
Longest coastline in mainland region –
Gujarat
Shortest coastline – Daman and Diu

India had accepted to abide by the United Nations convention on the laws of the sea (UNCLOS) (1982). The UNCLOS
divides marine areas into five main zones which are as follows.
1. Internal Waters – Water on the landward side of the baseline. India has full sovereignty over its internal waters.
There is no right of innocent passage through it.
2. Territorial Sea – It extends seaward up to 12 nautical miles from the baseline. India has sovereignty and jurisdiction
over the territorial sea, seabed, subsoil and even airspace but innocent passage is allowed.
3. Contiguous Zone – It extends seaward up to 24 nautical miles from the baseline. India has got financial rights of
charging custom duty etc in this region. In this region India has got jurisdiction on the ocean surface and floor but no
airspace rights.
4. Exclusive Economic Zone – It extends seaward up to 200 nautical miles from the baseline. India has got rights for
the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources whether living or non-living like fish,
natural gas, oil etc; to conduct scientific research and with regard to the establishment of artificial islands in this region.
5. High Sea – It refers to the ocean surface beyond 200 nm. It is beyond national jurisdiction.
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Indian Subcontinent
India forms a great geographic entity known as the Indian subcontinent because it is bounded by the Himalayas in the
North, Hindukush and Sulaiman range in the North-West, Purvanchal hills in the North-East, Arakon Yoma mountain in the
East and by the large expanse of the Indian ocean in the South. Indian subcontinent includes India, Pakistan, Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh, Srilanka and Maldive.
Palk Strait
This strait connects Palk Bay and Bay of Bengal. It
separates India and Sri Lanka.
Adam Bridge is located between India and Sri Lanka.
Rameshwaram is located on Pamban island which is a part
of Adam Bridge. Palk Bay is located to the north of Adam
Bridge and Gulf of Mannar is located to the south of it.
Highest point in India is K2 (Godwin Austin) 8611 m.
Lowest Point in India Kuttanad (-2m) in Kerala.

Mean Sea Level of India

On the eastern side of peninsular India Bay of Bengal is located and on its western side Arabian Sea is located.
Sea Level of Bay of Bengal is higher than the sea level of Arabian Sea.
Mean Sea level (MSL) is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location. India’s
MSL was taken from Karachi before independence. After independence, MSL was taken from Mumbai and at present it
is taken from Chennai. The Survey of India (SoI) determined the mean sea level of India and elevation of different places
is measured from MSL.
There are 28 states and 8 Union Territories in India.
Laregst State of India – Rajasthan
Smallest State of India – Goa
Largest Union Territory – Ladakh
Smallest Union Territory – Lakshadweep
Largest District – Kutchh (Gujarat)
Smallest District – Mahe (Puducherry)
Populationwise largest State – Uttar Pradesh
Populationwise smallest State – Sikkim
State touching the border of maximum number of States –
Uttar Pradesh
State touching the border of only one State – Sikkim and
Meghalaya
States forming border with more than two countries – West
Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Ladakh

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 Physiographic Division Of India
Diverse relief and physical features are found in India.
Mountains 10.5%
Hills 18.6%
Plateau 27.7%
Plains 43.2%
On the basis of relief features India can be divided into the following
physiographic divisions.
1. The Northern Mountain Region.
2. The Northern Plain Region.
3. The Peninsular Plateau Region.
4. The Coastal Plains Region.
5. The Island Group Region.
The Northern and North-Eastern Mountain Region
This region extends over an area of 5 lakh sq km between 74° E and
96° E longitude (Longitudinal extension of around 22°). Himalayas are
young fold mountains formed in Tertiary Period by the folding of
sediments of Tethys sea caused due to the convergence of Eurasian
and Indo-Australian plate. This mountain region can be divided geographically and regionally.
Geographical Division of Himalayas
Trans Himalaya - Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar
Main Himalaya - Great Himalya, Middle Himalaya, Shivalik
Purvanchal

Trans Himalayas
It is also known as Tibet Himalaya. It mainly lies in Ladakh
and Tibet.
Arid conditions are found here. It includes three ranges -
Karakoram Range –
Highest peak - K2 (Godwin Austin 8611m)
Siachen, Hispar, Batura, Baltoro, Biafo glaciers are found here.
Nubra river originates from Siachen glacier.
Karakoram pass of this range connect India and China.
Ladakh Range –
Highest peak - Rakaposhi (7788 m)
Known as Kailash mountain in Tibet. Mansarovar lake lies to the south of it.
Khardung La pass of this range connect Nubra and Shyok river valley with Indus
river valley.
Ladakh plateau (4800m) which is the highest plateau of India is located between
Karakoram and Ladakh range. It is the high altitude cold desert plateau.
Zaskar Range –
Highest Peak - Kamet (7756 m)
This range lies between Suru and Karnali rivers.
Indus river valley is located between Ladakh and Zaskar range.
Photu La pass is in this range which is on Srinagar-Leh route.
Main Himalayas
It extends from Indus river valley in the west up to Brahmaputra river valley in the east over a distance of around 2400 -
2500 km. The width of main Himalaya is around 400 km in the west and 150 km in the east. There is a syntaxial bend on
both the sides of Main Himalayas. The northern slope of Himalayas is gentle (concave) and the southern slope is steep
(convex). Therefore, more glaciers are found on its northern slope. Snowline of western Himalayas is around 5500 m and
the snowline of eastern Himalayas is around 4500 m due to high amount of rainfall. The height of western Himalayas rises
gradually whereas the height of eastern Himalayas rises abruptly. Therefore, western Himalayas are not visible from the
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plains whereas Eastern Himalayas are visible from
the plains. The Main Himalayas include three
ranges - Great Himalayas, Middle Himalayas,
Shivalik.

Great Himalayas -
It is also known as Himadri and it extends from
Nanga Parbat to Namcha Barwa. Its highest peak
is Mount Everest (8848 m). Mount Everest is
known as Sagarmatha in Nepal and Chomolungma
in Tibet. Height is 6100 m , Width - 25 km. Alpine
glaciers like Gangotri, Yamunotri, Satopanth, Pindar,
Milan are located on this range.

Middle Himalayas -
It is also known as Lesser Himalayas and Himachal Himalayas. Height 3700 - 4500 m and its width is around 50 - 80 km.
The regional names of this range are - Pir Panjal (Jammu - Kashmir), Dhauladhar (Himachal Pradesh), Mussoorie - Nag
Tibba (Uttarakhand), Mahabharat (Nepal), Dokya (Sikkim), Black mountain (Bhutan). This range remains covered with
snow during winter and during summer temperate grasslands develop on this range which are called Merg in Kashmir,
Bugyal, Payala in Uttarakhand. Kashmir, Kullu, Kangra, Kathmandu valleys are located between Great Himalayas and
this range.

Shivalik - It is also known as Outer Himalayas.

Height - 500 to 1500 m
Width - 50-80 km. This range has various regional names - Jammu Hills in Jammu - Kashmir, Dudwa and Dhang in
Uttarakhand, Churiaghat hills in Nepal, Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi hills in Arunachal Pradesh. Longitudinal valleys
are found between Shivalik and Middle Himalayas which are called Doon/Dun in western Himalayas and Dwar/ Duar/
Dooars in Eastern Himalayas. The southern slopes of Shivalik range in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are highly
dissected by seasonal streams called Chos.

Purvanchal
The hills extending from North to South in the North Eastern states are
collectively called Purvanchal. It includes Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Manipur
hills, Mizo/Lushai hills, Tripura hills, Laimatol hills etc. These hills were
formed by the convergence of Indian and Burma plate. Most of these hills
are made up of sandstone. High Biodiversity is found here and it is also
included in the Biodiversity Hotspots of the world. Saramati, the highest
peak of Naga hills, is also the highest peak of this part.The highest peak of
Mizo hills is Blue mountain which is also called Phawngpui. Barail hills separate Naga hills from Manipur hills. Mizoram is
called Molassis basin because it is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.
Regional Division of Himalayas by Sydney Burrard
Kashmir or Punjab Himalayas - It lies between Indus and Satluj rivers over a distance of 560 km. Zaskar, Pir Panjal and
Dhauladhar are the major ranges of this region. Nanga Parbat is the highest peak of this region.

Kumaon Himalayas - It lies between Satluj and Kali rivers over a distance of 320 km. Nanda Devi is the highest peak of
this region. The places of pilgrimage such as the Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath and Hemkund Sahib are situated
in this part.

Nepal Himalayas - It lies between Kali and Teesta river over a distance of 800 km. The highest peak of this region is Mount
Everest.

Assam Himalayas - It lies between Teesta and Dihang river over a distance of 720 km. Namcha Barwa (China) is the
highest peak of this part. Pauhunri (Sikkim - China), Chomolhari (China - Bhutan), Kangto (Arunachal Pradesh - China),
Kula Kangri (Bhutan) are other major peaks of this part.
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 1. Burzila बुज ला – Srinagar to POK (Gilgit िगलिगट) 11. Niti नीित - Uttarakhand to Tibet (China)
2. Zojila जोजीला – Srinagar to Leh (NH 1D) 12. Lipulekh लपुलख े - Uttarakhand to Tibet (China)
3. Pir Panjal पीरपं जाल – Srinagar to POK मानसरोवर या ा Mansarovar Pilgrimage
4. Banihal बिनहाल – Srinagar to Jammu (NH 1A) जवाहर 13. Traill’s – Between Nanda Devi and Nand Kot peak.
सुरंग Connects Pindari valley and Milam valley.
5. Thanglang La थांगलांग ला – लेह - िहमाचल 14. Nathula नाथुला – Sikkim to Tibet (China) Silk Route
6. Baralachha बाराल ा – Lahaul-Spiti (H.P) to Leh 15. Jaleep la जलीप ला – Sikkim to Tibet (China)
7. Rohtang रोहतांग – कु ू घाटी को लाहौल- ित घाटी से 16. Bomdila बॉमिडला – Arunachal Pradesh to China
जोड़ता है। अटल सुरंग Atal Tunnel 17. Diphu दीफु – Arunachal Pradesh to Myanmar
8. Shipkila शपिकला – H.P to Tibet (China) सतलज नदी 18. Pangsau or Pansaung पांगसांग – Arunachal Pradesh to
Myanmar
9. Thang La थांग ला – Uttarakhand – Tibet (China)
19. Tuju तुजु – Manipur to Myanmar
10. Mana माना – Uttarakhand to Tibet (China)
Top 10 Peaks of the World
Peak Countries Height
1 Mount Everest Nepal – China 8848.86 m
2 K2 (Godwin Austin) India 8611 m
3 Kanchenjunga India-Nepal 8586 m (new data 8598 m)
4 Lhotse Nepal 8516 m
5 Makalu Nepal 8463 m (new data 8481 m)
6 Cho Oyu Nepal - China 8188 m (new data 8201 m)
7 Dhaulagiri Nepal 8167 m (new data 8172 m)
8 Manasalu Nepal 8156 m
9 Nanga Parbat India (PoK) 8126 m
10 Annapurna Nepal 8091 m

Top 5 Peaks in India Major Peaks of India

1. K2 (PoK) (8611 m) K2 / Godwin Austin (PoK) is the highest peak of India.
2. Kanchenjunga (India - Nepal) (8586 m) Kanchenjunga (Sikkim-Nepal border) is the highest peak in
3. Nanga Parbat (PoK) (8126 m) undisputed region of India.
4. Nanda Devi (India) (7817 m) Nanda Devi (Uttarakhand) is the highest peak in undisputed
5. Rakaposhi (PoK) (7788 m) region of India which is located entirely within India.

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 Highest peaks of the States and Union Territories of India
States Highest Peak
1 Andhra Pradesh Jindhagada/Arma Konda or Seetamma Konda
2 Arunachal Pradesh Kangto / Gorichen
3 Assam Leikot Thumjang / Laike Theipibung (Barail hills)
4 Bihar Someshwar Fort (Shivalik)
5 Chhattisgarh Gourlata / Bailadila range
6 Goa Sosogor
7 Gujarat Gorakhnath peak (Girnar hills)
8 Haryana Karoh (Morni hills)
9 Himachal Pradesh Reo Purgyil
10 Jharkhand Parasnath
11 Karnataka Mullayanagiri
12 Kerala Anamudi
13 Madhya Pradesh Dhopgarh
14 Maharashtra Kalsubai
15 Manipur Mount Iso (Tenipu or Tempu)
16 Meghalaya Shillong Peak (Khasi hills)
17 Mizoram Phawngpui (Blue Mountain)
18 Nagaland Saramati
19 Odisha Deomali
20 Punjab Chilwali Ghar (Naina Devi)
21 Rajasthan Guru Shikhar
22 Sikkim Kanchenjunga
23 Tamil Nadu Dodabeta
24 Telangana Doli Gutta (Laxmidevipalli)
25 Tripura Betalongchhip / Betlingchhip (Jampui hills)
26 Uttar Pradesh Amsot peak (Shivalik)
27 Uttarakhand Nanda Devi
28 West Bengal Sandakphu
1 Ladakh K2 in PoK / Saltoro Kangri
2 Jammu - Kashmir Nanga Parbat in PoK / Nun
3 Andaman - Nicobar Saddle
4 Dadra – Nagar, Unnamed
Daman - Diu
5 Chandigarh Unnamed
6 Delhi Tughlaqabad fort (Delhi Ridge)
7 Pudducherry Red hills
8 Lakshadweep Unnamed (Agatti island)
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 Northern Plain Region
Latest region (Quaternary Period)
Area - 7 lakh sq km
World’s largest plain region
It can be divided into four parts.

Rajasthan Plains
o Arid and semi-arid conditions
o Slope – from NE to SW
o Saline lakes and Luni river.
Rajasthan Bagar
o Between Aravalli and 25 cm isohyet line
o 25 to 50 cm rainfall.
Marusthali
o Between 25 cm isohyet line and Radcliffe line
o Less than 25 cm rainfall.
Satluj Plains
• In Punjab and Haryana
1. Bari Doab
2. Bist Doab
3. Malwa Plains
4. Haryana Bhiwani Bagar
Slope - NE to SW
Highest Productivity found here.
Ganga Plains
Largest part of plain region.
In U.P, Bihar, West Bengal.
Slope - NW to SE
Various regional names - Rohilkhand, Awadh, Mithila,
Magadh, Barind, Rarh.
Highest production found here. Tarai - Extend up to the width of 15 to 30 km; Irregular
flow of water; River again becomes visible on the surface;
Brahmaputra Plains
Dense vegetation and diverse wildlife found here; Used for
Located in Assam agriculture in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
From Dhubri to Sadiya over a distance of 650 km Khadar - Plains formed by new alluvial sediments in flood
Width is around 100 km
plain region of river. They are called Bet in Punjab. Very
Slope – NE to SW
Fertile plains. Highest productivity is found in these plains.
Rice and Jute cultivation
Bangar - Plains formed by old sediments. Kankar (Lumps
Physiographic division of plains of Calcium) found here. Bangar is called Dhaya in Punjab.
Fertile. Highest production found here. Bhur – granulated
Bhabhar land found after erosion of upper fine soil in the bangar
8 to 15 km wide plain formed by big sediments in the region.
foothill region of mountains. River flows under big Delta region (Ganga Brahmaputra delta) - Highland in
sediments and become invisible on the surface. Not useful delta region – Char
for agriculture. Lowland in delta region - Beel
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 Peninsular Plateau Region
It is the largest physiographic division of India which is 16 lakh sq km in area. The height of this plateau region is about 600-
900 m. It is a part of the Gondwanaland. It is the oldest physiographic region of India. It is the most mineral rich region of
India. There are many mountains and plateaus in this region.
Plateau of Peninsular Region
Central Highland = Mewar + Madhya
Bharat + Bundelkhand + Malwa
1. Mewar Plateau: It is situated to the east
of the Aravalli Mountains in Rajasthan.
Banas River flows on this plateau.
2. Central India Plateau: It is located in
Madhya Pradesh. Chambal River flows
on it and forms Ravines.
3. Bundelkhand Plateau: This plateau is
located in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh. Semi-arid conditions are found
here. The slope of this plateau is from
south to north. Ken and Betwa rivers flow
over this plateau.
4. Malwa Plateau: This plateau is mainly located in Madhya Pradesh. It is a triangular plateau with height of 300 to 600 m.
Its highest peak is Sigar top. A layer of lava is found on this plateau. Black soil is formed here by weathering. Chambal,
Kalisindh, Parvati and Shipra rivers flow over this plateau. Ujjain city is situated on the banks of Shipra river where
Kumbh fair is also organized. The city of Indore is also located on this plateau.
5. Baghelkhand Plateau: This plateau is located in M.P and Chhattisgarh. This plateau separates the drainage system of
Son and Mahanadi.
6. Dandakaranya Plateau: This plateau is mainly located in Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. In
Chhattisgarh, this plateau is called 'Bastar Plateau' and in Odisha it is called Kalahandi Plateau. Indravati and Sabri-Sileru
rivers flow on this plateau. Iron ore and bauxite deposits are found on it. The famous iron ore mine 'Dalli Rajhara' is
located in Chhattisgarh. The major reserves of bauxite are found in in Odisha in three major districts - (i) Kalahandi,
(ii) Koraput , (iii) Bolangir
7. Chota Nagpur Plateau: This plateau is mainly located in Jharkhand and adjoining states.
The average elevation of this plateau is 700 m. The highest peak of this plateau is Parasnath.
Iron ore and coal deposits are found on this plateau. Damodar, North Koel, Barakar,
Bokaro, Subarnrekha rivers flow on this plateau. Damodar river divides this plateau into
two parts. (i) Northern part - Hazaribagh and Koderma Plateau (ii) Southern part - Ranchi
plateau Coal deposits are found in Damodar river valley region. In the western part there
is a lava capped tableland known as Pat in local language. The highest pat of the patland region is Netarhat Pat.
8. Meghalaya Plateau: This plateau is considered to be a part of the Chota Nagpur Plateau. It is separated from the Chota
Nagpur Plateau by the Malda fault or Rajmahal Garo Gap. Iron ore, uranium and coal deposits are found on this plateau.
Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, hills are situated on this plateau. Cherrapunji and Mawsynram are found on the Khasi Hills, where
world's highest average annual rainfall is received. The highest peak of Garo hills is Nokrek, it is a biosphere reserve.
Shillong Peak is the highest peak of Khasi Hills aa well as of the Meghalaya Plateau. Highest peak of Jaintia hills is
Marangkshi.
9. Karbianglong Plateau: This plateau is located in Assam. The Mikir and Rengma Hills are located on this plateau.
10. Deccan Plateau: It is a triangular plateau in peninsular India. A layer of lava is found on this plateau due to which black
soil is formed here. The slope of this plateau is from west to east. This plateau can be divided into 3 major parts- (i)
Maharashtra Plateau, (ii) Andhra Plateau, (iii) Karnataka Plateau
(i) Maharashtra Plateau: It is the most prominent cotton growing region of India. Godavari and Krishna River flows on it.
(ii) Andhra Plateau: Krishna River divides this plateau: Region situated in North of Krishna River - Telangana, Southern
Part -Rayalseema. The eastern part is called Seemandhra. Peneru is the other major river flowing on this plateau.
(iii) Karnataka Plateau: 600 m The contour line divides this plateau into 2 parts- Northern part - Bangalore plateau
Southern Region - Mysore Plateau. Krishna and Tuganbhadra rivers flow on the Bangalore plateau and the Kaveri river
flows on the Mysore plateau of peninsular region

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Peninsular Mountains
1. The hills of the Kathiawar peninsula - Gir, Girnar and Mandav hills are the main hills here. Gorakhnath is the highest
peak of this region. Gir National Park is located here.
2. Aravalli: This mountain stretches from Palanpur in Gujarat to Raisina Hills of Delhi. It is the old fold mountain. This is
an example of a Relict mountain. It extends over a distance of 692 km and its maximum part is in Rajasthan (550 km). The
average elevation of this mountain is 930 m. Gurushakhar is its highest peak (1722 m). Many minerals are found in this
mountainous region. Such as lead, zinc, silver, iron ore and copper. It is a part of the great water divide.
3. Vindhyachal: It is a block mountain made up of limestone. This range separates northern and southern India. This range
forms the northern boundary of the Narmada rift valley. It extends from Gujarat to the Chota Nagpur Plateau area at a
distance of about 1050 kilometers. This range includes various hills - such as Bharner, Kaimur, Parasnath. 'Panna' (MP)
known for diamond reserves is located in this range.
4. Satpura: It is a block mountain. It determines the southern boundary of the Narmada rift valley and the northern bound-
ary of Tapi rift valley. It is made of sandstone. It is mainly located in Kutch and Gujarat. It is extended in the form of
various hills like Rajpipla, Gawilgarh, Mahadev, Maikal. Dhupgarh (1350 m) is the highest peak of Satpura located in the
Mahadev Hills. Panchmarhi Biosphere reserve is also situated in the Mahadev Hills. To the south of the Mahadev hills lies
the Betul plateau from where Tapi River originates. Amarkantak is the highest peak of Maikal hills, Son and Narmada
rivers originates from here.
5 Western Ghats: It extends from Tapi River valley to Kanyakumari over a distance of 1600 kms and its average height
is 1200 m. It is also called Sahyadri mountain. It is a fault scarp or block mountain. The western slope of the Western
Ghats is steep and the eastern slope is gentle. This mountain receives heavy rainfall by the south-west monsoon winds.
Hence, tropical evergreen vegetation is found here. High biodiversity is found here and it is one of the 36 biodiversity
hotspots of the world. The Western Ghats can be divided into 3 major parts. i Northern Sahyadri, ii. Middle Sahyadi, iii.
Southern Sahyadri
i. Northern Sahyadri: This part extends from Tapi valley to 16° N. It is mainly located in Gujarat and Maharashtra. The
highest peak of this part is Kalasubai, from where Godavari river originates. The other major peaks are 'Mahabaleshwar'
and Salher. 'Krishna River' originates from the Mahabaleshwar peak.
ii. Middle Sahyadri: It extends from 16° N to Nilgiri Hills. It is mainly located in Goa and Karnataka. The highest peak of this
part is Kudremukh which is knwon for iron ore deposits. Baba Budan hills are also found here which are famous for the
production of coffee.
iii. Southern Sahyadri: It lies between the Nilgiri Hills and Kanyakumari. There are 3 major hills in this part-
Annamalai Hills - The highest peak of these hills is Anaimudi (Kerala)(2695 m). It is also the highest peak in South India.
Cardamom hills: These hills are famous for spice cultivation. (Mainly for cardamom) The highest peak of these hills is
Agasthyamalai. It is also a biosphere-reserve.
Palani Hills : Kodaikanal, the famous hill station of Tamil Nadu, is located in these hills.
Passes in Western Ghats
1. Thalghat - Connects Mumabi to Nasik (NH3)
2. Bhorghat - Connects Mumbai to Pune (NH4)
3. Palghat - Connects Kochi to Coimbatore (NH47)
4. Senkota - Connects Thiruvananthpuram to Madurai (NH49)
6. Eastern Ghats: This old fold mountain extends from Mahanadi to Nilgiri Hills. Its average elevation is 900 meters. It is
continuous from the Mahanadi to the Godavari river and afterwards it is eroded by rivers. Its highest peak is Armakonda
(Andhra Pradesh) (Height -1680 m). The other major peaks here are Mahendragiri, Jindagadha. Eastern Ghats also
include hills located in Odisha (Malayagiri, Malkangiri), Andhra Pradesh (Nallamalla, Eramalla, Velikonda, Palakonda,
Seshchalam) and Tamil Nadu. Such (Javadi, Shevaroy). Seshachalam hills is a biosphere-reserve and is known for red
sandalwood.
7. Nilgiri Hills: These hills are situated on the border region of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It is a block mountain.
The highest peak of this mountain is Dodabetta (2637 m). It is the second highest peak in South India. Eastern and
Western Ghats meet at these hills. These hills are known for biodiversity. India's first Biosphere reserve is located here.
The famous hill station Ooty in Tamil Nadu is located here. These hills are famous for tea plantation. These hills are
inhabited by the Doda tribe, which is known for buffalo cultivation.
Other Hills - Harishchandra, Balaghat, Satmala, Ajanta - Maharashtra Gharjat, Mayagiri, Assia, Sinkram - Odisha
Melagiri, Pachaimalai, Sirumalai, Varsunadu - Tamil Nadu Ramgarh Hills - Chhattisgrah
Doli Gutta - Chhattisgrah, Telangana Barda - Gujarat Maikal - Chhattisgrah, Madhya Pradesh
Rajmahal Hills - Jharkhand Nagari, Galikonda, Madugula Konda - Andhra Pradesh Bhuvan Hills - Assam
Page No. [11]
 Coastal Plains
This plain is 6000 km long extended from Kutch Peninsula to B . Eastern Coastal Plain:
Subarnarekha River. This plain region is formed by sediments The eastern coastal plain is situated from Subarnarekha to
deposited by rivers. This plain region can be divided into 2 Kanyakumari. These plains are broad because the rivers here
major parts- form deltas. The width of these plains is about 100-150 Km.
A. Western Coastal Plains or more. The plain region between Subarnrekha and Krishna
B. Eastern Coastal Plains River is called the 'Northern Circars'. The plain between
A. Western Coastal plains: - Krishna river to Kanyakumari is called 'Coromandal coast'.
This plain extends from Kutch to Regional division of the plains are as follows
Kanyakumari. These plains are favourable for ports and (a) Utkal plains: This plain is mainly located in Odisha.
are submerged coast. These are narrow plains as the These plains are formed by Mahanadi In Southern part
rivers of this region form estuary. These plains are about of these plains Chilka Lake is located. It is a lagoon
50-100 km long. (Average width is 64 km) Various lake. It is the largest saline lake in India. Chilka Lake is
regional divisions of this plain are found. a major wetland area. Hence it is included in the Ramsar
1. Kutch 2. Kathiawar list. Wheeler island is located near this coast and it is
3. Gujarat 4. Konkan also known as Kalam island. Chandipur beach is also
5. Kannada 6. Malabar located here where water recedes a lot during ebb.
A. Kutch Plain: This plain is formed by sediments (b) Andhra plains: These plains are formed by sediments
deposited by the Indus River. It is wide and flat. deposited by Godavari and Krishna river. In the central
Because of saline soil this plain is not useful for part of these plains lies the sweet water lake 'Kolleru'. A
agriculture. lagoon lake called Pulicat' is located in the southern part
2. Plains of Kathiawar: These plains are formed by the of this plain. Sri Harikota Island is located in Pulicat Lake.
rivers originating from the Mandav hills. These are On which satish Dhawan Space centre is located.
narrow plainss. (c) Tamil Nadu Plains: This plain is formed by the river
3. Plains of Gujarat: It is a plain located in the southern Kaveri. The delta region of the Kaveri River is used for
part of Gujarat. This plain is formed by rivers like Mahi, rice cultivation. Therefore, this plain is also known as
Sabarmati, Narmada and Tapi. These are wide and flat the 'food bowl' of South India.
plains, which are used for agriculture.
4. Konkan Plain: This plain is mainly located in
Maharashtra and Goa. It is a narrow, uneven and rough
plain. Mango, coconut and cashew nut are cultivated in
this plain area.
5. Kannada Plain: This plain is mainly located in
Karnataka. Rivers form waterfall while falling in this
plain. Such as the Sharavati river forms the Jog fall. Jog
fall is also called Gerosopa or Mahatma Gandhi water
fall.
6. Malabar Plains: This plain is mainly located in Kerala.
Lagoon lakes are found in coastal areas of this plain
region, which are called Kayal in local language. Major
lakes are Vembanad, Ashtamudi. In Punnamada Kayal
every year the Nehru Trophy Vallamkali boat race is
organised.

Page No. [12]

 Island Group Region
Andaman – Nicobar Island Group
It is a group of 572 volcanic islands located in the Bay of Bengal. These islands formed by the convergence of Indo –
Australian and Eurasian plates. These islands are considered as an extension of Arakon Yoma mountain. Evergreen
vegetation and high biodiversity is found here. These islands are included in 36 biodiversity hotspots of the world. Jarawa,
Ong, Andamani, Sentinelese, Nicobari, Shompen tribes reside here. Ten Degree channel separates Andaman and Nicobar
islands. There are four major islands in Andaman island group – North Andaman, Middle Andaman, South Andaman, Little
Andaman. Saddle peak, the highest peak of Andaman Nicobar, is located on North Andaman. Middle Andaman is largest
island group. Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar, is located on South Andaman. Duncan passage is located
between South Andaman and Little Andaman. Recently the names of some islands of Andaman have been changed. New
name of Ross island is Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose island, Neil island is renamed as Shaheed island and Havelock
island’s new name is Swaraj island. Ritchie and Labyrinth archipelago is a part of Andaman islands. Barren island is
India’s active volcanic island and Narcondam island is India’s dormant volcanic island. Barren and Narcondam are located
in Andaman island group. Nicobar island group includes four major islands – Car Nicobar, Little Nicobar and Great
Nicobar. India’s southernmost point Indira Point is located on Great Nicobar. Andaman islands are more close to
Myanmar wheras Nicobar islands are close to Rondo and Sumatra island of Indonesia. The Great channel or 6 degree
channel is located between Indira Point and Rondo island of Indonesia.
Lakshadweep islands
These are group of 36 coral islands in Arabian sea. Three major island groups are there – Amindivi, Cannanore
(Laaccadive), Minicoy. Amindivi group includes Amindivi, Keltan, Chetlat, Kadamat, Bitra, Perumalpar islands. Cannanore
island group includes Androth, Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Pitti, Suheli. Kavaratti, the capital of Lakshadweep is in Cannanore
island group. Androth island is the largest island in Lakshadweep island group. 11 Degree latitude is between Amindivi and
Cannanore island and 9 Degree latitude is between Cannanore and Minicoy island. 8 Degree latitude separates India’s
Minicoy island and neighbouring country Maldives.

Page No. [13]

 Monsoon
Climate of India is termed as monsoon climate because monsoons play a major role in its climate. Various hypothesis about the
origin of monsoons have come up from time to time. It is pertinent to understand them.
Concept of Monsoon
The word monsoon has originated from the arabic word Mausim, meaning weather or season. As a matter of fact
monsoons are seasonal winds. These winds blow from land for six months and from ocean for another six months. Al
Masudi, an arab explorer gave an account of the reversal of the monsoon winds. Our country remains under the effect of
monsoonal winds throughout the year. Therefore, its climatic conditions are mainly determined by these winds.
Our agriculture, agro-based industries and other related economic aspects depend upon climate. Hence economy of
India is a Gamble in Monsoons. There are various hypothesis about the origin of monsoons which can be classified as
Classical Hypothesis and Modern Hypothesis.
Edmund Halley is the major scientist who proposed Classical Hypothesis. The scientists related to the modern
theory are - Flohn, M.T Yin, P. Koteshwaram, Ramaswami, Ramamurthi, Pant, Jambunath, Anantkrishnan, Hamilton,
Ramanatham etc. Vasant Gowarikor was the first scientist to develop an indigenous weather forecasting model that
predicted the monsoon correctly. He is considered as the father of Indian Monsoon Model.

1. Classical Hypothesis
Under this hypothesis, Edmund Halley gave the thermal theory of monsoon. This hypothesis is related to the distribution of
land and sea and their variable characteristics of grasping and loosing heat. Land areas are heated and cooled rapidly, while
water is heated and cooled slowly.
Low pressure develops over land due to rapid heating in summer season, while water remains cooler due to slow heating
which creates, high pressure there. Consequently, winds start blowing from ocean towards land. These winds are moist
because they originate from oceanic areas. Therefore, these winds provide widespread rains and are called south west
monsoon winds.
Wind direction turns opposite due to the reversal of the mechanism in winter season. High pressure develops over land due to
its fast cooling and low pressure develops over oceanic areas which remain warmer due to longer retention of heat. Therefore
winds start blowing from land towards ocean and are called north east monsoon winds. These winds are dry because they
originate over land. Therefore, usually these winds do not provide rains except the coromandal coast where these winds pick
up moisture from Bay of Bengal.
Thus, summer monsoon and winter monsoon originate due to the reversal of pressure conditions and winds according to
seasons.

2. Inter-tropical Convergence Hypothesis

German climatologists Flohn hypothesized that ITCZ is the basis of the genesis of monsoons. The ITCZ shifts northwards in
summer season (June). The resulting movement provides rainfall in the form of summer monsoon. ITCZ gets established
between 20 to 25 degree north latitude and therefore, in June ITCZ lies over India. Intense low pressure conditions are there
over India and ITCZ attract the trades winds (south east winds) of southern hemisphere which become south west monsoon
winds on entering the Northern hemisphere because they turn right due to coriolis force. These south west monsoon winds
blow from ocean towards Indian subcontinet, therefore they are moisture laden and they cause heavy rainfall.
In winter season, ITCZ shifts southwards and the influence of sub-tropical high pressure increases in India due to southward
shifting of the pressure belts. Consequential anticyclonic conditions (High Pressure conditions which results in atmospheric
stability) create north-east monsoon.
Thus, according to Flohn, the seasonal reversal in the direction of monsoonal winds in not due to seasonal reversal of thermal

Page No. [14]

conditions but it is due to the shifting of pressure belts which reset the trade winds periodically as trade winds become south
west monsoon winds in summer and north east monsoon winds in winter. This view about the origin of monsoons is also
known as Flohn's Hypothesis.

3. Cyclonic Hypothesis of Spate

Australian geographer Spate believed that monsoonal winds result from the origin of cyclones. The cyclones originate by
frontogenesis (front formation) resulting from the meeting of different air masses. He held that the process of frontogen-
esis is very powerful in summer season. The fronts attract moist winds from oceanic areas. Contrarily, Spate held that these
fronts happen to be weak and shallow in winter season.

4. Jet Stream Hypothesis

In this hypothesis, monsoonal origin is ascribed more to the upper air circulation. Jet stream is an important component of the
upper air circulation prevailing over Himalayan and Tibetan region. Jet streams are a narrow belt of high altitude westerly
winds in the troposhere. Their speed varies from about 110 km/h in summer to about 184 km/h in winter. Some Jet Streams
are permanent like Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream and Polar or Mid latitude Jet Stream whereas some temporary Jet
Streams are there like Tropical Easterly Jet Streams. Scientists have assumed a strong correlationship of Jet stream with the
monsoons.
Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream (STWJS)
M.T Yin explained about the relationship between the Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream (STWJS) and the Indian monsoon.
STWJS influences the Indian monsoon and its track fluctuates with seasons.
In winter season, the sun shifts southwards and shines vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn. Resultantly, all the pressure
belts and correspondingly all the wind belts shift southwards. The track of Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream also shifts south-
wards in this season. Southwardly shifted track of Jet Stream is bifurcated due to the situation of Tibet plateau and Himalayas.

STWJS

ITCZ

Summer
Winter (June)

Page No. [15]

Its northern branch blows to the north of the Tibet plateau. This branch is relatively feeble.
Second branch blows to the south of Himalayas above the northern plain region of India. This branch of Jet Stream
intensify the high pressure conditions in India and leads to descending of air as well as creates atmospheric stability due to
which generally rainfall does not occur during winter season. This Jet stream bring the cyclonic disturbances from Mediterra-
nean sea toward India which cause rainfall in North-Western India. This rainfall caused by western cyclonic distrubance is
called Mawath which is useful for rabi crops. This whole phenomenon of cyclonic distrubances coming from west to east
under the influence of Sub Tropical Westerly Jet Stream is called western disturbance.
During the month of April-May, despite low pressure conditions no rainfall occurs in India due to the presence of the
southern branch of Jet stream over northern India.
In the month of June, the sun shifts northwards or it shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer. Resultantly, all the
pressure belts and correspondingly all the wind belts also shift northwards. Hence, the entire flow of Jet stream starts blowing
to the north of Tibet plateau in a single path. When STWJS gets removed from India and ITCZ gets established over India
then monsoon begins in India.
Tibet Plateau and Tropical Easterly Jet Stream
Tibet plateau is located between Kunlan Shan and Himalayan mountain. The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during
summer (June), which results in convection (rising up) of air and the formation of low pressure over the plateau. The air rising
from this plateau moves in the higher atmosphere and descends over Southern Indian Ocean to the east of Madagascar island
creating a high pressure in that region. This high pressure present over the Southern Indian Ocean is called Mascarene
High. The intensity of this high pressure affects the monsoon.
From this Mascarene High winds starts moving towards the Indian subcontinent along with the monsoon winds and they
increase the amount of rainfall. Therefore, it increases the intensity of monsoon. The air rising up from Tibet plateau move
towards Southern Indian Ocean in the higher atmosphere and while moving it gets under the influence of coriolis force and
turn towards right leading to the formation of Tropical Easterly Jet Stream (TJES). This Tropical Easterly Jet Stream
increase the pressure difference between Indian ocean and Indian subcontinent due to which the intensity and speed of
monsoon winds increase. Therefore, Easterlies Jet stream and Tibet Plateau have a positive impact on the Indian monsoon.
Indian scientist P. Koteshwaram proposed the concept of Tropical Easterly Jet Stream.

Somali Jet Stream is a lower atmospheric Jet Stream which blows from Eastern Coast of Africa towards India. It increases
the intensity of monsoon.

5. El Nino - La Nina Hypothesis - Some climatologists have hypothesized that the oceanic temperature condition nearPeruvian
coast in southern Pacific Ocean is an important determinant factor in the genesis of Indian monsoon. The situations arise
when this temperature fluctuates between 2° to 4°C above or below the normal. The condition of fluctuation above the normal
is known as El Nino Effect. Contrarily, temperature condition below the normal is known as La Nina Effect. It has been
hypothesized that El Nino conditions weaken the process of the genesis of Indian monsoon. Contrarily, La Nina conditions
strengthens the monsoonal genesis in India.
Normal Conditions -
Normally, on the eastern side of the Southern Pacific ocean cold Peru current is there and on the western side of this ocean
warm East Australian current is found. High pressure conditions are found near the Peru coast and Low pressure conditions
near the eastern coast of Australia. Due to this difference in pressure on the eastern and western side of southern Pacific
Ocean, circulation of air takes which is called walker cell. During normal conditions, the direction of walker cell is clockwise.
The convection of air takes place near the Eastern coast of Australia which causes rainfall in this region whereas descending
Page No. [16]
of air takes place near the coast of Peru leading to arid conditions in that region.
Mechanics of El Nino Effect -
El Nino is a warm ocean current which periodically (every 2-5 years) develops along the coast of Peru as a temporary
replacement of the cold Peruvian current. El Nino is a Spanish word meaning the child. El Nino conditions are formed during
Christmas, therefore, it is also called Christ child. The presence of the El Nino leads to an increase in sea surface tempera-
tures and weakening of the trade winds in the region.
Pressure conditions are affected by the increase of temperature above the normal near Peruvian coast in southern
Pacific Ocean. Pressure becomes lower than the normal due to rise in temperature. It has been assumed that it affects the
global pressure system and the wind system. The push factor for the south-east trade winds weakens near Peruvian
coast due to the pressure lowered below the normal. Instead, the pull factor (to attract the south-east trade winds) become
effective. Resultantly, the flow of the south-east trade winds towards Asia also weakens. This, in turn, creates the probabili-
ties of delay or weakening of the summer monsoons in India.
During El Nino, the pressure conditions found in the Southern Pacific ocean completely reverses. Low pressure is
found on the eastern side of the southern Pacific Ocean and high pressure on the western side of this ocean which reverses
the direction of Walker cell. Therefore, during the El Nino condition the walker cell circulates anticlockwise. This reversal in
the direction of Walker cell is called El Nino Southern Ocsillation (ENSO).
The difference in pressure over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean) and Darwin in Northern Australia is computed to predict the intensity
of the monsoon. An index called Southern Ocsillation Index (SOI) is developed for it. In this index pressure of Darwin is
subtracted from the pressure of Tahiti. If the pressure differences were negative, it would mean below average, late monsoon
and El Nino conditions. If the pressure differences were positive then it would mean normal conditions and heavy monsoon
rains.

El Nino La Nino

L.P H.P

Mechanics of La Nina Effect -

It is a Spanish term which means female child. La Nina is a current colder then Peru Current which gets established near the
western coast of South America by the upwelling of cold water. La Nina has a positive impact on the Indian monsoon. La nina
condition generally forms after El Nino.
When the temperature decreases below the normal near Peruvian coast in southern Pacific Ocean then high pressure
conditions are formed there. Resultant high pressure strengthens the push factor and the trade winds of southern hemisphere
become strong. These winds blow towards Indian subcontinent and after picking up moisture from Indian Ocean these winds
cause heavy rainfall in India. Therefore, during La Nina condition the probabilities of early and powerful genesis of the
summer monsoons increase.
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD):
There is a difference in temperature condition of Eastern and
western side of southern Indian Ocean. When warm water lies
on the western side then as compare to it cold water is found on
the eastern side or vice versa. It is called as the Indian Ocean
dipole.
Positive IOD condition is considered when warm water lies on
the western side of the Indian Ocean. Positive IOD is in favour
of India. During this time the monsoon winds passing from the
western part of southern Indian Ocean pick up moisture and
cause heavy rainfall during normal condition. If during this time
Page No. [17]
El- Nino condition is found than the effect of El Nino is not visible on India. Positive Indian Ocean dipole is not in favour of
south East Asian, Indonesia and northern Australia.
Negative IOD is considered when warm water lies on the eastern side of southern Indian Ocean. Then as compare to it cold
water is found on the western side of southern Indian Ocean. This condition is not in favour of Indian. If El-Nino condition is
found during this time then its impact is completely visible over India. Negative IOD condition is in favour of South East Asia,
Indonesia and Northern Australia.
Effect of Dust Storms on Indian Monsoon: Recently a
study has proved that there is a relation between the dust storms
and Insian monsoon. The dust storms from the West Asian
deserts are lifted by the strong winds (Shamal winds). The
dust of these storms absorb soalr radiation and become hot.
This creates elevated heat pump over Arabian
Sea.This causes heating of the atmosphere which in turn leads
to increased evaporation, more cloud formation and more rain
fall is received in India. These dust particles also become
hygroscopicnuclei around which condensation takes place
which further leads to cloud formation. Therefore, the dust storms increase the intensity of Indian monsoon. The
anthropogenic aerosols released from industries have a negative impact on the Indian monsoon.

Rainfall
In India most of the annual rainfall is received by south-west monsoon winds. About 80% rainfall in India is received in
summer season. There are two major branches of south west monsoon winds which cause rainfall over India.
Arabian Sea Branch
1. Western Ghat Branch/ Southern Branch:
This Branch rises up to the height of 900 to 1200 m
along the western slopes of western Ghat and it leads to
the formation of clouds which causes heavy rainfall on
the windward slopes of Western Ghats. It causes around
200-400 cm. rainfall. This Branch causes less rainfall
on the leeward slopes of the Western Ghat and a rain
shadow region is formed behind Western Ghat.
Orographic rainfall occurs here.
2. Middle Branch/Chotanagpur Branch:
This branch enters India through Narmada and Tapi Rift
valley. It causes rainfall in central India. This branch meets
Bay of Bengal branch in Bihar.
3. Northern Branch/ Himachal Branch:
This branch enters India through Kathiawar Peninsula
and while passing through Kutch Penisula and western
Rajasthan it reaches up to Punjab - Haryana where it
meets Bay of Bengal Branch. These two branches
became strong and cause heavy rainfall in the western
Himalayan Region. This branch moves parallel to Aravalli mountain due to which less rainfall is received in western
Rajasthan.
Bay of Bengal Branch :
This branch strikes Arakan Yoma mountain and gets deflected towards India. This branch enters West Bengal from south
eastern (SE) direction. And after striking Himalayan mountain it gets divided into two branches.
(i) Northern Plain Branch:
One of its branches gets attracted towards the low-pressure conditions formed in Northern Plains and it is called
Northern Plain Branch. This branch meets Arabian sea branch of monsoon in Bihar and Punjab - Haryana. Because
of this branch rainfall is received in Ganga Plain region and Eastern Rajasthan.
(ii) Eastern Branch:
This branch causes rainfall in North Eastern India. A sub-branch of this branch causes rainfall on Garo, Khasi and
Page No. [18]
 Jaintia hills of Meghalaya. In this region a place called Mawsynram is located where world's highest average annual
rainfall is received.
During summer season, no rainfall is received on coromandel coastal region due to the following reasons :-
(a) This coast is located in Rain shadow region of Arabian sea monsoon winds.
(b) The bay of Bengal Branch of monsoon moves parallel to the coast.

Characteristics of Indian Rainfall

1. This rainfall is seasonal because it is mainly received during summer.
2. After entering the mainland, South West monsoon winds change their direction due to relief and pressure conditions.
3. In India, rainfall begins suddenly with thunderstorm and lightening which is called burst of monsoon.
4. Monsoonal rain does not occur continuously. But it occurs intermittently with a gap of a few days. This rainfall occurs
during wet spells and between these wet spells dry intervals are found which is called break of monsoon. In northern
India dry intervals occur if the rain bearing storms are not very frequent along the monsoon trough and due to the
change in the position of ITCZ over this region. Over the west coast the dry intervals are associated with days when
winds blow paralle to the coast.
5. The rain displays a declining trend from west to east over the west coast and from the south east towards the north
west over the North Indian Plain and the northern part of the Peninsula.
6. The spatial distribution of monsoon rainfall is uneven because some regions receive 12 cm rainfall and others receive
more than 250 cm rainfall.
7. Monsoonal rain is uncertain in time and period of occurrence. The rain sometimes comes early and sometimes starts
late. Sometimes it starts early and ends early or it may stay longer.
8. Number of rainy days in India are few, e.g. 118 days in Kolkata, 55 days in Chennai, 75 days in Mumbai etc.
8. The rainfall variability is very high. The areas of Rajasthan, receiving 12 cms. rainfall, have 30% variability. But the
variability is 20% in Kanpur and 11% in Kolkata.

Annual Distribution of Rainfall

Distribution of rainfall in India is uneven and India receives around 125 cm
of average annual rainfall.

(i) High Rainfall Region

In this region, more than 200 cm rainfall is received here. In this region,
arrival of monsoon takes place first of all while retreating of monsoon takes
place in the end. Therefore, heavy rainfall is received here. This region
mainly includes Andaman-Nicobar Island group, western slopes of western
ghats and North-eastern states. Mawsynram and Cherrapunji is located in
this region where world’s highest average annual rainfall is received.
(ii) Moderate Rainfall Regions:
In this region, about 100-200cm rainfall is received. This region mainly includes
eastern slopes of western ghats, almost all states of peninsular India, sub
Himalayan region, J&K, Punjab, Haryana, H.P. Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh,
Eastern part of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, Manipur, Assam’s, Cachhar Valley and Lakshadweep.
(iii) Low Rainfall Region:
This region receives around 50-100 cm rainfall. This region mainly includes J&K, H.P, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana,
Eastern Rajasthan, Western U.P. Wester M.P., Gujarat and states of peninsular India.
(iv) Inadequate Rainfall Region:
This region receives rainfall less than 50cm. This region mainly located in rain shadow region of mountains. It mainly includes
J&K, Punjab, Haryana, Western Rajasthan Gujarat and internal part of peninsular India. In this region cold Ladakh desert is
located and thar desert is also a part of this region.
Monsoon Arrival
22 May Andaman - Nicobar (Old Date of monsoon arrival 25 May)
1 June Malabar Coast
25 June Rajasthan (Old date 15 June)
Retreat of Monsoon begins from North West India from 17 September onwards. (Old date 1 September)
Page No. [19]
 Arrival of Monsoon

New Date Old Date

Retreating Monsoon
Old Date
New Date

Pre Monsoon Rainfall

Mango Shower - Karnataka and Kerala.

Cherry Blossom (Coffee Cultivation) - Kerala.

Kal Baisakhi - It is a violent evening thunderstorm which causes rainfall in Assam and West Bengal during the month of April
and May. This rainfall is beneficial for tea, jute and rice crops. Due to the destructive nature of Kal Baisakhi, it is also called
calamity of Baisakh. Kal Baisakhi is called Bardoli Chherra in Assam. It is also called Norwester.

Page No. [20]

 Rivers
The rivers of India can be classified as the rivers of the Himalayan system, the rivers of the peninsular system and the
rivers of the inland drainage system. The rivers of India are part of the Bay of Bengal drainage system, Arabian Sea
drainage system and inland drainage system.
The rivers of the Himalayan system are Perennial. While the rivers in the peninsular system are seasonal, the Kaveri
River in the peninsular system is perennial. The rivers of the Himalayan system are antecedent and consequent whereas
the rivers of the peninsular system are the consequent and superimposed.

Himalayan Drainage System

Indus River (another name - Singi Khamban) (2880 km)
Origin - From the glacier located in the Kailash Mountain
region near Bokhar Chu in Tibet.
Drains into the Arabian Sea. River Flows in - Tibet,
Ladakh, Pakistan. (1114 km in India)
This river forms Bunzi Gorge near Nanga Parbat. It enters
India from a place called Demchok and enters Pakistan
through Chilas. Leh, the capital of Ladakh, is situated on
the banks of the Indus River.
Right side tributaries (Upper side) - Shyok (Nubra, Galwan), Shigar, Gasting, Viboa, Sangar, Hunza, Giligat, Swat,
Kabul, Khurram, Tochi.
Left side tributaries - Zaskar, Suru (Dras), Panchanad (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Vyas, Sutlej)
Panchnad meets the Indus river near Mithankot in Pakistan.
Ambala separates the Indus and Ganga river systems.

Jhelum (Old name - Vitasta) (725 km) - Orginiates from Verinag spring in S.E Kashmir valley at the foot of the Pir
Panjal range. It meets Chenab river at Jhang in Pakistan. Tulbul Project in Jammu and Kashmir. Its major tributary is
Kishanganga (Neelam). It feeds Wular lake. It meanders in Kashmir valley.

Chenab (Old name - Askini) (1180 km) - Originate by the confluence of Chandra and Bhaga streams which are fed by
Bara Shigiri glacier. Dulhasti, Salal, Baglihar project in Jammu and Kashmir. It is the major stream of Panchanad and is
the largest tributray of Indus.

Ravi (Old name - Purusani or Irawati) (725 km) - Rise from Kullu hills in Bara Bhangal in Kangra District of Himachal
Pradesh. Chamera Dam in Himachal Pradesh, Thein Project and Shahpurkandi Projects in Punjab. It flows through
Chamba valley between Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar range. Lahore is located at its bank. It meets Chenab at Sarai Sidhu in
Pakistan.

Beas (Old name - Vipasa) (470 km) - Originates from Beas Kund and meets Satluj river at Harike in Punjab. In
Himachal Pradesh Pong Dam is located on it. (Maharana Pratap Sagar Reservoir). It flows through Kullu valley. It forms
gorges at Kati and Largi in Dhauladhar range.

Sutlej (Old name - Shatudri) (1450 km) (1050 km in India)- Originates from Rakas Taal in Tibet where it is called
Langchen Khamb. It is an antecedent river. It flows parallel to Indus river for 400 km. Enters India from Shipkila pass. It
enters plains at Ropar in Punjab. It is the longest tributary of Indus. Nathpa Jhakri Project in Himachal Pradesh, Bhakra
Dam (Govind Sagar Reservoir), Nangal Dam in Punjab. At a place called Harike in Punjab, the Beas River joins the
Sutlej river and from there the Indira Gandhi Canal emerges towards Rajasthan.
Page No. [21]
Ganga River (2525 km) (Total Catchment Area - 10.6 lakh sq km) (Catchment Area in India - 8.6 lakh sq km)
Origin –By the confluence (meeting) of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda at Devprayag in Uttarakhand.
Drains into the Bay of Bengal after meeting Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh. Forms Sunderban delta near Sagar island
River Flows in - Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Bangladesh.
There are five Prayag in Uttarakhand. Dhauli Ganga or Vishnu Ganga - Alaknanda(Vishnuprayag), Alaknanda -
Nandakini River (Nandaprayag), Pindar - Alaknanda (Karanprayag), Mandakini - Alaknanda (Rudraprayag), Bhagirathi -
Alaknanda (Devprayag). Tehri Dam is situated on the Bhagirathi River which is the highest dam in India. Ganga river
enters the plains from Haridwar (Uttarakhand).
Right side tributaries (south side) - Yamuna, Son, Punpun.
Left side tributaries - Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara (called Karnali in Nepal), Gandak, Budhi Gandak, Kosi (Sorrow of
Bihar), Mahananda (last left side tributary)
Distributary (- Hooghly which emerges out from Ganga at a place called Farakka. The Hooghly (260 km) is called the
treacherous river. Damodar and Mayurakshi are tributaries of Hooghly. Damodar (592 km) is known as Sorrow of
Bengal. Damodar river flows in the rift valley. The Damodar River is called the Ruhr River Valley of India.
Independent India’s first multipurpose river valley project (Konar, Maithon, Panchet, Tilaiya Dams) was developed on the
Damodar River, which is based on the Tennessee River Valley Project of USA. Mjaor tributary of Damodar is Barakar.
Yamuna - (Length - 1376 km) originates from the Yamunotri glacier located in the Bandarpunch peak region of
Uttarakhand. It is the longest tributary of Ganga, which passes through Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi
and joins Ganga at Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh. Its major tributaries are Hindon, Sengar, Varuna, Rind on the left side and
Tons, Giri, Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Ken on the right side. Some projects are being developed on Yamuna and its tributaries
such as Kisau project on Tons, Renuka ji project on Giri, Lakhwar project on Yamuna.
Son (784 km) - Origin - Amarkantak. Meets Ganga at Arrah west of Patna near Sonpur. Rihand Dam on its tributary
forms Govind Vallabh Panth Sagar reservoir on M.P- U.P border.
Ramganga (596 km) - Origin - Garhwal Hills near Gairsain in Uttarakhand. Meets Ganga near Kannauj. Enters plains in
Najibabad (U.P). Flows through Jim Corbett National Park.
Gomati (475 km) - Origin - Pilibhit (U.P) Lucknow and Jaunpur cities are on its bank.
Ghaghara or Karnali (1080 km) - Origin - Mapchachungo glacier. Meets Ganga at Chhapra (Bihar). Forms gorge in
Chisapani (Nepal) Major tributaries are Tila, Seti, Beri, Kali, (Sharda), Saryu, Rapti.
Gandak - Origin - From Nepal Himalayas between Mount Everest and Dhaulagiri by confluence of Kaligandak and
Trishulganga rivers in Nepal. Enters Ganga plains in Champaran (Bihar) and meets Ganga at Sonpur (Bihar).
Kosi (729 km) - Origin - By confluence of streams like Sunkosi, Arunkosi, Tamurkosi originating from Tibet Plateau.
Called Saptkosi in Nepal. Antecedent river. Also known as Sorrow of Bihar.
Mahanada (360 km) - Origin - Darjeeling Hills (W. Bengal). Last left side tributary of Ganga.

Page No. [22]

Brahmaputra River
Origin – From Chemayungdung, Yarlung, Angasi glaciers in
Tibet. Drains into - Bay of Bengal.
Length - 2900 km. River Flows in - Tibet, Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam, Bangladesh.
It enters Arunachal Pradesh to the West of Sadiya Town of
Assam. It is called Tsangpo in Tibet, Dihang in Arunachal
Pradesh, Brahmaputra in Assam and Jamuna in
Bangladesh. After meeting Ganga, their combined stream is
called Padma and after meeting with the Meghna river,
their combined stream is called Meghna. These rivers
form the Sundarban delta. This river forms a braided
channel. The world’s largest river island named Majuli is
located in this river.
Right side tributaries - Teesta, Jaldhak, Redak, Manas,
Kameng, (Jiabhareli), Subansiri.
Left side tributaries - Kolong, Kopili, Dhansiri, Dikhow, Disang, Budhi Dihing, Lohit, Dibang.
Barak River - The main river of Manipur which enters Bangladesh through Assam. In Bangladesh it is known as Surma
River.
Peninsular Drainage System
Subarnarekha River (395 km) - originates from Jharkhand and flows through Odisha forming an estuary and falls into
the Bay of Bengal. Jamshedpur city is situated on the bank of this river.
Baitarni - Brahmani rivers - The Bhitarkanika mangroves are situated in their delta region.
Other Rivers in Odisha - (North to South) - Subarnrekha, Baitarni, Brahmani, Mahanadi, Rushikulya, Vamsadhara.
Mahanadi (858 km)
Origin - From Sihawa hills of Chhattisgarh. Drains into - the Bay of Bengal.
River Flow - Chhattisgarh, Odisha. Rice is cultivated in its bowl-shaped basin. Chhattisgarh is known as the rice bowl
of India. Hirakud Dam is situated on this river in Odisha which is the longest dam in India. Tributaries – Ib, Mand,
Hasdeo, Sheonath (north side), Jonk, Tel, Aung (southern side)

Godavari River (1465 km) (Catchment Area - 3.13 lakh sq km)

Origin - Kalsubai peak (Trimbak plateau) in Nasik district, Drains into – the Bay of Bengal.
The Dakshin Ganga is also known as Vriddha Ganga. River Flows in - Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
Puducherry (Yanam). In Andhra Pradesh Polavaram dam is located on this river. Balimela project in Odisha on Sileru
river, Nizamsagar in Telangana on Manjara.
Left side Tributaries - Purna, Pranahita (Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga), Idravati, Sabari, Sileru (Machkund)
Right side Tributaries - Pravara, Manjra.

Krishna river (1400 km)

Origin - Mahabaleshwar Peak, Drains into - Bay of Bengal. River Flows in - Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh. Almatti Dam is located on this river in Karnataka and Nagarjuna Sagar Dam in Telangana. Shivajisagar dam on
Koyana river in Maharashtra.
Left side Tributaries - Bhima, Musi (Hyderabad).
Right side tributaries - Koyna, Ghatprabha, Malaprabha, Tungabhadra.

Kaveri River (805 km)

Origin - Brahmagiri Hills (Western Ghats), Drains into - Bay of Bengal. River Flows in -Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
It is perennial river of South India. It is also called Dakshin Bharat ki Ganga. This river splits into two streams three
times and then joins again. Krishnaraja Sagar Dam and Srirangapatnam and Shivasamudram islands are on this river in
Karnataka and Srirangam Island on this river in Tamil Nadu.
Left side Tributaries - Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavati.
Right side tributaries - Lakshmanatirtha, Kabani, Bhavani, Noyal, Amravati.
Vaigai River - Madurai city is situated on its bank.
Other Rivers in Tamil Nadu - (North to South) - Palar, Ponnaiyar, Kaveri, Vaigai, Tamraparni

Page No. [23]

Sabarmati River (416 km) - Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad city are situated on its banks.
Mahi River (583 km) - This river crosses the Tropic of Cancer twice.

Narmada river (1312 km)

Origin - Amarkantak, Drains into - Gulf of Khambhat. River Flows in - Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat. This river
forms estuary and flows in the rift valley between Vindhyachal and Satpura mountains. Indira Sagar, Omkareshwar and
Maheshwar projects are situated on this river in Madhya Pradesh and Sardar Sarovar project is situated on this river in
Gujarat. Bharuch city of Gujarat is situated on the bank of this river. Kapildhara and Dhuadhar (Marble fall) waterfalls
are located on it near Jabalpur. On Sadhubet island of this river Statue of Unity is located.

Tapi River (724 km)

Origin - Multai in Betul (M.P), Drains into - Gulf of Khambhat.
This river forms the estuary and flows in the rift valley between the Satpura Mountains and the Ajanta Hills. Ukai and
Kakrapara projects in Gujarat are situated on this river. Surat city is located at the bank of this river. Major tributaries are
Girna, Bori.
Other rivers in Gujarat - Bhadra, Shatrunjay, Sabarmati, Mahi, Dhadhar, Narmada, Tapi

Mandovi River - Origin - from the Western Ghats, Drains into - the Arabian Sea. It is called the lifeline of Goa. Panaji,
the capital of Goa and Dudhsagar Falls is situated on this river. On Chorao island of this river Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary is
located.
Juari River - Marmagao port is situated on this river.

Ponnani or Bharatapuzha River (209 km) (Catchment area 5397 sq km)

This is the largest river in Kerala. It is called Nila or Nile river of Kerala. It is second longest river of Kerala.

Periyar River (244 km) (Catchment Srea - 5243 sq km)

Kerala’s lifeline, Idukki Dam is situated on this River. It is second largest river of Kerala.

Pamba river
Third longest river in Kerala. It falls in Vembanad lake.

Inland drainage system

Ghaggar River - Originates from Shimla Kalka hills of Himachal Pradesh and passing through Haryana, this river
reaches up to Anupgarh in Sri Ganganagar district of Rajasthan. When the rainfall is high, this river reaches up to a place
called Fort Abbas in Pakistan.

Page No. [24]

 1

17
3

2
12

13 14
4
15 6 5
7

8
9

10
16 11

1. Indus 12. Luni

2. Ganga 13. Sabarmati
3. Brahmaputra 14. Narmada
4. Subarnrekha 15. Tapi
5. Baitarni - Brahmani 16. Periyar
6. Mahanadi 17. Ghagghar
7. Godavari
8. Krishna
9. Penneru
10. Kaveri
11. Vaigai
Page No. [25]
 Lakes
Major lakes of India
Ladakh
Tso Kar – It is a saline lake and is also called White Lake. It is located in Rupshu valley in Ladakh. It is the 42 nd Ramsar
site of India. A small stream connects this lake with a small fresh water lake called Startsapuk.
Tso Moriri – It is a saline lake located in Changthang region of Ladakh. It is a Ramsar site. It is the largest of the high-
altitude lakes entirely within India and within Ladakh.
Pangong Tso – It is on Ladakh – Tibet border. It is divided into five sublakes. It is a saline lake.

Jammu – Kashmir
Wular Lake - It is the largest fresh water lakes in India located in Jamm Kashmir. The lake is fed by the Jhelum River.
The lake sustains a rich population of birds. The Tulbul Project is at the mouth of Wular Lake. The lake was included in
Ramsar sites in 1990.
Dal lake - Dal is the second largest lake in Jammu and Kashmir. It is named the “ Lake of Flowers”, “Jewel in the crown
of Kashmir” or “Srinagar’s Jewel”. Sona Lank and Rupa Lank islands are there in the lake. Floating gardens (Lotus) are
there in the lake which are called Rad in Kashmiri.
Manasbal Lake is located in Jammu Kashmir. The name Manasbal is said to be a derivative of theLake Mansarovar.
The lake is a good place for the growth of lotus and aquatic birds in Kashmir. It is the deepest lake of Jammu Kashmir.
Surinsar – Mansar lake – Ramsar site. Twin fresh water lakes.

Uttarakhand –
Bhimtal – Largest Lake is Nainital district of Uttarakhand. Nainital is called Lake district of India.
Asan Barrage - Located at the confluence of Asan and Yamuna River on Himachal Pradesh – Uttarakhand border.
Uttarakhand’s first Ramsar site. Asan Bird Sanctuary is located here.

Himachal Pradesh
Renuka – Largest Lake in H.P. Ramsar site.
Pong Dam – On Beas River.
Chandra Taal – Ramsar site. Chandra river originates from here.

Uttar Pradesh
Chittaura lake / Ashtwarka lake – (Maharaja Suhldev Memorial) Teri River or Kutila river orginates from this lake.
It is known for Migratory birds.
Keetham Lake/ Sur Sarovar – Ramsar site.
Govend Vallabh Panth sagar reservoir – Located on Uttar Pradesh – Madhya
Pradesh border region and it is on Rihand dam. Rihand is a tributary of Son River.

Bihar
Kanwar Taal – Largest freshwater ox bow lake of Asia. Bihar’s first Ramsar site. It is known for migratory birds.

West Bengal
Sunderban – It is the largest Ramsar site in India.

Sikkim
Cholamu / Tso Lhamo Lake – It is the highest lake of India located in Sikkim. It receives water from Zemu glacier and
it is a major source of water for Teesta River.

Assam
Deepor Beel – Fresh water lake in Assam included in Ramsar sites.

Manipur
Loktak Lake is the largest freshwater lake in Northeast India and is famous for the Phumdis (heterogeneous mass of
vegetation, soil and organic matter at various stages of decomposition) floating over it. Located on such phumdi, Keibul
Lamjao National Park is the only floating national park in the world. The park is the last natural refuge of the endangered

Page No. [26]

Sangai (state animal), brown-antlered deer, one of three subspecies of Eld's deer . It is a Ramsar site. It is also listed
under the Montreux Record since 1993.

Odisha
Chilika Lake is a lagoon lake in Odisha. It is the largest saline lake of India. It is a Ramsar site. Keoladeo and Chilka
are the first Ramsar sites of India added in 1981. In 1993 Chilka lake was included in Montreux record. In 2002, Chilika
was taken out of the Montreux Record, in light of the improved conditions of the lake. Chilka lake is the first Ramsar site
in Asia to be removed from the Montreux record. Nalbana Bird Sanctuary is located in this lake region and this lake is
known for Irrawaddy Dolphins.

Andhra Pradesh
Kolleru Lake is the largest freshwater lake of Andhra Pradesh. Kolleru is located between Krishna and Godavari
deltas. It is a Ramsar site.
Pulicat Lagoon is the second largest saline water lagoon in India after Chilka lake. It is located on Andhra Pradesh –
Tamil Nadu border region. The lake encompasses the Pulicat Bird Sanctuary. The barrier island of Sriharikota separates
the lake from the Bay of Bengal and is home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre.

Kerala
Vembanad is the longest lake in India, and the largest lake in the state of Kerala. Vembanad wetland (this lake along with
its mangroves) is the second largest Ramsar site in India. Spanning several districts in the state of Kerala, it is known
as Vembanadu Lake in Alappuzha, Punnamada Lake in Kuttanad and Kochi Lake in Kochi. Several groups of small
islands including Willingdon island are located in this Lake. Kochi port is built around this island. The Nehru Trophy Boat
Race is conducted in a portion of the lake. Vembanad Wetland is hosting many of migratory birds in the season. The
Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary is located on the east coast of the lake.

Asthmudi - Ashtamudi Lake (Ashtamudi Kayal), in the Kollam district of Kerala, is a lagoon lake. It is a large palm-
shaped (also described as octopus-shaped) water body. Ashtamudi Wetland is a Ramsar site. It is also called gateway to
the backwaters of Kerala.
Sasthamkotta is the largest fresh water lake in Kerala. Ramsar site.

Maharashtra
Nandur Madhameshwar is a water reservoir located on Godavari River created by a dam constructed at the
confluence of the Godavari and the Kadva rivers. Bird Sanctuary. It is Maharashtra’s first Ramsar site.

Lonar Lake – It is a Saline Lake located in Buldhana District of Maharashtra.

It is a crater lake. This lake is believed to be formed by falling of meteorite.

Recently Four new Ramsar Sites have been declared and now the total number of Rasar sites in India is 46. The four
new sites are as follows.

Thol and Wadhwana in Gujarat.

Sultanpur and Bhindawas in Haryana.

Page No. [27]

RAMSAR WETLANDS SITES (As on December, 2020)
Area
Sl. Date of
Name of Site State Location (in Sq.
No. Declaration
km.)
1 Asan Conservation Reserve Uttarakhand 21.7.2020 4.444
2 Asthamudi Wetland Kerala 19.8.2002 614
3 Beas Conservation Reserve Punjab 26.9.2019 64.289
4 Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa 19.8.2002 650
5 Bhoj Wetlands Madhya Pradesh 19.8.2002 32.01
6 Chandertal Wetland Himachal Pradesh 8.11.2005 0.49
7 Chilka Lake Orissa 1.10.1981 1165
8 Deepor Beel Assam 19.8.2002 40
9 East Kolkata Wetlands West Bengal 19.8.2002 125
10 Harike Lake Punjab 23.3.1990 41
11 Hokera Wetland Jammu and 8.11.2005 13.75
Kashmir
12 Kabartal Wetland Bihar 21.07.2020 26.20
13 Kanjli Lake Punjab 22.1.2002 1.83
14 Keoladeo Ghana NP Rajasthan 1.10.1981 28.73
15 Keshopur-Miani Community Punjab 26.9.2019 3.439
Reserve
16 Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 19.8.2002 901
17 Loktak Lake Manipur 23.3.1990 266
18 Lonar Lake Maharashtra 22.7.2020 4.27
19 Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary Gujarat 24.09.2012 120
20 Nandur Madhameshwar Maharashtra 21.6.2019 14.37
21 Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary Punjab 26.9.2019 1.16
22 Nawabganj Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 19.9.2019 2.246
23 Parvati Agra Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 2.12.2019 7.22
24 Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Tamil Nadu 19.8.2002 385
Sanctuary
25 Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh 19.8.2002 156.62
26 Renuka Wetland Himachal Pradesh 8.11.2005 0.2
27 Ropar Lake Punjab 22.1.2002 13.65
28 Rudrasagar Lake Tripura 8.11.2005 2.4
29 Saman Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 2.12.2019 52.63
30 Samaspur Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 3.10.2019 79.94
31 Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 23.3.1990 240
32 Sandi Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh 26.9.2019 30.85
33 Sarsai Nawar Jheel Uttar Pradesh 19.9.2019 16.13
34 Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 19.8.2002 3.73
35 Sunderbans Wetland West Bengal 30.1.2019 4230
36 Surinsar-Mansar Lakes Jammu and 8.11.2005 3.5
Kashmir
37 Sur Sarovar Uttar Pradesh 21.8.2020 4.31
38 Tso Kar Wetland Complex Ladakh 17.11.2020 95.77
39 Tsomoriri Lake Ladakh Jammu and 19.8.2002 120
Kashmir
40 Upper Ganga River Uttar Pradesh 8.11.2005 265.9
(Brijghat to Narora Stretch)
41 Vembanad Kol Wetland Kerala 19.8.2002 1512.5
42 Wular Lake Jammu & Kashmir 23.3.1990 189
(Source: Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India)
Page No. [28]
 Agriculture Wheat
1. Rice India is the second largest producer of wheat after China.
2. Wheat Wheat is the second major cereal grain in India after rice.
3. Cotton Wheat is cultivated on 15% of the total sown area of the
4. Sugarcane country.
5. Tea Geographical Conditions (Rabi Crop)
6. Coffee It is mainly a temperate tropical crop. Its cultivation is done
Rice up to 2700 m altitude.
India is the second largest rice producer in the world after Temperature - 15° C to 20° C (10° C when growing, 15°
China. Rice is the staple food of the maximum population C when growing, 20° C when ripening and cutting)
of India. Rice is sown on 23% of the total agricultural land Rainfall - 50 - 75 cm More rainfall at the time of growing,
in India.The Central Rice Research Institute is located at 100 days need to be frost free.
Cuttack (Orissa). Indian Rice Research Institute is located The isohyte line of 100 cm separates the wheat and rice
in Hyderabad. producing regions.
Geographical Conditions - (Kharif Crop) Soil - clay loam
Rice is cultivated up to an altitude of 2000 m above sea Variety - Girija, Arjun, Malvia-12, Sonalika (Bony variety)
level. In 2020, the Prime Minister dedicated 17 bio-cultured
Temperature - 20°C to 27°C (20°C at the time of sowing varieties of food crops to the country, in which there is a
and 27°C at the time of ripening). variety named Wheat H.I 1633, HD 3298, DBW 203,
Rice is grown in tropical and temperate regions. The rice DDW 48, MACS 4058 in which more zinc, protein and iron
grown in the tropical region is called Indica and the rice are found.
grown in the temperate region is called Jeponica. Highest Wheat Producing States (2018.19)
Rainfall - 150 to 200 cm. More rainfall is required at the 1. Uttar Pradesh
time of sowing. Rice is a plant that grows in water. At the 2. Punjab
time of sowing, about 20 to 30 cm deep water should be 3. Madhya Pradesh
filled in the field for 75 days. 4. Haryana
Soil - Clayey loam or alluvial soil 5. Rajasthan
Landform - flat (The rice grown in low land swampy States with high productivity
regions is delicious. Rice plant of high land is small and its 1. Punjab
grain is small and red in colour.) 2. Haryana
Variety - Jaya (first dwarf variety), Jamuna, Padma, 3. Rajasthan
Krishna, Ratna, IR8, Chak 4. Uttar Pradesh
Golden Rice is a genetically modified crop that is high in 5. Gujarat
beta carotene or vitamin A. Wheat has highest productivity among the food crops.
In 2020, the Prime Minister dedicated 17 bio-fortified Major diseases - Black spot and brown spot (fungal or
varieties of food crops to the country, in which there is a fungal disease)
variety of rice named CR Dhan 315, in which more zinc is Cotton
found. India is the second largest producer of the world after
In West Bengal three crops of rice are obtained in a year China.India produces both short staple or fibre (Indian) and
which are Aus (Autumn), Aman (Winter), Boro (Summer). long staple or fibre (American) cotton. American cotton is
Highest Rice Producer States (2018.19) - called Narma in the north-western part of the country.
1 West Bengal Cotton is sown on 7% of the total sown area of the
2 Uttar Pradesh country. There are three main cotton producing regions.
3 Punjab Punjab, Haryana, Northern Rajasthan in North West India.
4 Andhra Pradesh Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west.
5 Orissa. In the south, the plateau parts of Telangana, Karnataka and
States with highest productivity Tamil Nadu are included.
1. Punjab Geographical Conditions -
2. Tamil Nadu It is a fibrous crop which is sown in the semi-arid parts of
3. Andhra Pradesh tropical regions in Kharif season. 20° to 30°C temperature,
4. Telangana 50 to 100 cm of rainfall, 210 frost free days. Dry conditions
5. Haryana during ripening. Well drained field is required.
Among food grains, production of rice is highest. Soil - Black soil
Major disease - Brown spot (fungal or fungal disease) Variety - Vikas, Vikram, Kalyan, Vijay, Narmada
Page No. [29]
In India only Bt cotton is allowed to be used in GM crops. abundance in tea leaves.
Bt cotton is capable of killing the Boll worm. Conditions for production - 25 to 30 °C temperature,
Highest cotton producing states tropical and sub-tropical humid climate, 200 cm of rainfall,
1. Maharashtra laterite soil. Rainfall must be evenly distributed throughout
2. Gujarat the year for continuous development of leaves. It grows on
3. Telangana well drained moderate slopes.
4. Madhya Pradesh Tolkai Tea Research Institute is located in Jorhat (Assam).
5. Rajasthan Highest Tea Producing states
High Productivity States - 1. Assam
1. Punjab 2. West Bengal
2. Madhya Pradesh 3. Tamil Nadu
3. Rajasthan 4. Kerala
4. Haryana 5. Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh Coffee
(Note - There are two main areas of cotton production in India ranks eighth in the world in coffee production. Coffee
the state of Karnataka - the black soil area located in production in India started from the Baba Budan hills.
northern Karnataka called Salhatti and the red soil area There are three main varieties of coffee – Arabica,
located in southern Karnataka called Daudahatti.) Robusta, and Liberica. Arabica and Robusta varieties are
Sugarcane grown in India. India produces good quality Arabica coffee
India is the second largest sugarcane producer in the world which is in great demand in the international market.
after Brazil. Robusta coffee is produced more in India.
Geographical Conditions – Sugarcane is a tropical crop. Required conditions for production - 20 to 25 ° C
It can be sown only in areas having humid and humid temperature, 200 cm of rainfall. The coffee plant cannot
climate. 20° to 30°C temperature, 125°C rainfall, dry tolerate direct sunlight and is grown under the shade of
conditions before harvesting, loamy deep clay and lava other trees. It is cultivated on the highlands of the Western
black soil. Sugarcane matures in 11 to 12 months. Normal Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
temperature is required at the time of sowing sugarcane, Highest coffee producing states
high temperature during growing and low temperature 1 Karnataka
during ripening. Frost is harmful to sugarcane. Sugarcane 2 Kerala
productivity is high in South India due to favourable climatic 3 Tamil Nadu
conditions. Sugarcane of South India is also high in sucrose. The Central Coffee Research Centre is located at
Variety - Nayana, Prabha, Bhima, Bhavani, Kalyani, Balehonnur (Karnataka).
Uttara, Sarayu, Moti, Dhanush, Krishna, Raseeli, Pramod,
Gandak, Rajbhog, Rasbhari, Shyama, Sweta.
Highest sugarcane producing states
1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Maharashtra
3. Karnataka
4. Tamil Nadu
5. Gujarat फसल उ ादन 2019-20
States with high sugarcane productivity चावल – 118.87 िम लयन टन
1. Tamil Nadu गे ँ – 107.86 िम लयन टन
मोटा अनाज – 47.75 िम लयन टन
2. Karnataka दाले – 23.03 िम लयन टन
3. Punjab कुल खा ान (अनाज + दाले) = 297.5 िम लयन टन
4. Uttar Pradesh
ितलहन = 332.19 िम लयन टन
5. Haryana ग ा = 3705 लाख टन (370.5 िम लयन टन)
Indian Sugarcane Research Institute is at Lucknow and कपास = 360.65 ित 170 िक. ा क लाख गाँ ठे
जूट-मे ा = 98.77 ित 180 िक. ा क लाख गाँ ठे
Central Sugarcane Research Institute is at Coimbatore.
Tea Scientific name of Asian rice – Oryza Sativa
India is the second largest tea producing state in the world Scientific name of Wheat – Triticum Aestivum
after China. Tea cultivation in India started in the Scientific name of Cotton – Gossypium
Brahmaputra Valley of Assam in 1840. Scientific name of Sugarcane – Saccharum Officinarum
Black tea leaves are fermented, while green tea leaves Scientific name of Tea – Camellia Sinensis
are unfermented. Caffeine and tannins are found in Scientific name of Coffee - Coffea
Page No. [30]
 खिनज Minerals
Iron Ore
Magnetite, Hematite, Limonite, Siderite.
In India, mainly Hematite type of iron ore is found which is
found in Dhrawar rock system of India.

Magnetite
Karnataka - Kudremukh (Chikmagalur ditrict)
Goa
Kerala - Kozhikode
Tamil Nadu - Salem
Andhra Pradesh - Cuddapah, Nellore
Telangana - Nizamabad, Karimnagar.
Hematite
Odisha - Mayurbhanj (Gorumahisani, Badampahar, Sulepat),
Sundargarh (Bonai Hills), Keonjhar (Barabil Koira valley)
Jharkhand - Singhbhum (Noamandi, Gua, Chiriya, Barajmada)
Madhya Pradesh - Chhatarpur, Gwalior, Sagar
Chhattisgarh - Durg (Dalli Rajhara), Bastar,, Dantewada
(Bailadila)
Maharashtra - Ratnagiri, Chandrapur
Goa
Karnataka - Bellary (Sandur Hills), Chikmagalur (Kudremukh,
Baba Budan, Kemmangundi), Chitradurg.

Page No. [31]

 Manganese
Manganese is found in Gonditite and Kodurite rock system
of India. The major ores of manganese are - Pyrolusite,
Psilomelane, Manganite, Braunite, Cryptomelane.

Manganese Reserves
Odisha - Sundargarh, Keonjhar, Sambhalpur, Ganjam, Koraput
Jharkhand - Singhbum
Madhya Pradesh - Balaghat, Jabalour, Jhabua, Chhindwara.
Rajasthan - Banswara, Dungarpur.
Gujarat - Banaskanta, Sabarkanta, Panchmahal.
Maharashtra - Nagpur, Ratnagiri, Bhandara
Goa
Karnataka - Bellary - Hospet region, Shimoga.
Andhra Pradesh - Srikakulam, Vishakhapatnam.

Non Ferrous Minerals

Bauxite
Odisha - Kalahandi, Koraput (Panchpatmali), Bolangir,
Sundargarh, Sambhalpur, Raygada
Chhattisgrah - Bastar, Bilaspur, Sarguja, Kabirdham.
Jharkhand - Lohardaga, Palamu, Gumla, Dumka, Latehar.
Maharashtra - Ratnagiri, Satara, Thane, Pune, Kolhapur.
Gujarat - Jamnagar, Kheda, Devbhoomi, Dwaraka, Kutchh,
Amreli, Sabarkanta, Porbandar
Andhra Pradesh - Vishakhapatnam, Eastern Godavari.
Madhya Pradesh - Annupur, Jabalpur, Katni, Rewa,
Shahdol, Siddhi

Non Metallic Minerals

Mica
Andhra Pradesh - Nellore
Rajasthan - Bhilwara
Odisha - Kalahandi, Koraput, Bolangir, Sundargarh.
Bihar - Munger, Gaya
Jharkhand - Koderma (Hazaribagh)
Tamil Nadu - Coiambatore

Page No. [32]

 Conventional - Unconventional Sources
Conventional Sources - Sources of such energy which are being used since ancient times. These resources are
generally non-renewable and their use causes pollution. Hydropower is the only renewable resource among conventional
resources.

Unconventional Sources - Sources of such energy which have been developed only in the last few decades or are still
being developed. These resources are generally renewable and their use does not cause pollution. Nuclear energy, shale
gas, coal bed methane are non-renewable resources among non-conventional resources.

Renewable Energy Target of India by 2022 is 175 GW

100 GW Solar Power
60 GW Wind Power
10 GW Biopower
5 GW Small Hydro Power

Conventional Energy Sources

Coal
Indian coal is also known as Gondwana coal.
Bituminous coal is found more in India. Mainly
coal is found in river valley region of India
such as Son, Mahanadi, Godavari, Wardha
and Damodar river valley region. Damodar
river valley is also known as Ruhr valley of
India.

Anthracite Coal - Kalakot (Jammu - Kashmir)

Bituminous Coal -
Jharkhand - Dhanbad (Jharia - Largest coalfield),Hazaribagh (Bokaro,Girdih, Karanpur), Palamu (Daltonganj, Auranga, Hutur)
Odisha - Talchar (Angul district)
Chhattisgarh - Korba, Koriya (Chirimiri), Sarguja (Jhilimili, Bisrampur, Pachbahini), Mand, Raygada
West Bengal - Raniganj in Bardhman district (Oldest coal field)
Maharashtra - Wardha valley
Madhya Pradesh - Singrauli, Sohagpur (Hoshangabad district)
Telangana - Singreni
Lignite
Rajasthan - Palana (Bikaner)
Jammu - Kashmir - Udhampur, Baramulla, Riyasi
Gujarat - Umarsar
Tamil Nadu - Neyveli
Meghalaya Plateau

Page No. [33]

Oil
Onshore Reserves
Rajasthan - Bikaner - Nagaur - Churu Basin, Jaisalmer Basin, Barmer - Sanchore Basin.
Gujarat - Kalol, Kausambi, Mehsana, Lunej, Ankaleshwar.
Assam - Moran Hugrijan, Digboi (oldest), Naharkatiya, Numaligarh, Surma valley.

Offshore Reserves
Gujarat - Aliabet
Maharashtra - Mumbai High
Kaveri Basin
Krishna Godavari Basin
Andhra - Ravva

Oil Refineries
1- Digboi, Assam IOCL
2- Guwahati, Assam IOCL
3- Barauni, Bihar IOCL
4- Koyali, Gujarat IOCL
5- Bongaigaon, Assam IOCL
6- Haldia, West Bengal IOCL
7- Mathura, Uttar Pradesh IOCL
8- Panipat, Haryana IOCL
9- Paradweep, Odisha IOCL
10- Mumbai, Maharashtra HPCL
11- Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh HPCL
12- Mumbai, Maharashtra BPCL
13- Kochi, Kerala BPCL
14- Manali, Tamil Nadu CPCL
15- Narimanam (Nagpatnam, Tamil Nadu) CPCL
16- Numaligarh, Assam NRL
17- Mangalore, Karnataka MRPL
18- Tatipaka, Andhra Pradesh ONGC
Joint Venture
19- Bina, M.P Bharat Oman Refinery Lmt-
20- Bhatinda, Punjab HPCL - Mittal Lmt.
Private Sector Refineries
21- Jamnagar, Gujarat Reliance India Lmt.
22- SEZ Jamnagar, Gujarat Reliance India Lmt
23- Vadinar, Gujarat Essar Oil Lmt.
Page No. [34]
 Hydro Power
1897 Darjeeling Sidrapong Hydro Power Plant (small plant which is now not operstional)
1902 Shivsamudram Hydro Power Plant, Karnataka.
1975 National Hydro Power Corporation was established.

India's Hydro Power Potential at 60% load factor is 148.7 GW

At present the installed capacity of Hydro Power is 46322 MW. (46.3GW)

Many hydro power plants are present in India. Some major plants are as follows:

The Koyna Hydroelectric Project is the largest completed hydroelectric power plant in India. It has a power capacity of
1960 MW.

Tehri Hydro Electric Power plant is the highest hydroelectric power project in the country, also Tehri Dam is the tallest
one in India.
(Maximum planned capacity 2400 MW not yet completed)

Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric Power Plant is the biggest underground hydroelectric power project in the country.

Sardar Sarovar Dam is the world’s second-largest concrete dam.

Tapovan Vishnugad Hydropower Project being developed by NTPC on Dhauliganga river got destroyed during the Uttarakhand
floods in 2021.
States River Hydroelectric Power Plant

Andhra Pradesh Krishna Nagarjunasagar Hydro Electric Power plant

Andhra Pradesh Krishna Srisailam Hydro Electric Power plant

Andhra Pradesh, Orissa Machkund Machkund Hydro Electric Power plant

Himachal Pradesh Baira Baira-Siul Hydroelectric Power plant

Himachal Pradesh Sutlej Bhakra Nangal Hydroelectric Power plant

Himachal Pradesh Beas Dehar Hydroelectric Power plant

Himachal Pradesh Sutlej Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric Power plant

Jammu and Kashmir Chenab Salal Hydro Electric Power plant

Jammu and Kashmir Jhelum Uri Hydro Electric Power plant

Jharkhand Subarnarekha Subarnarekha Hydroelectric Power plant

Karnataka Kalinadi Kalinadi Hydro Electric Power plant

Karnataka Sharavathi Sharavathi Hydroelectric Power plant

Karnataka Kaveri Shivanasamudra Hydroelectric Power plant

Kerala Periyar Idukki Hydro Electric Power plant

Madhya Pradesh Son Bansagar Hydroelectric Power plant

Madhya Pradesh Narmada Indira Sagar Hydro Electric Power plant

Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh Rihand Rihand Hydroelectric Power plant

Maharashtra Koyna Koyna Hydroelectric Power plant

Manipur Leimtak Loktak Hydro Electric Power plant

Odisha Sileru Balimela Hydro Electric Power plant

Odisha Mahanadi Hirakud Hydro Electric Power plant

Sikkim Rangit Rangit Hydroelectric Power plant

Sikkim Teesta Teesta Hydro Electric Power plant

Uttarakhand Bhagirathi Tehri Hydro Electric Power plant

Himachal Pradesh Beas Pandoh Dam

Page No. [35]

 Thermal Power Plant
Inida's first thermal power plant is the Hussain Sagar Thermal Power Plant (coal based) established in 1920.
India mainly uses three types of thermal power plants which are listed below along with their installed capacity as of June
2021:
• Coal: 208625 MW
• Gas: 24924 MW
• Diesel: 510 MW
India’s total installed capacity of thermal power plants is 234059 MW. (234 GW)
The electricity generated by these plants is 60.9% of the total power generation in the country.
State Thermal Power Plant
State Thermal Power Plant
Gujarat Gandhinagar Thermal Power plant
Chhattisgarh Sipat Thermal Power Plant
Mudra Thermal Power plant

Sikka Thermal Power plant Lara Super Thermal Power Plant

Ukai Thermal Power plant Korba Thermal Power Plant

Wanakbori Thermal Power plant
Bhilai Thermal Power Plant
Akrimota Thermal Power Station
Jharkhand Bokaro Thermal Power plant
Kutch Lignite Thermal Power Station

Sabarmati Thermal Power Station Patratu Thermal Power plant

Odisha Hirakud Captive Thermal Power plant Rajasthan Chhabra Thermal Power plant
Jharsuguda Thermal Power plant
Kalisindh Thermal Power plant
Talcher Thermal Power plant
Kota Thermal Power plant
Andhra Pradesh Ramagundam Thermal Power plant
Suratgarh Super Thermal Power Plant
Simhadri Thermal Power plant

Madhya Pradesh Amarkantak Thermal Power Plant Barsingsar Thermal Power Station

Satpura Thermal Power Plant

Anta Thermal Power Station
Sanjay Gandhi, Birsinghpur Thermal Power Plant
Ramgarh Gas Thermal Power Station
Shri Singaji Thermal Power Station Dongalia

Vindhyachal Thermal Power Station West Bengal Durgapur Thermal Power plant

Singrauli Super Thermal Power Station

Farakka Thermal Power plant
Maharashtra Amravati Thermal Power plant
Mejia Thermal Power Station
Chandrapur Thermal Power plant

Khaperkheda Thermal Power plant Kolaghat Thermal Power Station

Tiroda Thermal Power plant Bakreshwar Thermal Power Station

Chandrapur Thermal Power plant
Durgapur Steel Thermal Power Station
Solapur Super Thermal Power Station

Mauda Super Thermal Power Plant Budge Budge Thermal Power Plant

Uttar Pradesh Anpara Thermal Power plant Sagardighi Thermal Power Station
Dadri Thermal Power plant
Tamil Nadu Ennore Thermal Power plant
Feroz Gandhi Unchahar Thermal Power plant

National Capital Thermal Power plant Mettur Thermal Power plant

Obra Thermal Power plant Neyveli Thermal Power Station

Rihand Super Thermal Power plant
Tuticorin Thermal Power Station
Rosa Thermal Power plant

Bihar Barauni Thermal Power Station

IND Barath Thermal Power Plant

Patratu Thermal Power Station

Khalgaon Super Thermal Power Project

Karnataka Raichur Thermal Power station

Bellary Thermal Power station

Yermarus Thermal Power Station

Udupi Thermal Power plant

Page No. [36]

 Non-Conventional Energy Sources
Atomic Energy
1948 Atomic Energy Commission of India was established (Dr. Homi Jhangir Bhabha is called father of atomic power)
1954 Department Atomic Energy was established.
1956 Asia's first nuclear research reactor is the Apsara Research Reactor situated in Mumbai.
1969 India's first Atomic power house was established in Tarapur, Maharashtra.

Department Atomic Energy had set up a target of 20000 MW to be achieved by 2020.

At present the installed capacity of atomic power is 6780 MW.

Tarapur, Mumbai, Maharashtra - India's first Atomic Power Plant.

Rawatbhata, Rajasthan - Established by the assistance of Canada.
Kalpakkam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu - First project which used indigenous products.
Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu - Established by the assistance of Russia.
Atomic Minerals
Uranium
Jharkhand – Singhbhum (Jaduguda, Narwapahar, Bhatin, Turamandi)
Andhra Pradesh – Nellore (Shankara mine), Cuddapah (Tummalapalli)
Rajasthan – Udaipur (Umara)
Meghalaya – Domiasiat

Largest Reserves – Andhra Pradesh

Largest Producer – Andhra Pradesh

Thorium
Found in Monazite and Ilmenite coastal soil.
Andhra Pradesh – Vishakhapatnam
Tamil Nadu – Kaveri Delta region
Odisha – Mahanadi Delta region
Kerala – Pallakad, Kollam
West Bengal
Jharkhand

Largest Reserves – Andhra Pradesh

Largest Producer – Kerela

Page No. [37]

 Solar Energy Wind Energy
Around 5000 trillion kWh per year energy is incident over India’s wind potential at 120 m above ground level is
India’s land area. 695509 MW (695 GW)
India’s Solar energy potential capacity is 748 GW Top states with high wind energy potential at 120 m agl are
• Gujarat 142 GW
Top states with high solar energy potential capacity • Rajasthan 127 GW
• Rajasthan 142 GW • Karnataka 124 GW
• Jammu Kashmir (with Ladakh) 111 GW • Maharashtra 98 GW
• Maharashtra 64 GW • Andhra Pradesh 74 GW
• Madhya Pradesh 61 GW • Tamil Nadu 68 GW
• Andhra Pradesh 38 GW • Telangana 24 GW
• Gujarat 35 GW • Madhya Pradesh 15 GW
• Himachal Pradesh 33 GW • Odisha 8 GW
• Odisha 25 GW • Bihar 3 GW
• Karnataka 24 GW India’s wind potential at 100 m above ground level is 302
• Uttar Pradesh 22 GW GW
National Solar Mission Launched on 11 January 2010 had Top states with high wind energy potential at 100 m agl are
set a target for development and deployment of 20 GW • Gujarat 84 GW
solar power by the year 2022. In 2015, this target was • Karnataka 55 GW
revised to 100 GW. • Maharashtra 45 GW
International Solar Alliance 2015 • Andhra Pradesh 44 GW
India has established 42 solar parks. • Tamil Nadu 33 GW
India’s solar installed capacity is around 40 GW as of 31 • Rajasthan 18 GW
March 2021. • Madhya Pradesh 10 GW
• Telangana 4 GW
Top states with high solar energy installed capacity • Odisha 3 GW
(As of June 2021) • Kerala 1.6 GW
• Karnataka 7409.39 MW
• Rajasthan 6072.58 MW India’s installed wind power capacity as of 30 June 2021 is
• Gujarat 4843.31 MW 39,486 MW (39.4 GW)
• Tamil Nadu 4475.2 MW
• Andhra Pradesh 4207.39 MW India had fourth largest installed wind power capacity.
• Telangana 3960.13 MW (1st China, 2nd USA, 3rd Germany, 4th India)
• Madhya Pradesh 2501.79 MW
• Maharashtra 2293.97 MW State wise installed wind power capacity as of June 2021
• Uttar Pradesh 1818.75 MW • Tamil Nadu 9628.54 MW (9.6 GW)
• Punjab 959.50 MW • Gujarat 8726.02 MW (8.7 GW)
Note - In Rajasthan solar power plant of 5002 MW have • Maharashtra 5010.83 MW (5 GW)
been commissioned up to December 2020. • Karnataka 4938.6 MW (4.9 GW)
• Rajasthan 4337.65 MW (4.3 GW)
Top 3 Solar Plants in India • Andhra 4096.65 MW (4 GW)
1. Bhadla Solar Plant (2245 MW) • Madhya Pradesh 2519.89 MW (2.5 GW)
2. Pavagad Shakti Sthala Solar Park in Karnataka (2000 MW) • Telangana 128.10 MW (0.1 GW)
3. Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park in Andhra Pradesh (1000 • Kerala 62.50 MW (0.06 GW)
MW)
The union ministry of New and Renewable Energy has set
World's Largest Floating Solar energy project to be constructed up a target of installing 5 GW of offshore capacity by 2022
at Omkareshwar dam on Narmada river and will be opera- and 30 GW by 2030.
tional by 2023.
At present India's largest floating solar power plant by gen- India can generate 127 GW of offshore wind energy.
eration capacity (100 MW) is developed by the National Ther-
mal Power Corporation Limited (NTPC) at Ramagundam in
Peddapalli district of Telangana.

Page No. [38]

 Biomass Energy Shale Gas
Shale gas is being explored in these 6 basins.

Cambay Basin
KG Basin
Cauvery Basin
Assam – Arakan Basin
Indo – Gangetic Basin
Gondwana Basin

Coal Bed Methane

It is a new way of obtaining gas from the coal mines. Some
amount of coal bed methane is obtained by West Bengal,
Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand.

Geothermal Energy
Hot springs are the major source of geothermal energy. There
are 6 major potential regions of geothermal energy in India.

Tatapani (Chhattisgarh)
Puga (Changthang, Ladakh)
Potential Capacity Khambhat Graben
28 GW Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh)
+ 14 GW Surajkund (Jharkhand)
= 42 GW Chumathang (Ladakh)
The potential for power generation from agriculture and
agro-industrial residues is estimated at about 28,000 MW. ONGC is establishing India's first Geothermal Power Plant in
Through bagasse 14000 MW is estimated. Puga, Ladakh.
Thus, the total estimated potential for biomass power is
42000 MW. (42 GW)

Installed Capacity of India is 10.1 GW

Current Status
As on 30.06.2021, a total capacity of 10170 MW has been
installed in Biomass Power and Cogeneration Sector.
Installed Capacity of Biomass IPP – 1836 MW
Installed Capacity of Bagasse Cogeneration – 7562 MW
Installed Capacity of Non-Bagasse Cogeneration - 772
MW

Tidal Power
The tidal power potential of India is around 12,455 MW.

Potential areas
Gujarat - The Gulf of Khambat, Gulf of Kutchh
Tamil Nadu - Palk Bay, Gulf of Mannar
West Bengal - Hooghly river, South Haldia, Sunderban

Page No. [39]

 Industrial Regions of India
Eight major industrial regions are there in India.

Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region

It extends in Mumbai, Thane, Pune, Nashik, Solapur,
Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli and Jalgaon districts.
Development of this region started with the establishment
of cotton textile industry in Mumbai in 1854. Mumbai is
called Cotton Polis of India.
Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 provided impetus to the
growth of Mumbai port. Machineries were imported
through this port. Hydro-electricity was developed in the Western Ghat region to meet the requirements of this industry.
Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field and erection of nuclear energy plants added additional pull to this region.
Petro chemical industry also developed in this region.

Major Industries - Cotton Textile, Petroleum Refinery, Petrochemical industry, engineering goods, leather, synthetic
and plastic goods, drugs, fertilisers, electrical, shipbuilding, electronics, software, transport equipment and food industries.
Important industrial centres - Mumbai, Kolaba, Kalyan, Thane, Trombay, Pune, Pimpri, Nashik, Manmad, Solapur,
Kolhapur, Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli.

Hugli Industrial Region

Located along the Hugli river, this region extends from Bansberia in the north to Birlanagar in the south for a distance of
about 100 km. Industries also have developed in Mednipur in the west. Kolkata-Haora from the nucleus of this industrial
region.
This region developed with the opening of river port on Hugli. Kolkata emerged as a leading centre of the country. Later,
Kolkata was connected with interior parts by railway lines and road routes. Development of tea plantations in Assam and
northern hills of West Bengal, the processing of indigo earlier and jute later coupled with the opening of coalfields of the
Damodar Valley and iron ore deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau, contributed to the industrial development of the region.
Cheap labour available from thickly populated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Odisha also contributed to its
development. Kolkata attracted the British capital.
In 1832 Silk mill was established in Haora and Paper mill was set up in Serampur. The establishment of first jute mill at
Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of modern industrial clustering in this region.
The major concentration of jute industry is at Haora and Bhatapara. Factory of the Hindustan Motors Limited at
Konnagar and diesel engine factory at Chittaranjan are landmarks of this region. Location of petroleum refinery at Haldia
has facilitated the development of a variety of industries. However, industrial growth of this region has slowed down in
comparison to other regions. Decline of the jute industry is one of the reasons.

Major Industries - Jute industry, paper, engineering, textile machinery, electrical, chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser
and petrochemical industries.
Important industrial centres - Kolkata, Haora, Haldia, Serampur, Rishra, Shibpur, Naihati, Kakinara, Shamnagar,
Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge Budge, Birlanagar, Bansberia, Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc.
Page No. [40]
Bengaluru-Chennai Industrial Region
This region witnessed most rapid industrial growth in post-Independence period. Till 1960, industries were confined to
Bengaluru, Salem and Madurai districts but now they have spread over all the districts of Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram.
Since, this region is away from the coalfields, its development is dependent on the Pykara hydroelectric plant, which was
built in 1932.

Cotton textile industry was the first to take roots due to the presence of cotton growing areas. Along with cotton mills,
loom industry spread very rapidly. Several heavy engineering industries converged at Bengaluru. Aircraft (HAL), machine
tools, telephone (HTL) and Bharat Electronics are industrial landmarks of this region. Petroleum refinery at Chennai, iron
and steel plant at Salem and fertiliser plants are recent developments. Chennai is called the detroit of India and
Coimbatore is called the Manchester of South India.

Important industries - Cotton textile, rail wagons, diesel engines, radio, light engineering goods, rubber goods,
medicines, aluminium, sugar, cement, glass, paper, chemicals, film, cigarette, match box, leather goods, etc.

Major Industrial Centers - Bangalore, Chennai, Salem, Madurai.

Gujarat Industrial Region

The nucleus of this region lies between Ahmedabad and Vadodara but this region extends upto Valsad and Surat in the
south and to Jamnagar in the west. Development of this region is also associated with the location of the cotton textile
industry since 1860s. This region became an important textile region with the decline of the cotton textile industry at
Mumbai. Located in cotton growing area, this region has double advantage of the proximity of raw materials as well as of
market.

The discovery of oilfields led to the establishment of petrochemical industries around Ankleshwar, Vadodara and
Jamnagar. The port at Kandla helped in the rapid growth of this region. Petroleum refinery at Koyali provided raw
materials to a host of petrochemical industries. Cement industry was established in Porbandar. Recently, largest petroleum
refinery has been set up at Jamnagar.

Major Industries - Textiles (cotton, silk and synthetic fabrics) and petrochemical industries, chemicals, motor, tractor,
diesel engines, textile machinery, engineering, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, sugar, dairy products and food processing.

Important industrial centres - Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar, Rajkot, Surat,
Valsad and Jamnagar.

Chotanagpur Region
This region extends over Jharkhand, northern Odisha and western West Bengal and is known for the heavy metallurgical
industries. In this region, India's first successful Steel plant was established at Kulti (West Bengal) in 1870. This region
owes its development to the discovery of coal in the Damodar Valley and metallic and non-metallic minerals in Jharkhand
and northern Odisha. Proximity of coal, iron ore and other minerals facilitated the location of heavy industries in this
region. Six large integrated iron and steel plants at Jamshedpur, Burnpur -Kulti, Durgapur, Bokaro and Rourkela are
located within this region. TISCO plant was set up in this region in 1907. Rourkela steel plant is India's first integrated
public sector steel plant.

To meet the power requirement, thermal and hydroelectric plants have been constructed in the Damodar Valley. Densely
populated surrounding regions provide cheap labour and Hugli region provides vast market for its industries.

Important industries - Heavy engineering, machine tools, fertilisers (Sindri), cement (Dalmianagar in Bihar), paper,
locomotives and heavy electricals.

Important centres - Ranchi, Dhanbad, Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribag, Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, Asansol
and Dalmianagar.

Page No. [41]

Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region
This industrial region extends from Vishakhapatnam district to Kurnool and Prakasam districts in the south. Industrial
development of this region hinges upon Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam ports and developed agriculture and rich
reserves of minerals in their hinterlands. Coalfields of the Godavari basin provide energy.

Ship building industry was started at Vishakhapatnam in 1941. Petroleum refinery based on imported petroleum facilitated
the growth of several petrochemical industries. One leadzinc smelter is functioning in Guntur district. Iron and steel plant
at Vishakhapatnam uses the Bailadila iron ore.

Major Industries - Sugar, textile, jute, paper, fertiliser, cement, aluminium and light engineering.

Major Industrial Centers - Vishakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Vijaynagar, Rajahmundry, Guntur, Eluru and Kurnool.

Gurugram-Delhi-Meerut Region
Industries located in this region have shown very fast growth in the recent past. This region is located far away from the
mineral and power resources, and therefore, the industries are light and market-oriented. To the south lies the Agra-
Mathura industrial area, which specialises in glass and leather goods. Mathura with an oil refinery is a petrochemical
complex.

Major Industries - Electronics, light engineering, electrical goods, cotton, woollen and synthetic fabrics, hosiery, sugar,
cement, machine tools, tractor, cycle, agricultural implements, chemical and Software industry.

Industrial centres - Gurugram, Delhi, Faridabad, Meerut, Modinagar, Ghaziabad, Ambala, Agra and Mathura

Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region
This industrial region is spread over Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alwaye, Ernakulam and Alappuzha districts. Plantation,
agriculture and hydropower provide industrial base to this region. Located far from the mineral belt of the country,
agricultural products processing and market-oriented light industries predominate the region. Among them, cotton textile,
sugar, rubber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertiliser and fish-based industries are important. Location of petroleum refinery
at Kochi has added a vista of new industries to this region.

Major Industries - Food processing, paper, coconut coir products, aluminium and cement industries.

Important industrial centres - Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Alwaye, Kochi, Alappuzha and Punalur.

Page No. [42]

 Transportation North-South-East-West Corridor
India's total road network = 62.16 lakh km.
(62,15,797 km) The North-South-East-West Corridor has been developed in
India has world's second largest road network after USA. the second phase of the National Highway Development
Highest road network in Maharashtra and lowest road net- Project (NHDP), and involves the construction of a 7300-km
work is in Sikkim. four/six-lane expressway connecting Srinagar, Kanyakumari,
Porbandar and Silchar.
National Highway = 1.36 lakh km (1,36,220 km) North-South corridor 4000 km highway and east-west corri-
dor 3300 km highway is proposed. This length has been taken
Road Density = 189.08 km per 100 sq km (1.89 per sq km) by removing the highway included in the Golden Quadrilat-
Kerala has highest road density and Jammu Kashmir has lowest eral. At present, 7142 km of this corridor has been built.
road density.
Note - In Rajasthan Economic Survey road density of India is The following sections are common between the Golden Quad-
mentioned as 152.04 km per 100 sq km and it is old data. rilateral and the North-South corridors.
Delhi-Agra: Golden Quadrilateral and North-South Corridor
Percentage of various roads out of the total road network. Bangalore-Krishnagiri: The Golden Quadrilateral and the
National Highway 2.07% North-South Corridor
State Highway 3% Akbarpur-Kanpur: Golden Quadrilateral and East-West Cor-
District Road 10.17% ridor
City Road 8.76% Udaipur-Chittorgarh: Golden Quadrilateral and East-West
Rural Road 72.97% Corridor
1988 National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) and it be-
came funtional in 1995. Major Cities on the North - South Corridor
1998 National Highway Development Programme (NHDP) 13 States
2015 Bharatmala Project. During First Phase (2017-18 to Jammu and Kashmir - Srinagar, Anantnag, Udhampur, Jammu,
2021-22) 34800 km road is to be constructed out of which Samba, Kathua
10000 km are the remaining road of NHDP. Punjab - Pathankot, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Rajpura
Haryana - Delhi, Faridabad, Palwal, Hodal Ambala, Karnal,
Golden Quadrilateral Panipat
Developed during the first phase of NHDP. Rajasthan - Dholpur
1999 Foundation laid Uttar Pradesh - Mathura, Agra, Jhansi, Lalitpur
2012 Completed Madhya Pradesh - Morena, Gwalior, Sagar, Seoni,
Total Length - 5846 km Maharashtra - Nagpur
Passes through 13 states. Telangana - Nagpur, Nirmal, Adilabad, Nizamabad, Hyderabad
Andhra Pradesh - Kurnool, Gooty, Anantapur
Karnataka - Bangalore
Tamil Nadu - Krishnagiri, Salem, Madurai, Tirunelveli,
Kanyakumari

Major Cities on the East-West Corridor

7 States
Gujarat - Porbandar, Rajkot, Morbi, Radhanpur, Palanpur
Rajasthan - Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Kota, Baran Madhya
Pradesh - Shivpuri, Ganj
Uttar Pradesh - Jhansi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Faizabad, Ayodhya,
Gorakhpur
Bihar - Gopalganj, Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga, Araria, Purnia
West Bengal - Siliguri, Jalpaiguri, Salsabari
Assam - Bongaigaon, Nalbari, Dispur, Naugaon, Lumding,
Haflong, Silchar

The North-South and East-West corridors meet at

Jhansi.

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 New NH 44

New NH 27

Longest national highway - NH27 4112.62 km (in 2021)

(Till now the longest National Highway was considered to be NH 44. Hence, if it is in the answer's option then it can be
selected.)

Shortest Highway – NH 327 B Panitanki in West Bengal towards Kakarbhitta in Nepal (1.2 km) (Earlier NH 47A was
shortest)

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Page No. [45]
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Page No. [48]
 World Geography for Prelims

Area wise Population wise

Continent List continent list
1. Asia 1. Asia
2. Africa 2. Africa
3. North America 3. Europe
4. South America 4. North America
5. Antarctic 5. South America
6. Europe 6. Australia
7. Australia 7. Antarctica

North America
Mountain Ranges of North America
1 Brooks Range
2 Alaska Range
3 Rocky Mountain
4 Pacific Coast Range
5 Cascade Range
6 Sierra Nevada
7 Sierra Madre Occidental
8 Sierra Madre Oriental
9 Applachian Mountain
The group of mountain ranges in the Western part of North America are collectively called
Western Cordillera. Many mountain peaks are found here such as Hood, Rainier, Shasta etc.
Mountains of North America
1. Mt McKinley (Denali) is North America’s highest peak located in Alaska range.
2. Mt Logan is North America’s second highest peak and Canada’s highest peak located in coast range.
3. Elbert peak is Rocky Mountain's highest peak located in USA.
4. Robson is the highest peak of Canadian Rockies.
5. Whitney is the highest peak of Sierra Nevada Mountain which is the world’s largest block mountain.
6. Mitchell is the highest peak of Appalachian Mountains.
7. Applachian Mountain is an old fold mountain which is rich in coal reserves. This mountain range includes Norte Dam,
White Mt, Green Mt, Allegheny, Blue ridge mountains. To the east of this mountain Piedmont plateau has formed due to

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erosion and to the west of it Allegheny - Cumberland plateau (Applachian plateau) is located which is rich in iron ore
reserves.
7. Citlaltepetl (Pico De Orizaba) is Mexico’s highest peak and North America‘s third highest peak.
8. Popocatepetl is Mexico’s second highest peak.
9. Mauna kea volcanic mountain is around 10,205 m high from its base but from sea level its height is only 4205. So it is
actually taller than Mount Everest.
Crossnest pass is located in Rocky Mountain in the Canadian states of Alberta and British Columbia. Canadian Pacific
Railway passes through it.
Plateau of North America
Colombia -Snake Plateau - On this volcanic plateau Guri Dam is located on Columbia river.
Great basin - Great Salt Lake and Death Valley located on it. North America's lowest point is found in Death valley.
Colorado Plateau - Limestone plateau on which Colorado river forms Grand Canyon.
Mexican plateau - Famous silver mine is located in Chihuahua.
Cumberland and Allegheny plateau are iron ore rich and located to the west of Appalachian. Canadian shield or
Laurentian Plateau – Bauxite, iron ore, nickel, gold, silver reserves.
Plains of North America
Prairies
It is temperate grassland located in USA and Canada. The humus containing chernozem soil is found here. Nutritious grass
develops in this region and this plain region is used for agriculture and animal rearing. Chicago is known for meat processing.
Major crops grown in this plain region are wheat, maize etc. In Winnipeg (Canada) world’s largest wheat yard is located.
The big cattle farms of prairies are called ranch which are looked after by Cowboys. The major animals of this region are
bison, coyote, gophers, prairies dog. The natives of this region are red Indians. Many tribes live in this region such as Apache,
crow Cree, Pawnee. Some trees like order popular willow also grow in this region.
Deserts of North America
Great Basin Desert - USA
Mojave Desert – USA. Death Valley is located here.
Sonoran Desert – USA - Mexico
Chihuahua desert - US and Mexico
Rivers of North America
1. Mackenzie (Origin - Great Slave Lake; Falls in Beaufort
Sea) Canada’s longest river.
2. Yukon (Origin - Mackenzie Mt.; Falls in Bering Sea) Placer
deposits of gold are found.
3. Columbia (Origin - Rocky Mt; Falls in Pacific Ocean) Grand
Coulee Dam on it and Snake is its major tributary.
4. Colorado (Origin - Rocky Mt; Falls in Gulf of California) It
forms Grand Canyon. Hoover Dam is on this river.
Page No. [50]
5. Rio Grande (Origin - Rocky Mt; Falls in Gulf of Mexico) It flows on USA Mexico border.
6. Mississippi Missouri River system is North America’s longest and world’s fourth longest river system. The major
tributaries of Mississippi River are Tennessee, Arkansas and Ohio India’s Damodar River Valley project is based on Tennessee
River Valley project. Mississippi river forms a bird foot Delta
7. Hudson - (Origin - From Henderson Lake of Adirondack Mt region; Falls in Atlantic Ocean) New York City is located.
At the confluence of Hudson River and its tributary Mohawk Albany city is located which is known for steel industry.
8. Saint Lawrence (Origin - Ontario Lake; Falls in Gulf of Saint Lawrence) This )river flows on USA - Canada border and
it forms world’s largest estuary.
9. Potomac river - Washington DC is located.
Lakes of North America
1. Great Bear Lake is largest freshwater lake located completely in
Canada.
2. Great slave lake is North America’s deepest lake. Yellowknife
city is located on its bank where gold and diamond reserves are found.
3. Great Salt Lake is North America’s largest saline lake.
4. Great Lakes - (Size Superior > Huron > Michigan > Erie > Ontario)
The five lakes located on USA - Canada border region are called Great
Lakes. Superior is world’s largest freshwater lake. Michigan is located
completely in USA. These lakes are connected through canals and
rivers. (Soo canal between superior – Huron; Welland canal between
Erie – Ontario) Niagara waterfall is located between Erie and Ontario.
Many cities are located at the bank of these lakes.

Industrial Regions of Canada

1. Ontario - Saint Lawrence Region -
Steel industry (Hamilton, Salt St. Marie), Nickel and Platinum (Sudbury), Automobile (Windsor), gold (Hollinger mines in
Timmins city of Ontario), newspaper (Montreal), Oil and gas (Hibernia region of New Foundland), Paper (Corner Brooks city
of New Foundland), apple (Nova Scotia)
2. Prairies Region -
Largest wheat yard in Winnipeg, Uranium city, gold (Yellowknife), oil (Turner valley in Calgary city of Alberta state)
3. Pacific Coast Region -
Lead - zinc (Sullivan mine in Kimberley city of British Columbia state), Lumbering industry (Vancouver)

Industrial regions of USA

1. Great Lake Rgeion/Midwest Region - Steel industry (Cleaveland, Buffalo, Gary, Duluth), Meat processing (Chicago),
Automobile (Detroit), Synthetic rubber (Akron)
2. Northern Applachian Region - Steel industry (Pittsburg, Younstown, Braddock, Gorgetown). Pittsburgh is now less

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relevant in terms of steel industry therefore, it is now called Rust bowl of USA.
3. Southern Applachian Region - Cotton Textile industry (Boston), Woolen industry (Providence, Lowell), Leather and
engineering industry.
4. Mid Atlantic Region - Steel industry (Sparrows point in Maryland, Morrisville, Allentown, Steelon), Silk industry (Pater-
son in New Jersey)
5. Southern Applachian Region - Steel industry (Birmingham in Albama state), cotton textile industry.
6. Gulf Coast Region / Eastern Texsas Region - Oil refinery (Dallas, Houston in Texsas, Luciana in New Orleans)
7. Pacific Coast Region - Information Technology (San Francisco, San Diago, Seattle), San Francisco is called Silicon
Valley, Seattle is called Silicon Forest. Aircraft manufacturing (Seattle), Ship manufacturing (Portland), Los Angeles (Holly-
wood)
8. Alaska Region - Oil in Prodhoe Bay

South America
Andes mountain -
The world's longest mountain range in which western hemisphere's highest
peak Aconcagua is located. Andes mountain range has many volcanic peaks
such as Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Ojos Del Salado. Chimborazo peak is farthest
away from the centre of earth.
Plateau of South America
Guyana Plateau - bauxite, gold, diamond, iron, manganese minerals. Orinoco
river and its tributaries originate from here.
Brazil Plateau - iron ore. Mato Grosso Plateau is its part. Sao Francisco and
Parana rivers originate.
Bolivian Plateau/ Aptiplano - Arid conditions. Salar De Uyuni salt pan. Tin, tungsten. Capital of Bolivia La Paz is located
on it which is the highest capital of the world.
Patagonia Plateau - in Chile and Argentina. Cold Patagonian desert is located on it which is South America’s largest desert.

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 Plains of South America
Western coastal plains - world’s longest coastal plains. Nitrate phosphate is found in the soil. Copper reserves are found
in the central part of this plain region. Atacama Desert is located which is the world’s driest desert. Atacama Desert is in
Peru and Chile. World’s driest place Arica is also located here.
Pampas grassland - It is temperate grasslands in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. Alfalfa grass is found here. Wheat
production and animal rearing is done. The big cattle farms are called estancia which are looked after by Guacho. Grape
cultivation is also done in Pampas. Mendoza city of Argentina is known for wine production.
Deserts Of South America
Atacama Desert - Hot desert located in Peru and Chile.
Patagonia Desert - Cold desert located in Chile and Argentina.
Rivers of South America
Orinoco river - Llanos grassland and oil reserves are found in its basin. It’s major tributary is Caroni on which Guri Dam is
located and on Caroni’s tributary Angel waterfall is located which is world’s highest waterfall. (979 m)
Amazon river - world’s largest river and world’s second longest river. Selvas rainforest and tropical grasslands called
Campos, Cerrados, Catingas are found in its basin. Amazon river flows in Brazil, Colombia and Peru.
Sao Francisco - Longest River flowing completely in Brazil known as river of national integration.
Parana River - its major tributaries are Paraguay and Uruguay. Parana, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers are collectively
called Plata rivers. Tropical grassland called Gran Chaco is located in its basin. On Paraguay - Brazil border region Itaipu
dam is located on Parana River which is world’s second largest hydroelectricity power generation dam. Plata rivers from
border between many South American countries.
Colorado River - flows between Patagonian desert and Pampas temperate grassland.

Lakes of South America

Maracaibo Lake - South America’s largest saline lake. Oil reserves are found
here. This lake is connected with Gulf of Venezuela through Tablazo strait.
Titicaca Lake - in Peru and Bolivia. South America’s largest freshwater lake
and world’s highest navigable lake.
Industries of South America
Steel industry - Itabira mine in Minas Gerais state of Brazil. Belo Horizonte,
Volta Redonda (Rio De Janeiro)
Manganese - Amapa mines in Brazil
Bauxite - Guyana, Suriname Oil - Venezuela Silver - Cerro De Pasco in Peru
Copper - Chiquicamata in Chile
Coffee - Coffee farms of Brazil are called Fazenda. (Main centre - São Paulo, Coffee port - Santos) Coffee farms of
Columbia are called Finca. ( Major centre - Medellin, Manizales) , Ecuador. Cocoa - Ileus Sugar - Recife
Ship manufacturing and wheat export - Buenos Aires
Maize and Tobacco exporting port - Bahia Blanca Wine - Mendoza

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 Africa
Mountains of Africa
Atlas mountains - Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia(highest peak Toubkal)
Loma mountain - Sierra Leone and Guinea (highest peak Bintumani)
Drakensberg Mt - South Africa and Lesotho (Highest Peak - Ntlenyana)
Kilimanjaro Mt - Volcanic mt in Tanzania. Africa’s highest mountain.
Kenya mountain This volcanic mountain located in Tanzania is the second
highest mountain of Africa
Ruwenzori Mts - in DRC, Uganda. Third highest mt of Africa and highest
block mt. of Africa. Margherita, the highest peak of these mts, is located in
Stanley mt. which is a part of Ruwenzori mt. group. These mts are known
as mountains of moon.
Plateau of Africa
Guinea Highland - Fouta Djallon and Loma mt is its part.
Fouta Djallon - Water tower of Western Africa. ( Iron ore)
Jos Plateau - in Niger, Nigeria. Abuja, the capital of Nigeria is located on it. (Tin reserves)
Katanga Plateau - in DRC, Zambia. (Copper, Cobalt) Congo river originates from here.
Bie Plateau - in Angola (Bauxite)
Great Karoo - in South Africa. (Gold, Diamond, Platinum, Coal)
East African Plateau - Largest Plateau of Africa located in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. Masai tribe lives on it Kilimanjaro
and Victoria Lake are on it
Ethiopian Highlands also known as Abyssinian Plateau. Saline lake are found here like Assal lake in Djibouti. Fresh water
lake Tana is also located here from where Blue Nile river originates. Highest point - Ras Dashen.
Plains of Africa
Savanna - Tropical grassland in Africa which were earlier called Land of Big Game.
Veld - Temperate grassland in South Africa. Agriculture and animal rearing is done. Major river of this region is Vaal. Maize
is the major crop of this region due to which it is called Maize triangle region. Marino Sheep of this region is known for good
quality wool.
Deserts of Africa
Sahara desert - World's largest hot desert which extends in 11 countries Bedouin and Tuareg tribe reside here.
Kalahari Desert - In Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. It is erg desert. Bushmen tribe resides here. Okovango river and
Makgadikgadi salt pan is located here.
Namib Desert - Sandy desert located in Namibia, Angola and South Africa. It is included in Unesco World heritage sites.
Sahel - Transition region between Sahara and Savanna region. (Backward region)
Rivers of Africa
Volta river - Major river of Ghana. Akosombo dam located on it forms Volta lake which is area wise the world’s largest man-
made lake.
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Niger or Joliba river - Oil is found in its delta in Nigeria.
Congo river - It is world's deepest and second largest river. It is Africa’s second longest river. worlds highest hydroelectricity
power generation capacity is found in this river. Great Inga project is being developed on this river it crosses equator two
times. Pygmy tribe lives in its basin. Stanley and livingstone waterfalls are located on this river.
Zambezi river - Kariba Dam located on this river forms Kariba lake which is volume wise worlds largest man-made lake
Victoria waterfall is located on this river.
Orange river - on Namibia South Africa border crosses Tropic of Capricorn two times.
Nile river originates from Khartoum where White Nile and blue Nile rivers meet worlds longest river in Egypt Aswan dam
is located on it its basin is used for rice and cotton cultivation farmers of Egypt are called fellah. Cairo and Alexandria are
major centres of cotton textile industry.
Lakes of Africa
Great African Lakes - The lakes located in the eastern rift Valley region of Africa are called great African lakes
Victoria lake - Africa’s largest freshwater lake Located in Kenya Uganda Tanzania it is worlds second largest freshwater
lake equator passes through this lake this lake is not located in rift Valley White Nile river originates from it
Tanganyika Lake - It is world's longest Lake located in DRC Tanzania, Burundi and Zambia. This lake is located in rift
Valley it is worlds second deepest and second oldest freshwater lake
Chad Lake - Freshwater lake located in Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon which is rapidly shrinking
Assal lake - Saline Lake located in Djibouti in which Africa’s lowest point is found.
East African Rift Valley - It is world's longest rift valley which is located in Arabian peninsula and Eastern Africa. Many
volcanic peaks are located near this rift valley. Many lakes are found in this rift valley such aas ALbert, Turkana, Edward,
Tanganyika etc.

Madagascar island - largest island of India.

Horn of Africa - Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Somalia.
Sinai Peninsula - Lies to the north of Red Sea and it is under the control of Egypt. It is considered as a part of Asia.
Suez Canal - Formed in 1869. Connects Red sea and Mediterranean sea.
Industries of Africa
Oil - Libya, Algeria, Nigeria Oil Palm - Nigeria, Zaire(Congo)
Clove - Pamba, Zanzibar Ethiopia's Kaffa province is the birth place of coffee.
South Africa -
Gold - Johannesberg, Transvaal
Diamond - Kimberley, Bakwanga
Manganese - Pietermaritzburz
Capetown is the largest port of South Africa. Durban, East London and Elizabeth are other major ports.
South Africa has various capitals - Pretoria (Administrative capital), Capetown (Legislative Capital), Bloemfontein (Judicial
capital)

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 Europe
Major Mountains of Europe
1. Cantabrian Mountains - Northern Spain

2. Pyrenees - Spain and France.

3. Jura Mountains - France

4. Vosges - France

5. Black Forest - Germany

6. Harz - Germany

7. Alps Mountains - Extend in 8 countries - France, Switzerland, Monaco, Italy, Austria, Germany, Slovenia, Liechtenstein.
Mount Blanc Blanc is its highest peak.

8. Dinaric Alps - Slovenia to Albenia.

9. Pindhus Mountains - Greece

10. Apennines Mountains - Italy

11. Balkan Mountains - Near Black Sea. In Bulgeria and Serbia.

12. Caucasus Mountains - Lies between Black Sea and Caspion Sea.The highest peak of these mountains is Elbrus which
is the highest peak of Europe.

13. Carpathian Mountains - Central Europe.

14. Ural Mountains - Situated in Russia and Kazakhstan at the border of Europe and Asia. Highest peak is Narodnaya.

15. Grampians Mountains - Scotland

16. Pennines - England

Plateau of Europe
Meseta Central - Plateau located in Spain on which Tagus river flows and Madrid is also located on it. (Iron ore and
copper reserves)
Massif Central - Plateau located in France from where Loire and Seine rivers originate.
Bavarian Plateau - Located in Germany.
(iron ore reserves)
Bohemian Plateau - Old plateau region located in Czech Repunlic, Germany, Poland, Austria.
Fino - Scandinavian Plateau - Old plateau region located in Norway and Sweden where iron ore and copper reserves
are found.
Plains of Europe
Steppe - This is a temperate grassland located in Eurasia. The main rivers here are the Volga and the Ural. This plain is used
for agriculture and animal husbandry. In Hungary and its surrounding countries, such as Romania, Bulgaria, Austria, Serbiaand
Slovakia, the wide steppe is called pustaz. It is also called Pannonian steppe. Ukraine is also known as the bread basket
of Europe.
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 Major Rivers of Europe
1. Tagus River - Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. 2. Ebro River - Spain's Zaragoza city.
3. Loire River- This is the longest river of France. 4. Seine River - Paris is located on its bank
5. Garonne River – The cities of Bordeaux and Toulouse are situated on its banks.
6. Rhine River -This river flows in the rift valley between the Vosges and the Black Forest mountains on the border region
of France and Germany. Its main tributary is the Rur, the valley of which is famous for its coal deposits. The Rhine River
forms a delta near Rotterdam in the Netherlands. Rotterdam is the busiest port in Europe.
7. Rhone River - The city of Lyons is situated on the banks of this river, which is famous for silk.
8. Po River - The plains of Lombardy are located in the basin of this river. It is the longest and most important river in Italy.
It is also called the Ganges of Italy.
9. Tiber River- Rome and Vatican City are situated on the banks of Tiber River.
10. Danube River- This is the second longest river of the europe. It passes through 10 countries- Germany, Austria, Slovakia,
Hungry , Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Maldova. Capitals of four countries located on its bank which are
Vienna (Austria), Bratislava (Slovakia), Budapest - (Hungary), Belgrade (Serbia)
11. Elbe River- Prague, the capital of the Czech Republic and the city of Hamburg, Germany are situated on its bank.
12. Spree River – Berlin, the capital of Germany, is situated on its bank.
13. Vistula River -Warsaw, the capital of Poland, is situated on its banks.
14. Dniester River - Moldova and Ukraine. 15. Dnieper River - Kiev located on its bank.
16. Donets River -Coal deposits are found in the basin of this river.
17. Don River - falls into Azov Sea. 18. Volga River It is the longest river in Europe.
19. Ural River - On border of Europe and Asia in Russia and Kazakhstan.
20. Oder River- Poland and Germany 21. Thames - London and Reading cities are on its bank.
22. Severn River - Longest river of Europe.
Major Lakes of Europe
1. Ladoga - Largest fresh water lake of Europe in Russia.
2. Onega - 2nd largest fresh water lake of Europe in Russia.
3. Vanern - 3rd largest fresh water lake of Europe in Sweden.
4. Saimaa - 4th largest fresh water lake of Europe in Finland.
5. Constance - Germany Switzerland and Austria.
6. Geneve - France and Switzerland
7. Hornindalsvatn Lake - Deepest lake of Europe located in Norway.
Major group of countries
1. Great Britain -Scotland + England + Wales
2. United Kingdom - Great Britain + Northern Ireland
3. Benelux Countries - Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg. These countries are below sea level. That’s why they are
called low countries. The coastal areas of these countries are submerged and these submerged areas are reclaimed by
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making high dykes. The land thus recovered is called Polderland.
4. Scandinavian countries -Norway, Sweden, Denmark (Iceland) are included. Finland is not a part of these countries.
The coast of Norway is famous for its fjords.
5. Baltic countries - Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia
Industrial regions of europe

1. Lowland region- located in Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg. Brusells, Antwerp, Rotterdam and Amsterdam are the
major cities and ports located. Antwerp, there is world’s biggest diamond Cutting industry.
2. Flanders region- Located in Belgium and France. Textile industry (Lille, Ghent and Kotrik)
3. Sambre - Compaign region- located in the region France, Belgium and germany. Liege of Belgium is famous for
shotgun pistols.
4. Ruhr or Lower Rhine region - steel industries (Essen, Dortmund, Düsseldorf and Cologne)
5. Alsace-Lauren Saar region - Situated in France and Germany. Steel industry (main center-Nancy)
6. Upper Rhine region - located in Germany and Switzerland , is famous for the manufacture of motors, engineering,
watches etc. (Main Center -Stuttgart, Munich - Frankfurt, Zurich)
7. Northern Italy or Po Valley region - Textile Industry (Milan), Automobile Industry (Turin)
8. East Germany Industrial Region - Jena (Optical Industry), Dresden (Ceramic Pottery and Machine Tools) and
Leipzig (Agriculture Tools and Artistic Printing) and Berlin is the major industrial center.
9. Northern Germany Region - Shipbuilding (Center Hamburg)
10. Silesia Region - It is located in Poland and the Czech Republic. Heavy Industries (Katowice of Poland), Textiles (Lodz
of Poland)
11. Paris Industrial Region - Automobiles, aircraft, engineering, textiles, fashion industry
12. France - Shipbuilding (Marseille, Toulouse), Aircraft (Toulouse), silk (Lyons)
13. Spain - Iron (Bilbao), Clothing (Barcelona), Cork (Cádiz)
14. Scandinavia Region - Shipbuilding (Bergen of Norway), Iron (Kiruna, Gallivare of Sweden), Dairy (Denmark)
15. Wines -Champagne, Bordeaux, Reims, Burgundy, Italian wines are known as Asti wines, Spain wines are called sherry
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 wines and Portugal wines are called port wines.
Industrial territories of the United kingdom
1. Northern Ireland -Shipbuilding (Belfast)
2. Clyde Valley region of Scotland -Steel industry (Glasgow and Edinburgh), Shipbuilding (Glasgow), Jute (Dundee)
Here the world’s first jute mill was established.
3. North Eastern Region -Steel Industry ( New Castle)
4. Southern Yorkshire -Steel Industry (Sheffield is known for fork & knife)
5. West Yorkshire and Derbyshire -Woolen Textile Industry (West Riding, Leeds, Bradford), aircraft manufacturing
(centre - Derby)
6. Lancashire - cotton textile industry (centre - Manchester, Preston, Liverpool). Liverpool is a major port and is also
noted for its shipbuilding and oil refinery.
7. West Midland Region - Steel Industry (Centre - Birmingham), Automobiles Industry (Centre Coventry)
8. London Industrial Region -Engineering industries, clothing industries.
9. South Wales -Steel Industry (Centre -New Port, Barry, Swansea, Cardiff, Port Talbot)
Industrial regions of Russia
1. Leningrad (St. Petersburg) State -Shipbuilding
2. Moscow -Tula Region -Steel Industry
3. Middle Volga region- Refinery
4. Ural region- Steel ( Magnitogorsk, Chelyabinsk, Nizhny Tagil)
5. Ivanovo - Cotton textile industry
6. Novokuznetsk - Steel (Coal found in Kuznetsk)
7. Nizhny Novgorod - Automobile
8. Pechora basin - Vorkuta
9. Orenburg -gas
10. Urengoy - gas
11. Irkutsk -Coal
12. Sakhalin Island -Oil & Gas
13. Vladivostok-Shipbuilding
Industrial regions of Ukraine
1. Donetsk - Coal
2. Krivoy Rog -iron
3. Crimea -Steel
4. Nikopol-Manganese

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 Asia
Major mountains of Asia
1. Pontine - Taurus Mt. - Turkey. Tigris and Euphrates rivers
originate from Taurus Mt.
2. Mt. Ararat - Highest peak of Turkey.
3. Elburz and Zagros Mt. - Iran. In Elburz Mt. West Asia’s
highest peak Mt. Damavand is located.
4. Hindukush Mt. - Afghanistan and Pakistan. It’s highest
peak Tirich Mir is located in Pakistan.
5. Sulaiman, Salt range, Kirthar Mt. - Pakistan
6. Chagai Hills – Pakistan’s nuclear testing centre
7. Pamirs – in Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan and China. The major mountain ranges of Asia meet here, therefore, it is
called Pamir Knot and roof of the world.
8. Fuji Mt. – Highest peak Japan.
9. Annam Mt. – Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia.
10. Kinabalu Mt. – Highest peak of Malaysia.
11. Punchak Jaya Mt. – Highest peak of Indonesia.
12. Arakon Yoma Mt. – Myanmar. Purvanchal and Andaman Nicobar Islands are considered its part. Its highest peak is
Victoria. It is one of the 36 hotspots of the world.
13. Hkakabo Razi – Highest peak of Myanmar.

Major Plateau of Asia

1. Anatolia Plateau –Turkey's Capital Ankara is located on this plateau. It is also called Asia Minor.
2. Iran Plateau – Dasht – e – Lut and Dasht – e – Kavir deserts are on this plateau.
3. Potwar Plateau – Islamabad on it.
4. Tibet Plateau – Between Himalaya and Kunlun Shan Mt. It is world’s highest and largest plateau.
5. Shan Plateau – Located in Eastern Myanmar.
6. Ust Yurt Plateau – in Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan.
7. Armenian Highland – in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Turkey. Ararat Mt. is the highest peak of this plateau.
8. Central Siberian Plateau – Tunguska River flows on it.
9. Loess Plateau – in China also known as Huangtu plateau or yellow land plateau.
Major Plains of Asia
Mesopotamia Plains – in West Asia.
Manchuria Plains – Temperate grasslands in northern China.
Siberia Plains – Plains between Ural Mountain and Lena River.
Turan Lowland – in the basin of Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers in Central Asia.

Page No. [60]

 Major Deserts of Asia
Rub – Al – Khali – Largest erg desert of the world located in Saudi Arabia.
Takla Makan Desert – Cold desert in China.
Gobi Desert – Cold desert in China and Mongolia.

Rivers of Asia
1. Tigris - Euphrates – in Turkey, Syria, Iraq. Mesopotamia plains located in its basin.
2. Helmand river – Longest River of Afghanistan.
3. Lena – Longest River of Russia.
4. Amur – On Russia – China border.
5. Hwang Ho – Asia’s 2nd longest river also known as 6. Sorrow of China, Yellow River. It carries highest amount of
sediments in the world.
6. Yangtze – Longest River of Asia and 3rd longest river of the world which flows in China. World’s largest hydropower plant
called Three Gorges dam is located on this river.
7. Si kiang or Xi Jiang – River in southern China.
8. Red river – Vietnam’s capital Hanoi is located at its bank.
9. Mekong – Longest River of South – East Asia.
10. Chao Phraya – Bangkok is located at its bank.
11. Salween – Flows on Myanmar – Thailand border.
12. Irrawaddy – Longest River of Myanmar.
13. Surma river – River of Eastern Bangladesh known as Barak River in India.
14. Mahaveli - Longest river of Sri Lanka.

Lakes of Asia
1. Van Gol Lake – Largest saline lake of Turkey.
2. Dead Sea – On Israel – Jordan border. This lake is located at the lowest point of the terrestrial region.
3. Darya-e-Urmia – Largest saline lake of Iran.
4. Caspian Sea – Largest Lake of the world. Russia, 5. Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Azerbaijan countries surround it. It
is known for oil reserves. Major oil field is located in Baku.
5. Black Sea – surrounded by Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia.
6. Aral Sea – On Kazakhstan – Uzbekistan border. Sr Darya and Amu Darya rivers fall in it.
7. Quinghai Lake – Largest saline lake of China.
8. Baikal Lake – World’s deepest lake located in Russia. Volume wise it is world’s largest fresh water lake.
9. Tonle Sap Lake – Largest fresh water lake of South – East Asia located in Cambodia. It is one the world’s 36 Hotspots.
10. Toba Lake – World’s largest Caldera Lake located on Sumatra Island of Indonesia.
11. Biwa Lake – Largest fresh water lake of Japan located on Honshu Island.

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 Major Industries of Asia
Japan
Tokyo – Yokohama – Kawasaki Region / Kanto Region / Keihin Region – Automobile.
Nagoya – Toyota Region – Automobile
Osaka – Kobe – Kyoto Region / Kinki Region – Cotton textile industry (Major Port – Sakai)
Yawata – Nagasaki Region / Kitakyushu Region – Steel industry (Center – Kokura, Moje, Shimonoseki)
Muroran Region – on Hokkaido Island. Steel industry.
China
Manchuria Region – Steel industry (Shenyang, Anshan, Fushun – Mukden Triangle)
Northern China Region – Steel industry located near coal regions Shanxi, Shaanxi, Shandong. (Centre – Baotou, Beijing,
Tianjin, Tientsin.
Yangtse Valley region – Steel industry (Wuhan, Shanghai, Haikou, Chongqing.
Yunan – Tin
Shanghai and Canton – Cotton Textile
Beijing – Textile
West Asia
Saudi Arabia – AL Quatif, Dhahran, Abquaiq, Ghawar; oil refineries – Riyadh, Ras Tanura, Dammam.
Iran – Neft Sefid, Haft kel, Aghajari, Masjed – e – Soleyman, Lali, Dogonbadan/ Gachsaran; oil refineries – Abadan,
Isfahan, Bandar Abbas, Tehran, Arak, Tabriz, Kermanshah, Shiraz
Iraq – Kirkuk, Mosul, Al Basrah, Naftkhanesh, Khanqin, Ramaila Refinery
Israel – Oil refinery Haifa
Central Asia – Cotton Textiles (Fergana Valley), Coal (Karaganda in Kazakhstan), Uranium.
Pakistan – Cotton Textile industry (Lahore, Multan, Karachi), Paper industry (Naushehra), sports material (Sialkot), coal
(Quetta), Gas (Sui, Miyal), sugar (Mardan)

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 Australia
The natives of Australia are called Abiogenies.
Kosciusko peak – Highest peak of Australia located in Great Dividing Range.
Western Plateau region – Many deserts are found here such as Great Sandy desert, Gibson desert, Great Victoria Desert,
Simpson desert, Stuart Stoney desert, etc. In this region world’s largest monolith is found which is called Ayer’s rock and in
local language it is called Uluru. Saline lake called Disappointment is found in this region. Minerals – Kimberley plateau
(diamond), Pilbara region (iron ore), Kalgoorlie, Coolgardie (gold).
Central Plain Region – Divided in three parts. Great Artesian Basin is the largest artesian basin of the world found in this
region. Murray – Darling basin is called known for agriculture and animal rearing. The temperate grassland called Downs is
located here. The workers at sheep rearing centres are called Jekaru. Limestone rocks are found in Nullarbor plains.
Eyre Lake – Largest saline lake of the Australia where the lowest point of Australia is also found. Its new name is Kati
Thanda.
Bass Strait – It lies between Australian mainland and Tasmania Island. It connects Tasman Sea and Southern Ocean. Oil
and gas reserves are found here.
Great Barrier Reef – Located in Coral Sea near the Eastern coast of Queensland. Highest biodiversity in the world is
found in this region.
Industries of Australia
Perth and Bunbury – oil refinery Pilbara – iron
Port Augusta and Adelaide – Heavy industry Broken Hill and Mount Isa – Lead, Zinc, Silver
Melbourne – Geelong – Ship manufacturing Alice Springs – Oil, gas
Latrobe valley / Gippsland region – coal Weipa – Bauxite
Sydney – Textile Darwin – uranium
Townsville – refinery of lead, zinc, copper New South Wales – Coal
New Zealand
The natives of New Zealand are called Mâori. Two major islands are there in New Zealand which are divided by Cook
strait. The capital of New Zealand, Wellington is located on Northern island. Largest fresh water lake of New Zealand is
lake Taupo. Waikatu river is the longest river of New Zealand.
Southern Alps is located on Southern Island and its highest peak is Mount Cook.
Canterbury Plains – Temperate grasslands found in New Zealand which are known for animal rearing. New Zealand is
large producer and exporter of Dairy products, meat and wheat.
Antarctica
Vostok (Russia) – Lowest temperature of the world is found in this region.
Transantarctic Mountain - 3rd longest range of the world, after Andes and Rocky Mountains. The highest peak of Antarctica
Mount Vinson Massif is located here.
Research Centres Dakshini Gangotri (1983-84 to 1990), Maitri (1989 -90), Bharti (2012)
India’s research centre in Arctic region is Himadri (2008) and IndArc (2014) underground multisensory observatory.
Page No. [63]
 Types of Agriculture

Subsistence Agriculture
Intensive subsistence agriculture - This type of agriculture is practised in densely populated regions of
Monsoon Asia. The size of land holdings is small due to high density of population. Land is intensively used and two or
three crops are sown in a year. It mainly depends on manual labour and machines are not used much. Per hectare
production is high and per person production is low. Mainly food grains are produced like rice and wheat.
Primitive Agriculture
Shifting Agriculture -
It is practiced in the hot tropical forests. In this forest are burnt, land is cleared and cultivation is done on it by the
primitive tribes. Such agriculture is called Slash and Burn agriculture. When the fertility of land diminishes after 3-5 years
then new fields are prepared in the same manner. This type of agriculture is harmful for environment. It is mainly done in
Amazon basin, Congo Basin and island groups of south east Asia.
Names of Shifting Agriculture in Various Countries
• Vietnam - Ray
• Mexico – Milpa
• Myanmar - Taungya
• Brazil - Roca
• Java – Sumatra - Huma
• Venezuela - Conuco
• Western Africa - Logan
• Central Africa - Masole
• Madagascar - Tawi
• Indonesia – Malaysia - Ladang
• Philippines – Caingin
• Sri Lanka – Chenna
• Equatorial Africa – Phang
• Thailand – Tumari
Pastoral Nomadism –
The nomads migrate seasonally to procure fodder for their livestock. Camels in south west Asia, Sahara Desert of Africa,
Sheep, goats, cows, horses, donkeys, mules in the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan. Yaks in high mountainous
regions of central Asia. Reindeer and Caribou in Tundra regions.
Commercial Agriculture
Commercial Livestock Rearing -
It is more systematic and capital intensive occupation. Animal products are processed and packed scientifically and
exported globally. Commercial Livestock Rearing is mainly practised in the temperate grasslands. (Prairies, Pampas,
Page No. [64]
Veldts, Steppes, Downs) It is done in New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, USA, Canada, Denmark, Sweden.
Denmark and New Zealand are known for milk, Australia for wool, USA and Canada for milk and meat. Denmark and
New Zealand are known for milk, Australia for wool, USA for milk and meat. The workers working in the sheep rearing
centers of Australia are called Jekaru. Big cattle farms are called Ranch in USA and they are looked after by cowboys.
Big Cattle farms are called Estancia in South America and they are looked after by Guacho.

Extensive Commercial Grain Agriculture -

This type of agriculture is practised in developed countries where land is ample and population is less. This agriculture is
mechanised and based on advanced technology. Per hectare production is less and per person production is high. This
type of agriculture is done in temperate grasslands. (Prairies, Pampas, Veldts, Steppes, Downs) Wheat is the major crop
of this type of agriculture. Barley, Oats, Maize are also sown.
Mixed Farming -
In this type of farming crop cultivation and animal rearing is done together. This form of agriculture is found in the highly
developed parts of the world such as North-western Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia, and the temperate
latitudes of southern continents. High Capital investment is required in such farming. Crop rotation and intercropping is
practices which maintains the fertility of soil. Barley, oats, maize, fodder and root crops are grown.
Plantation Agriculture -
This type of commercial agriculture was developed by Europeans in the tropical regions. The British set up large tea
gardens in India and Sri Lanka, rubber plantation in Malaysia, sugarcane and banana plantation in West Indies. The
French established cocoa and coffee plantations in West Africa, Americans developed coconut and sugarcane plantations
in Philippines, many Europeans had introduced coffee in Brazil. Coffee farms are called Fazenda in Brazil. It is a single
cropped agriculture. It requires huge capital investment and it is labour intensive. Rubber, Tea, coffee, coconut are the
major plantation crops. Such agriculture is done in Indonesia, Malaysia, Southern and Eastern India, Southern China,
Myanmar, Cambodia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Africa, Brazil, Fiji, Cuba, Hawaiian islands.
Truck Framing -
This is a specialised type of agriculture in which vegetables are grown. These products are loaded in tucks and sold in
nearby urban centres. The distance between market and farms are determined by the distance travelled by trucks
overnight. Hence, this farming is termed as Truck farming. This farming was done first of all in USA. Rapidly increasing
urban and industrial centres had huge demand of vegetables which led to the development of this farming. This farm has a
close relation with the urbanization.
Market Gardening (Horticulture) -
This is a specialized agriculture in which fruits and flowers are grown. Fruits are in huge demand in cities. Different types
of fruits are grown in different regions such as banana, mango, coconut in tropical regions, apple, pear in temperate
regions, lemon, orange, grapes in Mediterranean regions. Flowers are also in great demand in the urban areas. Farmers
are highly profited from the sale of flowers. India produces rose, marigold and other flowers. The Netherlands specializes
in growing flowers and horticulture crops especially tulips.
Page No. [65]
Mediterranean Agriculture -
It is a specialised commercial agriculture of citrus fruits like grapes, olives, oranges, lemons. It is practiced in the
countries on either side of the Mediterranean Sea and in Northern Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast, Southern
California, Central Chile, South western parts of South Africa and south western parts of Australia. Cultivation of grapes
is called viticulture. Grapes are used for wine production.
Factory farming -
It is done in industrial regions of western Europe and North America. Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle rearing, is
done in stalls and pens, fed on manufactured feedstuff and carefully supervised against diseases. This requires heavy
capital investment in terms of building, machinery for various operations, veterinary services and heating and lighting.
Breed selection and scientific breeding is the important feature of this farming.
Cooperative Farming -
A group of farmers form a cooperative society pooling in their resources voluntarily for more efficient and profitable
farming. Individual farms remain intact and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative. Cooperative movement originated
over a century ago and has been successful in many western European countries like Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium,
Sweden, Italy etc. In Denmark, the movement has been most successful.
Collective Farming -
The basic principle behind this type of farming is based on social ownership of the means of production and collective
labour. Collective farms are called Kolkhoz in erstwhile Soviet Union. It was introduced to improve the efficiency of
agriculture and to boost agriculture production for self-sufficiency. The farmers used to pool in all their resources like land,
livestock, and labour. However, they were allowed to retain very small plots to grow crops in order to meet their daily
requirements.

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 Forest Report - 2019
First report was published in 1987. It is 16th report. This report Forest and Tree Cover of India in 2019
is published after two years. Area (sq. km.)
Forest Cover: All lands, more than one hectare in area with a Class % of GA
Forest Cover
tree canopy density of more than 10% irrespective of ownership
and legal status. Such lands may not necessarily be a recorded Very Dense forest 99,278 sq. km 3.02%
forest area. Moderately Dense Forest 3,08,472 sq. km. 9.38%
Tree Cover: It comprises of tree patches of size less than 1 ha Open Forest 3,04,499 sq.km. 9.26%
occurring outside the recorded forest area. Tree cover includes Total Forest Cover 7,12,249 sq. km. 21.67%
trees in all formations including scattered trees. Tree Cover 95,027 sq. km. 2.89%
Total Forest and Tree Cover 8,07,276 sq. km. 24.56%
Scrub 46,297 sq. km. 1.41%
17 States and UT have more than 33% forest cover
 > 75% Forest Cover
1. Lakshadweep - 90.33%
2. Mizoram - 85.41%
3. Andaman-Nicobar - 81.74%
4. Arunachal Pradesh - 79.63%
5. Meghalaya - 76.33%
 Total 5188 sq. km. foret and tree cover increased as 6. Manipur - 75.46%
7. Nagaland - 75.31%
compared to ISFR 2017 (0.65% of ISFR 2017)
(i) Forest cover increased 3,976 sq. km. (0.56%)  33 - 75% Forest Cover
(ii) Tree cover increased 1212 sq. km. (1.29%) 1. Tripura - 73.68% 2. Goa - 60.43%
 Highest increase in: 3. Kerala - 54.42% 4. Sikkim - 47.10%
5. Uttarakhand - 45.44%
1. Karnataka - 1025 sq. km.
6. Dadra Nagar Haveli - 42.16%
2. Andhara Pradesh - 990 sq. km.
7. Chhattisgarh - 41.13%
3. Kerala - 823 sq. km.
8. UT of J&K - 39.66%
4. Jammu and Kashmir - 371 sq. km.
9. Assam - 36.11%
5. Himachal Pradesh - 334 sq. km.
10. Odisha - 33.15%
 Decrease in:
1. Manipur - 499 sq. km. Forest cover in the hill districts of the country is 2,84,006
2. Arunachal Pradesh - 276 sq. km. sq, km. which is 40.30% of the total geographical area of these
3. Mizoram - 180 sq. km. districts. The current assessment (ISFR 2019) shows an increase
4. Meghalaya - 27 sq. km. of 544 sq. km. (0.19%) in 140 hill districts of the country.
5. Nagaland - 3 sq. km.
The total forest cover in the tribal districts is 4,22,351 sq.
Except Assam and Tripura all the North-East states show
km., which is 37.54% of the geographical area of these districts.
decrease in forest area.
The current assessment shows a decrease of 741 sq.km. of forest
 Areawise Highest Forest
cover within the RFA in the tribal districts and an increase of
1. Madhya Pradesh - 77,482 sq. km.
1922 sq. km outside the RFA.
2. Arunachal Pradesh - 66,688 sq. km.
3. Chhattisgarh - 55,611 sq. km.
Recorded Forest Area: Forest cover within the RFA has
4. Odisha - 51,619 sq. km.
shown a slight decrease of 330 sq.km. (0.05%) whereas there is
5. Maharashtra - 50,778 sq. km.
an increase of 4,306 sq.km. of forest cover outside the RFA as
 Percentage wise Highest forest compared to ISFR 2017.
1. Lakshadweep - 90.33% Recorded forest area is the forest area recorded as forests
2. Mizoram - 85.41% in Government records. Such area is constituted under the
3. Andaman Nicobar - 81.74% provisions of the Indian forest act or other state forest acts.
4. Arunachal Pradesh - 79.63%
5. Meghalaya - 76.33%

Page No. [67]

 Highest Recorded Forest Area (RFA) carbon stock in forests, which has been estimated 4,004 million
1. Madhya Pradesh - 94,689 sq.km. tonnes. The SOC contributes 56% to the total forest carbon
2. Maharashtra - 61,579 sq. km. stock of the country.
3. Odisha - 61,204 sq.km. Wetland: There are 62,466 wetlands covering 3.83% of the
4. Chhattisgarh - 59,772 sq. km. area within the RFA.
5. Arunachal Pradesh - 51,407 sq. km. Gujarat has largest area of wetlands within RFA followed
 Highest precentage of RFA by West Bengal.
1. Andaman-Nicobar - 86.93% Forest Fire: 21.40% of the forest cover is highly to extremely
2. Sikkim - 82.31% fire prone.
3. Manipur - 78.01%
 Mangrove
4. Uttarakhand - 71.05%
Total: 4975 sq.km. (0.15% of the country’s total
5. Himachal Pradesh - 66.52%
geographical area)
Increase of 54 sq. km. as compared to ISFR 2017
The total tree cover of the country has been estimated
Increase of 1.10% as compared to ISFR 2017.
95,027 sq. km. There is an increase of 1,212 sq. km. as compared
Highest Increase in mangrove cover
to ISFR 2017.
1. Gujarat 37 sq. km.
 Highest Tree Cover in the following states/UTs: 2. Maharashtra 16 sq. km.
1. Maharashtra - 10,806 sq. km. 3. Odisha 8 sq. km.
2. Madhya Pradesh - 8,339 sq.km. Decrease in mangrove cover
3. Rajasthan - 8,112 sq.km. 1. Tamil Nadu - 4 sq.km.
4. Jammu & Kashmir - 7,944 sq. km. 2. West Bengal - 2 sq. km.
5. Uttar Pradesh - 7,342 sq. km. 3. Andaman-Nicobar - 1 sq. km.
 Highest percentage of tree cover: Rest all states have recorded no change in mangrove cover as
1. Chandigarh - 22.34% 2. Delhi - 8.73% compared to ISFR 2017.
3. Kerala - 7.56% 4. Goa - 7.34% 12 States and UT with Mangrove Cover
5. Daman & Diu - 5.75%
1 West Bengal 2112 sq. km. 42.45%
In this report, first time the extent of Trees Outside Forests
(TOF) has been provided which is 2,93,840 sq.km. (29.38 2 Gujarat 1177 sq.km. 23.66%
million hectares) which is 36.40% of the total forest and tree 3 Andaman-Nicobar 616 sq.km. 12.39%
cover in the country. 4 Andhra Pradesh 404 sq.km. 8.12%
Highest extent of TOF:
5 Maharashtra 320 sq. km. 6.44%
1. Maharashtra - 26,945 sq.km.
2. Odisha - 23,458 sq.km. 6 Odisha 251 sq. km. 5.04%
3. Karnataka - 22,361 sq.km. 7 Tamil Nadu 45 sq. km. 0.90%
4. Madhya Pradesh - 21,069 sq.km. 8 Goa 26 sq. km. 0.52%
5. Jammu Kashmir - 19,334 sq. km.
9 Karnataka 10 sq. km. 0.20%
Highest % of TOF:
1. Lakshadweep 91.30% 10 Kerala 9 sq. km. 0.18%
2. Kerala 37.17% 11 Daman and Diu 3 sq. km. 0.06%
3. Goa 36.05% 12 Puducherry 2 sq. km. 0.03%
4. Chhattisgarh 34.41% 4975 sq. km. 100%
5. Nagaland 24.86%
 Growing Stock of Wood:
Total : 5915.76 million cubic meter  India's Position at global level.
Inside forest : 4273.47 million cubic meter FAO- Food and agriculture organization regularly issues
Outside forest: 1642.29 million cubic meter a report about global forest resource Assessment (GFRA)
Arunachal pradesh has highest growing stock (533.08 cubic in everly 5 years.
meter) According to GFRA 2020 report, India stands at 10th
The average growing stock per hectare in forest has been position in terms of forest Area.
estimated as 55.69 cubic meter/hectare and outside forest
7.87 cubic meter/hectare  India stands on 3rd position in terms of annual forest
 Bamboo Bearing Area gain.
Total: 1,60,037 sq. km.
Increase: 3229 sq.km.
 Carbon Stock in forest
Total: 7214.6 million tonnes
Increase: 42.6 million tonnes
Annual increase: 21.3 million tonnes
Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) represents the largest pool of

Page No. [68]

 Livestock Census 2019 पशुधन जनगणना 2019 Highest Increase in Livestock in West Bengal and highest
decrease in Rajasthan as compared to the last Livestock Cen-
sus.
Total livestock कु ल पशुधन – 535.78 million
Highest increase in Mithun and highest decrease in Donkey.
Highest population is of cattle and least population is of Yak.
सवा धक जनसं ा – गाय, नयूनतम जनसं ा - याक

Highest increase in livestock पशुधन मे सवा धक वृि - West Bengal

Decline in livestock पशुधन मे कमी – Uttar Pradesh

Highest population of livestock सवा धक पशुधन वाले रा

1st Uttar Pradesh 2nd Rajasthan

Poultry कु ु ट – 851.81 million

Highest population of poultry सवा धक कु ु ट वाले रा
1st Tamil Nadu 2nd Andhra Pradesh

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