CONTENTS

1. Introduction to Indian Geography������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1-14

2. Geological Structure of India������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15-26

3. Physiography of India �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27-73

4. Drainage System of India������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 74-121

5. Climate of India ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������122-154

6. Soils of India�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������155-177

7. Natural Vegetation of India������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������178-200

8. Appendices�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������201-214
 Introduction to
Indian Geography 1
India is a country of vast geographical diversity. In the north,
it is bound by the lofty Himalayas. The Arabian Sea in the
West, the Bay of Bengal in the East and the Indian Ocean
in the South, wash the shores of the Indian peninsula. The
Tropic of Cancer (23° 30’N) divides the country into almost
two equal parts. To the South-East and South-West of the
mainland, lie the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the
Lakshadweep Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea,
respectively.
India has an area of about 3.28 million sq km, which
accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical
area of the world. India is the seventh largest country in the
world in terms of area. As per United Nations Data, India
has surpassed China in 2023 to become the largest country
based on population. 6°45'
The North to South stretch of the Indian mainland is from
Kashmir to Kanyakumari respectively and extends between
8°4’N to 37°6’N latitude. The East to West stretch is from Fig. 1.1: Extreme Points of India
Arunachal Pradesh to Gujarat respectively and extends ‰ The Northernmost point is Indira Col in the Ladakh
between 68°7’E to 97°25’E longitude. region, and the Pygmalion Point, or the Indira Point is
India has a land boundary of about 15,106.7 km and the total the southernmost point of the country at 6° 8’ N latitude,
length of the coastline of the mainland, including Andaman located in the Nicobar district of the Andaman and
and Nicobar and Lakshadweep, is 7,516.6 km. Further, its Nicobar Islands.
territorial limit extends up to 12 nautical miles (about 21.9 km) ‰ The Southernmost point of the Indian mainland is Cape
towards the sea from the coast.
Camorin in Kanyakumari of Tamil Nadu.
‰ The Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie to the Southeast
THE BASICS OF INDIA
of the Indian mainland in the Bay of Bengal and to the
The name “India” has its origins in the River Indus. The River Southwest of the Indian mainland lies the Lakshadweep
Indus, known as the Sindhu in Sanskrit, played a significant Islands in the Arabian Sea.
role in the early history of the region. The ancient Persian
and Greek civilizations referred to the land beyond the Indus
Important Facts
River as “Hind” or “Indoi,” and this term eventually evolved
‰ Bengaluru lies on a longitude closest to that of Delhi.
into “India.”
‰ The latitude that passes through Sikkim also passes
The ancient Sanskrit name for the country is “Bharat,”
through Rajasthan.
derived from the legendary king Bharata, a figure in Hindu
‰ Mangalore and Chennai are on the same latitude yet
mythology. The name Bharat is used as the official Sanskrit
both these cities receive rainfall in different months.
name of the country, the “Republic of India” or “Bharat
‰ Amritsar and Shimla have the same latitude yet
Ganarajya.”
Shimla is cooler than Amritsar because it Is at a higher
Location elevation.
‰ India lies in the Northern and Eastern hemispheres
between 8°4’N and 37°6’ North latitude and 68°7’ E to Tropic of Cancer
97°25’ East longitude. ‰ Tropic of Cancer is one of the five major circles of latitude
‰ Kibithu in Arunachal Pradesh is the easternmost point that mark maps of the Earth. It is an imaginary line located
of India. The Westernmost Point is Guhar Moti in Gujrat. approximately 23.5 degrees north of the equator.
 ‰ The difference of 281 km between the north-south and
east-west extent of the country is due to the fact that
the distance between two longitudes decreases towards
the poles whereas the distance between two latitudes
remains the same everywhere.

Historical Land Routes into India

India has several natural routes, including mountain
passes and waterways, that have historically served as
important entry points into the subcontinent.
Key routes into India
‰ Northwestern Passes:
• Khyber Pass: Located in the northwest, it has been
a traditional gateway into the Indian subcontinent.
Fig. 1.2: States through which Tropic of Cancer passes It connects Afghanistan and Pakistan to the Indian
‰ This means that it is the northernmost point on Earth plains.
where the Sun appears directly overhead at the zenith • Bolan Pass: Situated in southwestern Pakistan,
during the June solstice. it provides another entry route into India,
‰ The Tropic of Cancer passes through the following 8
connecting Afghanistan with the region.
Indian states: ‰ Western Coastal Routes:

• Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, • The western coastline of India has served as a
maritime route for trade and cultural exchange.
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram
• Ports such as Mumbai, Goa, and Mangalore have
Standard Meridian of India historically been important.
‰ Indian Standard Time is calculated on the basis of the ‰ Eastern Coastal Routes:
82.5°E longitude, roughly located in Mirzapur, Uttar • The eastern coastline also played a crucial role in
Pradesh. It was chosen because it happens to be in maritime trade.
the middle of the eastern and western longitudinal • Major ports like Chennai, Visakhapatnam,
and Kolkata facilitated sea trade and cultural
extremities of the country, and this time is observed interactions.
throughout India and Sri Lanka.
‰ Himalayan Passes:
‰ Standard Meridian of India passes through Mirzapur in • Nathu La and Jelep La: These mountain passes in
the Uttar Pradesh. States along the Standard Meridian the eastern Himalayas connect India with Tibet
include Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, (China). Historically important for trade, they
Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh. continue to be strategic routes.
• Shipki La: Located in the western Himalayas, this
pass connects India and Tibet.
IGNITE YOUR MIND ‰ North Indian Plains:
• The vast plains of North India, with the Ganges
Can you analyze the implications of having a single and its tributaries, provided natural routes for
time zone for the entire Indian subcontinent? settlement, trade, and invasions.
And also discuss the challenges and benefits of ‰ Indus River Valley:
coordinating activities across countries with varying • The Indus River has historically been a significant
daylight patterns. waterway, and the plains along the river provided
routes for cultural and trade exchanges.
Shape and Size Ancient Silk Route and India
‰ With a total geographical area of approximately
The ancient Silk Route connected India to Central Asia
and beyond, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and
32,87,263 square kilometres, India covers 0.57 per cent cultures between the Indian subcontinent and regions
of the total area of Earth and 2.4 per cent of the total along the Silk Road.
land mass on Earth. Along the ancient Silk Route, several key places played
‰ From North to South i.e. from Indira Col in Kashmir to significant roles in trade and cultural exchange.
Kanyakumari, the distance is 3,214 km. From East to ‰ Taxila (in present-day Pakistan): An important center
West i.e. from Rann of Kutch to Arunachal Pradesh the of trade and learning, Taxila was a vital junction
connecting India to the Silk Route.
distance is 2,933 km.

2 Indian Geography
 ‰ Varanasi (Banaras): A major cultural and religious center in ancient India, Varanasi was linked to the Silk Route,
attracting traders and travelers.
‰ Mathura: Known for its art and commerce, Mathura served as a trading hub and cultural center along the route.
‰ Patliputra (modern-day Patna): The capital of the Maurya and Gupta empires, Patliputra played a role in facilitating
trade and cultural interactions.
‰ Ujjain: An ancient city and a significant trade centrer, Ujjain contributed to the economic and cultural exchange along
the Silk Route.
These routes have shaped India’s historical interactions with neighboring regions and have influenced trade, migrations,
and cultural exchanges throughout its history. Additionally, modern transportation infrastructure, such as highways and
airports, further connects India with the rest of the world.

Indian States & Union Territories

‰ India is politically significant for being the largest democracy that has accommodated and assimilated diversities – ethical,
linguistic, cultural, and spiritual within it. Politically India is divided into 28 states and 8 Union Territories.Rajasthan is
the largest state in terms of area, followed by Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Goa is the smallest state in India. The
most populous state in India is Uttar Pradesh, followed by Maharashtra and Bihar.
States
Sr. State Capital Area (sq. Km)
1. Rajasthan Jaipur 342,239
2. Madhya Pradesh Bhopal 308,245
3. Maharashtra Mumbai 307,713
4. Uttar Pradesh Lucknow 240,928
5. Gujarat Gandhi Nagar 196,024
6. Karnataka Bengaluru 191,791
7. Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad (Proposed-Amravati) 162,970
8. Odisha Bhubaneswar 155,707
9. Chhattisgarh Raipur 135,191
10. Tamil Nadu Chennai 130,058
11. Telangana Hyderabad 112,077
12. Bihar Patna 94,163
13. West-Bengal Kolkata 88,752
14. Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar 83,743
15. Jharkhand Ranchi 79,714
16. Assam Dispur 78,438
17. Himachal Pradesh Shimla Dharamshala (Winter Capital) 55,673
18. Uttarakhand Dehradun 53,483
19. Punjab Chandigarh 50,362
20. Haryana Chandigarh 44,212
21. Kerala Thiruvananthapuram 38,863
22. Meghalaya Shillong 22,429

Introduction to Indian Geography 3

 Sr. State Capital Area (sq. Km)
23. Manipur Imphal 22,327
24. Mizoram Aizawl 21,081
25. Nagaland Kohima 16,579
26. Tripura Agartala 10,486
27. Sikkim Gangtok 7,096
28. Goa Panaji 3,702
Union Territories
Sr. Union Territories Capital Area (sq. Km)
1. Jammu And Kashmir Srinagar (May-October), Jammu (November-April) 42,241
2. Ladakh Leh 59,146
3. Andaman and Nicobar Island Port Blair 8,249
4. National Capital Territory Of Delhi New Delhi 1483
5. Dadar and Nagar Haveli & Daman and Diu Daman 603
6. Puducherry Puducherry 479
7. Chandigarh Chandigarh 114
8. Lakshadweep Kavaratti 32

Fig. 1.3: India- its States and Union Territories

4 Indian Geography
Boundary Sharing of States ‰ Both Meghalaya and Sikkim are the only states sharing
‰ Uttar Pradesh is the state which shares its boundary boundary with one state only. Meghalaya has a border
with a maximum number of states i.e. eight states and with Assam to the north and northeast. Sikkim shares its
a Union Territory of India including Rajasthan, Haryana, border with West Bengal.
Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh. The minimum number of states you need to travel through
by road from Kohima to Kottayam is seven: Nagaland,
‰ Both Assam and Chhattisgarh share interstate borders
Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
with seven states. Assam with West Bengal, Arunachal
or Tamil Nadu, Kerala.
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Manipur and
Mizoram. And Chhattisgarh with Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Odisha, Telangana
and Andhra Pradesh.

THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

A subcontinent is part of a continent having a distinguishable cultural, political and geographical identity and also covers a
huge area, somewhat less than a continent. That is why India is also considered a Subcontinent.
The Indian Subcontinent includes countries namely India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
These countries were initially part of India but were separated because of political or geographical reasons. Geologically, the
landmass which separated from the supercontinent Gondwanaland, is associated with the Indian Subcontinent. The Indian
subcontinent is located on the Indian tectonic plate.

Fig. 1.4: Indian Subcontinent Map

Introduction to Indian Geography 5

The Following Features Distinguish India as a
Continent THE LONGITUDINAL EXTENT AND
‰ Distinct Geography: The Indian subcontinent is separated ITS IMPLICATIONS
by the Himalayas in the North, the Indian Ocean in the
From the longitudinal extent of India, it can be seen that there
South, the Arabian Sea in the Southwest and the Bay
is a variation of nearly 30 degrees between the Easternmost
of Bengal in the Southeast. This geographical feature
and Westernmost extent of the country. It results in a time
isolates it from Eurasia.
difference of nearly two hours between the extreme ends of
‰ Huge Population: The population of India is one of the the country. The earth moves around 360° in 24 hours on its
largest in the world. The combined population of the axis. Thus, a difference of 1° longitude is equal to 4 minutes
countries of the Indian subcontinent is much larger than in time. Therefore the difference in local time between the
other continents except Asia and Africa. western-most point and the eastern-most point is calculated
‰ Diversity of the Region: The subcontinent is endowed as 30 x 4 = 120 minutes or 2 hours.
with multiple races, castes and religions. This is mainly Despite the difference of two hours, the watches in the
due to its physical aspects. However, despite numerous Easternmost and the Westernmost parts of India show the
differences, at the root, there are numerous similarities same time because Indian Standard Time is followed all over
in the sociocultural way of life which are unique and India.
make this region a proper subcontinent.
{In Assam, tea gardens follow a separate time zone, known
‰ Diversity of Flora and Fauna: The subcontinent is as the Chaibagan or Bagan time (‘Tea Garden Time’), which
endowed with a wide diversity of flora ranging from is one hour ahead of IST.}
evergreen forests to alpine meadows. India is one of the
biodiversity hotspots of the world. A variety of animals Indian Standard Time (IST)
found in the Indian subcontinent are endemic to the India has adopted the 82.5° East meridian as its standard
region. time zone, which is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of Greenwich
All the above characteristics of India, sets it apart from the Mean Time (GMT). It passes through the city of Mirzapur
other regions of Asia, making it a subcontinent in the Asian near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. The standard meridian
continent. of India passes through 5 Indian states viz. Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh. Sri
Lanka also has adopted Indian Standard Time.
IS INDIA A TROPICAL OR A
TEMPERATE COUNTRY?
THE FRONTIERS OF INDIA
The climate of India resembles the climate of a tropical
country although the area north of the tropic of Cancer i.e. India is surrounded on three sides by Sea. Its land boundary
the temperate part is twice the area of the tropical part. measures 15106.7 km, and its shoreline is 7,516.6 Km
‰ This is mainly because the lofty Himalayas separates including island territories. The coastline of the mainland is
the Indian subcontinent from the rest of Asia and also 6100 km long.
acts as a barrier to the temperate air masses moving All states and territories in India, except for six namely
southwards from Central Asia. As a result, compared to Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Delhi, Haryana
other areas on the same latitudes, the northern half of and Telangana, have a border with another country or the
India is warmer by 3°C to 8°C. ocean.
‰ During summer, due to the overhead position of the sun,
the climate of the southern parts of the country is similar
India Shares its Land Boundary
to the equatorial dry climate. ‰ In the Northwest with Pakistan and Afghanistan

‰ The northern plains are influenced by “Loo”, a hot dry ‰ In the North with China (Tibet), Nepal and Bhutan
wind that increases the temperature. Thus India as a ‰ In the East with Myanmar and Bangladesh
whole, which is located south of the Himalayas, has a ‰ India has maritime borders with Sri Lanka and Maldives.
tropical climate. From longest to shortest (in length) boundary sharing with
Overall, India can be considered a country with a India: Bangladesh (4096 Km) > China > Pakistan > Nepal >
predominantly tropical climate, but it also includes temperate Myanmar > Bhutan > Afghanistan (106 Km)
and sub-tropical zones due to its diverse geographical
features. This diversity in climate has significant implications India-China Border
for agriculture, ecosystems, and the overall way of life across ‰ India shares the second-longest border with China with
different parts of the country. a length of 3488 Km. China is the largest neighbouring

6 Indian Geography
 nation of India. Five States namely Arunachal Pradesh, India - Nepal Border
Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and
‰ India and Nepal share a border of 1751 km length. Five
Kashmir touch the boundary with China.
Indian states namely Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
India’s Border with China is Divided into Three West Bengal and Sikkim share the border with Nepal.
Sectors
‰ Western Sector: This boundary lies between Jammu and
Kashmir and the Sinkiang (Xinjiang) province of China. In
this region, the dispute is over the Aksai Chin district, the
Changmo Valley, Pangong Tso and the Sponggar Tso area
of north-east Ladakh.
• The Johnson Line, proposed in 1865, designates Aksai
Chin in Jammu and Kashmir under Indian control.
In contrast, the McDonald Line, proposed in 1893,
places Aksai Chin under Chinese control.
• India asserts that the Johnson Line represents the
accurate and rightful national border with China.
Conversely, China maintains that the McDonald Line Fig. 1.5: Indian States sharing border with Nepal
is the correct border with India. ‰ It is a porous border which means the movement of
• Currently, the Line of Actual Control (LAC) serves as people and goods between India and Nepal is allowed
the boundary, separating Indian areas of Jammu and
without any restriction.
Kashmir from Aksai Chin.
‰ This border runs along the foothill of the Shiwalik Range
‰ Middle Sector: In this area, Uttarakhand and Himachal
Pradesh touch the border of the Chinese-occupied in the Terai belt.
region of Tibet. ‰ Raxaul and Jogbani in Nepal are two integrated
• Here India roughly shares about a 545 km long checkposts on the India-Nepal Border.
boundary with China, which is considered as least
‰ Currently, India and Nepal are embroiled in a border
disputed region.
dispute concerning several regions: Kalapani, Lipulekh
‰ Eastern Sector: The boundary line in this region is known
Trijunction between India, Nepal, and China, Susta
as the McMahon Line. It was the result of the boundary
agreement between Tibet and Britain at the Shimla Region of West Champaran (Bihar).
Accord in 1913-14. However, China doesn’t accept this
boundary line. This boundary runs from the easternmost India - Bhutan Border
corner of Bhutan to a point near Diphu Pass (Talu Pass) at ‰ India and Bhutan share a boundary of 699 km and is an
the trijunction of India, Tibet and Myanmar. open international border.
• The primary dispute revolves around the Tawang ‰ Four Indian states namely Assam, Sikkim, West Bengal
Valley of Arunachal Pradesh.
and Arunachal Pradesh share a border with Bhutan.
• Another focal point is the Chumbi Valley, specifically
‰ Bhutan serves as a buffer between India and China.
the Dokalam Tri-Junction, shared by India and Bhutan.

IGNITE YOUR MIND

Do you know that Yume Samdong, also known as

Zero Point, is a remote village near the India-China
border in Sikkim and it is one of the highest habitable
places in the world and offers breathtaking views of
the surrounding mountains. Discuss the challenges
faced by indigenous communities in preserving their
unique cultural heritage amidst the uncertainties of
the India-China border dispute.
Fig. 1.6: Indian States sharing border with Bhutan

Introduction to Indian Geography 7

 • The Line of Control was established after the first
Chicken’s Neck’ of India India-Pakistan War in 1947-48 and has witnessed
‰ The “Chicken’s Neck” refers to a narrow strip of land periodic tensions and conflicts between India and
in the Indian subcontinent that connects mainland Pakistan.
India with its northeastern states. • The Line of Control was originally established as
the Ceasefire Line in 1949 following the first India-
Pakistan War. It was later renamed as the Line of
Control after the Simla Agreement in 1972.
‰ Siachen Glacier
• The Siachen Glacier is located in the eastern
Karakoram Range in the Himalayas and is known as
the highest battlefield on Earth. The region has been
Fig. 1.7: The Siliguri Corridor a source of conflict between India and Pakistan.
‰ Officially known as the “Siliguri Corridor,” it is a • The Siachen Glacier holds strategic significance due
slender stretch of land, approximately 22 kilometers to its location near the borders of India, Pakistan, and
wide at its narrowest point, located in the Indian state China. Control over the glacier provides a vantage
of West Bengal. point in the region.
‰ The Chicken’s Neck is situated in the northern part
of West Bengal and serves as the only land corridor
connecting mainland India to the northeastern IGNITE YOUR MIND
states.
‰ The narrow width of the Chicken’s Neck makes it a
There is Baba Chamliyal shrine near the India-Pakistan
vulnerable point, and any disruption to this corridor border in Jammu and Kashmir that hosts an annual fair
could have significant implications for connectivity to where people from both countries share the traditional
the northeastern region. drink “Sharbat.” Try to analyze the significance of
religious and cultural connectivity along the India-
Pakistan border, considering sites like Kartarpur and
India - Pakistan Border Chamliyal. How do these cultural linkages contribute
‰ India and Pakistan share a border of 3323 km length. The to people-to-people diplomacy despite political
boundary separating India and Pakistan is known as the tensions?
Radcliffe Line which was demarcated on 17 August 1947.
India - Bangladesh Border
‰ The border dispute is over regions like Saltoro Ridge, Sir
Creek, Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, etc.
‰ An integrated check post has been set up on the India-
Pakistan border at Attari (Punjab). Passenger Terminal
Building (PTB), Dera Baba Nanak checkpost is operational
only for pilgrims to visit the Gurudwara Sri Kartarpur
Sahib Ji.
‰ Sir Creek: It is a disputed 96 km long strip of water, long,
in the marshes of Rann of Kutch. The dispute is over the
maritime boundary line separating the Sindh province of
Pakistan and the Rann of Kutch area. Its importance lies
in the fact that it is considered to be the largest fishing
ground in Asia. Fig. 1.8: India-Bangladesh Map
‰ Line of Control (LoC): ‰ India shares the longest border with Bangladesh. They
• The Line of Control (LoC) is a military control line share a 4,096.7 Km long international border.
between Indian-administered territory of Jammu and
‰ The 100th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2015
Kashmir and the Pakistani-administered territory of
Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. amended the Constitution of India to give effect to the
• It serves as the de-facto border in the disputed region acquisition of territories by India and transfer of certain
of Kashmir. territories to Bangladesh in pursuance of the agreement

8 Indian Geography
 and its protocol entered into between the Governments Kochi Karaikudi
Madurai Point Pedro
of India and Bangladesh. Kottayam Virudhunagar
Jaffna
Alappuzha
‰ The border between India and Bangladesh was created
Killinochchi
Mullaitivu
Tenkasi
by the Radcliffe Award, which divided the former Kollam Thoothukudi
Tirunelveli Vavuniya Trincomalee
province of Bengal into two parts. Thiruvanathpuram Nagercoli
Kalpitiya Anuradhapura
Puttalam
Kanyakumari
‰ Five Indian states namely West Bengal, Mizoram, Batticaloa

Meghalaya, Tripura, and Assam. Four integrated check Negombo Kandy

Kalmunai
Akkaraipatti
Gampaha
posts namely Agartala (Tripura), Petrapole (West Moratuwa
Kaduwela Pottel
Wadduwa
Bengal), Sutarkandi (Assam) and Srimantapur (Tripura) Kalutara

are set up on the India-Bangladesh border. Hikkaduwa

Galle
Matara
‰ Three rivers namely Padma (Ganga), Jamuna
(Brahmaputra) and Teesta are the important trans-
Fig. 1.10: India-Sri Lanka
boundary rivers between India and Bangladesh. The
presence of these rivers makes boundary management Ram Setu or Adam’s Bridge
difficult.

India - Myanmar Border

CHINA
Arunachal
520 km
BHUTAN

Assam INDIA Nagaland India-Myanmar

215 km border stretches
1,643 km
Meghalaya
Manipur Fig. 1.11: Dhanushkodi and Talaimannar
BANGLADESH 398 km
‰ Ram Setu, also known as Adam’s Bridge is a chain of
Tripura natural limestone shoals between Pamban Island,
Mizoram MYANMAR
510 km also known as Rameswaram Island, off the south-
eastern coast of Tamil Nadu, India, and Mannar
Fig. 1.9: India-Myanmar Border Island, off the north-western coast of Sri Lanka.
‰ The India and Myanmar border runs 1,643 km long. India ‰ According to Hindu mythology, this bridge is believed
and Myanmar share both land and maritime boundaries. to have been built by Lord Rama to rescue his wife
‰ Four North-Eastern States namely Arunachal Pradesh, Sita from the demon king Ravana.
Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram share an international ‰ Dhanushkodi and Talaimannar are the closest points
boundary with Myanmar. on either side of the Adam’s Bridge.
‰ An integrated check post has been set up in Moreh Dhanushkodi is a town located at the southeastern tip of
(Manipur) on the border of India and Myanmar. Pamban Island in Tamil Nadu, India.
‰ There exists a Free Movement Regime (FMR) between ‰ It is situated near the point where the Bay of Bengal
India and Myanmar which allows people living in border and the Indian Ocean meet.
villages to trade and move freely up to 16 kilometres ‰ Historically, Dhanushkodi was a thriving trade and
inside each other’s territory. pilgrimage center, but it was largely destroyed by a
cyclone in 1964, leading to the abandonment of the
India - Sri-Lanka Border
town.
‰ India and Sri Lanka are separated by a channel of sea
Talaimannar is a town on the northwestern coast of
called the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.
Mannar Island in Sri Lanka.
‰ Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu coast is joined with
‰ It is known for its strategic location and was historically
Talaimanar in the Jaffna peninsula in Sri Lanka by a group
an important port.
of islets forming Adam’s Bridge.

Introduction to Indian Geography 9

 ‰ The 8-degree channel separates the Indian island of
India-Sri Lanka Maritime Border Conflict and Minicoy and Maldives.
Agreements
In the 1970s, India and Sri Lanka faced a maritime
boundary dispute over the delineation of their Exclusive
Economic Zones (EEZ) in the Gulf of Mannar and the
Palk Strait. The disagreement revolved around the
interpretation of historical agreements and the maritime
boundary. To address this issue:
1974 Agreement:
‰ In 1974, India and Sri Lanka signed the Maritime
Boundary Agreement, attempting to delimit their
maritime boundaries in the Gulf of Mannar and the
Palk Strait.
‰ The agreement sought to address fishing rights,
marine resources, and the demarcation of zones to
prevent conflicts over the use of these waters.
1976 Agreement:
‰ Despite the 1974 agreement, the maritime boundary
dispute persisted, leading to further negotiations.
‰ In 1976, India and Sri Lanka signed the Agreement on
Maritime Boundary to refine the maritime boundary
between the two countries, addressing issues related
Fig. 1.12: India-Maldives map
to the territorial sea and continental shelf.
These agreements aimed to promote cooperation and
prevent conflicts over fisheries and other resources in the INDIA’S POLITICAL DIVISION
shared waters. ‰ For administrative convenience, India is divided into 28
states and 8 Union Territories. Further, they are divided
India - Afghanistan into districts. Delhi is the Capital of India.
‰ In terms of area, Rajasthan is the largest state and Goa
‰ India and Afghanistan have a borderline of 106 km and
the border touches the Union territory of Jammu and is the smallest state. The division of states and UTs is
Kashmir. mainly based on languages spoken.
‰ These states are categorised into five zones according
‰ Durand line touches the union territory of Jammu and
Kashmir in India. So, along with a borderline separating to States Reorganisation Act, 1956. These zones are as
Pakistan and Afghanistan, it also acts as a border between follows:
India and Afghanistan. Zonal Division of India
‰ Sir Mortimer Durand, a British diplomat, delineated its
North Zone Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
boundaries in 1896.
Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, National
India - Maldives Capital Territory of Delhi and Union
‰ India shares a maritime border with Maldives. Maldives Territory of Chandigarh
lies in the south of the Lakshadweep island. Central Zone Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Uttar
‰ In 1976, India and Maldives officially decided their Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh
maritime boundary. Eastern Zone Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Sikkim and
‰ Before 1976, a dispute between India and the Maldives West Bengal
over the status of Minicoy, an island in the Lakshadweep
archipelago, arose from historical claims and linguistic Western Zone Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat and the
ties. Union Territories of Dadra & Nagar
Haveli and Daman & Diu
‰ The disagreement was peacefully resolved through
diplomatic negotiations, leading to the signing of the Southern Zone Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
1976 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of
affirmed Minicoy as part of India’s territory. Puducherry

10 Indian Geography
The North Eastern states are included in a separate zone, • Maldives: India and the Maldives have maritime
created by the North Eastern Council Act, 1971. These states boundaries in the Indian Ocean.
are Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, ‰ Andaman and Nicobar Islands, located in the Bay of
Nagaland and Mizoram. The North Eastern region is also Bengal, have their own maritime boundaries, and India
known as the land of seven sisters. exercises sovereignty over the waters surrounding these
islands.
Maritime Boundaries of India
Maritime borders of India are the maritime boundary Bays, Gulf and Strait in India
recognized by the United Nations Convention on the Law of
Bay
the Sea entails boundaries of territorial waters, contiguous
zones, and exclusive economic zones. This creates a maritime It is a small body of water which is partly surrounded by
border of more than 7,000-kilometre (4,300 mi) shared with land on three sides with the fourth side opening towards the
seven nations. ocean. Generally, it is smaller and less enclosed than a gulf.
Its mouth, where it meets the ocean, is wider than that of a
Gulf.
‰ Bay of Bengal: The North-eastern portion of the Indian
PAKISTAN
Ocean is the Bay of Bengal. It lies in between the Indian
Gulf of kachchh BANGLADESH subcontinent and the Indo-Chinese peninsula. It is the
PAKIST
AN
(Internal Waters of India)
Kolkata largest Bay in the world and is formed due to plate
A
DI Porbandar MYANMAR tectonics.
BANGLADESH

IN Gulf of Khambat
(Internal Waters of India) Puri
INDIA

Mumbai
Vishakapattinam CHINA
BANGLADESH
Calcutta Dhaka
MYANMAR INDIA MYANMAR
Mang Chennai
aluru
Andaman Is. Rangoon
IA
IND ANKA THAILAND
Lakhsadweep L
HISH SEAS is.
Kochi
Rameshwaram SRI INDIA
INDIA
THAILAND

INDIA
Madras Bangkok
MALDIVES Kanyakumari SRILANKA Nicobar Is.
LAN A
KA

SIA
SRI INDI

NE

Sumatra
DO

(Indonesia) Colombo
IN

Maldives SRI LANKA

MALAYSIA
Medan Kuala
Lumpur
HISH SEAS SINGAPORE
Addu Atoll IN
DO
NORTH NE
0 250 500 1,000 SIA
Kilometers

Fig. 1.13: Maritime Boundaries of India on Map

Fig. 1.14: Bay of Bengal on Map
Here are The Main Maritime Boundaries of India ‰ Palk Bay: It is a shallow water body between India’s
‰ Territorial Sea—The zone extending 12 nm from the Southeastern coast and Sri Lanka. It is about 150
baseline kilometres long and 57 to 107 kilometres wide, with an
‰ Contiguous Zone—The area extending 24 nm from the average depth of 13 meters.
baseline Pondicherry
‰ Exclusive Economic Zone—The area extending 200 nm Tamil Nadu
Karaikal
from the baseline except when the space between two
countries is less than 400 nm
Kerala Madurai
‰ India shares maritime boundaries with several
neighboring countries. The primary ones include: Rameswaram
Ramanthapuram Jaffna
• Bangladesh: The maritime boundary with Bangladesh Thiruvananthapuram
is defined by the Land Boundary Agreement, which Tuticorin
was signed in 1974 and later ratified in 2015.
• Pakistan: The maritime boundary with Pakistan is
delineated in the Arabian Sea. The Sir Creek area has Kanyakumari
been a subject of dispute between India and Pakistan.
• Sri Lanka: The International Maritime Boundary Line
(IMBL) between India and Sri Lanka is in the Palk
Strait and the Gulf of Mannar. Fig. 1.15: Palk Bay

Introduction to Indian Geography 11

 IGNITE YOUR MIND

Are you aware that Kochi (Cochin), a major port city

in Kerala, is known as the “Queen of the Arabian Sea.”
In light of this fact discuss the historical importance
of Kochi as a major port city. Analyze how historical
events and foreign influences have shaped the
cultural and economic landscape of Kochi.

Gulf
The Gulf is a larger body of water that penetrates land. The
mouth of a Gulf, where it meets the ocean, is narrower than
a Bay. Gulfs differ greatly in size, shape, and depth. Fig. 1.16: Gulf of Khambhat on Map
‰ As compared to bays, they are generally larger and more ‰ Gulf of Mannar: It is located in the Indian Ocean.
deeply indented. • It is bordered by the Southeast coast of Tamil Nadu
‰ Like bays, they often make excellent harbours. Many and the western coast of Sri Lanka.
important trading centres are located in gulfs. • It thus separates India and Sri Lanka. Ram Setu
Examples of the Gulf in India are as follows: (Adam’s Bridge) which is a chain of low islands and
‰ Gulf of Kutch: It is an inlet of the Arabian Sea. It is located reefs, separates the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay.
on the western coast of India, in the Jamnagar district of Strait
Gujarat. The Gulf of Khambhat is located in the south of A narrow body of water connecting to larger water bodies or
the Gulf of Kutch. It separates the Kutch and Kathiawar
continents is called a Strait. An example of a Strait in India is
peninsulas.
the Palk Strait.
‰ Gulf of Khambhat/Cambay: The Gulf of Khambhat
‰ Palk Strait: It separates India and Sri Lanka. The Palk
(also known as the Gulf of Cambay) is situated along
Strait lies between the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and
the west coast of India in the Arabian Sea, in the state
the Jaffna District of Sri Lanka.
of Gujarat. About 130 kilometres in length, it separates
the Kathiawar Peninsula and the southeastern part of • It acts as a connecting link between the Bay of Bengal
Gujarat. The Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmati rivers in the northeast and Palk Bay in the southwest.
evacuate into the Gulf. The depth of the Gulf of Khambhat • The Vaigai River of Tamil Nadu along with several
is less and has abundant shoals and sandbanks. other rivers drains water into it.
Important Channels
Narcondam Island
ISLANDS North Andaman
(Extinct Volcano)
Lakshadweep (Coral Island)
Barren Island
Great Andaman (Dormant Volcano)
9* Channel Middle Andaman

Minicoy (Coral Islands)

South Andaman
Duncan Pass
8* Channel
Little Andman
Maldives 10* Channel

Nicobar
Indira Point

12 Indian Geography
‘Channels’ refers to natural or artificial waterways that
facilitate the movement of water, connecting one body of
Sir Creek Issue
water to another. The Sir Creek issue is a long-standing territorial dispute
between India and Pakistan over the Sir Creek, a
8-Degree Channel 96-kilometer-long estuary along the border of the Indian
‰ The 8-degree channel is located between the Minicoy state of Gujarat and the Pakistani province of Sindh. The
Islands (Coral Islands) and the Maldives in the Indian dispute primarily revolves around the demarcation of the
Ocean. maritime boundary in the Sir Creek region, which opens
up into the Arabian Sea.
9-Degree Channel
‰ The 9-degree channel is situated between the
Lakshadweep archipelago and Minicoy Island in the
Arabian Sea.
10-Degree Channel
‰ The 10 Degree Channel is a channel that separates the
Little Andaman and Car Nicobar Island(northernmost of
Nicobar Island group) in the Bay of Bengal.

Maritime Boundary Issues of India

The Palk Bay Issue
The Palk Bay issue refers to a long-standing maritime
dispute between India and Sri Lanka concerning the use
of the Palk Bay, a shallow body of water that lies between
the southeastern coast of India and the northern coast of
Sri Lanka.
Key points:
‰ Fishing Rights: Local fishermen from both India and
Sri Lanka have traditionally relied on the Palk Bay for Fig. 1.17: Sir Creek Dispute
fishing activities. However, disputes have arisen over
the fishing rights in the region. Indian fishermen often
venture into the waters claimed by Sri Lanka, leading Key Points:
to tensions between the two sides. ‰ Uncertain Border: The border in the Sir Creek area is
‰ Maritime Boundaries: The maritime boundaries not precisely demarcated, and both India and Pakistan
in the Palk Bay are not clearly defined, leading to have different interpretations of the alignment of the
disagreements over where the international maritime boundary.
boundary between India and Sri Lanka should be ‰ Importance of the Estuary: The Sir Creek estuary
located. is significant for both countries due to its potential
‰ Narrow Waters: The Palk Bay is relatively narrow, and implications for maritime boundaries and exclusive
its waters are critical for the movement of fishermen economic zones.
and their boats. The close proximity of the coasts of
‰ Security Concerns: The Sir Creek region has gained
India and Sri Lanka in this region adds complexity to
strategic importance due to security considerations,
the delineation of boundaries and fishing rights.
particularly in the context of the India-Pakistan border.
‰ Arrests and Conflicts: Incidents of arrests and conflicts
between Indian and Sri Lankan fishermen have been ‰ Negotiations and Talks: Various rounds of talks have
reported over the years. Fishermen from one country taken place at different levels to address the concerns
inadvertently crossing into the waters claimed by the and reach a mutually acceptable agreement on the
other often result in arrests and diplomatic tensions. maritime boundary.
Efforts have been made by both countries to address the Efforts have been made to build confidence and enhance
issue through diplomatic channels and negotiations. Talks bilateral relations through dialogue, but a final resolution
have been held to find a mutually acceptable solution to the Sir Creek issue remains pending. The territorial
to the problem, taking into consideration the interests disputes between India and Pakistan, including the Sir
of the fishermen from both sides. However, a definitive Creek issue, are part of broader geopolitical tensions in
resolution remains elusive, and the Palk Bay issue the region. The challenge lies in finding a compromise
continues to be a source of bilateral concern between that considers the historical context and the interests of
India and Sri Lanka. both countries.

Introduction to Indian Geography 13

Maritime Choke Points • Strait of Malacca: Situated between the Malay
Peninsula and the Indonesian island of Sumatra, it is
one of the most important shipping channels globally,
connecting the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea.
• Lombok Strait: Located between the islands of Bali
and Lombok in Indonesia, it is another key passage
Strait of Hormuz
for maritime traffic in the Indian Ocean region.
Six Degree Channel These choke points are critical for global trade and have
e
mm

Bab-el-Mandeb Nine Degree Channel

Strait of Malacca geo-political implications, as control over them can influence
ra
og

economic and strategic interests for the countries in the

Pr
od

Sunda Strait
region and beyond. The Indian Ocean’s significance continues
Fo

Indian Ocean
ld

Lombok Strait
or

to grow as maritime activities, trade, and geopolitical

W

Mozambique dynamics evolve.

Channel
Choke Points
CONCLUSION
Fig. 1.18: Choke Points in the Indian Ocean
The geography of India is a tapestry of immense diversity,
‰ A chokepoint refers to the point of natural congestion
along two broader and more critical navigable passages. encompassing a myriad of physical features, climates, and
Maritime choke points are naturally narrow shipping ecosystems. From the towering peaks of the Himalayas to the
channels with high traffic. They are significant because expansive alluvial plains of the Ganges and the arid expanse
of their strategic locations. of the Thar Desert, India’s topography is a testament to the
‰ Several key maritime choke points are located within country’s geological richness. The intricate network of rivers,
or near the Indian Ocean, influencing global shipping including the Ganges, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, and Indus,
routes. Some notable ones include: sustains agricultural activities and shapes the landscape.
• Strait of Hormuz: Connects the Persian Gulf to the India’s geography is not merely a backdrop but an integral
Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea. It is a critical part of its identity. The interplay of mountains, rivers, deserts,
passage for oil transportation, with a significant and coastlines contributes to the country’s ecological
portion of the world’s oil shipments passing through. richness, making it a captivating and dynamic land. As India
• Bab el Mandeb: Links the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden continues to navigate the challenges of the modern era, its
and the Arabian Sea. It is important for maritime trade, diverse geography remains a source of resilience, inspiration,
particularly for vessels traveling to and from the Suez Canal. and cultural vibrancy.

14 Indian Geography
 Geological Structure of
India 2
of the country into 4 major divisions as shown in the table
INTRODUCTION below:
The term “geological structure” is primarily used to describe Indian Corresponding Period on
the organization and formation of rocks in the Earth’s Classification Geological Time Scale
crust due to the Earth’s movements. It also pertains to the Archaean Early Precambrian Eons
morphological characteristics of rocks, such as the Gondwana Purana Late Precambrian (or Proterozoic Eon)
structure. The Geological Structure and Rock System of India
Dravidian 600-400 Mya (largely coinciding with the
was analyzed with reference to their geographical locations
Palaeozoic era)
and their geological history.
Aryan 400 Mya-present
Based on this complex and varied geological history, the
Geological Survey of India has classified the rock systems

Rock System in India

Archaean Rock System Purana Rock System Dravidian Aryan Rock System Geologically Recent
(Pre- Cambrian Rocks) (Pre- Cambrian Rocks) Rock System
Very old Plutonic Rocks [Oldest metamorphosed (Palaeozoic)
rocks] Gondwana Tertiary
Jurassic Deccan
Archaean Dharwar System System Trap System
Carboniferous
Gneisses System Cuddapah Vindhyan [Indian [Formation
rocks
& Schists System System Coal] of
[European
Himalayas]
and North
American Coal]

Fig. 2.1: Rock System in India

India’s Geological Evolution with Respect

IGNITE YOUR MIND to the Geological Timescale
1. Archean Eon (4.0 - 2.5 billion years ago):
You might be interested in knowing that Anthropocene • During the Archean Eon, the Indian subcontinent’s
epoch is a proposed epoch that denotes the present foundation began to form through the accumulation
geological time interval, in which the Earth’s of various rocks, including granite and gneiss.
ecosystem has gone through radical changes due • These ancient rocks provide the basement upon
to human impact. In this light can you examine the which later geological processes operated.
stratigraphic sequence of major geological formations 2. Proterozoic Eon (2.5 billion - 541 million years ago):
in India, emphasizing their chronological order and • In the Proterozoic Eon, the Indian subcontinent
significance.
underwent significant geological events.
• The Dharwar Group, a sequence of metamorphic and
GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF INDIA sedimentary rocks, was deposited during this time.
3. Cambrian to Ordovician Period (541 - 443 million
The geological evolution of India spans over billions of years ago):
years and involves complex processes that have shaped its • During the early Paleozoic era, the Indian subcontinent
contemporary landforms. was a part of the supercontinent Gondwana.
 • Sedimentary rocks, including limestones and shales, • The Himalayas and associated mountain ranges
got deposited during this period. continue to evolve through tectonic activity.
4. Silurian to Devonian Period (443 - 359 million
years ago):
• Gondwana continued to evolve, and marine
sedimentation continued, leading to the deposition
of further sedimentary layers.
5. Carboniferous to Permian Period (359 - 252 million
years ago):
• Gondwana continued to experience geological
activity, and sediments from this time contributed to
the formation of the Gondwana basins.
6. Triassic to Jurassic Period (252 - 145 million
years ago):
• During the breakup of Gondwana, India separated
from Antarctica and began drifting northwards.
• Sedimentation and volcanic activity characterized
this period, leading to the formation of the Deccan
Traps.
7. Cretaceous Period (145 - 66 million years ago):
• India continued its northward journey, eventually
colliding with the Asian landmass.
• The collision initiated the uplift of the Himalayan
mountain range and the Tibetan Plateau.
8. Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago - present):
• The collision with Asia continued, and the ongoing
convergence led to further mountain-building Fig. 2.2: Geological Evolution of India
processes.

‰ Quaternary
Cenozoic
‰ Tertiary Gondwana Group Vindhyan System Cuddapah System Archean System

‰ Talcher Series ‰ Semri Series ‰ Papaghani Series ‰ Bengal Gneiss

‰ Cretaceous
‰ Damuda Series ‰ Kurnool Series ‰ Cheyair Series ‰ Bundelkhand
Mesozoic ‰ Jurassic
‰ Barakar Series ‰ Bhima Series ‰ Nallamalai Series Gneiss
‰ Triassic
‰ Kistna Series ‰ Niligiri Gneiss
‰ Panchet Series ‰ Malani Series
‰ Bijwara Series
‰ Mahadev Series ‰ Kaimur Series ‰ Rajpur Series
‰ Permian Rajmahal Series Rewa Series
‰ ‰ ‰ Kaidgi Series
‰ Carboniferous Pakhal Series
‰ Jabalpur Series ‰ Bhander Series ‰
‰ Devonian ‰ Ajabgarh Series
Paleozoic ‰ Umai Series
‰ Silurian ‰ Rialo Series
‰ Ordovician
‰ Cambrian

‰ Vindhayan
‰ Cuddapah
Precambrian
‰ Dharwar
‰ Archean

Fig. 2.3: Geological Time Scale and Rock systems found in India

16 Indian Geography
 contain intrusions of molten rock (plutonic intrusions)
THE ARCHAEAN ROCK SYSTEM and typically exhibit a well-defined foliated structure.
‰ Prior to 2.5 billion years ago, during the Precambrian ‰ These rocks lack fossils and are commonly referred to as
Period, the upper crust of the earth’s surface began to the “Basement” or “Fundamental Complex” due to their
cool and solidify, which is reflected by the exposure of foundational role as the base for new geological layers.
gneisses and granites, particularly on the Peninsula. This
is the first phase of tectonic evolution. The Archean Gneisses Rocks are
‰ The Indian Craton (Block of the Indian Subcontinent Categorized into three Types
of Gondwanaland) is composed primarily of these. Bengal Gneiss
The oldest rocks in the earth’s crust are referred to as
‰ Discovery Location: These were initially found in the
Archaean a word used by J.D. Dana in 1782.
Midnapur district, West Bengal.
‰ There are two systems of rocks in the Archaean group:
‰ Characteristics:
• Archaean Schists And Gneisses
• Rock with multiple layers.
• Dharwar System
• Presence in Odisha’s Eastern Ghats (known as
Archaean Schists and Gneisses Khodolites), Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil
‰ Overview: The Archaean Era, also called the Nadu.
Precambrian Period, represents a significant portion of • Occurrence in Son Valley, Meghalaya Plateau, and
Earth’s geological timeline, stretching from the planet’s Mikir Hills with fewer layers.
formation around 4.6 billion years ago to the start of the Bundelkhand Gneiss
Cambrian Period, roughly 570 million years ago. ‰ Nature:
• Very hard rock since ancient times.
• It forms a part of the second group of old rocks.
‰ Distribution: Found in Bundelkhand (Uttar Pradesh),
Baghelkhand (Madhya Pradesh), Maharashtra, Rajasthan,
Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
‰ Characteristics:
• Large, grainy rocks resembling granite.
• Marked by criss-cross lines and veins of quartz.
Nilgiri Gneiss
‰ Charnockite Series:
• Charnockite rocks, often known as the Charnockite
series.
• These are named after Job Charnock’s tombstone in
Kolkata.
• Appearance: Nilgiri gneiss appears bluish-grey to
dark and feels somewhat rough.
Fig. 2.4: Archaen Rock system in India • Formation: Formed deep within the Earth and
intruded into older rocks.
‰ Key Developments: To put it into perspective, the
• Geographical Occurrence: Widespread in Tamil
Precambrian era accounts for approximately 86.7% Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Karnataka, Kerala,
of Earth’s history. During the Precambrian era, crucial Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Rajasthan.
developments took place, including the formation of • Mineral Rich: Rich in valuable minerals like iron ore,
Earth’s earliest rocks, the evolution of its atmosphere, copper, manganese, mica, dolomite, lead, zinc, silver,
the emergence of processes like chemosynthesis and and gold, contributing to India’s wealth.
photosynthesis, the creation of an environment suitable
for life, and the emergence of the planet’s current Dharwar System
atmosphere. Notably, rocks from the Archaean period ‰ Geological Time Period:
do not contain any evidence of ancient life; they are • It spans from 2,500 million years ago to 1,800 million
essentially lifeless, lacking fossils. years ago.
‰ Key Characteristics: These rocks have a distinct ‰ Naming Origin:
character: they are highly crystalline, extensively folded • Named as the Dharwar System in the Indian
and faulted, and largely devoid of sediment. They often Geological Timeline.

Geological Structure of India 17

 • First extensively studied in the Dharwar district of ‰ Series of Dharwar Rock System:
Karnataka. • Champion Series Rocks: The Champions series
‰ Rock Composition: containing gold mines lie within this system. The
• The rocks mainly consist of metamorphosed or Champion system is named after the Champion Reef in
transformed sedimentary materials, including schists the Kolar Gold Field (KGF), one of the deepest gold
and gneisses. mines in the world.
• They contain a significant amount of igneous debris. • Champenar Series: Found near Baroda. Sources of
lush green variety of marbles. Abundant in quartzite,
• The significant rocks within the Dharwar system
conglomerates, phyllites, slates, and marbles (green
include hornblende, schists, quartzite, phyllite
variety).
slates, crystalline limestone, and dolomites.
• Closepet Series: Found in Balaghat and Chhindwara
• Economically, the Dharwar system holds great region of MP. Rich in copper ore.
importance due to the presence of valuable minerals • Chilpi Series: Found in and around Closepet series of
such as high-grade iron ore, manganese, copper, Balaghat and Chindwada.
lead, gold, quartzite, and slates. • Iron Ore Series: Found in Singhbum and Mayurbhanj
• Notably, these rocks are the first metamorphic and Keojhar ranges.
sedimentary rocks identified in India. • Delhi Series: The Aravallis, Rialo from Delhi to the
south of Alwar and the Himalayan region.

THE PURANA ROCK SYSTEM

The Purana rock system, which includes the Cuddapah and
Vindhyan rock systems, was created through the process
of erosion and deposition that occurred roughly between
1,400 to 600 million years ago. These rocks are primarily
sedimentary in nature, originating from the wear and tear
of older Archean and Dharwar rocks.The Cuddapah system is
separated from the Dharwar system by a great unconformity.

The Cuddapah System

‰ Composition: Cuddapah system consists of rocks like
shales, slates, limestone, and quartzite. These rocks,
generally lack fossils and were formed during a time
when the origin of species had not yet occurred.
‰ Name Origin: Named in honour of the Andhra Pradesh
region’s Cuddapah district, these formations are a mix of
sedimentary and metamorphic rock types.
Fig. 2.5: Distribution of Dharwar Rocks ‰ Geographical Distribution: The Cuddapah order is found
‰ Geographical Distribution: in various regions, including Cuddapah and Kurnool
‰ Places of Discovery: Aravalli, Tamil Nadu, Chota Nagpur districts in Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, the region
plateau, Meghalaya, Delhi & Himalayas from Rajasthan to Delhi south of Alwar.

Cudappah
Vidhyan

Fig. 2.6: Distribution of Dharwar Rocks

18 Indian Geography
‰ Thickness: In specific locations, the Cuddapah formations Red Fort, Jama-Masjid, Birla Mandir, and the Buddhist
can be as thick as 6,000 meters. This significant thickness Stupa of Sanchi. Additionally, coarser sandstones
suggests that over time, the layers of these rocks sank as from this region have been used as grindstones and
more sediment accumulated. millstones.
‰ Rock System:
• These rocks contain ores of iron, manganese, copper, THE DRAVIDIAN ROCK SYSTEM
cobalt, nickel, etc. and contain large deposits of
‰ Overview: In India, the Paleozoic rock formation is
cement-grade limestones.
referred to as the Dravidian system and dates back to the
The Vindhyan System Paleozoic era, approximately 600 to 300 million years ago.
‰ Overview: The Vindhyan system, named after the
It is also called the Carboniferous rock system because it
Vindhyan Mountains, which serve as a natural boundary is associated with the formation of high-quality coal, a
in between the Ganga Plain and the Deccan Plateau, valuable global resource.
covers a vast area of 103,600 square kilometres from ‰ Geographical Distribution:
Chittorgarh in Rajasthan to Sasaram in Bihar. • These rocks are predominantly located in the extra-
‰ Geological Characteristics: Peninsular regions, including the Himalayas and the
• This system boasts extensive sedimentary deposits, Gangetic plain, with restricted occurrences in the
with depths exceeding 4,000 meters in some areas. Peninsular shield, notably in Umaria, Rewa. (The
In certain regions, Vindhyan rocks are concealed name ‘Dravidian’ doesn’t mean they are found in
beneath Deccan lava. South India).
• The Great Boundary Fault (GBF) stretches for
• Major regions where Dravidian rocks are found
approximately 800 kilometres, separating the
Vindhyan System from the Aravalli Range. include Pir Panjal, Handwara, Lider Valley, and
• Mostly unfossiliferous (lacks fossils). Anantnag in Kashmir, additionally Spiti, Kangra,
• Significant Deccan Traps coverage in this belt. Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, and Garhwal and
• Lacks metalliferous minerals but yields durable Kumaon in Uttarakhand.
stones, ornamental stones, limestone, and pure ‰ Rock Varieties: The Dravidian geological formation
glassmaking sand. includes a range of rock varieties, including shales,
• Presence of fissile micro-organisms in these sandstones, clays, quartzites, slates, salts, talc, dolomite,
structures. and marble.
‰ Resources: ‰ Geological Events: During this time frame, the
• The Vindhyan system is renowned for its resources, supercontinent Pangaea began to break apart, and
including red sandstone, which is used for concurrently, the Tethys Sea started to take shape.
construction, ornamental stone, conglomerates, ‰ Early Life Emergence: It marked the early emergence
diamonds, and raw materials for cement, lime, glass, of life on Earth’s surface, with abundant fossil evidence
and chemical industries. Some areas yield lower- found in rocks from this era, indicating marine conditions
quality iron ore and manganese. prevalent within these ancient Paleozoic rock formations
• Notably, the famous diamond mines of Panna and in India.
Golconda are located in the Vindhyan system. ‰ Onset of Coal Formation: The Dravidian period also
• The region’s red sandstone has been employed in marked the onset of coal formation, particularly high-
the construction of historic landmarks such as Qutab quality Carboniferous coal, although such formations
Minar, Humayun’s Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, were not widespread in India.

Period Type of Rocks Locations/Features

Cambrian Slates, North-west Himalayan region
(600 Ma) Quartzites,
Dolomite
Ordovician (500 Quartzites, Grits, Overlies Haimanta System in Spiti
Ma) Sandstones,
Limestones
Silurian Thin continuous Continuation with Ordovician in Spiti valley
(440 Ma) band of Silurian
strata

Geological Structure of India 19

 Period Type of Rocks Locations/Features
Devonian Massive White Identified in Muth quartzite of Spiti and Kumaon
(400 Ma) Quartzite (900m
thick)
Carboniferous Limestone, Shale, Upper Carboniferous rocks comprise limestone and dolomite; - Middle
(350 Ma) Quartzite Carboniferous rocks found in Spiti, Kashmir, Shimla, and eastern Himalayas; -Lower
Carboniferous includes slates, Pir Panjal trap, and rocks in the Kumaon region; -
Mount Everest composed of Upper Carboniferous limestones; -Coal formation
started in the Carboniferous age

providing a fertile environment for terrestrial plants and

THE ARYAN ROCK SYSTEM animals to thrive. This process has been ongoing since
‰ Overview: The Aryan Group signifies the start of the the Permian period, dating back approximately 250
Upper Carboniferous era and stands as a significant million years.
milestone in the geological history of our planet. It serves ‰ Significance: Notably, the Gondwana rocks are of
as the gateway to the final, lengthiest, and most event- significance due to their association with India’s coal
filled era spanning from the Upper Carboniferous to the reserves, accounting for close to 98% of the nation’s coal
Holocene period. resources. However, Gondwana coal is comparatively
‰ Geological Formations:
more recent than Carboniferous coal, resulting in lower
carbon content.
• The Aryan Group belongs to various geological
formations across different eras. It includes the
Upper Paleozoic Era, which encompasses the Upper
Primary Epoch, covering formations from the Upper
Carboniferous and Permian periods.
• Moving forward, the Mesozoic Era during the
Secondary Epoch, it includes formations from the
Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods, including
the Gondwana Rock system, Deccan trap, and
Jurassic system. Transitioning into the Cenozoic Era
during the Tertiary Epoch, it encompasses formations
from the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene,
and Pliocene periods.
• Lastly, in the Neozoic Era during the Quaternary
Epoch, includes formations from the Pleistocene
and the present-day Holocene/recent Period. This
classification system helps us understand the diverse
geological history of our planet.
‰ Components: Aryan rock system in India comprises the
following four systems:
• Gondwana Rock System
• Jurassic Rock System Fig. 2.7: India: Distribution of Gondwana Rocks
• Cretaceous System/ Deccan Trap ‰ Minerals: These rock formations also contain valuable
• Tertiary Rock System deposits of iron ore, copper, uranium, and antimony.
Additionally, sandstones, slates, and conglomerates
The Gondwana System found within the Gondwana system serve as essential
‰ Name & Origin: The Gondwana System, named after building materials.
the Gonds, the indigenous tribe of Telangana and ‰ Geographical Distribution:
Andhra Pradesh, is a geological formation characterized • Peninsular areas along Damodar Valley in Jharkhand
by deposits that accumulated, is located within folded • Mahanadi river valley in Chhattisgarh and Odisha
troughs on ancient elevated plateau regions. • South part of Madhya Pradesh
‰ Formation & Evolution: Over time, as these sediments ‰ Gondwana Coal:
built up, the troughs gradually sank, creating spaces • Gondwana rocks house nearly 98 per cent of India’s
where freshwater and more sediment gathered, coal reserves.

20 Indian Geography
 • Gondwana coal, being younger than Carboniferous traps encompass roughly 500,000 square kilometres,
coal, has lower carbon content. predominantly in areas such as Kuchchh, Saurashtra,
• Rich deposits of iron ore, copper, uranium, and Maharashtra, the Malwa plateau, and northern
antimony are found within Gondwana rocks. Karnataka.
• Sandstones, slates, and conglomerates from the
Gondwana system serve as essential building materials.

The Jurassic System

‰ During the later part of the Jurassic period, there was
a marine advance that resulted in the creation of
extensive layers of shallow water deposits in regions like
Rajasthan(Jaisalmer) and Kachchh.
‰ In Kachchh, these deposits include materials such as coral
limestone, oolitic limestone, sandstone, conglomerates,
and shales. Similarly, another marine advance occurred
on the eastern coast of the Peninsula, specifically in
between Guntur and Rajahmundry.
The Deccan Trap
‰ Origin: A massive volcanic activity that occurred starting
after the conclusion of the Cretaceous period to the
dawn of the Eocene period resulted in the development
of the Deccan Traps in Peninsular India. Fig. 2.8: Deccan Traps
‰ Volcanic Eruption: This volcanic process involved the ‰ Thickness Variation: The thickness of the Deccan Traps
eruption of basaltic lava through cracks in the Earth’s exhibits variations, ranging from approximately 3,000
surface, spanning an extensive region of approximately meters in the western region to a decrease to 600-800
one million square kilometres. These volcanic deposits metres in the south, 800 metres in Kachchh, and a mere
have distinct features, with flat tops and steep sides, 150 metres at the eastern boundary.
which is why they are referred to as traps, a term derived ‰ Soil Formation: Extensive weathering of these rocks
from the Swedish word for ‘stair’ or ‘step.’ has given rise to the formation of black cotton soil, also
‰ Geographical Extent: Over millions of years, weathering referred to as Regur.
and erosion processes have significantly reduced the ‰ The Deccan Trap has been divided into three groups-
original size of the Deccan Traps. Presently, these Upper, Middle & Lower Trap.

Group Found in Thickness Age Inter-trappean beds Layers of volcanic ash

Upper Trap Maharashtra and Saurashtra Thick Younger Present Present
Middle Trap Central India and Malwa Moderate Intermediate Very rare to absent Present
Lower Trap Madhya Pradesh Thin Older Present Very rare to absent

Note: In basaltic volcanism, which includes the Deccan traps,

Siberian shield, and Laurentian shield, sediments settle on THE TERTIARY SYSTEM
the cooled and solidified basaltic layer. Subsequently, these ‰ Overview: The Tertiary era, which spanned roughly
sediments are covered by additional basaltic volcanism,
Eocene to Paleocene (66 to 7 million years ago), played a
and once again, some sediments settle over this layer. The
layers of sediments sandwiched between basaltic flows are pivotal role in India’s geological evolution with two major
referred to as inter-trappean beds. occurrences. Initially, it marked the conclusive breakup of
the ancient Gondwana supercontinent. It is termed the
“Age of the Mammals” due to abundant fossil remains.
IGNITE YOUR MIND
• Eocene System (60 million years ago)
Examine the geological processes responsible for ˆ Distribution: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
the formation of the Rann of Kutch and How has the Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and North-East India
geological history of the Rann of Kutch influenced its
unique ecosystem? ˆ Prominent Deposits: Jaintia series, Barail series,
Upper Assam

Geological Structure of India 21

 ˆ Notable Locations: Kachchh, Surat, Broach, rock formations that extends across various regions,
Mayurbhanj, Durgapur, Kollam including the Bengal and Ganges Delta, the East Coast,
ˆ Recent Discoveries: Puducherry and the Andaman Islands.
ˆ Tertiary areas of the extra-Peninsula ‰ Geographical Distribution: Similar formations can be
◊ Outcrop: Murree series in Jammu hills observed in locations such as the Salt Range, Potwar
◊ Geological Features: Dagshai-Kasauli band in Plateau, the outer Himalayan regions of Jammu and
Shimla area Punjab, Assam, Sind, and Baluchistan. Prominent rock
◊ Presence in: Assam, Gujarat, Odisha, West systems from this period encompass the Karewas in
Bengal, Kerala Kashmir and the Bhangra and Khadar formations in the
• Oligocene and Lower Miocene System Gangetic plains.
ˆ Development: Poorly developed in India (40-25
million years)
ˆ Rocks: Oligocene rocks in Barail series of Assam;
Lower Miocene rocks in various regions IGNITE YOUR MIND

You might know that Meghalaya boasts some of

the world’s longest and deepest limestone caves,
formed through limestone dissolution over millennia,
displaying breathtaking stalactite and stalagmite
formations. Now can you discuss the unique
features of the Meghalaya limestone caves and their
significance in the field of speleology. How have these
caves contributed to our understanding of geological
processes?

THE QUATERNARY SYSTEM (THE

PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT
FORMATIONS)
The Quaternary Period is the most recent period in the
geological time scale, spanning approximately the last 2.6
million years to the present. It is characterized by significant
climatic changes, including the onset of glaciations and the
presence of Homo Sapiens. The Quaternary is divided into
two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.

Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 million to 11,700

Fig. 2.9: India: Distribution of Tertiary Rocks
years ago)
• Shiwalik System (Middle Miocene to Lower
‰ Ice Ages: Alternating large ice sheet advancements and
Pleistocene)
retreats.
ˆ Named After: Shiwalik hills between Ganga and
Yamuna rivers ‰ Hominid Evolution: Evolution of Homo Sapiens.
ˆ Composition: Sandstones, grits, conglomerates, ‰ Cultural Development: Significant for human culture
clays, and silts and diverse faunal/floral assemblages.
ˆ Thickness: Extends over a width of 10-50 Km ‰ Five Major Glacial Events: Donau, Gunz, Mindel, Riss,
ˆ Fossiliferous Formations: Notable discoveries Wurm, leaving geological traces.
near Haridwar in 1839 ‰ Holocene Features: Visible features in various Indian
‰ Formation of Himalayas: It led to the formation of the regions, especially along the Brahmaputra River.
Himalayan mountain range, driven by the upliftment ‰ Alluvial Deposits: Present in deltaic regions of major
of the Tethys geosynclines. The Tertiary period holds rivers like Cauvery, Krishna, Mahanadi, and Ganges.
immense geological importance for India as during this
period the Himalayas were formed, and the country’s Holocene Epoch
present geography was shaped. (11,700 years ago to present)
‰ Rock Formations: Throughout the Tertiary period, ‰ Stable Climate: Characterized by relatively stable climatic
geological changes led to the creation of a series of conditions.

22 Indian Geography
‰ Human Civilization: Development of civilizations, ‰ Originally, this area was a lake, but over time, it
agriculture, and complex societies. evolved into its current shape, known as Kareva due
‰ Recorded History: Encompasses the entire span of to the continuous deposition of materials. Evidence
recorded human history. of Pleistocene deposition has been uncovered in
‰ Present Interglacial Period: Represents the current unexpected places, including the Thar Desert.
interglacial period.. ‰ Notably, what we now know as the ‘Rann of Kachchh’
was once a segment of the ocean during this period.
Quaternary System in India Over the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs, sedimentary
‰ The Quaternary period is named after relatively recent materials filled this area, leading to its transformation.
deposits that contain fossils of species still in existence ‰ Glacial Activity:
today. This period’s commencement dates back to the • Pleistocene Impact: Glaciations shaped northern
Pleistocene epoch, approximately 1 million years ago, India with moraines and U-shaped valleys.
and extends into the Holocene or recent past. • Example: Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand shows
retreating glaciers, leaving distinct glacial landforms.
‰ Sedimentation in River Valleys:
• Quaternary Period: Significant sedimentation in river
valleys.
• Example: The Indo-Gangetic Plain, formed by the
Ganges and Brahmaputra, crucial for agriculture.
‰ Holocene Environmental Changes:
• Holocene Epoch: Witnessed shifts in vegetation and
diverse ecosystems.
• Example: Narmada River Valley showcases vegetation
changes and ancient human settlements.

COASTLINE OF INDIA
The coastline of India is a dynamic and diverse region that
reflects the geological history and tectonic evolution of the
Indian subcontinent. The geological processes have played
a significant role in shaping the coastal features, including
beaches, estuaries, deltas, and rocky cliffs.
‰ India’s coastline spans 7,516.6 kilometers (4,671 miles),
comprising 5,422.6 kilometers of mainland and 2,094
kilometers of island territories..
Fig. 2.10: India: Pleistocene and Recent Rocks ‰ Touching nine states and two union territories, including
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil
‰ The Quaternary System encompasses rocks and deposits
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Daman
that can be found in regions like the Indus and Ganga
and Diu, and Puducherry, it passes through a total of 13
plains. The Quaternary era is divided into two key
states and union territories.
periods: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.
‰ The coastline is bordered by the Bay of Bengal to the
‰ Alluvial deposits:
east, the Indian Ocean to the south, and the Arabian
• It is characterized by the presence of alluvial deposits
Sea to the west.
in the Indo-Gangetic plain, encompassing the recent
alluvial sediments of Northern India’s Indo-Gangetic ‰ Western Coast: The western coast of India, along the
plains. Arabian Sea, is characterized by long stretches of sandy
• These sediments are divided into two categories: beaches, rocky cliffs, and estuaries.
ˆ Bhangar is composed of old alluvium (located
• Runs straight from Gujarat plains to Kanyakumari.
above the flood levels of rivers) of the Upper and • Dotted with coves, creeks, and estuaries (Narmada
Middle Pleistocene age. and Tapi).
ˆ Khadar is composed of the newer alluvium mainly • Malabar coast features lakes, lagoons, and the largest
found within river channels and floodplains, in the Vembanad Lake.
Holocene epoch. Due to the annual deposition of • For Example: The Konkan Coast in Maharashtra
new silt by the rivers, this region boasts some of features a mix of rocky cliffs and sandy beaches,
the most fertile soil in the country. influenced by the Western Ghats.

Geological Structure of India 23

 • The elevation and geological structure of the Western • Deltas of major rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna,
Ghats have contributed to the formation of this and Cauvery.
coastal landscape. • Notable lagoons: Chilika lake and Pulicat lagoon.
• Example: The Sundarbans Delta in West Bengal is
one of the largest deltaic regions in the world. It is
formed by the sediment deposition of the Ganges,
Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers.
• The Eastern Ghats, another mountain range parallel
to the eastern coast, has also influenced the
geological features of the coastline.
• Tectonic activities, including the collision between
the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, contributed
to the formation of the Eastern Ghats.
‰ Geological Changes:
• Submergence and emergence observed in Indian
State/UT Coastline Length (km) coast during geological and historical times.
Gujarat 1214.7 • Examples include a submerged forest near Mumbai
Maharashtra 652.6 and raised terraces formed by coral reefs.
Goa
• Evidence of both submergence and emergence found
101
in the Rann of Kachchh.
Karnataka 280 • Historical changes in sea level seen in coastal dunes,
Kerala 569.7 sea cliffs, sea caves, and raised beaches.
Tamil Nadu 906.9 ‰ Ancient Tectonic Processes:
Puducherry 30.6 • The Indian subcontinent’s geological history involves
Andhra Pradesh ancient tectonic processes, including the breakup of
973.7
the supercontinent Rodinia, which influenced the
Odisha 476.4 configuration of coastlines.
West Bengal 157.5 • For Example: The Narmada River flows through a rift
Lakshadweep UT 132.0 valley between the Vindhya and Satpura mountain
Andaman & Nicobar UT ranges.
1962
• This rift valley is a geological feature formed due to
Fig. 2.11: Coastline of India ancient tectonic processes associated with the rifting
of Rodinia.
• The Western Ghats, a mountain range parallel to
• The drifting of the Indian Plate from its position
the western coast, has influenced the coastline’s
within Gondwana and its subsequent collision with
formation. The Ghats were formed by tectonic
the Eurasian Plate led to the uplift of the Himalayas
activities, including the rifting of the ancient
and the Tibetan Plateau, impacting the hydrography
supercontinent Gondwana.
of the region.
• Uplift of Western Coast:
‰ Sedimentary Processes:
ˆ Geologists find evidence of uplift in the western
• Sedimentary processes, such as the deposition of
coast.
river sediments and the formation of deltas, have
ˆ Raised beaches and marine shells found at
played a crucial role in shaping the coastal plains.
altitudes of 30-45 meters. • For Example: The Godavari Delta in Andhra Pradesh
ˆ Steep face of the Sahyadri parallel to the west is another prominent example of sedimentary
coast suggests recent elevation from the sea. processes shaping the coastline.
ˆ Coastal plain of Kerala shows multiple phases of • Major rivers like the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and
uplift. Godavari contribute to the deposition of sediments
‰ Eastern Coast: The eastern coast of India, along the Bay along the eastern and western coasts.
of Bengal, is characterized by extensive deltaic regions, ‰ Sea Level Changes:
mangrove forests, and sandy beaches. • Fluctuations in sea levels, associated with glacial-
• Extends from the Ganga delta to Kanniyakumari, interglacial cycles, have influenced the coastal
facing the Bay of Bengal. features over geological time.

24 Indian Geography
 • Sea level changes have led to the creation of • In the Kashmir region, de Terra and Peterson
submerged landforms and influenced the extent of identified four or five periods of glaciation with inter-
coastal erosion and deposition. glacial periods.
• For Example: The submerged landforms off the coast • Large blocks and boulders are commonly seen in
of Gujarat, known as the Gulf of Khambhat, exhibit different parts of the Himalayas.
evidence of ancient river valleys and archaeological • Rock polishing and grooving on the lower steps of
sites. This underwater landscape provides insights into the Himalayas, buff-colored sands, and illuminated
sea level changes and shifts in coastal configurations clays inter-stratified among the Karewa deposits of
Kashmir are observed.
over time.
• Glaciation led to the formation of several glacial lakes
in different parts of the Himalayas, including Kailash
ICE AGES IN INDIA Kund, the Sanasar basin near Batoti, the Gulmarg
India has experienced multiple ice ages throughout its basin, the Sheshnag, and the Kaunsarmag.
geological history. The most recent and well-known ice age • The impact of glaciation also resulted in a sudden and
is the Quaternary glaciation, which began around 2.58 billion large-scale reduction of Shiwalik mammals.
years ago and continues to the present day. Within the • The Peninsular part of India has no evidence of
Quaternary, there were several glacial and interglacial cycles, glaciation during the Pleistocene period.
marked by the advance and retreat of ice sheets and glaciers. ‰ Early Pleistocene (2.58 - 0.78 million years ago):
‰ Dharwar Ice Age: • During this time, there were multiple glacial advances,
• The Dharwar Ice Age is associated with the Archean with ice sheets covering significant portions of the
Northern Hemisphere.
Eon, which occurred approximately 4.0 to 2.5 billion
years ago. • Evidence of glacial deposits, such as moraines and
erratic boulders, suggests that high-altitude regions
• During this ancient ice age, the Dharwar Craton,
of the Himalayas may have been glaciated.
a stable geological region in southern India,
‰ Middle Pleistocene (0.78 - 0.12 million years ago):
experienced glacial activity. Glacial deposits, such
as tillites (sedimentary rocks formed from glacial • Glacial-interglacial cycles continued, influencing the
climate and landscape of India.
debris), are found in the Dharwar Supergroup rocks
in Kaldurg Karnataka. • Evidence of glacial activity is found in regions like
Kashmir, where moraines and glacial deposits indicate
• The presence of these glacial deposits indicates that
past ice advances.
ice sheets or glaciers covered parts of the Dharwar
‰ Late Pleistocene (0.12 million years ago - 11,700 years ago):
Craton during this period, making it one of the earliest
known instances of glaciation in Earth’s history. • This period is characterized by more frequent and
intense glacial-interglacial cycles.
‰ Gondwana Ice Age:
• The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), occurring around
• The Gondwana Ice Age, also known as the Late 20,000 years ago, was a phase of maximum ice sheet
Paleozoic Ice Age, occurred during the Carboniferous expansion globally. Glaciers in the Himalayas reached
and Permian periods, roughly 360 to 260 million their maximum extent during this time.
years ago.
‰ Holocene (11,700 years ago - present):
• Glacial deposits, such as tillites and dropstones, are
• The Holocene marks the current epoch, characterized
found in sedimentary rocks of the Gondwana Group,
by warmer temperatures and the retreat of ice sheets.
indicating widespread glaciation across Gondwana.
• Glacial retreat in the Himalayas and other high-
• The Talcher series of the Gondwana system in Odisha
altitude regions led to the formation of glacial lakes
provides proof of glaciation during this period.
and modification of river courses.
• Boulders found here bear similarity to those existing
in Shimla, Hazara, and Salt Range. Impact of ice ages on Indian Landscape
‰ Pleistocene Ice Age: ‰ Glacial activity during ice ages influenced the formation
• The Pleistocene period witnessed the effects of an of high-altitude features such as cirques, aretes, and
ice age in the Himalayas. U-shaped valleys in the Himalayan region.
• This period was not a continuous frigid spell but ‰ Glacial meltwater played a crucial role in shaping river
featured alternating cold and warm spells. valleys and contributing to the formation of alluvial
• In the Himalayas, extensive glaciation evidence is plains.
found up to a height of 1800 m. {While the Quaternary glaciation had a significant impact on
• Glacial drifts and terminal moraines covered hill sides India’s landscape, the country did not experience ice sheets
and valley floors down to 1,400 m. or glaciers comparable to those in higher latitudes}

Geological Structure of India 25

 ‰ Geotrail
GEODIVERSITY AND GEOTOURISM • Definition: A geotrail is a designated route allowing
Important Terms and their Definitions visitors to explore and learn about the geological
features and history of a particular area.
‰ Geodiversity
• Example: Marble Arch Caves Geopark in Ireland
• Definition: Geodiversity refers to the variety of the offers geotrails, guiding visitors through limestone
geological and physical elements of nature, such landscapes and subterranean wonders.
as minerals, rocks, soils, fossils and landforms, and
‰ Geoconservation: It involves the identification and
active geological and geomorphological processes.
preservation of sites that help us learn about the
Together with biodiversity, geodiversity constitutes
Earth’s formation processes. Geoparks promote both
the natural diversity of planet Earth. geodiversity preservation and public education through
• Example: The Grand Canyon in the United States guided tours of sites.
epitomizes immense geodiversity, revealing layered
‰ Understanding the unique nature and culture of islands,
rock formations that unveil geological history including oceanic aspects, is crucial in geodiversity
spanning millions of years. education. Gwanmae Island, Korea’s first luxury village
‰ Geotourism recognized by the National Park Service, highlights
• Definition: Geotourism is a sustainable tourism the potential for geotourism based on the island’s
form emphasizing the appreciation of a destination’s remarkable geodiversity.
geological heritage, cultural aspects, and local well- ‰ Geoheritage: It focuses on preserving natural features
being. like landforms, exposed rocks, and sites that allow the
• Example: The Ring of Fire in the Pacific, notably study and conservation of these features. A geosite
Yellowstone National Park, magnetizes geotourists is a specific location that forms a component of the
with its volcanic landscapes and distinctive geological geoheritage. UNESCO’s Global Geoparks Network
features. describes a ‘geopark’ as an area that includes one or
‰ Geoheritage more scientifically significant sites.
• Definition: Geoheritage involves conserving sites ‰ Geotourism Initiatives in India:
with significant geological features, ensuring their • National Geotourism Policy (2020): Aims to identify,
protection for scientific, educational, and cultural develop, and promote geotourism destinations
purposes. across India.
• Example: Giant’s Causeway in Northern Ireland, famed • National Geological Monuments: 34 geological sites
for hexagonal basalt columns, is a UNESCO World declared National Geological Monuments to preserve
Heritage Site, showcasing exemplary geoheritage. and promote their geological heritage.
‰ Geoconservation • Geotourism Certification Program: Launched by the
• Definition: Geoconservation focuses on identifying, Ministry of Tourism, certifying geotourism service
providers to ensure responsible practices.
managing, and protecting geological sites to maintain
scientific value and prevent degradation. National Geological Heritage Monument Sites
• Example: The Jurassic Coast in England, with diverse National Geological Heritage Sites are geographical areas
geological formations, undergoes geoconservation of national importance and heritage, as notified by the
efforts to safeguard its unique features. Government of India’s Geological Survey of India (GSI), for
‰ Geopark their maintenance, protection, promotion and enhancement
• Definition: A geopark is a designated area conserving of geotourism. There are 34 geoheritage sites in India.
and enhancing geological heritage, promoting These sites showcase various geological phenomena, rock
sustainable development, and offering educational formations, and fossils, providing insights into the Earth’s
opportunities. history.
• Example: Zhangjiajie Geopark in China, renowned
for towering sandstone pillars, is a UNESCO Global CONCLUSION
Geopark, attracting visitors with its unique geological
wonders. India’s geological history is an intricate narrative of colliding
plates, uplifting mountains, eroding plains, and shaping
‰ Geosites
coastlines. The geological features not only contribute to
• Definition: Geosites are specific locations that hold the country’s natural beauty but also play a crucial role in
significant geological importance, providing insights influencing its climate, biodiversity, and socio-economic
into Earth’s history and processes. activities. Understanding and appreciating this geological
• Example: Joggins Fossil Cliffs in Nova Scotia, Canada, diversity is essential for managing natural resources,
is a geosite showcasing well-preserved fossils from mitigating geological hazards, and fostering sustainable
the Carboniferous period. development in this vast and varied landscape.

26 Indian Geography
 Physiography of India 3
Additionally, during the Jurassic Period, Gondwanaland
INTRODUCTION underwent further fragmentation, leading to the separation
India’s landscape exhibits significant physical diversity. of peninsular India, Madagascar, Australia, Antarctica, and
The physiography of an area is the outcome of structure, other landmasses. The peninsular part of India, being a
process and the stage of development. The land of India component of Gondwanaland, originated from igneous
rocks of the Archean era, which underwent transformation
exhibits great physical variations.
into Gneiss and Schist over time.
It can be divided into distinct physiographic divisions: the
Himalayan Mountains, the Northern Plain, the Peninsular
THE HIMALAYAS
Plateau, the Indian Desert, the Coastal Plains, and the Islands.
36° The Himalayan mountain range, a geologically young
China
Nanga formation and structurally-fold mountain ranges, that came
Parbat Karakoram Range
Ladakh Range into existence approximately 50 million years ago, stretches
32° Zanskar Range along India’s northern border, running from the Indus River
Greater Himalya Namcha Mishmi
Pakistan Barwa Hills
Pir Panjal to the Brahmaputra River.
Tibet
28° Shiwalik Range ‰ These mountains are among the world’s tallest and most
Nep
Mount al Bhutan rugged, forming an arc that spans approximately 2,400
Ra avali
nge

Abu
Ar

24°
kilometres.
Rann of
Vindhyan Range ‰ Their width varies, being about 400 kilometres in Kashmir
Kuchchh Myanmar
Satpura Range and 150 kilometres in Arunachal Pradesh.
Western

20° Ganga Delta

‰ Altitude changes are more significant in the eastern half
Western al Region

of the Himalayas compared to the western half.

gion at

Mahendragiri
Coast

Gh

Bay of ‰ The Pamir Knot connects the Himalayas with the high
rn

16°
Ghat

ste

Bengal
ranges of central Asia.
al Re
Ea

Arabian Sea
Andaman and Ni

Nilgiri Index
oast

Hills Himalayan Mountains

System
‰ The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is the section of the
12°
C

The North Plain Himalayas within India, spanning the 13 Indian States/
Lak

ern

Peninsular Plateau
sha

Union Territories (namely Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh,

East

Indian Desert
dw

Coastal Regions Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh,

cobar Islands

Anaimudi
eep

8°
Sri 0 500
Kanyakumari Lanka Kms
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim,
72° 76° 80° 84° 88° Tripura, Assam and West Bengal).

Fig. 3.1: Physiographic divisions of India Major Ranges of the Himalayas

In terms of geology, the Himalayan mountains exhibit a ‰ The Himalayan range consists of three parallel
relatively recent and dynamic topography characterized longitudinal ranges, with valleys lying between them.
by towering peaks, deep valleys, and swiftly flowing rivers. • Greater Himalayas (Himadri): The northernmost
This region, along with the Northern Plains, represents range is called the Great Himalayas or the ‘Himadri.’
It is the most continuous range, with the highest
some of the most recently formed landforms. In contrast,
peaks averaging 6,000 meters in elevation. This range
the Peninsular Plateau is an ancient and stable landmass,
contains many prominent Himalayan peaks such
constituting one of the oldest and most enduring blocks on as Mount Everest and Kanchenjunga. These peaks
the Earth’s surface. The Northern Plains consist of alluvial are characterized by their perpetual snow cover
deposits, while the Peninsular Plateau is composed of and glaciated terrain. The Greater Himalayas form
igneous and metamorphic rocks, featuring gently rising hills the international border between India and Tibet
and expansive valleys. (China).
 Fig. 3.2: Major Ranges of Himalaya
• Lesser or Middle Himalayas (Himachal): South Himalayan tectonic framework, and it plays a crucial role
of the Greater Himalayas lies the “Himachal” or in the deformation and uplift of the Himalayan range.
“Middle Himalayas.” This range is lower in elevation

Middle or Lesser Himalaya

Greater or Inner Himalaya

compared to the Greater Himalayas and is known for
Shiwalik or Outer Himalaya

Brahaputra Valley
its diverse landscapes, including deep valleys, alpine

Tibetan Plateau
Ladakh Range

Kun Lun Mt.

Indus-Gangetic Plain

meadows, and dense forests. Some well-known hill

Kailash Range

Tarim Basin
stations like Shimla and Manali are located in the
Lesser Himalayas.
• Outer Himalayas (Shiwaliks): The southernmost
range is called the “Shiwalik” or “Outer Himalayas.”
MCT

This range is characterized by relatively lower

MBT
HFF

elevations and consists of foothills, which gradually

merge into the Indo-Gangetic Plains. The Shivalik Sea Level
Hills are known for their picturesque landscapes Fig. 3.3: Himalayan Complex
and are rich in biodiversity. They act as a transition
zone between the Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic Main Central Thrust (MCT)
Plains. ‰ The Main Central Thrust is another important thrust fault
Major Fault Lines in Himalayan Complex in the Himalayan region.
Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF) ‰ It is situated north of the Main Boundary Thrust and is
‰ The Himalayan Frontal Fault is a major fault line that responsible for the overthrusting of the crystalline rocks
runs along the southern base of the Himalayan mountain of the Greater Himalayas over the sedimentary rocks of
range. the Lesser Himalayas. The MCT marks a major tectonic
boundary within the Himalayas and is associated with
‰ It marks the boundary between the Indian plate and the
significant crustal shortening.
Eurasian tectonic plate. The collision between these two
plates is responsible for the upliftment of the Himalayas
Origin and Formation of the Himalayas
and the associated seismic activity in the region.
The origin of the Himalayas has been a subject of debate
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) among geologists and geomorphologists. This mountain
‰ The Main Boundary Thrust is a major thrust fault associated system is complex and composed of rocks from different
with the Himalayan mountain-building process. geological periods, including the Precambrian and
‰ It represents the contact between the Indian plate to the Eocene periods. It primarily consists of sedimentary and
south and the sedimentary rocks of the outer Himalayan metamorphic rocks and has undergone significant folding
range to the north. MBT is a significant structure in and faulting.

28 Indian Geography
The main theories regarding the origin of the Himalayas are
E U R A S I A N P L AT E
as follows: ZANSKAR

The Geosynclinal Origin

INDIA
According to this theory, around 200 million years ago, during Today

the disintegration of Pangaea, a vast Tethys Sea formed 10 millions

between the Laurentian Shield (Angaraland) in the north and years ago

Gondwanaland in the south. This sea occupied the Himalayan

38 million
region during the Mesozoic Era (180 mya). Sediments eroded Equator years ago
from the Eurasian Shield (Angaraland) and Gondwanaland

ar
cm/ye
were deposited in the Tethys Sea, accumulating considerable
thickness due to the sinking of the sea bed.

5
55 million

year -
years ago
Marginal Range Marginal Range

/
Median Range

16 cm
INDIAN
OCEAN
“INDIA”
Land mass

71 million
SRI LANKA years ago

Land Land
Compression Compression Fig. 3.5: Movement of the Indian
Plate

The northward movement of the Indian Plate is ongoing,

The stage of orogenesis: squeezing and folding
of geosynclinal sediments due to compressive causing the Himalayan peaks to continue rising. The Indian
forces; the whole of geosynclinal are folded when
the compressive forces coming from the sides of
Plate is still moving northward, constantly changing the
geosyncline are enormous and acute. centre of rotation.
Fig. 3.4: Geosynclical Origin of Himalayas ‰ Around 50-40 million years ago, the collision between
‰ During the Cretaceous Period, the sea bed began to rise, the Indian and Asiatic plates initiated the rise of the
resulting in the folding of three successive ranges of the Himalayas from the Tethys geosyncline.
Himalayas. ‰ The first significant uplift led to the formation of the
‰ The first uplift formed the Greater Himalayas during Ladakh and Zanskar ranges in the Trans-Himalaya before
the Eocene Period (about 65 mya), followed by the formation of the Great Himalaya.
the formation of the Lesser Himalaya during the
‰ The Main Central Thrust separates the Greater
Miocene Period (about 45 mya), and the Shiwaliks
or Outer Himalaya during the Pliocene period Himalayas and the Lesser Himalayas. Around 35 million
(about 1.4 mya). years ago, the second major uplift occurred, rapidly
elevating the southern mountain front of the Lesser
The Plate Tectonic Origin of the Himalayas
Himalaya and forming the Pir-Panjal, Dhauladhar, Karol,
Proposed by W.J. Morgan in 1967, theory is based on the
and Mahabharat Ranges.
concept of “Sea-Floor Spreading” by H.H. Hess.
‰ These ranges created intermontane basins, including
‰ Approximately 65 to 30 million years ago, the Indian plate
Kashmir, Karol-basin, Dun Valley (Uttarakhand), and the
approached the Asian plate, leading to the subduction of
the Indian plate beneath the Asian plate. Kathmandu Valley in Nepal.

‰ This subduction caused lateral compression, resulting ‰ The Shiwaliks rose around 1.4 million years ago as a
in the squeezing and folding of sediments in the Tethys, result of the third major uplift. These sedimentary rocks
forming the three parallel ranges of the Himalayas. reflect the Himalayas’ ongoing uplift. The Shiwaliks are
‰ The convergence of these plates has caused a crustal separated from India’s Northern Plains by the active
shortening of about 500 kilometres in the Himalayan Himalayan Front Fault (HFF), which is characterized by
region. frequent tremors and earthquakes.

Physiography of India 29
 BEFORE Ancient Oceanic Himalayas Tibetan Plateau
Tip of Indian Plate Crust

EURASIAN
INDIAN PLATE PLATE
Very old rock, 2 to 2
1/2 billion years old
Reference point
AFTER
Rising Him
alayas
EURASIAN PLATE
Rising Tibetan Plateau

EU Ancient INDIAN PLATE

Reference RA Oceanic
SIA
Point N P Crust
INDIAN PLATE LAT
E

Fig. 3.6: Formation of Himalayas

to the south. Known for housing the world’s tallest peaks,

such as Mount Everest and Kanchenjunga, the Himalayas are
IGNITE YOUR MIND typically divided based on both latitude and longitude.

What are the key indicators of glacial retreat, and how Longitudinal Division of the Himalayas
does this phenomenon affect the local and global The longitudinal division of the Himalayas, running from
environment? west to east, categorizes this vast mountain range into four
significant segments:
Division of Himalayas: Latitudinal and ‰ The Kashmir/Punjab/Himachal Himalayas

Longitudinal ‰ The Kumaun Himalayas

The Himalayas, a remarkable mountain system in Asia, stand ‰ The Central/Nepal Himalayas
as a formidable barrier between the Tibetan Plateau to ‰ The Assam/Eastern Himalayas
the north and the fertile plains of the Indian subcontinent

West-East
560 km
Division of 800 km 750 km
320 km
Himalayas
Punjab Assam
Himalayas Nepal Himalayas
(between Himalayas (between
Indus and (between Teesta
Satluf Kali and and
Rivers) Kosi Dihang
Rivers) Rivers)

Kumaon
Himalayas
(between Sikkim
Satluj Himalayas
and Kali (between
Rivers) Kosi and
Teesta
Rivers)

Fig. 3.7: Division of Himalayas

The Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas ‰ They are characterized by a ridge and valley topography,
‰ The Kashmir Himalayas are located between the Indus shaped by the lacustrine deposits of the Jhelum River.
and Satluj gorges. Spans approximately 560 kilometers Notable features include Ox-bow Lakes, Wular Lake, and
in length and 320 kilometers in width. Dal Lake.
‰ They are bound by the ZANSKAR range to the north and ‰ The “Valley of Kashmir” is known for the presence
the Shiwaliks to the south. of Karewas (Lacustrine accumulations) that provide

30 Indian Geography
 essential nutrients for Saffron cultivation, particularly in The Kumaun Himalayas
the Pulwama to Pampore districts. ‰ The Kumaun Himalayas extend over a distance of 320
kilometres, spanning from the Satluj to the Kali Gorges.
PAMIR KNOT
This region is renowned for its prominent mountain
KUN
LUN
MT
ranges, including Nag Tibba, Mussoorie, and segments
KA S.

UK
USH
RA
KO of the Greater Himalayas. Among its notable peaks are
D R
HIN AM
NANGA PARBAT
Nanda Devi, Kamet, Badrinath, and Kedarnath.
ZA
PI
R
NS
KA
‰ The presence of numerous glaciers and ice caps,
PA R
S H AL
NJ
Bara Lacha La especially in Uttarakhand, contributes significantly to the
R.

R.

R . KA
us

ab I ILA
formation of vital rivers such as the Gangotri, Yamunotri,
lum

W SR
A L Beas R
Ind

h en . AN
Jhe

C . IK Shipki La GE
R
Ra
v i
.
R AN
G H and Pindari.
luj
R E IM
Sat A
LA
YA ‰ The Kumaun Himalayas experience consistent winter
Tsangpo R.
snowfall, and they are characterized by coniferous
Yam

Peak
Gan

NE
una

Pass PAL
ga R

Mt. Range forests that thrive at altitudes exceeding 3200 meters.

R.

Furthermore, Deodar forests are found in the elevation

Fig. 3.8: The Kashmir/Punjab/Himachal Himalayas range of 1600 to 3200 meters.

Himachal 0 50 100 km

Pradesh
Shimla Gre
at H CHINA
Gangotri
ima (Tibet)
Uttarkashi 7139 m
Badrinath ayas
Badrinath
l
Kedarnath
al Joshimath
arhw
Mussoorie
Dehra G Tehri Nanda Devi
Haryana Dun
Trishul 7822 m Ka
Srinagar
7120 m
ti
Rishikesh

aon
una

HaridwarS
hiw Kum
Yam

alik Ranikhet Almora

s Pithoragarh
Corbett
Gang

National Park Nainital

Ramnagar Kathgodam
NEPAL
a

Haldwani Banbassa
Meerut Mahendranagar

Moradabad
New Delhi
Uttar Pradesh

Fig. 3.9: Kumaon Himalaya

The Central/ Nepal Himalayas

‰ Spanning a length of 800 kilometres, the Central/Nepal
Himalayas are situated between the rivers Kali in the
west and the Tista River in the east.
‰ Notable characteristics of this region include world-
renowned peaks, including Mt. Everest (Sagarmatha),
Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Annapu-rna, Gosainthan, and
Dhaulagiri.
‰ The presence of the Kathmandu valley. The Lesser
Himalaya, widely referred to as the Mahabharat range,
is within this area. Fig. 3.10: Central/Nepal Himalaya

Physiography of India 31
The Assam/ Eastern Himalayas
‰ Extending over a length of 750 kilometres, the Assam/
Eastern Himalayas are situated between the Tista and
Brahmaputra rivers in the west and east, respectively.
‰ The salient features of this region are predominant in Arunachal
Pradesh and Bhutan among the Eastern Himalayas.
‰ The occasional merging of the Greater Himalayas and
Shiwaliks can be seen at various locations.

Fig. 3.12: Latitudinal Division of Himalaya

Fig. 3.13: Trans-Himalayan Hogback Structure

Fig. 3.11: Assam/Eastern Himalaya The Great Himalayas (Inner Himalayas or Himadri)
‰ Constrained longitudinal valleys called duars and high
‰ The Great Himalayas, also known as the Inner Himalayas
rainfall, exceeding 200 centimeters. Fluvial erosion,
or Himadri Himalayas, are situated immediately south of
primarily driven by heavy rainfall, characterizes the
the Trans-Himalayas.
landscape of the Assam Himalayas.
‰ They are characterized by their average elevation of
Latitudinal Division of Himalayas approximately 6100 meters above sea level and a width
The Himalayas’ latitudinal division, also known as the ranging about 25 km.
horizontal division of the Himalayas, runs from the north to
‰ These mountains are rich in glaciers and serve as the
the south of the mountain range. Notably, the northern side
source of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers.
of the Great Himalayas is known as the Trans-Himalayas, and
it is made up of several sub-ranges, including the Karakoram, ‰ Notably, the southern side of the Greater Himalayas
Zanskar, Ladakh, and Kailash ranges. features steeper terrain than the northern side. Within
Based on this latitudinal division, the Himalayas can be this range, prominent mountain passes include Shipki-La,
categorized into the following four segments: Nathu-La, and Zoji-La, each holding significant strategic
Trans-Himalayan Range and historical value in the Himalayan region.
‰ The Trans-Himalayas encompass several notable ranges, The Middle Himalayas (Himachal Himalayas or Lesser
Himalayas)
including Ladakh, Karakoram, Kailash, and Zanskar.
‰ The Himachal Himalayas, often referred to as the
‰ The Karakoram Range marks the northernmost part of the
Lesser Himalayas or Middle Himalayas, encompas s the
Trans-Himalayas. Key features of this region include Mount
southern side of the Great Himalayas.
K2 which is also known as Godwin Austen, which stands as
‰ Key features of this region include, this range extends
the world’s second-highest peak, succeeding only Mount
to a width of nearly 60-80 kilometres. Elevations within
Everest. It is situated within the Karakoram Mountains.
this range vary from 3700 to 4500 meters above sea
‰ The Shyok River flows through the Karakoram and level. Prominent lesser Himalayan hill stations such as
Ladakh regions. The Indus River courses through Ladakh Nainital, Mussoorie, and Shimla are located here. The
and Zanskar. The Zanskar range is part of the Nanga renowned valleys of Kullu, Kashmir, and Kangra are also
Parbat region. situated between the Great and Lesser Himalayas.

32 Indian Geography
 K2 Karakoram Range

Nanga Parwat Ladakh Range

Saltoro Kangri

Zanskar Range
Great Himalayas
Pir Panjal
(Middle Himalayas) Kamet
Dhaula Dhar Range Mt Kailash
(Middle Himalayas) Kanchenjunga
Shiwalik Range Everest
Dhaulagiri Namcha Barwa
Nanda Devi
Annapurna Makalu
Gurla Mandhata Manaslu

Ganesh Cho Oyu

Gausishankar

Fig. 3.14: Latitudinal Divisions of Himalaya

Shiwalik Himalayas (Outer Himalayas) ‰ This region spans three states - Jammu and Kashmir,
‰ The Shiwalik Himalayas, also known as the Outer Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. It comprises three
Himalayas, constitute the southernmost mountain range distinct physiographic provinces - Kashmir Himalaya,
of the Himalayas. Himachal Himalaya, and Kumaon Himalaya (Uttarakhand
‰ Salient features of this region include, these mountains Himalayas).
exhibit an average width ranging from 10 to 50 kilometers. • Notable areas within the Kashmir Himalayan region
Elevations in the Shiwalik mountains fluctuate between includes the Ladakh plateau and the Kashmir valley.
600 to 1500 meters above sea level.
‰ Extensive valleys called Duns lie between the Lesser
Himalayas and the Shiwalik mountain ranges. Notable
and significant Duns in this region include Dehradun and
Kotli Dun.

Fig. 3.16: The Western Himalayas

• In the Himachal Himalayas, the Zanskar range
represents the Greater Himalayas, while the Pir
Fig. 3.15: Shiwalik Range Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges signify the Lesser
Region Name of Shiwaliks Himalayas. The Outer Himalaya is characterized by
Jammu Region Jammu Hills the Shiwalik range. The southern slopes of this region
Arunachal Pradesh Dafla, Miri, Abor, and Mishmi Hills are rugged, steep, and covered in forests, while the
Uttarakhand The Dhang Range, Dundwa Range northern slopes are relatively flat and gentle, and
Nepal Churia Ghat Hills feature plains adorned with lakes.
• The Kumaon Himalayas are located in Uttarakhand,
REGIONAL DIVISION OF HIMALAYAS extending from the Satluj to the Kali River. The
Mussoorie and Nag Tiba ranges represent the Lesser
The Western Himalayas Himalayas in the Kumaon Himalayas.
‰ Stretch approximately 880 kilometres, the Western • In this area, the Shiwalik range runs south of the
Himalayas extend from the Indus River in the west to the Mussoorie range, between the Ganga and Yamuna
Kali River in the east. rivers.

Physiography of India 33
 • Formation of Dun Valleys: The flat valleys situated The Eastern Himalayas (Assam Himalayas)
between the Lesser Himalaya and the Shiwalik range ‰ The Eastern Himalayas, also known as the Assam
are commonly referred to as “doons” or “Duns”. Himalayas, stretch for about 720 kilometres between
Shiwalik hills arose, blocking rivers from the higher the Tista and Brahmaputra rivers in the west and east,
Himalayas, are creating temporary lakes. As rivers respectively.
cut through the Shiwalik range, the lakes drained, ‰ These Himalayas are primarily situated in Arunachal
forming dun valleys like Dehra Dun, Chumbi, Patli Pradesh and Bhutan. Due to heavy rainfall, the Assam
Dun, etc. Himalayas have significant fluvial erosion.
‰ The Himalayan range takes a sharp southward turn after
the Dihang Gorge, running parallel to India’s border with
Myanmar. Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, Kohima Hills, Manipur
Hills, Mizo Hills (formerly the Lushai Hills), Tripura Hills,
and Barail Range are some of the local names for these
hill ranges.
Purvanchal Himalayas
‰ The Patkai Bum hills are mainly made up of sturdy
Fig. 3.17: Evolution of Dun Valleys sandstone, with elevations ranging from 2,000 to 3,000
meters. These hills transition into the Naga Hills, where
The Central Himalayas the highest peak, Saramati (3,826 meters), is located.
‰ The Central Himalayas stretch for 800 kilometres ‰ Patkai Bum and Naga Hills serve as the dividing ridge
between the Kali River in the west and the Tista River in between India and Myanmar. South of the Naga Hills are
the east. the Manipur hills, usually standing at elevations of less
‰ This region contains the highest peaks of the Great than 2,500 meters. These hills are separated from the
Himalaya range, including Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, Naga Hills by the Barail range.
Makalu, Annapurna, Gosainthan, and Dhaulagiri. ‰ Moving further south, the Barail Range extends westward
‰ The Lesser Himalaya is known as Mahabharat Lekh in into the Jaintia, Khasi, and Garo hills, representing an
this region. This region is traversed by rivers such as the eastern continuation of the Indian peninsular block.
They are set apart from the main block by the Ganga and
Ghaghara, Gandak, and Kosi.
Brahmaputra rivers.
‰ Notably, the lacustrine valleys of Kathmandu and
‰ South of the Manipur Hills is the Mizo Hills, previously
Pokhara, which were previously lakes, are located
known as the Lushai Hills. The highest point in this region
between the Great and Lesser Himalayas. The Shiwalik is the Blue Mountain (2,157 meters) located in the
range approaches the Lesser Himalaya to the east and southern part.
eventually disappears beyond the Narayani (Gandak)
River.
Tsangpo (Brahmaputra)
M Hills
ish
m
i

Dafla
BHUTAN Hills
ra
nas

h m aput ir Hills
Br a k
Ma

Tis Mi
ta Garo-Khasi-Jaintia
Hills
nge
a ra il Ra
BANGLADESH B

Mizo
Pa

Hills MYANMAR
d
ma

Fig. 3.18: Central Himalayan Region Fig. 3.19: Purvanchal Hills

34 Indian Geography
 formations that appear as if they have been tightly folded
around pivotal points.
IGNITE YOUR MIND

The Himalayan region hosts the largest honeybee,

Apis laboriosa, known for nesting on steep cliffs. Local
communities undertake perilous methods to harvest
the coveted red honey from these giant bees. Discuss
the vulnerabilities of indigenous communities in the
Himalayas to climate change and propose community-
centric adaptation strategies.

THE SYNTAXIAL BENDS OF THE

HIMALAYAS
The Himalayan mountain range, which typically stretches Fig. 3.20: Tectonic sketch map of India-Asia Collision
from east to west, experiences a unique change in direction ‰ Similarly, in Arunachal Pradesh, there is a noticeable
at its western and eastern ends. These sudden turns, known hairpin bend where the mountains sharply change
as syntaxial bends, cause the mountain ranges to sharply direction from east-west to north-south after crossing
curve southward. the Brahmaputra River. This shift also led to a significant
‰ In the western region, near Nanga Parbat, the Indus alteration in the tectonic strike, transitioning from an
River has carved a deep gorge, resulting in geological eastward to a southward trend.

Fig. 3.21: Highest Peaks of the Himalayas

• These rivers sustain vast populations and nourish
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE agriculture across Asia.
HIMALAYAN REGION ‰ Biodiversity Hotspot:
• The Himalayas are a biodiversity hotspot, harboring
The Himalayan region holds immense significance due to unique flora and fauna adapted to varied altitudes
various factors, encompassing geographical, ecological, and climates.
cultural, and economic aspects. Here are the key points
highlighting the significance of the Himalayan region: • From snow leopards and yaks to Bengal tigers and
‰ Water Tower of Asia: one-horned rhinos, the region is a biodiverse haven.
• The Himalayas act as a colossal water tower, feeding ‰ Climate Regulator: They play a crucial role in regulating
major rivers like the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, global climate, influencing monsoon patterns and
and Mekong. contributing to temperature regulation.

Physiography of India 35
‰ Cradle of Civilizations: The Himalayas have nurtured cultural, and geopolitical significance demands our respect
ancient civilizations, witnessed rich human history, and and protection. By understanding and appreciating their
hosted spiritual traditions. multifaceted importance, we can work towards ensuring a
‰ Pilgrimage Sites: Home to sacred sites for Hinduism,
sustainable future for this awe-inspiring region and all who
Buddhism, and other religions, attracting millions of call it home.
pilgrims seeking spiritual solace.
The Third Pole
‰ Indigenous Communities: Diverse indigenous
‰ The “Third Pole” refers to the high mountainous
communities call the Himalayas home, offering traditional
region of the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) range,
knowledge and practices for sustainable living.
often referred to as the “water tower of Asia.”
‰ Strategic Location: Forming a natural border, the
Himalayas shape the geopolitical landscape of countries
Pamir
like India, China, Nepal, Bhutan, and Pakistan. Ka
rak Kunlun Qilian
ora
m
‰ Water Security: Control and management of Himalayan G
Tangg
ula
Loess Plateau
Him angdise
water resources are crucial, leading to complex water- ala
yas
Nyainqentanglha
sharing agreements and geopolitical considerations. Qomolangma
ua
n
ngd
‰ Tourism and Adventure: A magnet for adventure seekers He

and tourists, the Himalayas’ tourism industry plays a vital

role in the region’s economy.
‰ Origin of Rivers: The Himalayas serve as the origins of Fig. 3.22: Geographical Location
India’s major rivers, because of their abundant rainfall, of Third Pole
extensive snowfields, and large glaciers. These rivers ‰ This region encompasses the Himalayas and other
carry fertile soil down to the plains, making the northern associated mountain ranges, including the Hindu
region very fertile. Kush, Karakoram, and Pamir.
‰ Key For Energy: India relies heavily on rivers ‰ It is called the “Third Pole” because, after the North

originating in the Himalayas for energy. About 33% and South Poles, it contains the largest area of frozen
of the country’s thermal electricity and 52% of its water in the form of glaciers and snow outside the
hydropower depend on these rivers, which receive polar regions.
water from melting glaciers, making them crucial for ‰ The Third Pole is a crucial source of freshwater for
energy and water security. numerous rivers and supports the livelihoods of
‰ Affects the Weather: The Himalayas have a significant
millions of people in Asia.
impact on India’s climate. Their height and position cause
rainfall by intercepting the summer monsoons from the The Hindu Kush Himalayan Assessment Report
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. They also serve as a on Glacier Retreat in the Himalayas
barrier, keeping cold air from Central Asia from entering The Hindu Kush Himalayan Assessment Report is a
India. comprehensive study published in 2019 that focuses
‰ Rich in Forest: The Himalayan ranges are rich in forest on the impacts of climate change on the environment,
resources, ranging from tropical to alpine vegetation. ecosystems, and communities in the Hindu Kush
These forests supply fuelwood and raw materials to Himalayan region. One significant aspect of the report is
a variety of industries. There are also many valuable its examination of glacial retreat in the Himalayas due to
medicinal plants in this region. climate change. Some key findings include:
‰ Popular for Tourism: The Himalayas attract tourists due ‰ Glacial Retreat: Rising temperatures, attributed to
to their stunning landscapes and pleasant climate. The global climate change, have led to increased melting
hilly areas offer relief from the summer heat making of glaciers, resulting in their retreat over time. For
them popular tourist destinations. instance, Gangotri Glacier, one of the largest glaciers
in the Himalayas and the source of the Ganges River,
The Himalayas are more than just a majestic mountain range;
has been experiencing significant retreat.
they are a vital life force for the planet. Their environmental,

36 Indian Geography
 ‰ Water Resources Impact: Glaciers act as natural ‰ Ecosystem Changes: The shifting snowlines and
reservoirs, and their meltwater feeds into major rivers, vegetation zones impact biodiversity and the
providing a steady source of freshwater. The reduction livelihoods of communities dependent on natural
in glacier size and the alteration of the timing and resources. Warmer temperatures are causing the
magnitude of water runoff can impact downstream upward migration of plant species, leading to shifts in
water availability. For example, in the Indus River, alpine vegetation zones in the Himalayan ecosystem.
originating from the Tibetan Plateau and fed by glacial
‰ Socioeconomic Impacts: Changes in water
meltwater from the Himalayas, water availability has
availability, particularly in the context of agriculture
reduced for agriculture and hydropower.
and hydropower, can have significant socioeconomic
‰ Risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs): The
implications for communities in the Hindu Kush
report emphasizes the growing risk of Glacial Lake
Outburst Floods (GLOFs) as glacial lakes form due Himalayan region. For instance, across the Hindu Kush
to the accumulation of meltwater. The collapse or Himalayan region, changes in precipitation patterns,
overflow of these lakes can result in devastating floods including altered monsoon dynamics and variations
downstream. In February 2021, Chamoli district in in snowfall, impact crop yields and agricultural
Uttarakhand witnessed flash floods caused by GLOFs. practices.

Important Glaciers, Valleys, Passes in Himalaya

Himalayan Glaciers
The Himalayan region is home to around 15,000 glaciers, covering an area of approximately 500,000 square kilometres.
Main Glaciers of the Himalayan Region
Glacier Name Location Important Features
Siachen Karakoram Largest in Nubra Valley of the Himalayas and second longest glacier outside
the Polar region.
Biafo Karakoram (Baltistan Flows into the Shigar River.
region of Ladakh)
Chogo Lungma Karakoram Located in Gilgit Baltistan.
Gangotri Uttarakhand Originates below the Chaukhamba Peak and is also known as 'Gomukh.'
Rimo Siachen Area Ladakh Drains into the Shyok River.
Hispar Gilgit-Baltistan World's longest glacial system.
Zemu Sikkim/Nepal Largest glacier in the Eastern Himalaya, feeds River Teesta.
Sonapani Chandra Valley of Lahaul Longest glaciers of the Pir Panjal range near the Rohtang Pass.
and Spiti region
Milam Uttarakhand Major source of River Gori Ganga. Biggest glacier in Kumaon Himalaya.
Rupal Kashmir Located in the Greater Himalaya, it flows northeastward.
Gangri Nun Kun Himalayan Range Largest glacier in the Nun Kun peak.
Mountains
Bara Shigri Chandra Valley of Lahaul in Second longest glacier in the Himalayas. Source of water for River Chenab.
Himachal Pradesh Deposits of antimony.
Diamir (Nanga Kashmir (Pakistan Diamir mountains are known as the 'King of Mountains'
Parbat) Occupied)
Pindari Kumaon Region of Gives rise to River Pindari.
Uttarakhand
Chong Kumdan Karakoram Located in Ladakh; they feed and are a threat to Shyok River and might block
it.

Physiography of India 37
 Karakoram Range Pir Panjal Range Kumaon-Garhwal Central-Nepal glaciers Kanchenjunga-Everest
glaciers glaciers glaciers glaciers

1. Siachen glacier 1. S onapani glacier 1. Gangotri glacier 1. Yepokangara glacier 1. Rongbuk

(Nubra Valley) (Chandra Valley) 2. Milam glacier 2. Lidanda Glacier glacier(Northern side
2. Hispar glacier 2. B
 ara Shigri of Mt.Everest)
3. Mana glacier 3. Chhuling glacier
3. Biafo glacier glacier(Chandra 2. Khumbu
4. Bhagirath-Kharak 4. Annapurna glacier
Valley) glacier(Southern side
4. Baltoro glacier glacier 5. Mayondi glacier
3. Gangri glacier of Mt.Everest)
5. Godwin Austen 5. Satopanch glacier
4. Rakhiot glacier 3. Zemu glacier
glacier 6. Sankalpa glacier
5. Buzhi glacier 4. Kanchenjunga glacier
6. Punmah glacier 7. Raikane glacier
6. Tashan glacier 5. Yalung glacier
7. Batura glacier
6. Talung glacier
8. Chogo Lungma
glacier 7. Alukthang glacier
9. Pasu glacier 8. Kangshung glacier
10. Sasaini/Ghulkin 9. Barun glacier
glacier
11. Rimo glacier
12. Chong Kumdan
glacier
13. Kichik Kumdan
glacier
14. Aktash glacier

Glacier condition % Area loss of

Kang Yatsze Massif Advancing basins (1960-2000)
Altitude Stable 0-10%
4000 metres Retreating 11-20%
above sea level (masl) 21-30%
31-40%
Retreat
3 m/year

Zing Zing Bar

Altitude
4079 masl Gangotri
Retreat Altitude
22 m/year 3415 masl
Retreat Jongsang
20 m/year Altitude
5500 masl
Retreat
38 m/year
Sutri Dhaka
Altitude
4503 masl
Retreat
11.8 m/year
Chota Shigri
Altitude
3500 masl
Retreat
6.5 m/year Bara Shigri Dokriani
Altitude Altitude South Lohnak
4200 masl 3800 masl Altitude
Retreat Retreat 5210 masl
30 m/year 17 m/year Retreat
42 m/year

Fig. 3.23: Retreat of Glaciers in Himalayas

38 Indian Geography
 variance is mainly due to the changing latitude, from
about 28° N in Kanchenjunga to 36° N in the Karakoram.
IGNITE YOUR MIND
Extent of Glaciers
Would you believe me if I told you Kangchenjunga, the ‰ Glacial Coverage: The Himalayas encompass a vast area
world’s third-highest mountain, is revered as sacred of glaciers and snowfields, totalling approximately 40,000
by Sikkim’s people and neighboring regions? Climbing square kilometres in India. These icy formations stretch
its main summit is deemed forbidden to honor its from the Karakoram region in Jammu and Kashmir to
divine importance. Assess the environmental impact Arunachal Pradesh.
of mountaineering activities on Kangchenjunga and ‰ Numerous Glaciers: Within this vast region, an estimated
other himalayan mountains. What measures can be
15,000 glaciers are distributed between the bends in the
taken to minimize this impact?
eastern and western Himalayas.

Snowline in the Himalayas Snowline Heights

The snowline on a mountain demarcates the boundary Regional Differences: Snowline altitude varies across
beyond which perpetual snow is present throughout the different parts of the Himalayas:
year. In the Eastern Himalayas and Kumaon Himalayas, Influence of the Tibetan Plateau
the snowline is situated at an elevation of approximately
‰ Tibetan Side: On the Tibetan side of the Himalayas, the
3,500 meters above sea level. Conversely, in the Western
snowline is about 900 meters higher than in neighbouring
Himalayas, the snowline is lower, at approximately 2,500
areas. This elevation difference is due to the arid nature
meters above sea level.
of the region and limited moisture availability.
Factors Influencing Snowline Variation Moisture-Altitude Relationship
Latitude Differences ‰ Moisture Levels: There is a straightforward connection
‰ Eastern and Kumaon Himalayas: The snowline here is between atmospheric moisture levels and the altitude
around 3,500 meters above sea level. of the snowline. Typically, regions with higher moisture
‰ Western Himalayas: Conversely, in the western content experience lower snowline altitudes, while drier
Himalayas, the snowline sits at about 2,500 meters. This areas have higher snowlines.

Mountain Passes in the Himalayas

Pass Name Location Significance
Connects Ladakh with Xinjiang (Sinkiang) province of China. Closed during
Aghil Pass North of K2 in Karakoram
winter.
Banihal Pass Pir Panjal range Joins Jammu with Srinagar via Jawahar Tunnel.
Bara Lacha Himachal Pradesh Connects Manali and Leh. Snow-covered from November to mid-May.
Arunachal Pradesh Connects Arunachal Pradesh with Lhasa (capital of Tibet).
Bomdi La
(East of Bhutan)
Connects Kashmir Valley with Deosai Plains of Ladakh. Closed for trade
Burzail Pass Srinagar to Gilgit Valley
and transport during winter.
Connects Ladakh with Tibet. The road leads to the town of Tangtse. Pass
Chang-La Greater Himalayas
has a temple dedicated to Chang La Baba.
Greater Himalayas (Kullu and Spiti Provides an easier and shorter alternative to the traditional Pin Parbati
Debsa Pass
districts of Himachal Pradesh) Pass route.
Dihang Pass Arunachal Pradesh Connects Arunachal Pradesh with Mandalay (Myanmar).
Diphu Pass Arunachal Pradesh (Eastern part) Tri-point borders of India, Myanmar and China.
Ladakh Union Territory and Tibet Connects Ladakh to Tibet (China). Features difficult terrain and steep
Imis La
in China slopes.
Khardung La Near Leh in Ladakh region Connects Leh with Siachen Glacier. One of the highest motorable pass.
Connects Ladakh to Sinkiang Province of China. Snow-covered from
Khunjerab Pass Karakoram Mountains in Ladakh
November to mid-May.
Joins Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar. Open for trade throughout the
Likhapani Arunachal Pradesh
year.

Physiography of India 39
 Pass Name Location Significance
Connects Uttarakhand to Tibet. Facilitates pilgrims for Manasarovar Lake.
Lipu Lekh Pithoragarh district, Uttarakhand
Important border post for trade with China.
Connects Uttarakhand to Tibet. Remains snow-covered for 6 months
Mana Pass Uttarakhand
during the winters.
Connects Uttarakhand to Tibet. Pilgrims for Manasarovar cross this pass.
Mangsha Dhura Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand
Landslides are a major problem.
Muling La North of Gangotri, Uttarakhand Connects Uttarakhand to Tibet.
Forms an offshoot of the ancient Silk Road. One of the three trading
Nathu La Sikkim
border posts between India and China. Reopened in 2006.
Niti Pass Uttarakhand Joins Uttarakhand to Tibet.
Pangsau Pass Arunachal Pradesh Connects Arunachal Pradesh to Mandalay (Myanmar).
Pensi La Greater Himalayas Connects Suru Valley to Zaskar Valley (Ladakh).
Traditional pass between Jammu and Kashmir. It provided the easiest,
Pir Panjal Pass Mughal Road
shortest metalled road access.
The highest pass in the Tarim Basin on the ancient caravan route between
Qara Tagh Pass Karakoram Mountains
Leh and Yarkand. A branch of the Great Silk Road.
Eastern side of Pir Panjal Range Connects Kullu, the Lahaul and Spiti valleys of Himachal Pradesh. Road
Rohtang Pass
(51 km from Manali) access was built by the Border Road Organization (BRO).
Connects Himachal Pradesh to Tibet (National Highway 5). Important
Shipki La Himachal Pradesh
border post at Indo-China border. River Satluj flows through it.
Thang La Ladakh One of the highest motorable passes in India.
Links Pindari Valley to Milam Valley. Steep and rugged terrain makes it a
Traill’s Pass Uttarakhand (Pindari Glacier)
difficult pass to be crossed.
Joins Srinagar with Kargil and Leh. Faces heavy snowfall. Closed from
December to mid-May. The beacon force of BRO maintains the road. The
Kargil District
Zoji La centre has approved Rs. 6809 crores to build Asia’s longest bi-directional
(100 km from Srinagar)
Zoji La Pass Tunnel, which will reduce the travel time to cross the Zoji La
pass to 15 min from 3.5 h.

Mintaka Pass Parpik Pass

Khunjerab Pass
Aghil Pass
Qara Tagla
Khardung La
Burzil Pass
Zoji La Lanak La
Pir-Panjal Pass Pensi La
Banihal Pass Chang La
Bara Lacha La
Imis La
Debsa Pass Muling La Mangsha Dhura
Rohtang Pass Mana Pass Dihang Pass
Niti Pass
Yonggyap Pass
Shipki La Lipu Lekh
Nathu La
Traill’s Pass Jeleo La
Bom Di La Dipher Pass
Kumjawng Pass

Hpungan Pass
Lekhapani Pass

Chankan Pass

Fig. 3.24: Mountain Passes In Himalayas

40 Indian Geography
 deposits have accumulated, forming the extensive alluvial
Kashmir Valley and Karewas plain we see today.
Kashmir Valley and the surrounding Karewas are
extremely important in the Himalayan region. Karewas
are lacustrine deposits found in the Valley of Kashmir and The Himalayan Front Fault (HFF)
Bhadarwah Valley of Jammu division. These flat-topped The Himalayan Front Fault (HFF) is a geological fault that
mounds border the Kashmir Valley on all sides and are marks the boundary between the Himalayan foothills
distinguished by the presence of fossils of mammals and, and the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This fault is the youngest
in some areas, peat. and southernmost thrust structure within the Himalaya
‰ Around 1 million years ago, during the Pleistocene deformation front. It’s classified as a reverse fault,
Period, the entire Valley of Kashmir was submerged indicating that older rock layers have moved over younger
underwater. Subsequently, due to internal geological ones. The HFF is a significant source of earthquakes in the
forces, the Baramullah Gorge was formed, allowing Himalayan region and has contributed to the formation
the lake to drain through this gorge. of the Siwalik Hills, a range of foothills along the southern
edge of the Himalayas.
‰ The deposits left behind in this process are known as
Karewas. Karewas has an average thickness of about
1400 meters. Geographical Dimensions of the Northern
‰ Over time, the Karewas have been raised, dissected, Plains
and relocated due to natural processes like subaerial The Northern Plains span approximately 2400 kilometres
denudation and the influence of the Jhelum River, from west to east.
resulting in their present positions. ‰ The width of the plain varies significantly along its length.
Karewas play a crucial role in agriculture, primarily It measures around 90–100 kilometres in Assam, 160
devoted to the cultivation of saffron, almonds, walnuts, kilometres near Rajmahal in Jharkhand, 200 kilometres
apples, and orchards. Saffron cultivation, in particular,
in Bihar, 280 kilometres near Allahabad, and expands
contributes significantly to the income of local growers.
to 500 kilometres in Punjab. Generally, the width of the
plain increases as you move from east to west.
THE NORTHERN PLAINS ‰ These plains are primarily composed of alluvial
sediments transported by rivers originating in both the
The Northern Plains of India are situated to the south of the
Himalayan and Peninsular regions.
Shiwalik mountain range, separated by the Himalayan Front
Fault (HFF). This expansive plain serves as a transitional ‰ The exact depth of alluvial deposits remains uncertain;
region between the northern Himalayan terrain and the however, recent estimates suggest an average depth of
southern Peninsular India. 1300 to 1400 meters in the southern part of the plain
These plains have been shaped through the deposition (north of Bundelkhand). As one moves towards the
of alluvial sediments carried by the Indus, Ganga, and Shiwalik region, the depth of alluvium becomes even
Brahmaputra rivers, and their tributaries. Over time, these greater.

Fig. 3.25: Topographic Map of India

Physiography of India 41
The Northern Plains are remarkably consistent in their Miocene Period (23.03 mya - 5.333 mya), filled with
physical landscape over vast distances. However, at smaller sediments from Himalayan rivers.
scales, the landscape exhibits variation due to features like • Evidence includes limestone rocks in the Kumaun-
river bluffs, Bhurs (natural levees), levees, dead-arms of river Garhwal region, saline water lakes in Rajasthan, and
channels, ravines, and khols (small gullies). the joining of islands in the Gulf of Kachchh with the
The plains are characterized by the shifting courses of rivers, mainland.
especially in flood-prone areas. This dynamic process alters the ‰ Remnant of the Tethys:
geography of the plains. Despite the damage caused by frequent • Some geologists propose that the Northern Plains are
floods in terms of human life and property, they bring benefits remnants of the ancient Tethys Sea. After the Shiwalik
by depositing fresh layers of nutrient-rich silt in the floodplains uplift, the remaining Tethys part formed a large trough
each year, enhancing the fertility of the soils.
connected to the Bay of Bengal in the east and the
Arabian Sea in the west. Rivers from the Himalayas
EVOLUTION OF NORTHERN PLAINS deposited sediments in this trough, shaping the
Northern Plains.
Different Theories About Evolution of
‰ Recent Views:
Northern Plains
• According rto recent geological perspectives, the
‰ Alluviation of the Foredeep:
Northern Plains of India are a sag in the Earth’s
• Proposed by Edward Suess, this theory suggests that a
crust created by the northward drift of the Indian
“foredeep” formed in front of the rising Himalayas. It
Subcontinent.
created a large synclinorium with an uneven bottom
as the Himalayan thrust was stopped by the rigid • This sag formed between the drifting subcontinent
Peninsular India. and the soft sediments in the Tethyan basin, which
• The Northern Plains were shaped by the alluvial crumpled and uplifted into a mountain system.
deposits from the Himalayan rivers, with the Subsequently, river deposits filled the sag, shaping
foredeep’s bed resting on the hard crystalline rocks the Northern Plains.
of the Peninsular region.
The Foredeep
‰ Infilling of a Rift Valley:
A foredeep is a long and narrow depression that forms
• Sir G. Burrard proposed that the Northern Plains resulted
in front of a mountain range due to the Earth’s crust
from filling a rift valley created during the Himalayan
bending. It gets filled with sediments eroded from the
formation. This rift valley formed between two parallel
mountains and is valuable in understanding the history
faults, one along the southern boundary of the Shiwaliks
of mountain formation and containing oil and gas
and the other along the northern boundary of the
Peninsular region. Burrard cited similar rift valleys in the resources.
Himalayas and the Peninsular region as evidence. The Sag
‰ Recession of the Sea: A sag is a wide and shallow depression in the Earth’s
• Blandford’s theory suggests that during the Eocene crust, typically resulting from tectonic forces. Sags are
Period (66 mya - 23.03 mya), Peninsular India was frequently found in rift valleys and sedimentary basins,
connected to Africa. Two seas existed during this and they can house reserves of oil and gas.
time, which receded as the Himalayas rose during the
Main Central Thrust (MCT)
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)
Himalayan Front Fault (HFF)
Indus Suture (IS)

Tibet
Plateau Vindhyan
Highland
Indo-Gangetic Alluvium

Fig. 3.26: Basement Complex-Hard Crystalline Rocks Fig. 3.27: Relief Features of Northern Plains

42 Indian Geography
 The Bhangar Plains
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
‰ These plains are upland alluvial tracts of India’s Northern
(GENETIC DIVISIONS) OF Plains formed by older alluvium. The Bhangar formations
NORTHERN PLAINS OF INDIA were formed during the middle Pleistocene Period and
are located above the river’s flood limits.
The Northern Plains of India is a vast, gently sloping region
‰ The soil here is dark, humus-rich, and productive. It
primarily formed by the deposition of sediments carried by
the Himalayan and Vindhyan rivers. The Northern Plains of contains concretions and nodules of impure calcium
India can be divided into the following sub-regions. carbonate, also known as “Kankar.” In drier areas,
Bhangar may exhibit small areas with saline and alkaline
The Bhabar Plain efflorescences known as ‘Reh’, ‘Kallar’, or ‘Thur’.
‰ This plain lies south of the Shiwalik range, stretching from
Jammu Division to Assam. It varies in width, being wider
in the western plains and measuring 8 to 15 kilometres.
‰ The Bhabar Plain is made up of gravel and unsorted
sediments deposited by rivers flowing from the
Himalayan region and the Shiwaliks.
‰ Due to high porosity, smaller streams disappear here,
leaving only large rivers to flow on the surface. It’s not
Fig. 3.28: Bhangar Plains
suitable for crop cultivation and is mainly inhabited by
Gujjars, who are cattle keepers. This area supports the
growth of big trees with extensive roots.
The Khadar Plains
‰ The Khadar Plains are new alluvium tracts along river
The Tarai Tract courses that are enriched by fresh silt deposits each year
‰ Located south of the Bhabar tract, the Tarai Tract has a during the rainy season. Sand, silt, clay, and mud make
width of 15 to 30 kilometres. It’s wider in the eastern up Khadar land.
parts of the Northern Plains in the Brahmaputra region ‰ After independence, this region has been cultivated,
due to high rainfall. with crops like sugarcane, rice, wheat, maize, oilseeds,
legumes, and fodder crops.
‰ The Tarai is known for excessive dampness, dense
forests, rich wildlife, and mosquito infestations. Delta Plains
Historically, it was marshy with jungle and wild grass ‰ The deltaic plain is an extension of the Khadar land,
along the southern edge of the Shiwaliks. However, covering approximately 1.9 lakh square kilometres in
it has been largely converted for agriculture in states Ganga’s lower reaches.
like Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and ‰ It forms as the river flows slowly through this area, and
it is mostly made up of old mud, new mud, and marsh.
Jammu Division (J&K).
In the delta region, the uplands are called ‘Chars’, while
‰ Crops grown here include sugarcane, rice, wheat, maize, marshy areas are known as ‘Bils’. The delta of the Ganga
oilseeds, pulses, and fodder. is actively spreading towards the Bay of Bengal.
Comparison of Physiographic Divisions of Northern Plains of India
Plain Location Characteristics Land Use and Inhabitants
Bhabar Plain South of Shiwalik range, Made up of gravel and unsorted sediments Not suitable for cultivation, inhabited
Jammu to Assam. from the Himalayas and Shiwaliks. Smaller by Gujjars (cattle keepers). Supports
streams disappear. big trees.
Tarai Tract South of Bhabar tract, Excessively damp, dense forests, rich Known for sugarcane, rice, wheat,
wider in the east. wildlife, mosquito infestations. Was marshy, maize, oilseeds, pulses, and fodder.
now converted for agriculture.
Bhangar Plains Alluvial tracts, formed by Dark, rich in humus, contains concretions of Productive land with ‘Kankar’,
older alluvium. calcium carbonate. Above flood limits. sometimes with saline areas (‘Reh’,
‘Kallar’, ‘Thur’).
Khadar Plains New alluvium tracts along Consists of sand, silt, clay, and mud. Enriched Cultivated with sugarcane, rice, wheat,
the river courses. by fresh deposits of silt annually. maize, oilseeds, legumes, fodder.
Delta Plains Lower reaches of Ganga Consists of old mud, new mud, and marsh. Actively extending towards the Bay of
River. Uplands (‘Chars’) and marshy areas (‘Bils’). Bengal.

Physiography of India 43
Regional Division of Northern Plains
The Northern Plains of India can be categorized into four distinct regions based on their geographical and climatic
characteristics:

Fig. 3.29: Division of Northern Plains of India

‰ The Plains of Rajasthan • Dry riverbeds like Saraswati and Drisdavati indicate
• These plains are found to the west of the Aravalli that the area was once fertile. Currently, the Luni
Range and cover the Marusthali and Bagar regions River is the only one flowing through this region,
of Rajasthan. The Rajasthan plains cover an area of eventually reaching the Arabian Sea through the
around 175,000 sq km. This plain generally slopes Rann of Kachchh.
from northeast to southwest, with lower elevations • Today, most of the Rajasthan Plains are arid
near the Luni River in Gujarat. deserts characterized by sand dunes and barchans
RAJASTHAN (Barkhans). Playa lakes are common in the basins,
Physical Regions and some alluvial tracts known as Rohi exist in the
Eastern Plains
Gaggar Plains southwestern part. The northeastern part features
Sekhawati
the dry beds of the Ghaggar, known as the Ghaggar
Region Plains.
Western Desert Plains

Bhangar Plains The Sea Recession

The last time the sea receded in Rajasthan, during the
Jurassic period. This retreat of the sea happened because
the Indian subcontinent moved northward and eventually
Aravalli
collided with Asia.
The Hadoti Region
‰ The Punjab-Haryana Plains
Fig. 3.30: Rajasthan Plains • The Punjab-Haryana Plains feature bluffs (steep slopes
• Evidence of past sea recession is found in the or rounded cliffs, usually overlooking a shoreline or
presence of saltwater lakes like Sambhar, Degana, other body of water), locally known as Dhaya, rising
Didwana Kuchaman, Lunkaransar-Tal, and Pachpadra. as high as three meters or more, and Khadar belts
For instance, Sambhar Lake, covering about 300 sq known as Bet. The undulating topography south of
km during the rainy season, is located approximately the Shiwaliks experiences erosion due to seasonal
65 km northwest of Jaipur. streams called Chos.
• During the Permo-carboniferous Period • The southwestern parts, particularly the Hissar
(300 million years ago), much of the Rajasthan plain District, have sandy terrain with shifting sand dunes.
was submerged under the sea. The Satluj, Beas, and Ravi are the only perennial

44 Indian Geography
 rivers, while the Ghaggar (the ancient Saraswati) is and Kosi are the main left-hand tributaries of the
a seasonal stream that flows through Ambala Cantt, Ganga in this region, while the Son is an important
with a course about ten km wide and water only right-hand tributary.
during the rainy season. • The Lower Ganga Plain
ˆ This region is bordered by Assam and Bangladesh
to the east and the Chotanagpur Plateau to the
west, extending from Patna in the west to the foot
of the Darjeeling Himalaya in the north and the
Bay of Bengal in the south.

    Fig. 3.31: Punjab- Haryana Plains

• The Punjab-Haryana Plains can be further divided Fig. 3.32: Division of Ganga Plains
into the Bari-Doab (between the Beas and Ravi), Bist ˆ The surface of the Lower Ganga Plain is mostly
Doab (between the Beas and Satluj), Malwa Plain uniform, with minor variations. It is divided into
(central part), and Haryana-Bhiwani Bagar (southern sections by the main streams and their tributaries.
and southeastern parts). ˆ Rivers such as the Tista, Jaldhakia, and Sankosh
‰ The Ganga Plains: The Ganga Plains stretch across a vast drain the eastern part of the plain and join the
area from the Yamuna River basin in the west to the Brahmaputra. Rivers such as the Mahananda,
eastern border with Bangladesh. The Ganga Plains display Ajay, and Damodar dominate the western region.
diverse land features, including Bhabar, Tarai, Bhangar, ˆ The subsidence of a portion of Peninsular India
Khadar, river bluffs (levees), abandoned river channels, between the Rajmahal Hills and the Meghalaya
Khols, dead channels, Bills, Tals, and badlands. These Plateau, followed by sedimentation by the Ganga
and Brahmaputra rivers, formed this plain. In the
plains can be divided into the following sub-regions:
southern region of the Lower Ganga Plain lies the
• The Upper Ganga Plain Sundarbans Delta, the largest mangrove swamp
ˆ This region encompasses the Ganga-Yamuna globally.
Doab, Rohilkhand Division, and parts of the Agra
Division. The Upper Ganga Plain features Bhur, The Brahmaputra Plain
which are undulating sandy deposits. ‰ The region is surrounded by high mountains, except
in the west. It has a gradual slope from the Meghalaya
ˆ It is known for successfully growing sugarcane,
Plateau on the southern side. This region is also referred
rice, wheat, maize, pulses, mustard, vegetables,
to as the Brahmaputra Valley, Assam Valley, or Assam
and orchards.
Plain, primarily because most of the Brahmaputra Valley
• The Middle Ganga Plain
is located in Assam.
ˆ This region, which encompasses central and
eastern Uttar Pradesh as well as the Bihar Plains China

up to Muzaffarpur and Patna, has an area of Brahmputra River Basin

approximately 144,400 square kilometres. Nepal
Bhutan
ˆ It is bordered to the north by the Shiwaliks and has
thick alluvial deposits with less Kankar formation. Ganges River Basin
Bangladesh Meghna River Basin
The Middle Ganga Plain is fairly uniform and
unremarkable, with a few exceptions such as river India Myanmar (Burma)
levees, bluffs, ox-bow lakes, Dhus, Tals, Jala, and
Chaurs (marshy lands).
ˆ Because of the region’s low-gradient landscape,
river courses change frequently. The Gandak Fig. 3.33: The Brahmaputra Plain

Physiography of India 45
‰ The western boundary of this area is marked by the ‰ Energy Resources: The sedimentary rocks in the plains
Indo-Bangladesh border and the lower Ganga Plain’s hold deposits of petroleum and natural gas, significantly
boundary. It is a flat region created by the gradual contributing to the country’s energy resources. Regions
accumulation of sediment carried by the Brahmaputra like Assam, parts of Bihar, and the Indo-Gangetic plains
River and its tributaries. in Uttar Pradesh have considerable petroleum reserves.
‰ Numerous tributaries from the north converge into the ‰ High Population Density: Even though the plains cover
Brahmaputra River, creating multiple alluvial fans. This less than one-third of the country’s total land area, they
fertile plain is ideal for cultivating crops like rice and jute. are home to over 40% of India’s total population. States
This branching of tributaries results in river meandering like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have some of the highest
and the formation of oxbow lakes. Large marshy areas population densities in the country.
are a prominent feature of this region. ‰ Cultural and Religious Significance: The Northern Plains
‰ The coarse alluvial debris from the alluvial fans has led have been witness to numerous religious, political,
to the development of semi-terai conditions. cultural, and social movements throughout history.
They are the birthplace of several major world religions,
Significance of the Northern Plains of India including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
The Northern Plains of India hold immense significance due Additionally, these plains house sacred places and
to their rich cultural heritage and fertile soil. They are known pilgrimage centres like Amritsar, Hardwar, Allahabad,
for their ability to support a wide range of crops from both Varanasi, Kushinagar, and Bodh-Gaya.
tropical and temperate regions. Here are the key points
highlighting their importance: THE PENINSULAR INDIA
‰ Fertile Soil for Agriculture: The soils in these plains are
The Peninsular Plateau is the biggest physiographic unit of
very fertile, making them ideal for growing different
India, occupying 50% of the country’s landmass. It stretches
crops like Rice (including Basmati in Punjab), Wheat
from the Aravallis in the northwest to the Shillong plateau in
(from Haryana to Uttar Pradesh), Maize, and non-cereal
the northeast and Kanyakumari in the south. The plateau is
crops like Sugarcane (mainly in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar),
triangular in shape and consists of numerous small plateaus
Jute (widely grown in West Bengal), and oilseeds. This
and mountains measuring around 16 lakh square km. The
productive land is often called the “Granary of India.”
Peninsular Plateau is one of India’s oldest and most stable
‰ Continuous Water Supply: Many rivers in the Northern
landmasses.
Plains flow all year round, providing a steady water source
‰ The Peninsular Plateau is characterized by a composition
for agriculture. For instance, the Ganges, Yamuna, and
of ancient rocks, including the Dharwar rock system,
their tributaries are vital for farming in states like Uttar
Archean Gneiss, and the Schist. Additionally, igneous
Pradesh and Bihar. Constructing canals from these rivers,
Basalt rocks are prevalent in the Deccan plateau
like the Upper Ganga Canal, further improves agricultural
region. This plateau has experienced minimal structural
productivity.
alterations since its formation and has never been under
‰ Abundant Groundwater: The Northern Plains have a high
the sea.
water table underground, which is used for irrigation,
‰ The rivers within the Peninsular Plateau have, over time,
household needs, and industry through tube wells and
reached their base level due to their considerable age,
pumps. States like Punjab and Haryana heavily rely on
resulting in the development of wide and shallow valleys.
groundwater for farming.
The plateau generally elevates showing a west-to-east
‰ Easy River Navigation: The gentle slopes of the rivers
gradient, which is evident from the flow of rivers, except
in the plains make long-distance navigation possible, in the Narmada-Tapi rift valley.
supporting trade and transportation. The Ganges, for
example, has been a crucial trade route historically. Physiographic Features of the Peninsular
‰ Infrastructure Development: The flat landscape of Plateau
the plains makes it easier to build roads and railways, The Peninsular Plateau is divided into two broad physiographic
enhancing connectivity and economic growth. The Grand regions: the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.
Trunk Road, linking Kolkata and Delhi, is one of India’s The Central Highlands are located in the northern part
oldest and most important roadways. of the plateau and are wider in the west than in the

46 Indian Geography
east. They include the Vindhya, Satpura, and Aravalli Evolution of the Peninsular Plateau of India
ranges. The Deccan Plateau, situated in the southern The evolution of Peninsular India has been marked by
part of the plateau, is taller in the west and slopes significant geological changes over time. This region, known
gently eastwards. for its stability, has undergone several transformations
Other important physiographic features of the Peninsular throughout its history.
Plateau include: ‰ The Great Plateau, a remnant of the ancient landmass
‰ Rift valleys: The Narmada and Tapi rivers flow through called Gondwana, was formed as a result of the gradual
rift valleys in the Peninsular Plateau. Rift valleys are breaking and drifting of Gondwana land. It has remained
formed when the Earth’s crust is pulled apart. above sea level since its inception, leading to extensive
denudation processes.
‰ Block mountains: Block mountains are created when
‰ The plateau’s mountains, predominantly relic formations,
large blocks of the Earth’s crust are uplifted. Examples:
consist of exceptionally hard rocks that have resiliently
Block mountains in the Peninsular Plateau include the
withstood the erosive forces better than the surrounding
Nilgiris and Western Ghats.
areas.
‰ Plateaus: The Peninsular Plateau is made up of numerous
‰ Over time, the rivers here have reached their base levels
small plateaus, such as the Malwa Plateau, Chota Nagpur
(after a period of downcutting) due to their ancient age,
Plateau, and Deccan Plateau.
resulting in the formation of wide and shallow valleys.
‰ Hills: The Peninsular Plateau also has a number of hills,
‰ The dominant rock formations, especially in the southern
such as the Aravalli Hills, Vindhya Hills, and Satpura parts, are of metamorphic origin, often featuring granite
Hills. occurrences.

Fig. 3.34: Peninsular Plateau of India

Physiography of India 47
 • The Deccan Traps, a vast volcanic formation,
Eastward Tilt of Peninsular India originated around 60 million years ago as the Indian
The eastward tilt of Peninsular India can be attributed plates moved towards the Asian plates.
to several geological factors. Firstly, when India separated
• The volcanic hotspot responsible for the Deccan
from Gondwana, the eastern side of the shield experienced
Traps is believed to lie beneath the present-day island
subsidence. Additionally, the Deccan volcanic flow tilted
eastward as the western margin underwent uplift. Erosion of Reunion in the Indian Ocean.
removed material from the western margin, depositing it ‰ Origin of Western Ghats:
in the Arabian Sea. This weight reduction caused the crust • Western Ghats, a mountainous and faulted edge of
to rebound and tilt eastward. the Deccan Plateau, evolved due to several factors.
The oceanic lithosphere of the Bay of Bengal is colder Geological evidence suggests they formed during
and denser, resulting in its subduction and dragging the the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana,
Peninsular region downward. The Bengal sediment fan, approximately 150 million years ago. Crustal doming
comprised of eroded Himalayan sediments deposited and rifting preceding the Indian subcontinent’s drift
in the Bay of Bengal over the Cenozoic era, exerts a led to an initial escarpment of the western margin of
downward pull on the Indian Peninsular region. India.
• Formation of Rift: The geological faults or rifts • The Ghats also receded eastward due to marine
between the Vindhyas and the Satpuras, through erosion, resulting in the coastal plain and steep
which the Narmada and Tapi rivers flow, likely formed Western Ghat escarpment (a long, steep slope,
during the emergence of the Himalayas from the especially one at the edge of a plateau or separating
ancient Tethys Sea. areas of land at different heights.).

Fig. 3.35: Interplay of Various Tectonic Thrusts

48 Indian Geography
 • Other contributing factors include the development ‰ The North eastern plateau is an extension of main
of westerly drainage and the gradual post-glacial rise peninsular plateau and is separated by the Malda fault.
in sea levels, leading to the formation of drowned It includes Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateaus.
valleys, estuaries, and lagoons.
‰ Origin of Eastern Ghats:
• Eastern Ghats are older than the Western Ghats IGNITE YOUR MIND
and its geological history is complex and linked
The Peninsular Plateau is one of the oldest
to the assembling and breaking up of the ancient
landmasses on Earth, believed to have formed
supercontinent Rodinia and the consequent
around the Precambrian era. Explore the
formation of the Gondwana supercontinent.
geological processes forming the Peninsular
• The breakup of Gondwanaland led to the creation of
Plateau, emphasizing tectonic activities’ impact
Permian-Triassic rift basins along the present eastern
on its topography.
margin of India. River deltas have formed numerous
passes and broader coastal plains in this region.
• Additionally, lakes like Chilka, Pulicat, and Kolleru Minor Plateaus
have been created by enclosing parts of the Bay of ‰ Marwar or Mewar Plateau:
Bengal behind sand bars. • The Marwar Plateau can be found in the eastern
Features of the Peninsular Plateau in India region of Rajasthan, India. It slopes gently in the
The Peninsular Plateau, a vast, approximately triangular eastward direction, boasting an average elevation
landmass, encompasses roughly 50% of India’s territory. ranging from 250 to 500 meters above sea level.
It stands as one of the Earth’s most ancient landforms, • Composed primarily of shales, sandstone, and
primarily consisting of Archaean gneisses and schists. limestones from the Vindhyan period, this plateau
‰ This plateau maintains an average elevation ranging from is characterized by its geological composition. The
600 to 900 meters above sea level and gradually inclines Banas River, in conjunction with its tributaries,
from the western to the eastern side. namely the Beach and Khari rivers, originates within
‰ The majority of the peninsular rivers follow this eastward the Aravalli Range and meanders in a northwest
course, except for the Narmada and Tapti rivers, which direction until it merges with the Chambal River.
traverse west to east within a rift valley. • The continuous erosional action of these rivers has
‰ The Peninsular Plateau is quite a stable block that has bestowed upon the plateau a distinctive rolling
seen some structural changes since the time it was plain appearance. Rolling plains, in essence, feature
formed. It has been a land area for a few hundred million undulating terrain, with subtle elevations and
years and has never been submerged under the sea depressions in the landscape.
except in a few places. ‰ Bundelkhand Upland:
‰ The Peninsular Plateau is a region of rich natural • The region is situated to the north of the Yamuna
resources, including minerals, forests, and agricultural River, bordered in the west by the Madhya Bharat
land. It is also home to diverse wildlife, including tigers, Pathar, in the east and southeast by the Vindhyan
elephants, leopards, and sloth bears. Scarplands, and in the south by Malwa Plateau.
‰ The Peninsular India is made up of a series of patland
plateaus such as the Hazaribagh, the Palamu, the Ranchi,
the Malwa, the Coimbatore plateus etc.
‰ Some important physiographic features of this region
are tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky
structures, series of hummocky hills and walls like
quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage.
The plateau is an aggregation of smaller plateaus, river
basins, hill ranges, and valleys. The Peninsular Plateau can
be divided into following broad groups:
‰ The Central Highlands in the north, including the Malwa
Plateau and the Bundelkhand Plateau.
‰ The Deccan Plateau in the south, including the Karnataka
Plateau and the Tamil Nadu Plateau.
‰ The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats mountain ranges
flank the western and eastern edges of the Deccan
Plateau, respectively. Fig. 3.36: Minor Plateaus of Peninsula

Physiography of India 49
 • It represents an ancient dissected upland formed and the Tapi rivers, while the other system meanders
by the ‘Bundelkhand Gneiss,’ composed mainly eastward, ultimately leading to the Bay of Bengal,
of gneiss and granite. This geographical area spans comprising the Chambal and Betwa rivers that
five districts in Uttar Pradesh and four in Madhya converge with the Yamuna.
Pradesh, with a mean elevation ranging from 300 to • In the northern region, the Chambal River serves
600 meters above sea level. as the primary drainage, along with numerous
• The terrain gradually slopes from the Vindhyan right-bank tributaries such as the Kali, Parbati and
Scrap towards the Yamuna River, characterized by a the Sindh. Additionally, it encompasses the upper
series of hillocks crafted from granite and sandstone. reaches of the Sindh, Betwa and Ken rivers.
Ongoing erosion by local rivers, like the Dhasan, • The composition of this plateau predominantly
Betwa, and Ken, has given rise to an undulating consists of extensive lava deposits, which have given
landscape unsuitable for farming, embodying a senile rise to the prevalence of black soils.
topography indicative of age. • Notably, the plateau exhibits a gradual incline from
‰ Meghalaya Plateau: south to north, with elevations decreasing from
• The peninsular plateau, stretching towards the east approximately 600 meters in the southern region to
from the Rajmahal hills, extends into what is known less than 500 meters in the northern expanse.
as Meghalaya, also as the Shillong plateau. The • The plateau’s topography is characterized by a rolling
Garo-Rajmahal Gap, a geological feature that was terrain intersected by various rivers. Particularly in
created through down-faulting separates the plateau the north, the landscape is distinctive due to the
from the main block. This process, characterized as presence of the Chambal ravines.
a normal fault, involved a block of the Earth sliding ‰ Chotanagpur Plateau:
downwards. Over time, this gap was gradually filled • The Chotanagpur Plateau constitutes the
by sediments deposited by the Brahmaputra and northeastern extension of the Indian Peninsula,
Ganga rivers. primarily encompassing regions within Jharkhand,
• The geological phenomenon of down warping is the northern segment of Chhattisgarh, and the
observed along the Rajmahal-Garo hills, leading to Purulia district of West Bengal.
the formation of what is referred to as the ‘Malda • Situated to the northwest of the plateau, the Son
gap’ Notably, it is through this Malda gap that the River eventually merges with the Ganga. This elevated
Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers flow. plateau maintains an average height of approximately
• The Shillong plateau itself is composed primarily 700 meters above sea level and is predominantly
of Archaean quartzites, schists and shales. As one characterized by the presence of Gondwana rocks. Its
moves towards the northern edge of the plateau, it complex drainage system displays a radial pattern,
gently slopes down towards the Brahmaputra valley, with several rivers and streams meandering in various
while in the south, it descends towards the Meghna directions.
and Surma valleys. • Prominent rivers including the Damodar,
• Geographically, its western boundary largely aligns Subarnrekaha, South Koel, Barkar, and North Koel
with the border of Bangladesh. Within the plateau, have established expansive drainage basins in the
three distinct regions are recognized: the Garo Hills, region. The Damodar River, which cuts through the
which reach heights of approximately 900 meters, plateau from west to east within a rift valley, is host
the Khasi-Jaintia Hills, towering at around 1,500 to the Gondwana coal fields, a significant source of
meters, and the Mikir Hills, with elevations of about coal in India.
700 meters. • Hazaribagh plateau lies to the north of the Damodar
• Notably, the highest point in the plateau is Shillong, River, with an average elevation of approximately 600
standing at an impressive 1,961 meters above sea meters above sea level. The plateau is characterized
level. by solitary hills and resembles a peneplain, shaped by
‰ Malwa Plateau: extensive erosion processes.
• The Malwa Plateau, resembling a triangular shape, is • The Ranchi Plateau emerges from the southern
delineated by the Vindhyan Hills to the south, while it side of the Damodar Valley reaching an elevation
is enclosed by the Aravali Range in the western part of around 600 meters above sea level. Its terrain is
and in the north by the Madhya Bharat Pathar, and predominantly undulating and encompasses the city
with Bundelkhand bordering it to the east. of Ranchi, situated at an elevation of 661 meters.
• Within this plateau, two distinct drainage systems • The northeastern border of this plateau is delineated
are observed: one flows westward towards the by the Rajmahal Hills, predominantly composed of
Arabian Sea, encompassing the Narmada, the Mahi, basalt and adorned with lava flows. Stretching from

50 Indian Geography
 north to south, these hills attain an average elevation • Dandakaranya’s borders encompass parts of Odisha,
of 400 meters. Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana states,
• The landscape has undergone extensive dissection, stretching approximately 200 miles in the north-south
resulting in the formation of separate plateaus within direction and 300 miles in the east-west direction.
the Rajmahal Hills. ‰ Central Highlands:
‰ Deccan Plateau:
• The region is known alternatively as the Madhya
• The plateau in question spans an area of about
Bharat Plateau, or alternatively the Madhya Bharat
500,000 square kilometres and boasts a distinctive
Pathar is situated east of the Marwar or Mewar
triangular shape. Its boundaries are demarcated by
the Vindhya and Satpura ranges in the northwest, the Upland.
Maikal and Mahadev ranges in the north, in the east • This plateau is predominantly characterized by
by the Eastern Ghat and in the west by the Western the expansive basin of the Chambal River, which
Ghats. meanders through a rift valley.
• While the plateau maintains a mean elevation of 600 • The Chambal River’s watershed is nourished by
meters, it reaches heights of up to 1000 meters in the several significant tributaries, including the Kali
southern region, gradually descending to 500 meters
Sindh, the Banas which flows via the Mewar plateau,
in the north. This geographical feature exhibits a
and the Parbati and the Parwan, both originating
pronounced west-to-east slope, as evidenced by the
directional flow of its major rivers. from the state of Madhya Pradesh.
• The plateau’s topography has been intricately carved • This plateau is distinguished by its undulating
by these rivers, and results in the formation of terrain, featuring rounded hills primarily composed
numerous smaller plateaus within its expanse. of sandstone. Within this geographical expanse,
‰ Baghelkhand: dense forests flourish, adding to its natural beauty
• Baghelkhand is situated to the north of the Maikal and ecological significance.
Range, a geographical region characterized by its • To the north of the plateau, you will encounter the
diverse composition. The western expanse comprises distinctive ravines and badlands characteristic of the
sandstones and limestones, whereas the eastern part
Chambal River basin, a unique feature that defines
consists predominantly of granite formations.
this region’s landscape.
• The northern boundary of Baghelkhand is demarcated
by the Son River. Situated at the heart of this plateau
is a crucial hydrological feature, as it functions as a
watershed between the Son drainage system towards
the north and the Mahanadi river system towards the
south.
• The terrain in this region is marked by its undulating
topography. Notably, the Bharner and Kaimur regions
are in proximity to the trough axis of Baghelkhand.
‰ Dandakaranya Plateau:
• Dandakaranya, a region of historical significance
in India according to the Ramayana, is located in
the central portion of the country within the Bastar
region of present-day Chhattisgarh.
• This geographical area covers around 35,600 square
miles and includes the Abujhmad Hills in the west,
while its eastern boundaries connect with the Eastern
Ghats.
• Abujmarh, a densely forested and hilly region Fig. 3.37: Central Highlands
in Chhattisgarh, extends through the Bijapur, ‰ Bastar Plateau:
Narayanpur, and Dantewada districts. It serves as the • The Bastar Plateau, located in the southernmost
ancestral homeland for various indigenous tribes of region of Chhattisgarh, is a district characterized by
India, like the Gond, Abuj Maria, Muria, and Halbaas. its rich forests and abundant mineral resources.

Physiography of India 51
 • Compressed between the Godavari and Mahanadi forests, creating a picturesque landscape. In contrast,
rivers in the southern region of Chhattisgarh, this Maidan comprises a rolling plain adorned with low
region is bisected by the Indravati River. Bastar is granite hills, offering a unique contrast to the rugged
predominantly inhabited by tribal communities and terrain of Malnad.
has long been under the influence of Naxalism.
‰ Telangana Plateau:
• The Telangana Plateau, characterized by its unique
geological composition, is a remarkable region in
India. Comprising primarily Archaean gneisses and
Dharwar rocks, this plateau also boasts the presence
of Gondwana rocks, notably in the Godavari valley,
renowned for its abundant coal deposits. The Dharwar
rock strata have endowed the plateau with a wealth
of mineral resources, contributing significantly to the
region’s economic importance.
• With an average elevation ranging between 500
to 600 meters, the Telangana plateau displays an
intriguing topographical diversity. The southern part
of the plateau stands at a higher elevation compared
to its northern counterpart, adding to the region’s Fig. 3.38: Karnataka Plateau
geographical variation.
• As one progresses southward, the Karnataka Plateau
• The plateau’s hydrology is primarily governed by gradually narrows down between the Eastern Ghats
three major river systems: the Krishna, the Godavari, and the Western Ghats, ultimately merging with the
and the Penner. These rivers play a crucial role in Nilgiri hills in the south. This region presents a diverse
shaping the landscape and sustaining the ecosystem and captivating topography that encompasses both
of this plateau region. lush, forested valleys and open, rolling plains.
• Furthermore, the Telangana plateau is characterized
‰ Maharashtra Plateau:
by its division into Ghats and Peneplains, the latter
• The Maharashtra Plateau, situated within the state of
being an extensive, featureless, undulating plain
Maharashtra, constitutes the northern portion of the
formed during the final stages of the deposition
expansive Deccan Plateau. Predominantly composed
process. This unique geological and topographical
of basaltic rocks originating from volcanic lava, with
makeup contributes to the distinctiveness of the
a significant portion of the Deccan Traps found in this
Telangana plateau, making it a significant and
region, the plateau exhibits an undulating landscape
fascinating part of India’s landscape.
shaped by weathering processes.
‰ Karnataka Plateau:
• The Karnataka Plateau, also known by the name
Mysore Plateau, is situated to the Maharashtra
la
ma
nta

plateau’s south and exhibits the characteristics of a

Sat
Aja

rolling plateau with a mean elevation ranging from B

Western

Harish alaghat
chand
600 to 900 meters. This region is marked by a complex ra

network of rivers originating from the Western Ghats

Ghats

and extensively dissects the landscape.

• The major streams draining it include the Godavari,
Krishna, Kaveri (Cauvery), Tungabhadra, Sharavati,
and Bhima. These hills generally align themselves
either parallel to or across the Western Ghats. The Fig. 3.39: Maharashtra Plateau
highest point in this plateau, reaching an elevation • This distinctive Deccan Trap topography,
of 1930 meters, is found at Mullayyanagiri within characterized by step-like formations, results from
the Baba Budan Hills, situated in the Chikkamagaluru the horizontal spread of lava sheets. Alongside,
district. the Bhima, Godavari, and Krishna rivers carve out
• Geographically, the plateau can be categorized into shallow and broad valleys, with flat-top steep-sided
two distinct parts: Malnad and Maidan. Malnad, hills and ridges adorning their perimeters. Enveloping
which translates to “hill country” in Kannada, the entire area is the renowned black cotton soil,
features deep valleys that are blanketed by dense referred to as regur.

52 Indian Geography
Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau • Today, the Aravali mountains stand as relict remnants,
‰ Peninsular India exhibits distinctive geographical and having endured severe weathering and erosion over
climatic characteristics that are synonymous with South millions of years, resulting from the folding process
India. It takes the shape of an inverted triangle, bordered during the Archaean Era. Their geographical presence
by the Arabian Sea in the west, the Bay of Bengal in the continues beneath the alluvial deposits of the Ganga
east, and flanked by the Satpura and Vindhya mountain Plains, extending up to Haridwar. While the Aravali
ranges to the north. range is notably prominent in Rajasthan, forming
‰ The majority of the elevated terrain within the a continuous range to the south of Ajmer, where
peninsular region comprises residual mountains, which elevations reach up to 900 meters, its distinctiveness
stand as enduring remnants of ancient horsts and hills diminishes as it extends into Haryana and Delhi,
formed over millions of years. These plateaus within the manifesting as a series of isolated and fragmented
peninsula are interspersed with various mountain ranges ridges beyond Ajmer.
and diverse river basins. • Notably, certain geographers propose that a section
‰ Significantly, the historical demarcation between of the Aravali mountain range stretches from the
northern and southern India was established by the Gulf of Khambhat to the Lakshadweep Archipelago,
Narmada and Mahanadi rivers. and concurrently, another branch extends into
the regions of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The
‰ To the north, it is shielded by the Aravallis, while the
general elevation of this range ranges from 400 to 600
northeastern boundary is defined by the Hazaribagh and
meters, with a few peaks rising above 1,000 meters.
Rajmahal Hills.
• At the southwestern tip of the range, elevations
‰ The western perimeter is marked by the imposing
exceed 1,000 meters, most notably at Mt. Abu,
Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri Mountains, which stands at 1,158 meters. The highest peak in
while the eastern limit is delineated by the Eastern Ghats. the Aravali range, Guru Shikhar, rises to an impressive
Notably, the highest peak in Peninsular India, Anamudi, 1,722 meters and is located in Mt. Abu. Facilitating
rises to an impressive altitude of 2695 meters above sea movement and connectivity, the Dewair, Pipli Ghat,
level, adding a prominent feature to this diverse and and Desuri passes provide vital transportation links
geographically unique region. for both roads and railways in the region.
‰ Aravali Range: ‰ Maikal Range:
• The Aravali mountain range, which stretches from • The Maikal Hills constitute a hilly region situated
the northeast to the southwest direction, covers a in the eastern section of the Satpuras range,
distance of approximately 670 kilometres between encompassing the Kawardha District in Chhattisgarh
Delhi and Palanpur in Gujarat. and the Anuppur district in Madhya Pradesh. This
• This mountain range is renowned as one of the range serves as the source of three significant rivers:
world’s oldest fold mountains and is considered the the Narmada, Mahanadi, and Son.
most ancient in India, also known as Fold Mountains • Mount Amarkantak stands as the highest peak within
or Block Mountains. the Maikal Hills. This distinctive topographical feature
defines a substantial part of Chhattisgarh and also
provides a habitat for the renowned Kanha National
Park.
‰ Vindhyan Range:
• The Vindhya Range, with a commanding view of the
Narmada Valley, forms a prominent escarpment along
the northern border of the Narmada-Son Trough—a
narrow depression that serves as the conduit for
the Narmada River’s flow. Stretching approximately
1,200 kilometres from Sasaram in Bihar to Jobat in
Gujarat, this range generally maintains an elevation
Fig. 3.40: Aravali Range ranging from 300 to 650 meters above sea level.
• Originating in the Archaean Era, 4,000 million years • Predominantly, the Vindhyan Range comprises
ago - 2,500 million years ago, the Aravallis once horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks of
boasted towering peaks that nurtured glaciers, with considerable antiquity, constituting a distinct
some summits potentially surpassing the height of geological formation. To the east, it extends as the
today’s Himalayas. Kaimur and Bharner hills.

Physiography of India 53
 • Notably, this range plays a pivotal role as a natural a mountain range. South of Malabar, in areas like the
divide, separating the Ganga river system from Nilgiris and Anamalai, the landscape offers a striking
the river systems in southern India. Within close contrast due to distinct geological formations.
proximity, the rivers Chambal, Betwa, and Ken
originate, all within a 30-kilometer radius of the
Narmada.
Northern
Thar Western
Desert li Ghats
al
av
Ar
hyas Chota
Vind Nagpur
Rann of uras
Satp Central
Kutch
Deccan Western
Weste

Plateau s Ghats
Narmada at
Gh
rn

n
Ghats

er Nilgiris
st
Ea

Fig. 3.41: Hills of Peninsular India Southern Western

Ghats
‰ Satpura Range:
• The Satpura Range comprises seven peaks, where
Fig. 3.42: Western Ghats
‘Sat’ signifies seven and ‘pura’ denotes mountains.
Stretching from east to west, this mountain range • The northern part of the Western Ghats, stretching
lies to the Vindhya’s south and is situated between from the Tapi Valley to just north of Goa, is primarily
the Narmada and Tapi rivers, running in a generally composed of horizontal sheets of Deccan lavas,
parallel alignment to these river systems. known as the Deccan Traps.
• Stretching over a distance of approximately 900 • This region averages an elevation of 1,200 meters
kilometres, the Satpura Range exhibits notable above sea level, with notable peaks such as Salher
geological features, including areas that have
(1,567 m), Kalasubai (1,646 m), Harishchandragarh
experienced folding and upheaval, categorizing them
as structural uplifts known as ‘horst’. (1,424 m), and Mahabaleshwar (1,438 m). Essential
• The highest peak within the Satpura Range is passes like Bhor Ghat and Thal Ghat serve as crucial
Dhupgarh, standing at an elevation of 1,350 meters, transportation routes, linking the Konkan Plains in
and it is situated near Pachmarhi on the Mahadev Hills. the western part to the Deccan Plateau in the eastern
Another significant peak in this range is Amarkantak, part.
which reaches an elevation of 1067 meters. • Moving to the middle section, spanning from 16°N
‰ Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris): latitude to the Nilgiri hills, it consists mainly of
• The Western Ghats, form the western boundary granites and gneisses, covered densely with forests.
of the Deccan plateau, extending from the Tapi The western scarp of this region has been significantly
valley (21° N latitude) to just Kanniyakumari’s north
shaped by west-flowing streams through headward
(11° N latitude), covering a distance of approximately
1,600 km. erosion. The average elevation here is approximately
• The Western Ghats traverse the States of Kerala, Tamil 1,200 meters, with numerous peaks surpassing 1,500
Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat. meters.
• These mountains showcase a distinctive topography • Notable peaks include Kudremukh (1,892 m), Vavul
characterised by terraced, steep-sided, flat-topped Mala (2,339 m), and Pushpagiri (1,714 m). Near the
hills facing the Arabian Sea coast. This unique feature junction of Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, the
results from horizontally layered lavas that have Nilgiri Hills dramatically rise to over 2,000 meters,
weathered over time, creating a distinctive ‘landing marking the junction of the Western Ghats with the
stair aspect.’
Eastern Ghats. Prominent peaks in this region include
• As one moves westward towards the Arabian Sea
Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Mukurti (2,554 m).
coast, the Western Ghats rise abruptly to an average
elevation of 1,000 meters from the Western Coastal • The southern section of the Western Ghats is
Plain. separated from the main Sahyadri range through
• However, when seen from the Deccan plateau to the the Palakkad Gap, a rift valley. High ranges on either
east, they appear to slope gently, hardly resembling side of this gap terminate abruptly, serving as a vital

54 Indian Geography
 transportation corridor connecting the plains of Tamil • On the other hand, the Madugula Konda range
Nadu and the coastal plains of Kerala. boasts even greater elevations, with heights
• The Palakkad Gap also facilitates the inland ranging from 1,100 to 1,400 meters. Among
penetration of moisture-laden clouds from the its notable peaks are Arma Konda (1,680 m),
southwest monsoon, providing essential rainfall to the Jindhagada Peak (1,690 m), Gali Konda (1,643 m),
Mysore region. South of the Palakkad Gap, a complex and Sinkram Gutta (1,620 m), all of which surpass
system of rugged and steep slopes characterizes both
1,600 meters in height.
the western and eastern sides of the Ghats.
• Between the Godavari and Krishna Rivers, the middle
• Anai Mudi (2,695 m) stands as the highest peak in
all of southern India, with three ranges extending section of Eastern Ghats loses its mountainous
in different directions from its base: the Anamalai characteristics and is occupied by Gondwana
range (1,800-2,000 m) to the north, the Palani range formations, notably the Krishna Godavari (KG) Basin.
(900-1,200 m) to the northeast, and the Cardamom • The Eastern Ghats reemerge as a more or less
Hills or the Yela Mala Hills to the south. continuous hill range in the Kurnool and Cuddapah
‰ Eastern Ghats: districts of Andhra Pradesh, where they are known as
• The Eastern Ghats stretch almost parallel to India’s the Nallamala Range, reaching elevations of 900-1100
east coast, creating vast plains between their foothills
meters. The southern part of the range is referred to
and the shoreline.
as the Palkonda range.
• This chain consists of fragmented and discontinuous
hills, extending from Odisha’s Mahanadi River to the • Moving into the southern region, the hills and
Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu. They largely fade away plateaus gradually descend in altitude, featuring
between the Krishna and the Godavari Rivers, lacking only the Shevroy-Kalrayan Hills and the Javadi Hills as
both structural cohesion and geographical continuity. prominent elevations, both reaching approximately
Consequently, these hill formations are typically 1,000 meters high. In Karnataka, near the Tamil Nadu
treated as separate entities.
border, the Biligiri Rangan Hills soar to a peak of 1551
meters.
• Continuing southward, the Eastern Ghats seamlessly
blend with the Western Ghats. It’s near the junction
Odisha
of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu that the Nilgiris
connect the Western Ghats with the Eastern Ghats,
Telangana serving as a vital link between these two mountain
ranges.
Karnataka Andhra Pradesh
Other Hill Ranges in Peninsular Plateau
‰ Satmala Range: Located in Maharashtra, the Satmala
Range is known for its scenic landscapes. It extends
Tamil Nadu
Eastern Ghats from the Ajanta Range in the north to the Harishchandra
State Boundary Range in the south.
‰ Ajanta Range: Also situated in Maharashtra, the
Fig. 3.43: The Eastern Ghats Ajanta Range is famous for the Ajanta Caves, a
• In the northern region, situated between the UNESCO World Heritage Site known for its ancient
Mahanadi and Godavari rivers, the Eastern Ghats Buddhist cave art.
exhibit their genuine mountainous character, which
‰ Mahadeo Hills: These hills are part of the Satpura
is exemplified by the Maliya and Madugula Konda
Range and are located in Madhya Pradesh. They are
ranges.
characterized by dense forests and provide a habitat for
• The Maliya range showcases a variety of peaks and
diverse flora and fauna.
ridges, with altitudes ranging between 900 to 1,200
meters. The highest summit within this range is ‰ Balaghat Range: Situated in Maharashtra, the Balaghat
Mahendra Giri, towering at 1,501 meters above sea Range is part of the Western Ghat and is known for its
level. rich biodiversity and wildlife.

Physiography of India 55
 Pamir Knot
Kun
lunM
Ka ts.
ush ra
Hin du K ko
ra m
K2
Lad
Le Pir Grea Z akh
ss P t a Ra
er anj Him skar nge
Hi al ala Ra
m ya nge
ala s
ya Dh
au
la Ka
D ila
Sh har sh
iw Ra
ali ng
ks e Namcha Barwa
Ra Nanda Devi
ng
e
Mishmi Hills
Abor Hills
Kanchenjunga Miri
ar um
w ta
Al (Highest in India)
Daf iB
lka
a
ir P
Tiger Hills Mik Saramati
ge

Sandaohu
an

Guru shikhar Garo Khasi Jaintia rail

iR

ills

a
Ba

nyom
all

a lH
av

ah
Ar

jm

ka
Mailan Hills
ange Ra
ur R

Aira
Kaim Ajodhya Hills
Kachchh Hills
da
v Vindhyan Range arh Ramgarh Dalma Hills Badam
an Satmala Mahadeo upg al Pahar Phawngpuri
h i k Amarkantak
GirnM sur S tiga
rh D a
M t Hi
lls (Blue Mt.)
ar Ara atp ura w a h j a
Gir Range Ga Gar
Chandor
Ajanta Range lls
Hi
Nirm rh
Ha al ga
ris ya
ch Balagha N a
an t Ra
dr nge Jindhagada Peak
a
alai
Nat ata
tam
am
Err
Na
tta
Ba

Palconda Range
m
b
aB

ala

Nagari
ud

i
an

Javadi
Hi

y
aro lai
lls

Nilgiri
ev ma
Sh nchai
Pa
Anaimudi
Anamala

Palni
Car
dam
i

om

Fig. 3.44: Mountain Ranges of India

‰ Harishchandra Range: Found in Maharashtra, the dense forests and provide a habitat for various wildlife
Harishchandra Range is part of the Western Ghats. It is species.
named after the legendary sage Harishchandra and is ‰ Shevaroy Hills: Found in Tamil Nadu, the Shevaroy Hills
known for its natural beauty.
are part of the Eastern Ghats. They are known for their
‰ Palkonda Hills: Located in Andhra Pradesh, the Palkonda
cool climate and are a popular tourist destination.
Hills are part of the Eastern Ghats. They are known for
their picturesque landscapes and play a crucial role in ‰ Eramala Hills: Situated in Andhra Pradesh, the Eramala
the regional ecology. Hills are part of the Eastern Ghats. They are known for
‰ Javadi Hills: Situated in Tamil Nadu, the Javadi Hills are their lush greenery and contribute to the biodiversity of
part of the Eastern Ghats. They are characterized by the region.

56 Indian Geography
‰ Nilgiri Hills: Spanning across the states of Tamil Nadu, ‰ Palani Hills: Situated in Tamil Nadu, the Palani
Karnataka, and Kerala, the Nilgiri Hills are part of the Hills are an extension of the Western Ghats.
Western Ghats. They are famous for their tea plantations, Palani, a prominent pilgrimage town, is located in
diverse flora and fauna, and scenic beauty. Ooty and
these hills.
Coonoor are popular hill stations in the Nilgiris.
‰ Cardamom Hills: Also known as the Yela Mala Range,
‰ Bilgiri Rangan Hills (B.R. Hills): Located at the confluence
of the Eastern and Western Ghats in Karnataka, the B.R. these hills are part of the Western Ghats and are located
Hills are known for their biodiversity and the Biligiri in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. They are known for their spice
Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary. plantations, including cardamom.
Differences Between Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats
Western Ghat Eastern Ghat
‰ Located along the western coast of India, the Western ‰ Situated along the eastern coast of India, the Eastern Ghats
Ghats mark the western boundary of the Deccan Plateau, mark the eastern boundary of the Deccan Plateau, running
running parallel to the Arabian Sea. parallel to the Bay of Bengal.
‰ These mountains are continuous and can only be traversed ‰ The Eastern Ghats are characterised by discontinuous,
through designated passes. irregular, and intersected rivers that flow into the Bay of
‰ The Western Ghats are characterized by higher elevations Bengal.
compared to the Eastern Ghats, with an average elevation ‰ The average elevation here is approximately 600 meters.
ranging from 900 to 1600 meters. ‰ Prominent peaks in the Eastern Ghats include Mahendragiri
‰ Elevation increases progressively from north to south, with and the Javadi Hills.
notable peaks like Anai Mudi and Dodabetta. ‰ Similar to the Western Ghats, the Eastern Ghats enclose a
‰ The Western Ghats encircle a narrow strip between their strip of land between their eastern slopes and the Bay of
western slopes and the Arabian Sea, known as the Western Bengal, referred to as the Eastern Coastal Plain. This plain
Coastal Plain, with a maximum width of 64 km. is wider than the Western Coastal Plain, with a maximum
‰ This region experiences orographic rainfall, primarily width of 120 km.
during the summer monsoon season, resulting in a hot and ‰ The Eastern Ghats receive rainfall during both summer and
moist climate. winter, especially through winter monsoons. However, the
‰ The fertile soil here supports the cultivation of rice, spices, amount of rain is lower compared to the western strip.
rubber, and various fruits, including coconuts and cashew ‰ Soil fertility in the Eastern Ghats is not as high as in the Western
nuts. strip, but it still supports the cultivation of crops such as rice,
groundnuts, cotton, tobacco, and coconuts

Significance of the Peninsular Plateau and rubber thrive in these elevated terrains, supporting
‰ Relics of Geological History: The majority of hills in the agricultural production.
Peninsular region are remnants from a distant geological ‰ Diverse Forest Ecosystems: The highlands of the plateau
past. These hills and horsts formed millions of years ago are adorned with diverse forest ecosystems. These
(horst referring to uplifted blocks and graben to subsided forests yield a wide range of forest products, contributing
blocks), have endured over time. to the region’s ecological and economic diversity.
‰ Natural Dividers: These hill ranges, along with various
‰ Hydropower and Irrigation: The rivers originating in the
river basins, serve as natural dividers within the
Western Ghats, a prominent Peninsular mountain range,
Peninsular region. They separate and distinguish the
offer excellent opportunities for hydropower generation.
plateaus from each other, contributing to the region’s
unique topography. Additionally, they serve as vital sources of irrigation,
sustaining agricultural crops across the region.
‰ Abundance of Minerals: The Peninsular Mountains
are rich in minerals such as iron, copper, manganese, ‰ Hill Resorts: Several popular hill resorts are nestled within
chromium, mica, bauxite, and gold. These mineral the Peninsular Mountains, including Udagamandalam
deposits hold significant economic value for the region. (Ooty), Kodaikanal, Mahabaleshwar, Khandala,
‰ Ideal for Plantation Crops: Several mountainous areas Pachmarhi, Matheran, and Mount Abu. These resorts
in southern India, within the Peninsular Mountains, are attract tourists and offer picturesque landscapes and
well-suited for plantation crops. Crops like tea, coffee, pleasant climates.

Physiography of India 57
Forest Ecosystem of Peninsular India DIFFERENT REGIONS OF INDIA
‰ Tropical Evergreen Forests: Characterized by tall
‰ Bundelkhand:
evergreen trees (>30 m) with buttressed trunks.
• Bundelkhand is a region in central India, spread
Predominantly found in the high-rainfall zones in the
across parts of the states of Uttar Pradesh and
Western Ghats. Decrease in evergreen-to-deciduous
plant ratio with reduced rainfall. Madhya Pradesh.
• It is known for its rugged terrain, comprising plateaus
‰ Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests: This comprises over
75% of evergreen trees, climbers, and epiphytes. and hills, and experiences a semi-arid climate.
Often located near tropical moist deciduous forests • The region has a rich historical and cultural heritage.
and tropical evergreen. Bundelkhand has been home to various ancient
‰ Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests: Dominated kingdoms and is known for its folklore, music, and
by deciduous species. Upper canopy irregular, traditional art forms.
lower storey mainly evergreen trees and shrubs. ‰ Baghelkhand:
Predominant in peninsular India with an annual • Baghelkhand is a historical and geographical region
rainfall of 1000-2000 mm. Transition zone to tropical in central India, primarily in the state of Madhya
semi-evergreen and dry deciduous forests. Pradesh.
‰ Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests: Characterized by • Similar to Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand features a mix
intermediate-height canopies (<20 m) of deciduous of plateaus, hills, and forests.
species. Leafless for 1-4 months due to dry spells and • The region has a diverse cultural landscape with
frequent fires. Often dominated by teak and sal trees. influences from various historical rulers. It is known
Now reclassified as savannas in some areas. for its traditional festivals, dance, and music.
‰ Tropical Thorn Forests: Short canopies (<10 m) ‰ Rayalaseema:
primarily consisting of thorny, sun-loving shrubs and • Rayalaseema is a region in the southern part of the
grasses. Found in semi-arid regions of peninsular Indian state of Andhra Pradesh.
India. • It is characterized by a semi-arid climate, with rocky
‰ Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests: With above 75% terrain and hills.
dominance of hard-leaved evergreen woody plants. • Rayalaseema has a rich cultural heritage, with
Mainly found in the Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu and influences from historical empires. It is known for its
Andhra Pradesh. distinct cuisine, classical dance forms, and festivals.
‰ Subtropical Broad-Leaf Hill Forests: Blend of wet ‰ Vidarbha:
evergreen and temperate forest species. Dominated
• Vidarbha is a region in the eastern part of the Indian
by Lauraceae family species. Located on the lower
state of Maharashtra.
slopes of the Western Ghats.
• It features a mix of plains and hills. Vidarbha has an
‰ Montane Wet Temperate Forests (“Shola”): These
agrarian landscape.
closed-canopied evergreen forests, characterized by
their diminutive trees measuring less than 15 meters • The region has a diverse cultural heritage with
in height, are adorned with mosses, epiphytes, influences from Marathi and Telugu cultures.
ferns, and woody climbers. They find their habitat Vidarbha is known for its traditional handloom and
exclusively at elevations exceeding 1500 meters handicraft industries.
within the Western Ghats. ‰ Malwa:
‰ Littoral and Swamp Forests (Mangroves): Halophytic • Malwa is a historical region in central India, covering
evergreen plants featuring stilt roots are a distinctive parts of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
botanical variety. These plants exhibit a unique • It features a mix of plateaus, fertile plains, and the
characteristic where their seeds begin to germinate Vindhya Range.
while still attached to the parent tree. They are • Malwa has a rich cultural heritage with influences
predominantly located in the river deltas situated from ancient empires. It is known for its folk music,
along the coastal regions of peninsular India. dance, and traditional art forms.
‰ Scrub Vegetation: This ecosystem encompasses a ‰ Konkan:
blend of both damp and arid open-canopied (<10%) • Konkan is a coastal region along the western coastline
scrub flora. It predominantly comprises deciduous or of India, spanning parts of Maharashtra, Goa, and
evergreen shrubs and is found in the arid regions of Karnataka.
peninsular India. • It is characterized by lush greenery, beaches, and the
‰ Grasslands: Defined by an abundance of grasses and Western Ghats.
herbs with limited tree presence, this biome can be
• Konkan has a distinct coastal culture with a significant
found on hilltops and plains, frequently bordering
scrub or savanna ecosystems. influence on cuisine, festivals, and traditional
practices.

58 Indian Geography
‰ Mewar: • Significant Muslim population with a distinct cultural
• Mewar is a historical region in the southern part of identity.
Rajasthan. • Known for its cultural richness, traditional crafts, and
• It includes the Aravalli Range and is known for its rural life.
lakes, including Lake Pichola in Udaipur. ‰ Mewar (Rajasthan):
• Mewar has a rich Rajput heritage, known for its • Encompasses the southern part of Rajasthan,
palaces, forts, and traditional arts. including Udaipur.
‰ Garhwal: • Rich Rajput traditions and historical significance.
• Known for its majestic palaces, lakes, and vibrant
• Located in the western part of Uttarakhand.
festivals like “Gangaur.”
• Predominant language: Garhwali.
‰ Dhundhar (Rajasthan):
• Known for its distinct traditions, folk dances like the • Encompasses the region around Jaipur, the capital
“Jhumeila” dance, and festivals such as the “Phool city of Rajasthan.
Dei.” • Rich historical and architectural heritage, including
‰ Kumaon: the iconic “Hawa Mahal” and “City Palace.”
• Located in the eastern part of Uttarakhand. • Known for its traditional arts and crafts.
• Predominant language: Kumaoni. ‰ Chambal (Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan):
• Known for its unique culture, traditional music, and • Straddles the borders of Madhya Pradesh and
festivals like “Harela.” Rajasthan.
‰ Saurashtra (Gujarat): • Rugged terrain along the Chambal River.
• Located in the southwestern part of Gujarat. • Known for its wildlife, including the National Chambal
• Predominant language: Gujarati. Sanctuary.
• Known for its distinct cultural identity, folk traditions, ‰ Gird (Madhya Pradesh):
and vibrant festivals like “Navratri.” • Located in Madhya Pradesh.
‰ Mewat (Haryana and Rajasthan): • Diverse historical and cultural influences.
• Straddles the border regions of Haryana and • Known for its archaeological sites, includes Gwalior,
Rajasthan. Sheopur

1 Bundelkhan 15 Khandesh 29 Maharashtra Desh 43 Ajmer 57 Arunachal

2 Awadh 16 Marathwada 30 Tulu Nadu 44 Hadoti 58 Naga
3 Baghelkhand 17 Mahakoshal 31 Kodagu 45 Jaisalmer 59 Tripura
4 Purvanchal 18 Nimar 32 Mysuru 46 Saptasindhu 60 Mizo
5 Malwa 19 Odisha 33 Karnataka 47 Shekhawati 61 Manipur
6 Braj 20 Kongu Naadu 34 Malabar 48 Jangladesh 62 Garo
7 Madhyedesh 21 Thondai Naadu 35 Saurashtra 49 Haryana 63 Shyhet
8 Garhwal 22 Nadu Naadu 36 Katchh 50 Mewat 64 Kashmir
9 Kumaon 23 Pandya Naadu 37 Gujarat 51 Bengal 65 Ladakh
10 Magadh 24 Chola Naadu 38 Mewar 52 Gorkhaland 66 Jammu
11 Mithila 25 Telangana 39 Vagad 53 Sikkim 67 Himachal
12 Chhattisgarh 26 Rayalseema 40 Marwar 54 Bodoland 68 Chambal
13 Nagpur 27 Coastal Andhra 41 Sirohi 55 karbi
14 Vidahbha 28 Konkan 42 Dhundhar 56 Assam

Fig. 3.45: Major Cultural Regions of India

Physiography of India 59
 THE DESERT OF INDIA THAR DESERT (SANDY DESERT)
A desert is a dry area where more water is lost due to The Thar Desert, also known as a tropical desert, is situated at
evaporation than is received from rainfall. It’s a place where a low latitude. Its name, Thar, is derived from the term thul,
evaporation is greater than precipitation. Deserts make up referring to the region’s sand ridges. Covering an expansive
around 33% of the world’s land, with different types like area of 200,000 square kilometres, the Thar Desert ranks as
rocky, stony, and sandy. the ninth-largest subtropical desert globally.
The vast and arid region known as the Thar Desert, often This place is surrounded by the Indus River plains on one
referred to as the Great Indian Desert is situated in the side, the Punjab flatlands to the north and northeast, the
northwestern portion of the Indian subcontinent. It’s vast, Aravalli mountains to the southeast, and the Rann of Kutch
covering around 200,000 square kilometres, and acts as to the south. The majority of this desert, over 60%, falls
a natural border between India and Pakistan. Most of the within the state of Rajasthan.
Thar Desert, about 85%, is in India, while the remaining is in
Pakistan. It makes up roughly 4.56% of India’s total land area.
Ja
Geological History of Desert Ka mm Ladakh
sh u
‰ The Desert landscapes we see today are relatively new m &
ir
Desert Region Himachal
in the grand scheme of Earth’s history. They resulted Pradesh
from a gradual cooling of the planet and the resulting Punjab
Uttrakhand
increase in dryness that took place during a period called
the Cenozoic Era, which spans from about 65.5 million Delhi
years ago until now. Thar Desert Uttar Pradesh
‰ This cooling process also led to the formation of savannas
and scrublands in regions that were less dry, closer to
the tropical and temperate zones near the edges of these
Gujrat
emerging deserts. Madhya Pradesh

‰ Some scientists believe that many of the plant families Fig. 3.46: The Thar Desert in India
we associate with modern deserts, especially those
originating from Asia like the Chenipod and Tamarisk Landscape and Formation
families, began to appear during the Miocene period, ‰ The Thar Desert has a lot of sand that the wind has piled
which occurred between 23 and 5.3 million years ago. up for about 1.8 million years. This place has big and
‰ These plant species developed in the saline and arid small sand hills, sandy areas, and low rocky hills called
environments that once existed around the receding bhakars. The sand dunes in the region are in constant
Tethys Sea, which is now encompassed by the motion, continuously changing in size and shape. Some
Mediterranean to Central Asian region. of the older dunes reach impressive heights of up to 150
meters. The Thar Desert includes playas, locally known as
FEATURES OF DESERTS IN INDIA dhands scattered throughout. Notable examples include
the Sambhar, Kuchaman, Didwana, Pachpadra, Phalodi
The Great Indian Desert, also referred to as the Thar Desert (Rajasthan), Kharagoda (Gujarat), and Lunkaransar,
is a vast sandy region in India characterized by rolling which are significant sources of common salt.
sand plains covered with sand dunes. These dunes are
predominantly crescent-shaped and are known as Barchans Climate and Weather
‰ The Thar Desert consists mainly of rocks and sand. It has ‰ The climate in the Thar Desert is arid and subtropical. It’s
varying elevations, with the eastern side being higher and the 9th largest hot subtropical desert in the world, and
the western side lower. In some areas, especially near the its temperatures range from nearly freezing in winter to
Aravalli range, the elevation reaches 325 meters, while scorching 50°C in summer. The region experiences very
it’s about 150 meters near the western part of Pakistan. dry weather, with average annual rainfall ranging from
‰ You can find salt lakes, locally known as Rann in the 10 cm to 50 cm, primarily during the months of July to
lower part of the desert and some parts of Jaisalmer, September due to the southwest monsoon.
with Sambhar Lake being the largest.
‰ Springs exist in certain desert areas, making the land Population and Economic Activities
around them somewhat fertile and suitable for palm ‰ The Thar Desert has a population density of 83 people
trees, dates, and grasslands. per square kilometre, making it the most densely
‰ The Indian Desert can be divided into five regions: Bagar, populated desert in the world. The region has become
Rohi, Small Desert, Marusthali, and Desert Region, each a major producer of wool in India. Due to challenging
with its unique characteristics and landscape. climatic conditions and terrain, animal husbandry has

60 Indian Geography
 grown, while kharif crops, primarily bajra, are the main Characteristics of Cold Desert of India
agricultural products. ‰ Ladakh’s Diverse Altitude Range: In Ladakh, the elevation
‰ The Thar Desert is increasingly harnessing solar and wind ranges from roughly 3,000 meters to over 8,000 meters,
energy to generate electricity. The Bhadla Solar Park with the Karakoram Mountains reaching heights of about
covers over 5,700 hectares, which is approximately one- 8,000 meters. Kargil, located at around 3,000 meters,
third the size of Washington, D.C. With a total capacity of falls within this altitude range.
2,245 megawatts, it ranks among the world’s largest solar ‰ Ladakh’s Harsh High-Altitude Climate: Ladakh’s climate
parks. Its establishment has recently allowed Rajasthan is extremely dry and cold due to its exceptionally high
to surpass Karnataka in having the most solar capacity altitude. During nighttime, temperatures in Ladakh often
installed among Indian states. drop well below -30°C, and throughout the majority of
the winter, they remain below -40°C.
• Because Ladakh is situated within an area protected
IGNITE YOUR MIND from rainfall by the mountains of the Himalayas, it
The Luni River, amid the Thar Desert, is dubbed the gets minimal precipitation, with an average annual
“river of tears” for its historical importance and past precipitation of only 10 centimetres.
battles on its banks, challenging the perception of • At these high altitudes, the air is thin, making the sun’s
deserts as solely arid landscapes. Assess the impact heat feel especially intense, resulting in scorching
of climate change and human activities on the sunlight during the day and chilly winds.
hydrology of the Luni River and its implications for
water resources in the region.

THE COLD DESERT OF INDIA

(LADAKH)
Fig. 3.48: Cold Desert
Ladakh is India’s cold desert, and it is located in the trans
Himalayan region on the eastern side of the Jammu and VEGETATION SYSTEM
Kashmir region. It is surrounded by the Karakoram range
to the north and the Zanskar mountains to the south. The ‰ In both hot and mid-latitude deserts, the most common
Indus River flows through Ladakh. The altitude here varies type of vegetation is xerophytic, which means it’s adapted
to withstand drought. This includes plants like cacti, thorny
from 3,000 meters in Kargil to over 8,000 meters in the
bushes, tough and deep-rooted wiry grasses, and scattered
Karakoram. dwarf acacias. Trees are quite rare, except in places where
there’s enough groundwater to support clusters of date
Ladakh palms.
Jam Cold Desert ‰ Across the western coastal deserts, which are influenced
Kas mu & by cold ocean currents like the Atacama Desert, there’s
hm
ir
Himachal a limited amount of vegetation. The intense evaporation
Pradesh in deserts leads to increased soil salinity, causing salts to
Punjab
Uttrakhand build up on the exterior and form hard layers known as
bajada or palaya. Because there’s very little moisture,
Fig. 3.47: Cold Desert Areas of India
the breakdown of organic matter is slow, resulting in
‰ Ladakh has very thin air, which makes the sun’s heat feel desert soils being very low in humus.
quite strong. In the summer, daytime temperatures are ‰ Most desert shrubs have long roots that are well-spaced
just above 0°C, while at night, it can drop as low as -40°C. out to collect moisture and search for groundwater.
This region doesn’t receive much rainfall, only about 10 These plants typically have few or no leaves, and if they
centimetres per year, because it’s in the rain shadow do, the foliage is often waxy, leathery, hairy, or needle-
shaped.
area of the Himalayan mountains.
‰ This helps reduce water loss through transpiration,
‰ The area has limited vegetation with small areas of shrubs
which is the process of water evaporating from plant
and grass. In the summer, you can find walnuts, apples, and leaves. Additionally, the seeds of many grasses and herbs
apricots as the main fruits. The wildlife in Ladakh includes in deserts have tough, thick skins to protect them while
yaks, wild goats and sheep, and special kinds of dogs. they remain dormant.

Physiography of India 61
 ‰ These lakes are in large numbers near Jaisalmer,
DRAINAGE SYSTEM Rajasthan. There are small playa lakes near Khatu,
Desert Stream Behavior Pokaran, Sujangarh and Kuchaman in Rajasthan.
‰ Streams in deserts often dry up quickly, especially before
Badland Topography
they reach the sea. They remain dry for extended periods
but can experience sudden and intense floods during ‰ The term badlands was initially used to describe a dry
brief heavy rains. These flash floods carry away most area in South Dakota, USA, where the hills had suffered
of the sediment in desert areas and create fan-shaped severe erosion due to occasional rainstorms, forming
deposits of sand, gravel, and boulders at the bases of gullies and ravines.
mountains in deserts. They also carve deep, steep-walled
canyons in the mountain regions upstream, the source of
the rocks and stones found located at the base of these
mountains. In the areas between mountains within
deserts, finer-grained materials are deposited by slower-
moving currents that result from receding floodwaters.
Fig. 3.51: Playa lake
‰ The extent of water’s impact on the hill slopes and rock
surfaces was so significant that this suggests that the
whole area was deserted by its inhabitants.
‰ Deserts exhibiting similar erosion features are now
commonly known as badlands.
Fig. 3.49: Sand Dunes in Thar Desert
‰ An example of such badlands is the Painted Desert in
Risks of Desert Flash Floods Arizona, situated to the southeast of the Grand Canyon
‰ Flash floods pose significant dangers in desert of the Colorado River.
environments, especially when caused by rainfall in Badland Topography in India
distant areas. More people in deserts die from drowning ‰ In India, badland topography is commonly found in
in flash floods than from thirst or dehydration. regions with specific geological formations, such as the
‰ Often, rain falls in remote mountain regions while Vindhyan and Gondwana rock formations.
downstream residents remain unaware of the rainfall. ‰ The Chambal and Son River basins in central India are
Desert rainstorms are usually brief but intense, delivering well-known for exhibiting badland topography.
several inches of rain in a short time. This water rapidly
flows downstream through mountain canyons, carrying
off loose materials within its trajectory. People or
automobiles trapped in such a deluge face a significant
danger of being swept away by the fast-flowing water.

Dry Lake Beds and Playas Fig. 3.52: Chambal

‰ Many deserts contain arid lake beds located in low-lying Badland
flat regions, which may only fill with water sporadically, ‰ The Chambal Badlands are characterized by a maze of
sometimes taking several years between occurrences. deeply eroded gullies, ravines, and rugged terrain.
These areas, known as playas or hardpans, often hold • This region spans parts of the states of Madhya
deposits of white salts that are created when rainwater Pradesh and Rajasthan.
evaporates, leaving behind dry lakebeds. ‰ The dry and arid climate in these areas, coupled with
the relatively soft and easily erodible sedimentary rock
formations, contributes to the development of these
unique landscapes.
‰ Badland topography poses challenges for agriculture
and land use, as the eroded terrain is often unsuitable
for cultivation and may lead to soil erosion and water
Fig. 3.50: Dry Lake Beds runoff issues.

62 Indian Geography
 ‰ Inselbergs are mountains or ridges with sharp, vertical
sides that abruptly rise from the flat plains of deserts.
Ayres Rock in central Australia is a famous example. They
form due to differential erosion, where certain rocks
exhibit a higher resistance to weathering and erosion,
leaving behind these distinctive desert features.

Fig. 3.53: Regional spread of Chambal Ravines

‰ However, these areas also hold ecological significance,
providing habitats for certain flora and fauna adapted to
such harsh conditions.

Alluvial Fans, Pediments, and Inselbergs

‰ Alluvial fans, composed of coarse-grained deposits, Fig. 3.57: Inselberg
accumulate at the front of mountain canyons in desert
regions. These fans, which also contain debris-flow Agriculture System in Desert
deposits, are prevalent in deserts and hold significant ‰ Agriculture and animal husbandry are the main
groundwater reserves due to their porous nature. occupations of the people living in the desert. However,
due to irregular rainfall and drought-prone conditions,
agriculture is challenging. Land degradation is a significant
issue, caused by factors like high animal populations,
wind and water erosion, and illegal mining.
‰ Bajra is the primary Kharif crop, but other crops like guar,
jowar, maize, sesame, and groundnuts are also grown.
Fig. 3.54: Ravines of
With the development of irrigation through canals and
Chambal-Gwalior Region
tube wells, the crop pattern has expanded to include
‰ In many desert areas, these alluvial fans merge to create
Rabi crops like mustard, wheat, and cumin seeds, along
an unbroken alluvial apron called a Bajada, sloping
with cash crops.
adjacent to the foundation of mountain ranges as a
result of fan coalescence. ‰ The government of India, in coordination with
‰ Pediments are flat expanses in desert areas that incline international organizations and trusts, has initiated
downward from elevated regions, typically covered by various efforts to promote agricultural activities in the
a thin veneer of alluvial deposits and rock fragments. Thar desert, addressing the challenges faced by the
These formations result from the erosion caused by region’s farmers. Deserts are incredibly dry places where
flowing water and shallow channels. Pediments expand there is very little plant life. You won’t typically find trees
as mountains erode. there, and even shrubs or small plants that grow close
to the ground are quite scarce under normal weather
conditions.

THE COASTAL PLAINS

India’s Coastal Plains are found along the eastern and
western shores of the country, flanking the Deccan Plateau.
Fig. 3.55: Pediments Stretching over approximately 6,150 km. Stretching from
the Rann of Kutch in the western region to West Bengal in
the eastern region.
‰ The two primary divisions are the Western Coastal Plains
along the Arabian Sea and the Eastern Coastal Plains
along the Bay of Bengal.
‰ These coastal plains extend from Gujarat’s Rann of Kutch
to Kanyakumari in the south, both on the western and
Fig. 3.56: Alluvial Fan eastern sides of peninsular India.

Physiography of India 63
 Bihar Meghalaya been largely flattened over time. Historically, the Kutch
Manipur
Jharkhand West Tripura Peninsula existed as an island enclosed by seas and
Kutch
Gujarat Madhya Pradesh Bengal
Mizoram
lagoons.

rh
Gujarat Plain

ga
ttis
‰ Over time, these aquatic regions were progressively filled

ha
Kathiawar Orissa Utkal Plain

Ch
Maharashtra with sediment transported by the Indus River, which
Telangana
Northern Cricars
previously coursed through this area. However, due to
Konkan Coast the recent scarcity of rainfall, this area has transformed
Goa Andhra
Karnataka
Pradesh into an arid and semi-arid landscape.
Pondicherry
‰ To the north of Kutch, there’s a salt-soaked plain called
Coromandel Coast
Malabar Coast Tamil Nadu the Great Rann, and its southern extension, referred to
Kerala
as the Little Rann, is situated along the coastline and
southeast of Kachchh.
Cape Comorin
‰ Moving south to the Kathiawar Peninsula, its central part
Fig. 3.58: Divisions of Coastal Plains consists of the Mandav Hills, which serve as a highland.
From this highland, small streams flow outward in various
Formation and Geological Origins directions, a drainage pattern known as radial drainage.
Geologists believe that the origins of India’s western and ‰ The highest peak in this region is Mt. Girnar, standing at
eastern coasts can be attributed to faulting and subsidence 1,117 meters, and it has volcanic origins. In the southern
processes that occurred in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of region of the Kathiawar Peninsula, one can encounter the
Bengal towards the end of the Eocene Period. Consequently, Gir Range, characterized by thick forests and renowned
the alluvial deposits found along these coasts are relatively as the natural habitat of the Gir lion.
recent, dating from the Pliocene to recent times. These
coastal plains provide evidence of both submergence (going Gujarat Plain
underwater) and emergence (rising above water). ‰ Situated to the east of Kachchh and Kathiawar, the
Gujarat Plain inclines towards the west and southwest.
THE WESTERN COASTAL PLAINS It is formed by the Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, and Sabarmati
rivers and encompasses the southern territory of Gujarat
Geographical Features of the Western as well as the coastal areas along the Gulf of Khambhat.
Coastal Plain ‰ The eastern segment of this plain is conducive to farming
‰ The Western Coastal Plain is located between the due to its rich soil, while a significant portion of the
Sahyadri Mountains and the Arabian Sea. It stretches for coastal region is covered with sand deposits called loess,
approximately 1600 km. and varies in width from 10 to which have been carried by the wind.
80 km. The elevation in this region can reach up to 150 ‰ Part of this plan also results from wind-driven deposits
meters above sea level and even surpass 300 meters in and the sea’s recession. It contains Gondwana rocks
certain areas. known as the Umia Series, which overlay marine Jurassic
‰ The plain is characterized by a variety of features, rocks and are topped by Lower Cretaceous (Apatian)
including sandy beaches, coastal sand dunes, mud flats, beds. The Deccan lava rests above the Umia series.
lagoons, alluvial areas along rivers, estuaries, laterite
platforms, and residual hills. Rann of Kutch and Surroundings
The Rann of Kutch is an expansive area characterized by tidal
Western Coastal Plains of India mudflats, crisscrossed by abandoned and active creeks. It is
From the Rann of Kachchh in the northern region to isolated from the Kathiawar Peninsula by the Gulf of Kutch.
Kanyakumari in the southern region, these plains are Due to the high salt content in the soil, this low-lying marshy
relatively narrow, typically measuring around 65 kilometres region is almost barren and unproductive.
in width on average. ‰ The whitish salt deposits create the appearance of
Kutch and Kathiawar Region white bony structures within the dried creek beds. The
‰ Kutch and Kathiawar regions, while technically connected live creeks form a dendritic drainage pattern, which has
to the Peninsular plateau due to their geological been further accentuated by earthquakes. South of the
composition (with Kathiawar having Deccan Lava and Rann lies Kutch, which used to be an island and is almost
Kutch having tertiary rocks), are typically considered entirely Encircled by the Rann except in the southwestern
part of the Western Coastal Plains because they have area.

64 Indian Geography
 in this area also exhibits distinct marine features
along the shoreline.
‰ Kerala Plain:
• The geographic area recognized as the Kerala Plain or
Malabar Plain is positioned between Mangalore and
Kanyakumari. In contrast to the Karnataka plain, it
exhibits notable characteristics of greater width and
lower elevation.
• A distinctive characteristic of the Kerala coast is the
presence of various water features, including lakes,
lagoons, backwaters, and spits. Among these, the
backwaters, locally referred to as kayals, are shallow
coastal inlets running parallel to the shoreline.
Fig. 3.59: Rann of Kutch and Surroundings • The largest of these backwaters is Vembanad Lake,
‰ Konkan Plain: stretching approximately 75 kilometres in length and
• The Konkan Plain, located below the Gujarat Plain, 5-10 kilometres in width. This lake also gives rise to a
extends from Daman to Goa and is approximately 50 55-kilometre-long strip of land called a spit.
to 80 kilometres wide.
• This region displays signs of marine erosion, such as THE EASTERN COASTAL PLAIN
cliffs, shoals, reefs, and islands in the Arabian Sea. ‰ The eastern coastal plain extends from the Eastern Ghats
• One notable geographical feature in this area is to the Bay of Bengal, spanning the shorelines of Odisha,
the Thane Creek, near Mumbai, which serves as a Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. These plains have
significant natural bay, offering an excellent harbour formed over time through the accumulation of alluvial
for maritime activities. deposits in the coastal region, which includes some of
‰ Karnataka Coastal Plain: the world’s largest deltas.
• The coastal plain of Karnataka stretches from Goa to ‰ The Eastern Coastal Plains mainly consist of recent and
Mangalore and is relatively narrow, averaging around tertiary alluvial deposits. These plains are relatively flat
30 to 50 kilometres in width, with the widest section and gently slope westward toward the foundation of
reaching up to 70 kilometres near Mangalore. the Eastern Ghats, with occasional hills breaking the
monotonous landscape. The coastline of this plain is
straight and features well-defined sandy and shingle
beaches, with Marina Beach in Chennai being particularly
famous.
‰ Eastern Coastal Plains, span from the Subarnarekha
River in West Bengal to Kanyakumari, primarily owe their
formation to the alluvial sediments carried by significant
rivers such as the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and
Cauvery.
‰ Compared to the western coastal plains, the eastern
coastal plains are extensive with an average width of
120km.
Fig. 3.60: Western Ghat and Coastal Plain • These plains can be as wide as 220km in the deltaic
• In certain areas of this region, you can observe regions and as narrow as 35km in between the
that rivers have their source in the Western deltas.
Ghats descending along steep slopes and forming ‰ The eastern coastal plain is known as:
impressive waterfalls. • Northern Circars between the Mahanadi and the
• One notable example is the Sharavati River, which, as Krishna rivers
it flows down a steep slope, creates the remarkable ˆ The term “Circar” is derived from the Persian
Gersoppa (Jog) Falls, measuring a height of 253 word “sarkar,” meaning district or region.
meters. (For context, Angel Falls in Venezuela is the • Carnatic plains between the Krishna and Cauvery
tallest waterfall on Earth at 979 meters, and Tugela rivers.
Falls in South Africa’s Drakensberg Mountains is the ˆ This region is often referred to as the Coromandel
second highest at 948 meters.) The coastal landscape Coast.

Physiography of India 65
Physiographic Divisions of Eastern Coastal Important Lagoons and Lakes at Eastern Coast
Plains ‰ The Eastern coast is home to several significant lagoons
in India. Among them, Chilka, situated southwest of
‰ Utkal Plain:
the Mahanadi delta, measuring 65 kilometres in length
• The Utkal Plain encompasses the coastal regions of and 8 kilometres in width. Kulleru Lake lies in between
Odisha and contains the Mahanadi River delta. The the deltas of the Godavari and Krishna rivers, while
key geographical highlight of this plain is Chilka Lake, the Pulicat Lake is located further south, straddling the
the largest brackish water lake in India, with its size border between Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
fluctuating from 906 square kilometers in winter to
1165 square kilometers during the monsoon season.
In the southern segment of this plain, you’ll find small
COASTLINES IN INDIA
hills scattered across the landscape. ‰ India boasts a coastline that spans 7,516.6 kilometres,
‰ Andhra Plain: comprising 6,100 kilometres of mainland coast and an
• The Andhra Plain lies to the south of the Utkal Plain additional coastline formed by 1,197 Indian islands. This
coastal region touches 13 different States and Union
and stretches down to Pulicat Lake, which is separated
Territories.
by a long sand spit called Sriharikota Island, home to
‰ The relatively straight and uniform shape of India’s
the ISRO launch facility.
coastline is a result of geological events that took place
• The most notable character of this plain is the during the Cretaceous period, specifically the faulting
formation of river deltas by the Godavari and Krishna of Gondwanaland. This geological process, known as
rivers. These two deltas have combined over time to continental drift, shaped India’s present coastline.
create a single landform. Due to this unique geological history, India’s coastline
• Remarkably, this merged delta has advanced about lacks numerous natural harbours suitable for maritime
35 kilometres towards the sea in recent years, evident activities.
from the current location of Kolleru Lake, which used
to be a coastal lagoon but is now situated farther East Coast of India
inland. In terms of the coastline, this area of the plain ‰ The eastern part of India, known as the East Coast,
exhibits a linear configuration shoreline but lacks lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.
good natural harbours, with only Vishakhapatnam It stretches all the way from the Ganga Delta up to
and Machilipatnam being notable exceptions. Kanyakumari. This coastal region is characterized by the
Rann of presence of river deltas like the Mahanadi, Godavari,
Kutch
Gulf of Kutch
Coastline of India Krishna, and Cauvery.
Coastal Plains of India
Kutch ‰ Notable geographical features on the East Coast include
Gulf of Cambay
Kathiawar (Gulf of Khambhat) Chilka Lake and Pulicat Lake, which are both important
Diu Daman lagoons.
UTKAL COAST
‰ Different regions along the East Coast have distinct
Chilka Lake
KONKAN names. In Orissa (Odisha), it is known as the Utkal Coast.
Northern Circars
COAST Moving southward from the Utkal plain, we have the
(Coastline of ANDHRA COAST
submergence)
Andhra Coast. Further down, we reach the Tamil Nadu
Carnatic Plains Coast.
Pulicat Lake
(Coastline of ‰ The Coromandel Coast, also referred to as Payan Ghat
emergence) CORAMANDAL encompasses the collective expanse of the Tamil Nadu
MALABAR COAST COAST (Payan Ghat)
Vembanad Lake
Coast and portions of the Andhra Coast. Starting from
(Coastline of
emergence) False Divi Point in Andhra Pradesh, near the Krishna
River Delta in the northern region, this coastal stretch
Fig. 3.61: Coastal Plains of India continues southward until it reaches Kanyakumari.
‰ Tamil Nadu Plain:
• The Tamil Nadu Plain stretches for 675 kilometres Chandipur Beach in Odisha is famously referred to as
along the Tamil Nadu coastline, spanning from Pulicat the “hide-and-seek” beach, where the sea undergoes
Lake to Kanyakumari, with an average width of about a disappearing and reappearing phenomenon twice a
100 kilometres. day. This natural occurrence is attributed to the ebb and
• Notably, the Cauvery Delta, a prominent feature flow of tides, causing the sea to withdraw 2–5 kilometers
of this plain, expands to a width of 130 kilometres. during the ebb tide and then return to the shore during
Thanks to its fertile soil and extensive irrigation high tide. The receding water leaves behind sand dunes,
systems, the Cauvery Delta is referred to as the and upon its return, it brings horseshoe crabs and red
breadbasket of South India. crabs from farther reaches of the beach.

66 Indian Geography
West Coast of India
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE COASTAL
‰ The western coastline of India stretches from the
northern Gulf of Cambay, alternatively referred to as the
PLAIN REGION
Gulf of Khambhat, to the southern Cape Comorin, also ‰ The coastal plains in India are known for their high
known as Kanyakumari. This coastal region is divided agricultural productivity. While the western coast
into three primary segments, progressing from north to specializes in growing specific tropical crops, the
south: the Konkan Coast, the Karnataka Coast, and the eastern coast has experienced a significant agricultural
Kerala Coast. transformation, particularly in rice production, thanks to
the green revolution.
‰ The shaping of this coastline is primarily attributed to the
‰ The delta areas along the eastern coastal plains have a
accumulation of alluvial sediments carried by short rivers
well-developed network of canals that traverse the river
originating from the Western Ghats.
tributaries, facilitating agriculture.
‰ Along this coastal expanse, one can discover numerous ‰ These coastal plains are a source of valuable resources,
small bays referred to as coves, narrow protected water providing salt, monazite (used in nuclear power), mineral
passages termed creeks, and a handful of estuaries, oil, and gas, and serving as crucial fishing centres.
including the prominent ones like the Narmada and Tapi ‰ These regions boast a multitude of major and minor
estuaries. ports, making them hubs for trade and leading to the
‰ The Kerala Coast, usually known as the Malabar Coast, is establishment of dense human settlements.
distinct in that it features lakes, lagoons, and backwaters, ‰ The coastal parts of India are renowned for their
with the most substantial of them being Vembanad Lake. tourist destinations, thriving fishing activities, and salt
‰ In terms of regional names, the Konkan Coast includes production.
the coasts of Maharashtra and Goa, while the Malabar
Coast encompasses the coastal regions of Kerala and THE ISLANDS
Karnataka. India is home to more than 615 islands, with the majority,
572, located in the Bay of Bengal, and the remaining 43
Emergence and Submergence Coastline situated in the Arabian Sea. Among the 572 islands in the
‰ Coastlines can be classified into, emergence and Andaman and Nicobar group, only 36 are inhabited.
submergence. An emerging coastline forms when ‰ Notably, the islands in the Bay of Bengal, like the
the land either rises up or when the sea level drops. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, have primarily formed
Conversely, a submergence coastline occurs when the due to tectonic and volcanic processes, while those in the
land sinks or when the sea level rises. Arabian Sea are primarily composed of coral formations.
‰ Additionally, there are several offshore islands found
‰ Emergence coastlines are characterized by specific
at the mouth of the Ganga River, along the eastern and
features such as bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes,
western coasts, and in the Gulfs of Khambat, Kachchh,
beaches, sea cliffs, and arches, which are created due and Mannar.
to the land rising or the sea level falling. In the context
of India’s coastlines, the eastern coast, particularly Generally, Islands are Divided into two
the southeastern part known as the coast of Tamil Categories of Islands
Nadu represents a significant example of an emerging ‰ Continental Islands
coastline. ‰ Oceanic Islands
‰ Conversely, the west coast of India exhibits characteristics Continental Islands
of both emergence and submergence. The northern At one time, these islands were linked to the mainland but
section of this coast is submerged due to geological are now separated from it. This separation can occur due to
faulting, while the southern portion, referred to as the factors such as a shallow lagoon or a deep channel, which
Kerala coast, is an instance of an emerging coastline. may result from land sinking or a rise in sea levels, causing
the lowland connections to become submerged by the sea.
‰ Regional examples include, The Coromandel coast in
Evidence of their past connection to the adjacent mainland
Tamil Nadu is a representation of an emerging coastline. has the potential to be seen in their similar physical structure,
The Malabar coast in Kerala is also an example of and plant and animal life found on either side of the channel.
an emerging coastline. However, the Konkan coast, Over time, human activity and natural forces may lead to
encompassing Maharashtra and Goa, demonstrates changes in their surface features, but the fundamental
features of submergence. structural characteristics will remain unchanged. These

Physiography of India 67
types of islands that were once a segment of the continent • Examples (India): The Lakshadweep Islands, situated
are known as continental islands. in the Arabian Sea, can be considered a festoon or
These islands can be further segregated into three types: island arc. It is a group of coral atolls and islands
‰ Individual Islands: Islands that are separate from the formed in an arc-like structure. Major islands include
mainland but still closely resemble the characteristic Minicoy, Agatti, and Kavaratti.
features of the mainland they were once connected to
are called individual islands.

Fig. 3.64: Festoons or Island Arcs

Kuril Islands
A group of four islands lies in the Sea of Okhotsk, near
Fig. 3.62: Individual Island Japan’s Hokkaido prefecture. Japan calls them the
• A few notable examples include Newfoundland, Northern Territories, Russia names them the Kuril Islands.
which is divided from the mainland by the Strait of These volcanic islands, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire,
Belle Isle; Madagascar, separated by the Mozambique boast several volcanoes and numerous hot springs. Russia
Channel; Ceylon, separated by the Palk Strait; has controlled them since World War II’s end, although
Tasmania, separated by the Bass Strait; and Taiwan, both Russia and Japan assert sovereignty, with Japan
separated by the Formosa Strait. claiming ownership since the early 19th century.
• Examples (India): Sriharikota Island, Elephanta Island,
Havelock Island (Andaman and Nicobar Islands) and Oceanic Islands
St. Mary’s Island (Karnataka)
These are typically small and are situated in the middle of
‰ Archipelagoes or Island Groups: Archipelagoes, also oceans, far away from the mainland, which can be hundreds
known as island groups, consist of collections of islands or even thousands of miles away. They have their own
that come in different sizes and shapes. distinct plant and animal life that is different from that of the
continents.
For example, the Galapagos Islands are home to many
unique animal species. Because of their remote location, far
from major trade hubs, most oceanic islands have very few
people living on them. However, some of these islands serve
as important stopping points for aeroplanes and ocean-going
ships that travel among continents across large expanses
of water. These islands can be further segregated into two
Fig. 3.63: Archipelagoes or Island Group categories:
• For example, we have the British Isles, the Balearic ‰ Volcanic Islands:
Islands found in the Mediterranean, and others • These are a common feature in our oceans, often
located in the Aegean Sea. being the highest points of undersea volcano cones.
• Examples (India): The Andaman and Nicobar While most of these volcanic islands are no longer
Islands form a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal. active, there are still some that remain active.
This archipelago consists of around. 572 islands, ˆ For example, Mauna Loa in Hawaii, the most

and notable ones include North Andaman, South famous volcanic peak in the Pacific Ocean, stands
Andaman, and Little Andaman in the Andaman at an impressive 13,680 feet above sea level.
group, and Great Nicobar in the Nicobar group. It’s worth noting that when we investigate its
beginnings beneath the sea, we discover that
‰ Festoons or Island Arcs: These are groups of islands
Mauna Loa actually commenced its formation on
that create a loop-like shape along the coastline of a
the ocean floor, situated 18,000 feet deep below
continent. These island arcs often follow the pattern of the water’s surface.
underlying mountain ranges on the mainland.
ˆ Narcondam Island in the Andaman and Nicobar
• Examples include the East Indies, the Aleutian group is considered a volcanic island. It features
Islands, the Ryukyu Islands, the Kurile Islands, and a stratovolcano, an active volcano with the last
other island arcs found along the Pacific coast. eruption recorded in November 2022.

68 Indian Geography
 ‰ The islands have a warm tropical climate throughout
the year, characterized by two monsoon seasons. The
average temperature is around 25°C, and the sea breeze
provides a cooling effect. Rainfall is heavy, with monsoons
from mid-May to mid-September and November to
mid-December.
‰ Various water bodies separate these islands, such as
Fig. 3.65: Volcanic Island the Duncan Passage between Little Andaman and South
Andaman, the Ten Degree Channel separating the
‰ Coral Island:
Great Andaman group from the Nicobar group, and the
• Coral islands are quite different from volcanic islands Grand Channel between Great Nicobar and Sumatra in
in that they are much lower in elevation and only rise Indonesia.
slightly above the water’s surface. These islands are ‰ Additionally, the Coco Strait lies between the North
constructed by various species of coral animals and Andaman Islands and the Coco Islands of Myanmar. The
can be located close to the mainland’s shores or in capital of the Andaman Nicobar Islands is Port Blair,
the middle of oceans. situated in South Andaman.
‰ Among the Nicobar islands, Great Nicobar is the largest,
located at the southernmost tip, while Car Nicobar is the
northernmost.
‰ Many of these islands are surrounded by coral reefs
and are covered by dense forests. The region is famous
for its mountainous terrain, with Saddle Peak in North
Andaman being the highest point at 737 meters.
Fig. 3.66: Coral Island ‰ The Andaman and Nicobar Islands experience a tropical
ˆ Examples of coral islands include the Marshall marine climate influenced by seasonal monsoon winds.
The area is characterized by dense tropical rainforests,
Islands and Gilbert and Ellice Islands in the Pacific
and mangrove forests are found in coastal regions.
Ocean, Bermuda in the Atlantic Ocean, and the
‰ The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are usually called
Laccadives and Maldives in the Indian Ocean.
the Emerald Islands. The state animal of Andaman is
ˆ Agatti Island, Bangaram Island and Bitra Island in the dugong, a herbivorous marine mammal endemic to
Lakshadweep are coral islands characterized by the Indo-Pacific coastal areas, especially the Andaman
its coral reefs. Islands.

Katchatheevu Island
Katchatheevu, a uninhabited island in the Palk Strait,
shifted ownership from India to Sri Lanka in 1974
through an agreement signed by Prime Ministers Indira
Gandhi and Sirima R.D. Bandaranaike. This accord
granted fishing rights, net drying, and pilgrimage access
to Indian nationals.

ISLANDS OF THE BAY OF BENGAL

Many islands are found in the bay, such as the Andaman
Islands, Nicobar Islands, and India’s Mergui Archipelago,
as well as Myanmar. To the northeast, near the Burmese
coastline, the Cheduba island cluster is notable for its mud
volcanoes, which occasionally exhibit signs of activity.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands comprise two island
groups that are divided by the Ten Degree Channel. They
are located about 900-2200 km away from the mainland,
with the southernmost point being the Indira Point on Great
Nicobar Island. Fig. 3.67: Andaman And Nicobar Islands

Physiography of India 69
Geology and Biodiversity • It is recognized for its distinct appearance and is
‰ The islands are densely forested and have diverse marine classified as a ‘vulnerable’ species according to IUCN.
life around their reefs. They are a haven for birdwatchers, ‰ Nicobar Tree Shrew (Tupaia nicobarica): The Nicobar
boasting 246 recorded species. The entire region falls Tree Shrew is an endemic species found in the Nicobar
within a major earthquake zone, and Barren Island in Islands, including some of the southernmost islands of
the Andamans has an active volcano. Within the Bay of the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago.
Bengal, you can find two volcanic islands, namely Barren • It is a small mammal belonging to the family
and Narcondam, positioned approximately 80 kilometres Tupaiidae.
to the east of the Andaman Islands. ‰ Andaman Day Gecko (Phelsuma andamanensis): This
‰ The Andaman Islands were formed as an extension of is a species of day gecko that is native to the Andaman
the Tertiary mountain chain of Arakanyoma, primarily Islands. Day geckos are known for their vibrant colors,
consisting of rocks like sandstone, limestone, and shale and the Andaman Day Gecko is no exception.
similar to the Himalayas. The Nicobar Islands, on the ‰ Andaman Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus cognatus):
other hand, are mainly of coral origin. Endemic to the Andaman Islands, this species of
horseshoe bat is adapted to the island’s unique
Agriculture and Indigenous Tribes environment. It is known for its distinctive horseshoe-
‰ Rice is the primary crop in the Andaman and Nicobar shaped nose leaf.
Islands, while cash crops like coconut and arecanut thrive The Bay of Bengal island groups consist of about 572 islands/
in Nicobar. Tropical fruits like pineapple, various bananas, islets. These are situated roughly between 6°N - 14°N and
sweet papaya, and mango are grown on a smaller scale 92°E - 94°E. The two principal groups of islets include the
in the Andaman group. Ritchie’s archipelago and the Labyrinth Island.
‰ Unfortunately, the tribal population in the Andaman
Islands is diminishing, with most current inhabitants Ritchie’s Archipelago
being migrants from Bangladesh, Myanmar, India, and ‰ Ritchie’s Archipelago is a group of smaller islands located
Tamils from Sri Lanka. Some surviving tribes in the 20 kilometres to the east of the primary Andaman
Andamans and Nicobar include the Onges, Jarawas, and Islands, known as the Great Andaman. Within Ritchie’s
Sentinelese. Archipelago, you can find islands like Neil Island and
Havelock Island.
Unique Fauna
‰ Recently, the names of some of these islands were
‰ The Wandoor Marine National Park in South Andaman
changed: Ross Island is now called Netaji Subhas Chandra
and Great Nicobar Islands is home to one of the world’s
Bose Dweep, Neil Island is known as Shaheed Dweep,
largest and rarest crabs, the Giant Robber Crab. These
and Havelock Island has been renamed as Swaraj Dweep.
crabs have powerful claws that enable them to climb
coconut trees and break open the hard shells of coconuts Ross Island, situated in the South Andaman region, is
for food. located just 3 kilometres to the east of Port Blair.
‰ Dugong (Dugong dugon): Also known as the sea cow, the Labyrinth Archipelago
dugong is a marine mammal found in the coastal waters ‰ The Labyrinth Archipelago has 15 small islands and is
of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. situated south west of South Andaman. They are now
• It is listed as “Vulnerable” on the IUCN Red List. part of Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park.
‰ Major islands include Boat Island, Jolly Buoy Island and
Red Skin Island.
IGNITE YOUR MIND

Dhanushkodi, a former vibrant trade hub on THE ARABIAN SEA ISLANDS

Pamban Island, Tamil Nadu, was devastated by a
cyclone in 1964. Now a ghost town, remnants of Arabian Sea is home to many islands in which some are
the railway station and church remain along the habited and some are not. Kavaratti, located on an island
coastline. Discuss the factors contributing to the bearing the same name, serves as the capital of Lakshadweep.
vulnerability of the Indian coastline and assess These islands are separated from the Maldives by the Eight
the impact of anthropogenic activities on coastal Degree Channel and lack significant hills and streams.
ecosystems and suggest sustainable measures for
coastal management. Lakshadweep Islands
‰ Narcondam Hornbill (Rhyticeros narcondami): The ‰ The Lakshadweep Islands are situated in the Arabian Sea,
Narcondam Hornbill is a species of hornbill found to the southwest of the Indian subcontinent.
exclusively on Narcondam Island, which is part of the ‰ The latitudinal extent is between 8° N and 12° N, and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. longitudinal extent is between 71° E and 74° E.

70 Indian Geography
‰ These islands were formerly referred to as Laccadive, ‰ The islands are situated on the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge,
Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands, with the name a submarine feature in the Indian Ocean.
“Lakshadweep” officially adopted on November 1, 1973.
• The name “Lakshadweep” in Malayalam, the official
language, means one lakh islands.
• The main languages spoken are Malayalam, Jeseri,
and Mahl.
‰ Fishing is the primary industry in this tiny Union Territory,
covering just 32 square kilometres in total.
• Kavaratti is the capital, and it falls under the authority
of the Kerala High Court.

Cherbaniani Reef

Byramgore Reef
Chetlat I.
Bitra I.
Kiltan I.
Amindivi Islands
Peremul Par Reef Kadamat I.
Amini I.
Bangaram I.
Fig. 3.69: Chagos-Laccadive Ridge
Agatti I. Laccadive Islands
Andrott I.
Kavaratti Unique Flora and Fauna
The flora and fauna of Lakshadweep are adapted to the
Cheriyam I. island’s unique ecosystem, which includes coral reefs and
Suheli Reef Kalpeni I. lagoons.

Flora
‰ The vegetation is limited due to the low elevation and
sandy nature of the islands. Some common plant species
include coconut palms, screw pines, and various shrubs.
‰ Mangroves are found in some areas, especially along the
shores and lagoons.
Minicoy I.
Fauna
‰ The coral reefs around Lakshadweep are rich in marine
life. The coral formations support a diverse range of
Fig. 3.68: Lakshadweep Islands fish species, including butterflyfish, parrotfish, and
angelfish.
Evolution and Formation of Lakshadweep ‰ Sea turtles, such as the green sea turtle and hawksbill
Islands turtle, nest on the beaches of the islands.
‰ Lakshadweep is a tropical archipelago of 36 atolls and ‰ The surrounding waters are frequented by dolphins and
coral reefs located in the Laccadive Sea, situated 200 to various species of whales.
440 km away from the Kerala coast.
‰ Bird species include seabirds like terns, gulls, and herons.
• Among these, 10 are inhabited, but one island, Parali
1, has submerged due to sea erosion. Minicoy - The Largest Island
‰ The islands are the result of the accumulation of coral
‰ Minicoy covers an area of 4.8 sq km. It features a
debris and the growth of coral organisms in response to
favorable environmental conditions, including warm sea lighthouse and a weather observatory. Fishing is
temperatures, clear waters, and low wave energy. the primary occupation of the local population in
• It is believed that these coral formations developed Lakshadweep, and coconut is the predominant crop,
atop submarine banks and began to evolve around although they also cultivate pulses and vegetables. The
7,000 to 5,000 years ago. surrounding sea is abundant in marine life.

Physiography of India 71
 Chetlat
Kiltan
Bitra
Bangaram Kadmat
Amini
Agatti Andrott
Kavaratti
Kalpani

Minicoy

Fig. 3.70: Some Lakhshadweep Islands

Lakshadweep’s Economic Activities coast), Anjidiv (Goa coast), Vypin near Kochi, Pamban,
Lakshadweep’s economy is largely reliant on fishing, given Crocodile, Adunda (Gulf of Mannar), Sri Harikota (mouth
its coastal location. Coconut cultivation is the primary of Pulicat Lake), Pairkud (mouth of Chilika Lake), Short,
agricultural activity, with additional crops like pulses and Wheeler (Mahanadi-Brahmani mouth).
vegetables being grown. The region’s proximity to the rich ● Additionally, there is Ganga-Sagar in the Ganga
marine ecosystem of the Arabian Sea contributes to its Delta. It’s important to mention that numerous
livelihood and sustenance. of these islands lack human inhabitants and are
governed by the neighbouring states.
Offshore Islands
The coastal and delta regions of India are home to several Other Important Islands
islands. ‰ New Moore Island
• These islands are also known as South Talpatti and
Purbasha Island, it is a small, unoccupied sandy
landform in the Bay of Bengal, situated near the
Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta area. It first emerged in
the Bay of Bengal back in November 1970, following
the Bhola cyclone, and it periodically appears and
disappears due to natural forces.
• Interestingly, even though this island had no
permanent residents or structures, both India and
Bangladesh declared ownership of it. The reason
behind this dispute was related to rumours suggesting
the presence of oil and natural gas resources in the
vicinity.

Fig. 3.71: Sagar Island

‰ Along the western coast, there are islands such as Piram,
Bhaisala (Kathiawar), Vaida, Nora, Pirotan (Pirothan),
Karunbhar (Kachchh coast), Khadiabet, Aliabet (Narmada-
Tapi mouths), Butchers, Elephanta, Karanja, Cross (near
Mumbai), Bhatkal, Pegioncock, St. Mary (Mangalore Fig. 3.72: New Moore Island

72 Indian Geography
 • The disagreement between India and Bangladesh
extended beyond the issue of maritime border
determination, involving questions of sovereignty IGNITE YOUR MIND
as well, particularly regarding the Radcliffe Award
The Thar Desert’s land surface has undergone
method used for settling such matters.
Aeolian deposition, resulting in the buildup of sand
‰ Diu Island
over a period of approximately 1.8 million years. But
• This island is a petite offshore landmass situated the Thar Desert is dominated by saline lakes. In Your
along the southern shoreline of Kathiawar, India. opinion, what are the causes of the presence of saline
Located in the Junagadh district within the Gulf of lakes in desert regions of India? Do you think that the
Cambay, it is separated from the Gujarat Coast by a salt composition of these lakes is different from the
Tidal Brook. The island boasts limestone cliffs, rugged composition of seawater?
inlets, and sandy shorelines, with Nagoa Beach being
one of the most renowned. Diu Island is famed for
its historic Diu Fort and scenic beaches, and its most CONCLUSION
notable feature is the expansive fort built by the
Portuguese. From the towering peaks of the Himalayas in the north
‰ Majuli Island to the vast plains of the Indo-Gangetic region, and from
• This is a significant river island situated on the the rocky plateaus of the Deccan to the coastal plains and
Brahmaputra River in Assam came into existence due deserts, India boasts a myriad of terrains that have been
to alterations in the path of the Brahmaputra River
and its associated tributaries, especially the Lohit shaped by geological processes over millions of years. This
River. diverse physiography is not only aesthetically captivating but
• Historically, it was land situated amid the Brahmaputra also has significant implications for India’s climate, water
River to the north and the Burhidihing River to the resources, biodiversity, and socio-economic activities. The
south. interaction between these varied landscapes has shaped
• The transformation of Majuli into an island was a the country’s history, culture, and way of life. As India
consequence of shifts in the Brahmaputra River’s
flow caused by earthquakes during medieval times. continues to develop, understanding and managing its
Additionally, Majuli holds deep spiritual significance diverse physiography will be crucial for sustainable growth
for Assamese Neo-Vaishnavites. and environmental conservation.

Physiography of India 73
 Drainage System of India 4
During the rainy season, excess water flows through rivers, origin of the river to the mouth. Any drainage pattern in a
ponds and nalas. Had it not been for these channels, floods given area is dependent on a number of physical elements,
would cause devastating impact. In fact, flooding is a including topography, slope, water flow, and rock structure.
common phenomenon in all those channels that are either Terminologies: Important characteristics associated with the
poorly defined or blocked and choked due to debris. drainage system are:
This regular flow of water through well-defined channels
‰ Source: A place on the highland where the river begins
may be defined as the Drainage. Thus, the drainage helps
or originates is called the Source.
in the removal of the excess surface water. Such a network
of tributaries and trunk streams that collect and channel ‰ Mouth: The end of the river where the river flows and
surface water to seas and oceans is collectively referred as merges into the sea is called the Mouth.
the Drainage system. ‰ Tributary: It is a small river that eventually joins a larger
‘Drainage basin’ is a spatial geomorphic unit of a river river.
system, distinguished by ridges and highlands. This makes ‰ Confluence: The meeting point at which two rivers join.
river basins natural land units. The drainage basin includes ‰ Watershed: The boundary line separating one drainage
water collected from snowfall, melting of ice, rainfall, basin from the other is known as watershed. It is
streams, floods etc. and diverted to a single point where it generally found along highlands and ridges.
flows in the direction of the gradient.
‰ Catchment Area: The area within the drainage basin is
Drainage Pattern is the geometric design through which the referred to as the Catchment Area.
river and its tributaries combine as a unit from source or

Fig. 4.1: Drainage System

Drainage Basin System ‰ Stores: Holding Water Within the System

The drainage basin system is a crucial element of the water • Interception: Water temporarily held by vegetation
cycle, encompassing various interconnected processes. before reaching the ground.
‰ Inputs: Introducing Water into the System
• Soil Moisture: Water retained in the soil.
• Precipitation: The primary input, referring to the
introduction of water into the drainage basin system • Surface Storage: Water accumulation in lakes.
through rainfall or snow. • Groundwater: Water stored beneath the surface.
‰ Transfers: Movement of Water Within the System Examples of Watersheds: Watershed of Yamuna, watershed
• Surface Run-off/Overland Flow: Water flowing over of Chambal, watershed of Gandak etc.
the land surface. Interconnection between Basins and Watersheds: They
• Infiltration: Water penetrating the soil surface. are marked by cohesion. Any action or effect in one part
• Percolation: Downward movement of water through of the basin or watershed has a corresponding reaction on
soil. the other parts and the system as a whole. Hence, they are
• Through-flow: Lateral movement of water within the usually the most appropriate choices for micro, meso or
soil. macro planning regions.
• Groundwater Flow: Movement of water through
precipitation
underground aquifers.
A Watershed rain
‰ Outputs: Releasing Water from the System rain
• River Discharge: Water released into rivers.
• Evapotranspiration: Water released back into the watershed divide
atmosphere through the combined processes of tributaries
evaporation and transpiration. watershed divide
River Basins Vs Watersheds
The catchments created by big rivers are referred to as river percolation

basins, while those of small rivulets and rills are often called percolation
Watersheds. Thus, watersheds are small in areas whereas groundwater
basins occupy huge areas. This is the main distinction (aquifer)

between river basins and watersheds.

Examples of River Basins: The Ganges basis, the Indus basin. Fig. 4.2: A watershed
Feature River Basins Watersheds (or Catchments)
Definition A region drained by a river and its tributaries.
An area where all the water drains to a common point,
typically a river or a lake.
Scale Larger geographical scale, often involving Smaller geographical scale, focusing on the drainage area
multiple rivers. of a single river or stream.
Boundaries Defined by the topography and flow of rivers. Defined by the topography; divides the land into areas
where water drains in a specific direction.
Interconnectedness Multiple river basins may be interconnected Watersheds can be part of a larger river basin but are
within a larger drainage network. more localized in terms of drainage.
Management It often involves coordinated management Management is generally more localized and may involve
across political boundaries. smaller administrative units.
Example Amazon River Basin, Mississippi River Basin. Chesapeake Bay Watershed, Upper Colorado River
Watershed.

• Stream Course Impact: It influences stream course

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF development.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM ‰ Geological Structure:
The origin and evolution of a drainage system in a region are • Alignment and Behavior: Folds, faults, and joints
influenced by the initial surface, the nature of the slope, in guide stream alignment and behaviour.
addition to the geological structure of the region.
• Shaping Drainage Patterns: Crucial role in forming
Factors Influencing Drainage System distinct drainage patterns.
Evolution ‰ Climate and Weather Patterns:
The development of drainage systems is shaped by a few key • Precipitation and Runoff: Impact water volume and
factors: drainage system resilience.
‰ Initial Surface and Slope: • Erosional Processes: Influence landscape shape
• Flow Directions: It determines water flow directions. through erosion and deposition.

Drainage System of India 75

‰ Human Activities and Land Use: ‰ Due to the Peninsula’s slope towards the Great Plains,
• Anthropogenic Modifications: Alters drainage the Vindhyan and Satpura ranges flow northwards into
patterns through urbanization and agriculture. the Ganges system. The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons
• Stream Channelization Impact: Changes affect flow and Son meet the Yamuna and the Ganga at right angles.
patterns and water quality. Coastal Plain

Based on the adjustment of the streams to the initial surface Consequent River nsequent
Old landmass
Co
and geological structures, drainage systems are classified Water gap
Extended
River
Sea Delta Sub consequent
into two categories i.e., Sequent Streams (concordant) sequ
Rive ent
r
and Insequent (discordant) Streams. These can further be
subdivided.

MAJOR DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

Fig. 4.4: Sequent Drainage System
Sequent Drainage System or Concordant
Resequent Streams
Drainage System
They are the tributary streams which are developed later
They follow regional slopes and are well adjusted to the and flow in the same direction as the original consequent
local geological structures. They can be further divided streams, typically as a result of uplift or base-level changes.
into obsequent streams, subsequent streams, consequent They frequently serve as tributaries to succeeding streams,
streams and resequent streams. which flow perpendicular to structural features like folds
and faults. They are of recent origin. Examples include the
Drainage Patterns Gomati river.

Res
Discordant Concordant Co

eq
ns

Subsequent
drainage drainage eq

uen
ue
nt
Re

t
R
se
.
qu Obs
en Subsequent equ
ent
Superimposed drainage Consequent streams t R.
Obsequent
River
Antecedent drainage Subsequent streams
Resquent streams
Obsquent streams

Fig. 4.3: Categorisation of Drainage Patterns

Consequent Streams Subsequent: Developed after master current.
The first streams to emerge in a location are known as Obsequent: Flow opposite to the master current.
subsequent streams, also referred to as dip streams. They Resequent: Flow in the direction of the master current.
move in the general slope-side direction.The term “master Consequent: Courses are the direct con of the initial topography.
consequent” refers to the longest and principal stream Fig. 4.5: Representation of Sequent Drainage System
within a drainage system or river network.
Obsequent Streams
The first streams to be initiated on a newly emerged coastal
They form when a stream adjusts to a rock structure and
plain are consequent streams which are parallel to each flows opposite to the original stream (also called master
other and thus form a parallel drain­age pattern. For example, consequent stream).
peninsular rivers like Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery that ‰ For example, the lesser Himalayan streams join Sun Kosi
descend from the Western Ghats and flow into the Bay of as obsequent streams, flowing opposite to the Ganga
Bengal. and Yamuna rivers.
Subsequent Streams Insequent Drainage System or Discordant
It is a tributary stream that forms after the main drainage Drainage System
pattern is formed along a non-resistant rock strip. They follow Those streams which do not follow regional slopes and are
the axis of the anticlines or ridges. They exhibit a transverse not adjusted to the geological structures. The two major
orientation, forming a right angle or approximately 90-degree types of insequent streams are antecedent stream and
angle with the master stream. superimposed stream.

76 Indian Geography
Superimposed Drainage that are unrelated to the present geological structure.
It also known as epigenetic or superinduced drainage. It is a Examples of rivers exhibiting superimposed drainage include
drainage pattern that evolves on rock strata that have been the Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the Banas,
subsequently removed by erosion. This process, termed and those flowing through the Rewa Plateau, as well as rivers
superimposition, leads to the formation of river networks in eastern USA and southern France.

A Superimposed Stream
Downcutting causes before stream Downcutting causes gorge to form
was present
Most horizontal beds Gorge or water gap cut by
Dendritic stream developed on stripped away by erosion stream cutting down through
horizontal beds resistant beds of buried anticline

Horizontal beds
Unconformity
Folded beds

Fig. 4.6: Superimposed River

Antecedent Drainage
FACTORS INFLUENCING DRAINAGE
‰ It describes a drainage pattern that predates a period of
uplift and folding that gave rise to the current geological
PATTERNS
structure. In this process, known as antecedence, the A ‘drainage pattern’ is a geometric arrangement of streams
drainage pattern was already established before the in a region from the source of the river to its mouth. It is the
uplift occurred. resultant of various factors like:
‰ The nature and structure of rocks
1. An antecedent stream 3. The stream maintained its
2. Slow tectonic uplift
flowed on horizontal
folded the rocks in
course, cutting through the ‰ The geological time period
sedimentary rocks. uplift as it developed,...
an anticline ‰ Topography of the region
‰ Slope
‰ The volume of the water flowing
‰ The periodicity and the velocity of the flow.
These factors in turn give rise to a variety of patterns as
4. ...and it now flows discussed below.
through a steep-
walled gorge of
its own making TYPES OF DRAINAGE PATTERNS
Fig. 4.7: Antecedent Drainage System Some of the drainage patterns occurring include Trellised
pattern, Dendritic pattern, Rectangular pattern, Radial
‰ As the uplift and folding processes unfolded, the rivers pattern, Parallel pattern, Deranged pattern, Annular
were able to cause vertical erosion and maintain their pattern, among others. A detailed analysis of each of these
courses at the same rate approximately. is presented below:
‰ This phenomenon allowed the rivers to cut down and ‰ Trellis Drainage Pattern: The trellis drainage pattern is
persist in their pre-existing paths despite the geological characterized by the parallel flow of primary tributaries,
while secondary tributaries intersect them at right
changes.
angles.
‰ Examples of rivers with antecedent drainage systems are • Description: It resembles a garden trellis, forming in
found in various regions where uplift and folding have folded topography with parallel hard and soft rocks.
occurred. Most of the Himalayan Rivers like Indus, Sutlej, • Formation: Primary tributaries follow down-turned
Kosi, Gandak have antecedent origins. folds (synclines) forming valleys.

Drainage System of India 77

 • Areas of Formation: This pattern typically emerges when the river channel aligns with the slope of the
when there is a parallel arrangement of hard and soft terrain, resembling the branching structure of a tree.
rock formations. • Name Origin: This configuration is aptly named
• For example, Rivers in the upper Himalayan region; dendritic due to its resemblance to the branches of
Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra; the old folded mountains a tree.
of the Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Plateau). • Geological Conditions: It occurs in regions with rock
‰ Rectangular Pattern: In a rectangular drainage pattern, beneath the stream lacking a specific structure,
the main stream bends at right angles and the tributaries allowing for equal erosion in all directions.
join at right angles creating rectangular patterns. • Tributaries: The tributaries join larger streams at
acute angles (less than 90°).
• Areas of formation: It is found in regions that have
undergone faulting.This pattern typically forms • Examples: Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Godavari,
Mahanadi etc.
on terrains with pronounced jointing in the rock
‰ Radial Pattern:
structure. It distinguishes itself from the trellis
drainage pattern by its greater irregularity, with • Description: It develops around a central elevated
tributary streams being shorter and less parallel. point, streams radiate outward, are known as radial or
centrifugal patterns like lava erupting from a volcano.
• Geological Conditions: It develops in areas with
• Formation: Common around conically shaped
limited topography and a network of bedding planes,
features like volcanoes.
fractures, or faults.
• Examples: Rivers originating from the Amarkantak
• Examples: Streams in the Vindhya mountain range Hills (Narmada, Son and Johila river), Girnar Hills,
like Tapi, Chambal, Betwa, Ken; and Colorado River Gujarat (Sabarmati & others) and Mikir Hills, Assam
in the USA. (Dhansiri, Kopili Rivers).
Valleys cut in less- ‰ Centripetal Pattern: Rivers’ discharge of water into a
Ridges of resistant rock
resistant lake or depression. Similar to a radial pattern, but with
rock the distinction that centripetal passages flow inward as
opposed to outward like radial passages do. For instance,
the streams of Ladakh and the Loktak Lake in Manipur,
Baghmati and its tributaries in Nepal.
‰ Parallel Pattern: It is found in regions of long parallel
landforms with slopes. Tributaries flow parallel to
Trellis
natural downfalls, such as rivers in the Western Ghats
flowing into the Arabian sea, Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna,
Fig. 4.8: Trellised Pattern & Tungabhadra.
Volcano
Central
depression

Radial Radially inward

Fig. 4.11: Radial Pattern Fig. 4.12: Centripetal Pattern

Fig. 4.9: Rectangular Pattern

Fig. 4.13: Parallel Pattern Fig. 4.14: Annular Pattern

‰ Annular Pattern: An annular pattern characterizes a
Fig. 4.10: Dendritic drainage pattern segment of a drainage pattern where the successive
‰ Dendritic Pattern: It is the most common form that streams adopt curving or arcuate courses before
resembles tree roots. The dendritic pattern emerges converging with the main consequent stream.

78 Indian Geography
 • This phenomenon arises from a partial adjustment to ‰ Deranged Pattern: Inconsistencies in materials deposited
an underground circular structure, such as batholiths. by glaciers and a lack of time for drainage to adapt to
• This pattern is not common but is found in Pithoragarh solid rock structures are likely to be to blame for the
(Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills, and Kerala, with easier disorderly drainage pattern in a region that has recently
erosion of the concentric strata. been cleared by an ice sheet.
‰ Barbed Pattern: In this drainage pattern, the point where • This type of drainage, which includes numerous
a tributary meets the main river is marked by a discordant waterways, lakes, and marshes, is present in the
junction, creating the impression that the tributary seeks glaciated valleys of the Karakoram.
to flow upstream rather than downstream.
• This distinctive pattern arises from the main river
being captured, leading to a complete reversal in its
flow direction, while the tributaries maintain their
orientation in the direction of the original flow.
• For instance, the Kosi River has a tributary in Nepal
called the Arun River.
1 2 Fig. 4.18: Deranged Pattern
River capture
Divide Barbed
stream ‰ Angular Pattern: It is characterized by straight stretches
connected by sharp, often right-angled bends.
River

River

Erosion • Formation: It is associated with bedrock joints and

River

faults that intersect at acute angles.

River

• Examples: Common in the Himalayan Foothill region.

Barbed stream
OTHER IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED
TO DRAINAGE
Fig. 4.15: Barbed Pattern
‰ Avulsion: It refers to the sudden and rapid change in
‰ Pinnate Pattern: It is formed in the narrow valleys
the course of a river, typically caused by the erosion
flanked by steep mountain ranges. The tributaries from
the steep sides of the parallel ridges join the longitudinal of its banks. Unlike gradual changes in a river’s course,
main river like veins joining the nerves at acute angles. avulsion involves a more abrupt and often unpredictable
For example, the Son, and Narmada rivers. shift in the direction of the river channel. This can result
from various factors, including changes in sedimentation,
tectonic activity, or human-induced alterations to the
landscape. As the sediments deposit, it may eventually
reach a point where the river overflows its banks,
especially during periods of high flow (e.g., floods). The
overflow can create a new channel that diverts the river’s
Fig. 4.16: Pinnate Pattern flow away from its previous course.
‰ Herringbone or Rib Pattern: Herringbone drainage ‰ River Channel Migration: The gradual and natural
pattern is identified by a series of streams that flow in a movement of a river channel over time.
series of V-shaped patterns. They are typically found in ‰ Stream Capture: The diversion of one stream’s flow into
areas with a regular pattern of faults or joints. another, often occurring due to changes in topography
• Example: Patterns linked to alternating layers of hard or erosion.
and soft rock or fault lines in the landscape. The upper ‰ Riverbank Erosion: The gradual wearing away of
reaches of the Jhelum River in the Vale of Kashmir are riverbanks due to natural processes, sometimes leads to
fed by numerous tributaries on both its flanks.
changes in the river’s course.
‰ Wind Gap: A gap through which a waterway once flowed
Late
ral
d in but which is now dry as a result of stream capture is
rain
ral dra
Late referred to as a wind gap, also known as an Air Gap.
‰ Stream/River Capture: When a stream or river drainage
is diverted from its own bed and flows down the bed
main

of a neighbouring stream, this is referred to as stream

Fig. 4.17: Herringbone Pattern capture, river capture, or river piracy.

Drainage System of India 79

‰ Water Gap: A pass or gorge actively used by a river,
allowing its flow through mountainous terrain. CLASSIFICATION OF DRAINAGE
‰ Defile: A narrow gorge or passage, often through SYSTEM OF INDIA
mountains, shaped by the erosive action of rivers or The Indian drainage system has been categorized into
streams.
many types on the basis of different criteria under
‰ Nickpoint: A location with a sharp change in river channel
consideration like mode of origin, water discharge and the
slope, such as a waterfall or rapid.
catchment area size. The following are the details based
Let us now examine the drainage system of the Indian
on these criteria.
subcontinent.
Himalayan Rivers
Major Rivers Based on Based on Type Deccan Rivers
(>=20000 Sq. Km.) Catchment of Drainage Coastal Rivers
Medium Rivers Area Size
(2000-20000 Sq. Km.) Inland Drainage Basin
Indian Rivers
Minor Rivers Drainage
(<=20000 Sq. Km.) System
Classification
 Himalayan/perennial West-flowing/Arabian
Based on
River System Sea Drainage Rivers
Based on Orientation to
 Peninsular/Non- Origin the Sea/Water East-flowing/Bay of
perennial River System Discharge Bengal Drainage Rivers

Fig. 4.19: Classification of Drainage system of India

‰ Size of the Catchment Area: Mahi 34842

The drainage basins of India are divided into three Subarnarekha 29196
categories based on the size of the catchment area: Sabarmati 21674
• Major river basins: They have a catchment area of
‰ Mode of Origin:
more than 20,000 square kilometers and include 14
drainage basins like the Ganga, the Barak and the Depending on the mode of origin, the drainage of India
Godavari. can be divided into:
• Medium river basins: The river basins with • The Himalayan Drainage (Perennial River System): It
catchment areas of between 2,000 and 20,000 consists of relatively younger rivers like the Ganges,
square kilometers. They consist of 44 river basins like the Brahmaputra and the Indus.
the Kalindi, the Periyar, and the Meghna
• Minor river basins: The river basins with catchment India’s River System
areas of less than 2,000 square kilometers. A number
of rivers flowing in the areas of low rainfall come
under this. These include Sharavati, Vaigai etc. Indus River
The Himalayan System The Peninsular
Catchment Areas of Major Indian Rivers River System River System
Catchment Area (in Narmada
Major Rivers of India
sq. km.)
Ganges River Indus River Tapti
Ganga 861404
Godavari 312812 System System Godavari
Krishna 258948 Ganga Indus Cauvery
Brahmaputra 194413 Yamuna Beas Krishna
Mahanadi 141589 Mahandi
Son Jhelum
Narmada 98796 Vaigai
Gandak Chenab
Cauvery 81155
Tapi 65145 Ghaghara Ravi
Pennar 55213 Sutlej
Brahmani and Baitarani basin 51822 Fig. 4.20: Classification of the Himalayan
Barak 41723 and Peninsular river system

80 Indian Geography
 • The Peninsular Drainage (Non-Perennial River System: It consists of comparatively older rivers like the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Penna
• Although many Peninsular rivers, like the Chambal and Betwa, are older in age and origin than the Himalayan rivers,
there is no obvious distinction between these two drainage systems.

Himalayan Rivers Vs Peninsular Rivers

Aspects Himalayan River Peninsular River
Location Flow through the Himalayan mountain range in the Flow through the Peninsular Plateau in the southern
northern part of India. part of India.
Origin Generally originates from glaciers or high mountain Originate from various sources within the Peninsular
peaks in the Himalayas. plateau, including hills (Western & Eastern Ghats)
and plateaus.
Flow Direction Flow towards the northern plains and eventually into Flow towards the east or west into the Bay of Bengal
the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian Sea. or the Arabian Sea.
Perennial vs. Mostly perennial rivers with continuous flow Many are seasonal, with intermittent flow as they
Seasonal Flow throughout the year due to glacier-fed sources. depend on rainfall.
Water Volume Generally has a higher water volume and discharge Generally have a lower water volume and discharge,
compared to Peninsular rivers, especially during the with significant variations in flow throughout the year.
monsoon season.
Gradient and Characterized by steep gradients and fast-flowing Tend to have gentler gradients and slower-moving
Rapids rapids in their upper reaches due to their mountainous waters, with occasional rapids in hilly areas.
origins.
Tributaries Receive water from numerous tributaries and sub- Have fewer tributaries and sub-tributaries in
tributaries along their course. comparison.
Erosion and Carry a significant amount of sediment eroded from Carry comparatively less sediment and have a lesser
Sedimentation the mountains, leading to alluvial deposits in the impact on alluvial deposits.
plains.
Examples Gangas, Brahmaputra, Yamuna, Indus, Sutlej, Chenab, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi,
and others. and others.

Drainage Type
India’s river systems can be categorized into four groups:
‰ Himalayan rivers
‰ Deccan rivers
‰ Coastal rivers that drain into the sea
‰ Rivers of the inland drainage basin (endorheric basin)

Geographical Hydroelectric
Category Origin and Source River Characteristics Examples of Rivers
Region Potential
Himalayan Rivers Northern India Himalayan Perennial, fast- High due to steep Ganga, Yamuna,
mountains, flowing, high gradients and Brahmaputra
glaciers, snowmelt sediment load elevation drop
Deccan Rivers Plateau region Plateau regions, Variable flow, some Moderate due to Godavari, Krishna,
of central and rainfall, local seasonal rivers plateau terrain Narmada,
southern India runoff Tungabhadra
Coastal Rivers Coastal regions Coastal areas, Variable flow, Limited due to Mahanadi, Krishna,
and Western Western/Eastern moderate sediment variable flow and Cauvery
Ghats Ghats, rainfall load low gradients
Inland Drainage Arid or semi-arid Dependent on Variable flow, often Limited due to Luni, Ghaggar, many
Basin Rivers regions, often local rainfall and ephemeral, minimal arid or semiarid small seasonal rivers
(Endorheic Basin) interior runoff sediment conditions

Drainage System of India 81

‰ In the Rann of Kutch, the Luni is the sole river that flows include the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Godavari, the
through the salt desert. Krishna, the Mahanadi etc.
‰ Each river category possesses distinctive features, ‰ West-flowing rivers: They flow into the Arabian Sea and
influencing agriculture, human settlements, ecosystems, comprise 23% of the total drainage. Some of them are
and navigation opportunities. the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi etc.
Water Discharge/Orientation to the Sea In spite of varying drainages, about 90% of water drains into
Based on the direction of water-discharge, drainage system the Bay of Bengal. The East and the West flowing rivers are
can be categorized as: separated from each other through the Delhi Ridge, the
‰ East-flowing Rivers: These flow into the Bay of Bengal Aravallis and the Sahyadris and are collectively referred to
and account for about 77% of the total drainage. They as the Water Divide.

East Flowing River System Vs. West Flowing River System

Bay of Bengal Drainage Arabian Sea Drainage
Aspect
(East Flowing River System) (West Flowing River System)
Location Eastern side of the Indian subcontinent Western side of the Indian subcontinent
Major Rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi Indus, Narmada, Tapi, Sabarmati
River System More extensive and complex river system Less extensive river system
River Discharge Generally higher discharge due to abundant rainfall Lower discharge compared to Bay of Bengal drainage
and snowmelt in the Himalayas due to less rainfall in the western part of India
Rainfall Pattern Experiences heavy rainfall during the monsoon Receives less rainfall due to the rain shadow effect from
season the Western Ghats, leading to arid regions in some areas
Coastal States India (eastern coast) and Bangladesh India (western coast), Pakistan, and parts of Oman
Major Ports Chennai, Kolkata, Vishakhapatnam, Chitta-gong Mumbai, Karachi, Kandla, Kochi
Ocean Currents Affected by the North Equatorial Current and the Affected by the Somali Current and the West India
East India Coastal Current Coastal Current
Sea Trade Connected to major trade routes with Southeast Historically linked with trade routes to the Persian Gulf,
Routes Asian countries and beyond Europe, and Africa

THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE

Ind
us
INDIA The drainage system of the Himalayas primarily includes
R. MAJOR RIVERS
the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers, which are
PAKISTAN
R. perennial due to continuous feed through snow melt and
.
us R

R.

ab
en Bea
lum

Ch R. s R.
precipitation. Both the southern and northern Tibetan
Ind

i
Jhe

v
Ra
R. CHINA
luj
Sat (TIBET)
Tsangpo R.
slopes of the Himalayas are drained by the great Himalayan
N
rivers, which are older than the Greater Himalayas.
Ga

E
ng

Ya P
aR

m A
‰ They act as eroding agents and create erosional
un L
.

aR Gha BHU TAN R.

R. R. gha tra
l . apu
Ga

Luni mb
a R. Go
m
ra R
. hm
nd

a d
Sin Bra
landforms like waterfalls, cataracts, rapids, gorges, steep
Ch at Ko
ak

i R. si R.
R.

Ganga R.
I N D I A BANGLADESH
.

R.
.

slopes, V-shaped valleys and river terraces during the

R
M ati R.

n
Ken
wa

So
.
iR
arm

Bet
ah

course.
Sab

Narmada R.
Tap MYANMAR
i R.
‰ They also create depositional landforms like flat valleys,
Pen Mahanad
gang i R.
Go a R.
dav
ari

ARABIAN
R.

BAY OF
flood plains, ox-bow lakes, deltas near the river mouth
SEA Kri
shna
R.
BENGAL and braided channels. Their courses are tortuous, with
dra
R. meandering tendencies in plains.
ha

‰ These rivers exhibit wide seasonal fluctuations, causing

b
ga
Tun

Water Divide

devastating floods during rainy seasons and shrinking

Ka
ve
r iR
.

to the bottom during the dry season. They continue to

cause intensive erosion and transport heavy loads of
ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS
LAKSHADWEEP (INDIA)
(INDIA)

INDIAN SRI OCEAN

sand and silt annually.
LANKA
‰ For example, the River Kosi brings huge amounts of
Fig. 4.21: Water Divide in India sediments from the upper reaches and deposits in the

82 Indian Geography
 plain areas. As a consequence, the natural course is
The Persian word “doab” refers to the region that lies
blocked and the river changes its course. For this reason,
between two rivers. Between the Indus River and the
the Kosi is called the Sorrow of Bihar.
Jhelum River is where the Sindh Sagar Doab is produced.
The rivers have great socio-economic and cultural importance Despite having the largest land area of the Punjab doabs,
in Indian life, used for irrigation, industries, hydel-power
it is also the poorest because so little of the land is used
generation, navigation, and domestic purposes.
for agriculture.
Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage
System Indus River System
Geologists believe that a mighty river called Shiwalik or The Indus, also known as Sindhu, a significant drainage
system in India, spans 2880 km, with 1114 km in India. Its
Indo-Brahma spanned the entire length of the Himalayas
catchment area is 1,165,000 sq km, with 3,21,289 sq km in
from Assam to Punjab, eventually flowing into Sind, formed India. The famous Indus Valley Civilisation is named after this
around 5-24 million years ago during the Miocene period. river.
The river’s continuity and lacustrine (relating to lakes) origin, ‰ Originating from a glacier near Bokhar Chu Glacier(4,164 m)
along with alluvial deposits of silt, clay, sand, support this in Mt. Kailash, it drains the largest number of glaciers
view. (Indo-Brahma or Shiwalik River Theory) and mountain slopes in the Karakoram region.
To
‰ It flows in the North-west direction passing through
EVOLUTION OF HIMALAYAN RIVERS
Oxus Ladakh, Gilgit and Baltistan.
Captures of Tibetan River by Attock, Indus and
Dihang X1 – X5 Successive Captures of Indobrahm ‰ Major tributaries of the Indus River can be classified as
by Punjab Rivers right-bank rivers and left-bank rivers, based on where
X1 X
2 X3 X TIB they meet the river.
ET
4
X5
AN
RI V ER
• Right-bank tributaries: The Shyok, Gilgit, Zhob,
To ar) IND
Hunza, Nubra, Shigar, Gilgit, Kabul River, Kurram,
Gul Slind hagg OB
RA
f ti (G HM
ra swa OR Gomal, Tochi, Viboa, Sangar.
Sa SHIWALIK RI V ER
• Left-bank tributaries: The Zanskar, the Sutlej, the
Beas, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Jhelum.
GONDWANALAND ˆ Doabs of Indus River System: A “doab” refers to
KILOMETRES a region of land lying between two rivers.he word
100 0 100 200300 400
BAY OF
BENGAL
“doab” is derived from Persian, where “do” means
“two,” and “ab” means “water” or “river.” These
Fig. 4.22 regions are typically fertile and well-suited for
The Indo-Brahma River system was divided over time into: agriculture. The 5 doabs of this system are:
ˆ Sindh Sagar Doab: This doab is situated between
‰ The Indus and its five tributaries in the western portion
the Indus River and the Jhelum River. The region
‰ The Ganga and its himalayan rivers in the central region is named after the historic Sindh province and the
and Sagar Lake.
‰ The Brahmaputra stretch of the Eastern Indian parts of ˆ Jech Doab: The Jech Doab is formed between the

Assam and himalayan rivers. Jhelum River and the Chenab River. The name is
derived from the combination of the two rivers.
The Ganga and Brahmaputra systems were diverted towards ˆ Rechna Doab: This doab lies between the Chenab
the Bay of Bengal during the Pleistocene upheaval in River and the Ravi River.
the western Himalayas, which included the uplift of the ˆ Bari Doab: The Bari Doab is located between the
Potwar Plateau (Delhi ridge) and the downthrusting of the Ravi River and the Beas River. It is one of the most
Malda gap region between the Meghalaya plateau and the fertile regions in the Indian subcontinent.
Rajmahal hills. ˆ Bist Doab: The Bist Doab is formed between the
Beas River and the Sutlej River.
Another theory, namely, Multiple River Theory proposes
‰ The Indus River is conjoined by the Dhar River near the
that the intricate network of Himalayan rivers evolved Indo-China border.
through the integration of multiple ancient river systems. ‰ Notably, it is joined by the Zanskar River at Leh.
Geological processes, tectonic activity, and river capture Proceeding towards Skardu, the Shyok River converges
have shaped the diverse drainage patterns. Continuous with the Indus.
uplift and erosion contribute to the dynamic evolution of the ‰ The Indus concludes its mountainous journey by
Himalayan river system. traversing a deep gorge near Attock, reaching a depth

Drainage System of India 83

 of 5181 m, north of the Nanga Parbat, and takes a sharp Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Satluj—flowing from
southerly bend (syntaxial bend). the Panjnad (Panchnad). Finally, the river empties into
the Arabian Sea south of Karachi, forming a vast delta.
‰ The Kabul River from Afghanistan joins the Indus near
Attock. Subsequently, the river flows through the Potwar
In Tibet, the Indus River is referred to as Singi Khamban
plateau, crossing the Salt Range at the southeastern
or the Lion’s Mouth.
edge of the Potwar Plateau.
The blind Indus River Dolphin, a sub-species of dolphin, is
‰ Notably, just upstream of Mithankot, the Indus receives found only in the Indus River.
the combined waters of the five eastern tributaries—the

Gilgit INDUS RIVER SYSTEM

Kanhar Shyok
Swat

Nu
Kabul Kishan Ganga

bra
Verinag lake
n
Soha Baralacha Pass
Tochi Rakas Lake

Zas
Jhelum (Mt. Kailash)
Gomal

kar
ab
en
Kanda
r Ch Rohtang Pass
Beas
Jhob Ravi
Sutlej Rakas Lake
Sutlej
Panch Doab Made by Panchnad
er The area between two River is known as Doab
us Riv Panchnad
Ind Doab River Area
1. Bist doab Between Beas and Satlej
2. Bari doab Between Beas and Ravi
3. Rachana doab Between Rai and Chenab
4. Chaj doab Between Chenab and Jhelum
5. Sindh sagar doab Between Jhelum and Indus

Fig. 4.23

Indus Water Treaty (1960) • The upper riparian state is located upstream, while
An important water distribution deal between India and the lower riparian state is situated downstream.
Pakistan was the Indus Water Treaty (1960), which was These terms are particularly relevant in the context
of river water sharing and international water laws
signed in that year. The agreement created the Permanent
like Indus. In the case of the Indus River, which
Indus Commission and mandated that Pakistan and India
flows through China, India, and Pakistan, India is
hold biannual meetings and schedule technical site visits. considered an upper riparian state with respect to
‰ In the final reckoning of the agreement, Pakistan Pakistan.
received 80% of the IRS waters while India got 20%. • India’s strategic advantage in the Indus River
The World Bank served as the treaty’s intermediary. basin:
‰ Rights over Rivers: The Treaty allocates the Western ˆ Geographical Advantage: India’s upper riparian

Rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) to Pakistan and the status facilitates control over water resources.
ˆ Control Over Flow: Essential for managing
Eastern Rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) to India. However,
according to Annexure C of the IWT, India is granted resources, including agriculture, hydroelectric
power, and domestic supply.
specific agricultural usage rights. Additionally,
ˆ Strategic Infrastructure: Significant projects,
Annexure D permits India to construct ‘run of the river’
like Bhakra-Nangal Dam, contribute to effective
hydropower projects, which refers to projects that do water resource management.
not necessitate the retention of water for storage. ˆ Negotiation Leverage: India’s upper riparian
‰ Upper and Lower Riparian System: The terms “upper position provides negotiation leverage in
riparian” and “lower riparian” refer to the geographical discussions, including those concerning the
positioning of states or regions along a river. Indus Waters Treaty and other agreements.

84 Indian Geography
 Fig. 4.24: Indus Water Treaty

• Important projects on the Indus River: Bhakra ‰ Dispute Resolution Mechanism: The Indus Waters
Nangal, Indira Gandhi Project, Pong Project, Treaty (IWT) incorporates a three-step mechanism for
Chamera Project, Thein Project, Nathpa Jhakri dispute resolution, as outlined in Article IX.
Project, Salal, Baglihar Project, Dulhasti Project,
• Issues or questions on either side can first be
Tulbul Project, and Uri Project.
addressed at the Permanent Commission or
‰ Geostrategic concerns of India over Indus river:
elevated to the inter-government level.
India has several geo-strategic concerns related to
the Indus River system, which plays a crucial role in • In instances where questions remain unresolved,
the country’s water security, energy generation, and particularly those involving water-sharing
overall development. disagreements such as technical differences,
• Water Security: India aims to ensure a reliable either nation has the option to engage the World
and sustainable water supply from the Indus River Bank. The World Bank can then appoint a Neutral
system to meet the diverse needs of its population, Expert (NE) to render a decision.
including agriculture, domestic consumption, and • If either party remains dissatisfied with the
industrial use. NE’s decision or if disputes arise regarding the
• Hydroelectric Power Generation: India strategically
interpretation and scope of the treaty, the matter
focuses on harnessing hydropower potential from
can be escalated to a Court of Arbitration for
the Indus River system to enhance energy security
and support economic development. resolution.
• Transboundary Water Sharing: India seeks a fair • Current Disputes (January 2023):
and effective mechanism for water allocation that ˆ India seeks IWT amendments; notice issued to
aligns with its developmental requirements. Pakistan on January 25.
• Environmental Impact and Climate Change: ˆ Pakistan announces Court of Arbitration in The
India is attentive to the potential environmental Hague on January 27.
consequences of climate change on the Indus ˆ Hydroelectric power projects on Kishanganga
River system, necessitating adaptive strategies to
and Chenab rivers under dispute.
ensure sustainable water management.
ˆ Pakistan initially sought World Bank’s
• Geopolitical Tensions: The geo-political context
between India and Pakistan adds complexity to involvement in August 2016.
the management of the Indus River system. India ˆ India proposes Neutral Expert; World Bank

aims to navigate this context while maintaining appoints Michel Eno and Sean Murphy for
adherence to international agreements. Arbitration on October 17, 2022.

Drainage System of India 85

Now let us understand the major tributaries of the river ‰ Ranjit Sagar Dam and Shahpur Kandi dam project are
Indus in detail. major projects built on the river.
Jhelum (Ancient Name: Vitasta) Beas (Ancient Name: Vipasa or Argikiya)
It is an important tributary which rises from a spring at It originates from the Beas kund near the Rohtang pass at a
Verinag at the foot of the Pir Panjal (part of Kashmir valley). height of 4000 metres above sea level. At Harike, it merges
‰ It flows northwards through Srinagar and from the Wular with the Satluj after passing through the Kullu valley and the
lake changes its course southwards. The beautiful city of Punjab plains.
Srinagar is situated on the bank of this river. ‰ Compared to other Indus tributaries, it is a short river
‰ The largest river flowing into Jhelum is the Kishanganga (470 km in length), and it only flows through Indian
River. territory.
‰ Upon reaching Baramulla, the river enters a gorge ‰ The river crosses the Dhauladhar range and follows
nestled in the hills. Below Baramulla, the Indus creates a a south-westerly direction and then river eventually
narrow gorge with steep sides as it courses through the confluences with the Sutlej River at Harike in Punjab.
Pir Panjal Range. Satluj (Ancient Name: Satadru or Satudri)
‰ Moving southward from Muzaffarabad, the river takes
Originating from the Mansarovar-Rakas Lakes (where it is
a distinctive hairpin bend. Subsequently, it delineates referred to as Langchen Khmabab) in western Tibet at an
the India-Pakistan boundary for a stretch of 170 km and elevation of 4,572 m, the Satluj River lies within 80 km of the
surfaces on the Potwar Plateau near Mirpur. Indus River’s source.
‰ Continuing its course through the spurs of the Salt Range,
‰ Mirroring the course of the Indus, the Satluj initially
the Indus then emerges onto the plains in the vicinity
flows in a north-westerly direction until it reaches the
of the city of Jhelum after debouching from a confined
Shipki La on the Tibet-Himachal Pradesh boundary. As
space into a wide and open area.
it penetrates the Great Himalaya and other Himalayan
‰ Uri, Kishanganga Project are important hydroelectricity ranges, the river carves deep gorges.
projects.
‰ Before entering the Punjab plain, it cuts a gorge in
Chenab (Ancient Name: Asikni) Naina Devi Dhar, where the famous Bhakra dam has
The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus with 960 km been constructed. Upon entering the plain at Rupnagar
of length in India with a catchment area of 29,050 sq km, (Ropar), the river takes a westward turn and meets the
upto the international border. It is created in Himachal by Beas at Harike.
the fusion of two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, and ‰ Serving as the boundary between India and Pakistan for
is referred to as Chandrabhaga. approximately 120 km, from near Ferozepur to Fazilka,
‰ It originates in Lahaul-Spiti (Zanskar range). It cuts a the Satluj receives the combined drainage of the Ravi,
deep gorge near Kishtwar. It flows through the plains of Chenab, and Jhelum rivers during its onward journey.
Pakistan Punjab to reach Panchnad where it joins the ‰ It eventually joins the Indus a few kilometers above
Satluj after receiving the waters of Jhelum and Ravi. Mithankot. Out of its total length of 1,450 km, the Sutlej
‰ Salal, Dulhasti hydel project lies on Chenab and Baglihar
flows for 1,050 km within Indian territory.
Dam is constructed on the river and is popular for ‰ Among the five tributaries of the Indus River, the Satluj is
Chenab’s bridge which is one of the world’s highest distinguished as the longest.
railways.
Ghaggar, often known as the fabled Saraswati, is
Ravi (Ancient Name: Parushni or Iravati) an Indian inland drainage that rises in the Shiwaliks of
Originating in the Kullu hills near the Rohtang Pass in Sirmaur, close to Ambala. It vanishes in the plains before
Himachal Pradesh, the Ravi River flows through the region resurfacing in the Karnal District.
between the Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges. ‰ In Bikaner, the stream, also known as Hakra, is lost
‰ Following its course beyond Chamba, the river adopts close to Hanumangarh.
a south-westerly direction and carves a profound gorge ‰ The Satluj was thought to flow south through this
through the Dhaola Dhar range. Ghaggar-Hakra river rather than southwestward due
to the broad river bed and loamy terrain.
‰ Upon reaching the Punjab Plains near Madhopur, it
eventually crosses into Pakistan below Amritsar. The river ‰ The river feeds into the Rann of Kutch and is identified
eventually merges into the Chenab, slightly upstream as Eastern Nara, an ancient Indus channel in Sindh.
The Ghaggar-Hakra streams are now ephemeral, and
from Rangpur in the Pakistani Punjab, after debouching
the land is desert.
from its course.

86 Indian Geography
 Saraswati River - The Mystery of the Lost River
Ganga River System
Bhagirathi Alaknanda
The Saraswati is a significant river in the Vedic Period, GANGA RIVER SYSTEM
part of the Sapta Sindhu rivers. It was mentioned in Rig
Rapti
Veda and other Vedic texts. It flows between Satluj and

Ra
Kali

m
Ga
ga
nga
n
Yamuna and into the Samudra.

Sha
ga
Yam Gandak

rda
una Gha Kosi
‰ The river is believed to have originated from the bal Riv
er gha
ra
ham
Har-ki-Dun glacier in Uttarakhand. It is 1500 km long, na
s C
Gomati

r
Ba

ive
Ganga R

aR
5 m deep, and 3-15 km wide.

r
iver

ive
sa

tw
Farakka
Tam

nR
Be
er

Ke
‰ Later Vedic text and Mahabharata mentioned that the Kali Sindh
Son
Riv Hugli
Damodar River
river dried up in a desert. Meeting point of Tributaries of Ganga River
‰ It flowed between 6000 and 4000 BCE, and geological 1. Devprayag (Alaknanda) 6. Patna (Son)
upheavals caused it to dry up. 2. Kannauj (Ramganga)
3. Prayagraj (Yamuna)
7. Hajipur (Gandak)
8. Bhagalpur (Kosi)
‰ According to contemporary experts, the Ghaggar- 4. Gazipur (Gomati) 9. Malda (Mahananda)
5. Chhapra (Ghaghara)
Hakra river system in northwest India and eastern
Pakistan is where the Saraswati originates. Fig. 4.25: Ganga River System
Recent efforts by the government for revival of Saraswati The 861452 sq km Ganga basin, India’s largest river basin,
river: has a length of 2525 km. It is India’s most revered and
‰ Adi Badri Dam: On January 21, 2022, a Memorandum significant river, flowing across Bangladesh before joining
of Understanding (MoU) was executed between the the Bay of Bengal.
Governments of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh for ‰ The river is associated with fertility and spiritual
the collaborative construction of the Adi Badri Dam
nourishment and originates as Bhagirathi from the
on the River Somb in Himachal Pradesh, including its
Gaumukh glacier (3900 m) in UttarKashi District.
associated linkages with the Saraswati River.
• The construction of the Adi Badri Dam aims ‰ It carves its way through the narrow gorges of the Central
primarily to revive the Saraswati River and and Lesser Himalayas. The confluence of the Bhagirathi
promote the development of Saraswati heritage. and Alaknanda at Devprayag marks the commencement
• Additionally, the project is designed to allocate of the Ganga. (Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth
61.88 hectare-metres per annum of water for glacier above Badrinath.)
drinking and irrigation purposes in the state of ‰ Originating from the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath,
Himachal Pradesh. the Alaknanda comprises the Dhauli and the Vishnu
Ganga, which meet at Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag.
A glacial lake is a body of water that forms in a depression ‰ Upon reaching Haridwar, the Ganga enters the plains.
on the surface of a glacier or in a glacially carved basin.
It initially flows southward, then changes course to
These lakes originate through various glacial processes,
such as the melting of ice, the damming of glacial the southeast and east before bifurcating into two
meltwater, or the deposition of sediments by the glacier. distributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and the Padma.
For instance, the Garhwal Himalayas are home to Devtal ‰ The river spans a length of 2,525 km, traversing through
Glacial Lake. Uttarakhand (110 km), Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km), Bihar
(445 km), and West Bengal (520 km). The Ganga basin
covers an extensive area of about 8.6 lakh sq. km in India
IGNITE YOUR MIND
alone.
What evidence supports the existence of the Sarasvati ‰ The Ganga river system stands as the largest in India,
River, and what are the leading theories about its featuring numerous perennial and non-perennial rivers
origin? How could its potential revival impact water that originate from the Himalayas in the north and the
management and agriculture in arid regions of India? Peninsula in the south, respectively.
Now, let us turn to the Ganga River System, which is ‰ Left-bank tributaries are Ramganga, Gomti, Gandak,
considered to be of the highest prominence both on Burhi Gandal, Kali, Kosi, Ghaghara, Mahananda etc
account of the huge area it drains as well as the cultural ‰ Right-bank tributaries include Yamuna, Damodar and
significance. Son.

Drainage System of India 87

 The Prayags of the Ganga
Confluence of rivers is known as Prayag. There are Five sacred river confluences in the Himalayas in Uttarakhand.
‰ Vishnuprayag: It is a confluence of the Alaknanda River (Source: Satopanth Glacier) and the Dhauliganga River
(Source: Mana Glacier).
‰ Nandaprayag: Nandaprayag is a confluence of the Alaknanda and Nandakini Rivers (Source: Trishul Glacier).
‰ Karnaprayag: The Alaknanda and Pindar Rivers merge here. (Source: Pindari Glacier).
‰ Rudraprayag: The Alaknanda and Mandakini rivers merge here. (Source: Chorabari Glacier). Kedarnath, a Hindu holy
town is located 86 km from Rudraprayag.
‰ Devprayag: The Alaknanda River and the Bhagirathi River meet at this point. (Source: Gaumukh or Gangotri Glacier).
Both rivers flow on as the Ganga River.

ga
Kedarnath Badrinath li Gan
Gangotri a u
Dh
Mandakini

Yamnotri Vishu Prayag Vishnuprayag = Alaknanda River + Dhauliganga River

yag akini
da

Pra Nand
an

nd Nandaprayag = Alaknanda River + Nandakini River

kn

Na
Ala
rathi

Karnaprayag = Alaknanda River + Pindar River

Pinder Ganga
Bhag

Rudraprayag = Alaknanda River + Mandakini River

Ka
Ru

ra
d

nP

Devprayag (Ganga) = Alaknanda River + Bhagirathi River

ra

ray
Pray

ag

Deva
ag

Prayag
a
ng
a
un

Ga
m

Confluence (Prayag)
Ya

Fig. 4.26: The Panch Prayag

Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta: It forms the largest delta in the Chambal Janpao hills in the Vindhyas
world between the Hooghly River and the Meghna River.
Banas Aravalli range
‰ The delta’s coastline exhibits significant indentations,
forming a complex network of distributaries and islands, Betwa Vindhyas, north of Narmadapuram
all enveloped by dense forests known as the deltaic Ken Barner range
region. Son Amarkantak plateau (Radial
‰ A substantial portion of the delta comprises low-lying Drainage)
swamps, subject to inundation by marine water during Ramganga Garhwal (Uttarakhand)
high tide.
Ghagra Gurla Mandhata peak, south of
‰ Upon entering Bangladesh, the Ganges River is referred Mansarovar in Tibet (river of the
to as the Padma River. trans-Himalayan origin)
‰ It continues its southward course and ultimately The Kali River (border Glaciers of trans-Himalayas
converges with the Brahmaputra River near the town between Nepal and
of Chandpur in Bangladesh. The amalgamated river Uttarakhand)
is subsequently recognized as the Meghna River. Gandak River Tibet-Nepal border
Ultimately, the river discharges into the Bay of Bengal
near Sagar Island. Burhi Gandak Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal
border
Major rivers of Ganga river system and their source is
summed up in the following table. Kosi (‘Sorrow of Bihar’) Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi unite at
Triveni north of the Mahabharata
River Source Range to form the Kosi
Bhagirathi Gangotri glacier Damodar Chotanagpur plateau
Yamuna Yamunotri glacier (Banderpoonch) (‘Sorrow of Bengal’)

88 Indian Geography
Left Bank Tributaries The Gomti Valley is also known as ‘Katyuri Valley’ and
Ramganga River is the major agricultural region of Kumaun. However,
It rises near river rising in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain and pollution from industries from Sitapur to Sultanpur is
joins the Ganga near Kannauj. It is a tiny river in the Kumaon affecting the river, as it passes through sugar processing,
Himalayas. The Shiwalik redirects it to the southwest. In paper, and plywood industries.
Nainital, Uttarakhand, the river flows through the Jim Gandak River
Corbett National Park. Originating in Nepal’s central Himalayas, it flows between
Sharda River Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, and Mt. Everest. It is formed by the
It originates from the rises in the Milam glacier in the Nepal Kaligandak and the Trishul Ganga.
Himalayas (where it is known as the Goriganga) at Kalapani in ‰ It flows into the Indian Great Plains in the Champaran
the Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand near Lipu-Lekh pass. District of Bihar before joining the Ganga River across
The river, known as Kali or Mahakali or Chauk (184 km), from Patna at Sonpur.
before joining the right bank of Ghaghara near Barabanki. Its major tributaries are Kali Gandak, the Bari and Trishuli.
‰ The Kali River forms the Indo-Nepal border. In 1992, It is also renowned for its frequent route alterations.
NHPC commissioned Tanakpur Hydroelectric Power in Burhi Gandak
Champawat, demonstrating the potential of the river for ‰ This river originates from the western slopes of Sumesar
hydroelectric power generation. hills near the India-Nepal border.
Sarayu River ‰ It joins the Ganga near Monghyr town.
It is a significant river in the Indian state of Uttarakhand that Kosi River
drains the Central Kumaon region. Before entering Mahakali
at Pancheshwar, it runs from Sarmul through the cities of Commonly referred to as the “Sorrow of Bihar,” is a
Kapkot, Bageshwar, and Seraghat. predecessor river that rises on the Tibetan side of Mount
‰ The Sharda River’s major tributary is the Sarayu. The Everest. Kosi is an antecedent river with its source to the
contemporary Ghaghara River is said to be an exact north of Mount Everest in Tibet, where its main stream Arun
replica of the Sarayu River. rises. It is approximately 729 kilometers long overall.
‰ The city of Ayodhya is situated on the banks of river ‰ Running parallel to the Mahabharata Range and joining
Sarayu. the Arun to form the Sapta-Kosi, it connects the Son-
Ghaghara River Kosi and Tamur-Kosi in Nepal.
It originates in the Mapchachungo glacier in Tibet’s northern ‰ The river emerges into the Bihar Plains close to Chatra in
Himalayan highlands(near Gurla Mandhata Peak). The the Saharsa District after cutting through the Shivalik Hills
Ghaghara River is also known as the Karnali River in Nepal, and the Mahabharata Range. 30 km west of Manihari, it
Mapcha Tsangpo in Tibet, and Sarayu River in Awadh. merges with the Ganga River.
‰ After collecting the waters of its tributaries – Tila, Seti
‰ In the Bihar Plains, it divides into a great number of
and Beri, it comes out of the mountain, cutting a deep
channels (braided). It carries a huge amount of water at
gorge at Shishapani.
great speeds. Large scale deposition of sediments occurs
‰ It is a perennial transnational river. This river carves a
on the plains.
deep valley through the Mahabharata Range in western
Nepal. ‰ In 2008, the river Kosi completely changed its course
‰ It merges with the Ganga close to Chhapra, Bihar. With a inundating areas which were supposed to be safe from
total length of 1080 km, it is the second-longest tributary floods. The breach of the Kosi River is now called one
of the Ganges after the Yamuna in terms of volume. of India’s worst floods in recent memory and has been
‰ The flood frequency of the river is high and is infamous classified as a national calamity.
for shifting courses. ‰ To control the river, embankments (joint ventures of
Gomti River India and Nepal) have been built on both of its banks
It is a tributary of the Sarayu, originating in the Madho Tanda since 1962.
region near Mainkot from a lake called Fulhar Jheel. It flows Mahananda River
through various districts before meeting the Ganga at Kaithi
in Ghazipur. Originating in West Bengal’s Darjeeling Hills, it merges with
‰ The river is a perennial, flat, and sloping river with a
the duars near Siliguri. Its total length is about 360 km. It
drainage area of 30,437 sq km, covering about 960 km. forms sharp curves before joining the Ganga River, making it
Its major tributary is the Sai River. the last north-bank tributary.

Drainage System of India 89

 Mathura, and Agra, and joins the Ganga at Triveni
Sangamam in Prayagraj (Allahabad).
IGNITE YOUR MIND ‰ The Yamuna River spans a total length of 1,376 km from
its source to Allahabad. It gives rise to the incredibly
What roles do the Ganga floodplains, including the
fertile alluvial region known as the Yamuna-Ganges
unique floating islands called “phumdis,” play as
Doab, situated between the Yamuna and the Ganges in
critical habitats for migratory birds? How do these
the vast Indo-Gangetic plain.
floodplains contribute to ecological services, and
what measures can be taken to protect and enhance ‰ Important right bank tributaries mostly originate from
their biodiversity? the Aravallis, Vindhya Range, and Malwa Plateau.
‰ The Yamuna and the mythological River Saraswati may
have shared water while the Vedic era was in effect in
Right Bank Tributaries Bikaner.
Son River Yamuna River System
It rises from the Amarkantak Plateau not far from the
Non- Peninsular Tributaries Peninsular Tributaries
Narmada. It traverses through waterfalls and the Kaimur
of Yamuna of Yamuna
Range and approaches the Ganga Plain before emptying into
the Ganga at Bankipora, close to Aara. ‰ Rishiganga ‰ Chambal
‰ Uma ‰ Sind
‰ Rihand, Johilla, Gopat and North Koel are the main
‰ Hanuman Ganga ‰ Betwa
tributaries of the Son River. Rihand rises in the Matiranga
‰ Tons join it in the ‰ Ken
hills of Chattisgarh and meets in Uttar Pradesh to help
mountains. ‰ Most of the Peninsular
transform into a mighty stream.
‰ Hindon joins at rivers flow into the
Damodar River Ghaziabad in the plain Yamuna between Agra
It flows from west to east for about 592 km, drains the area and Allahabad.
eastern Chotanagpur Plateau and emerges on Bengal’s
deltaic plains.
‰ Barakar is its largest feeder, meeting the main river
above Asansol. It bends below Bardhaman and meets
the Hugli River at Falta.
‰ The Damodar River is a heavily contaminated river due
to the dumping of industrial waste, eutrophication and
deposition of coal in the region has increased the waste
from coal industries.
‰ The Damodar valley is famous for hydroelectric power
generation and ‘The Ruhr of India’.
Yamuna
Yamuna originates in the Yamunotri Glacier on Banderpunch’s
western slopes, is the Ganga’s longest and western-most Fig. 4.27: Yamuna River System
tributary. It flows for about 1,376 km and drains about
Major Tributaries of Yamuna
366,223 sq. km. area.
Chambal River
‰ It traverses through the Nag Tibba, Mussoorie, and
It is a 1024 km long river, originating from Singar Chouri peak
Shiwalik ranges, cutting across these geographical
in the Vindhya mountains near Mhow and flows northwards
features.
through a gorge to Kota, Rajasthan.
‰ The primary tributary in its upper reaches is the Tons,
‰ It is a perennial river and tributary of Yamuna, surrounded
originating from the Bandarpunch glacier. Below Kalsi, by Luni, Yamuna, Vindhyas, and Aravalli ranges.
where the Yamuna departs from the hills, the Tons river ‰ It forms the boundary between Madhya Pradesh and
merges with the Yamuna. Notably, at this confluence, the Rajasthan. The river is rainfed, and is relatively pollution-
volume of water carried by the Tons is twice that of the free.
Yamuna. ‰ Tributaries include Banas, Kalisindh, and Parbati. The
‰ It then flows southward, making a boundary between river is known for its badland topography(Chambal
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. It passes through Delhi, Ravines), crocodile species, and Keoladeo National Park.

90 Indian Geography
‰ Dams on the Chambal river: Many dams have been Ken River
constructed on the perennial chambal, to harness its It begins in Madhya Pradesh and merges with the Yamuna in
water both for electricity and irrigation. They include: the Uttar Pradesh district of Banda. Rajghat and Paricha are
• The Gandhi Sagar dam marks the initial construction its two principal tributaries, and it flows through the Panna
among the four dams established on the Chambal Tiger Reserve.
River, situated on the border of Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh. Brahmaputra River System
• Positioned 48 km downstream from the Gandhi Sagar Brahmaputra River originates from the Chemayungdung
dam, the Rana Pratap Sagar dam spans the Chambal glacier of the Kailash range, which is close to Mansarovar
River in the Chittorgarh district of Rajasthan. Lake. It is one of the biggest rivers in the world. The
Brahmaputra is also known as Tsangpo in Tibet, runs about
• The Jawahar Sagar Dam, the third installment in the
1,200 kilometers eastward in southern Tibet.
Chambal Valley Projects, is located 29 km upstream
of Kota city and 26 km downstream of the Rana Region River Name
Pratap Sagar dam. Tibet Tsangpo (meaning ‘The Purifier’)
• Subsequently, the Kota Barrage, the fourth structure China Yarlung Zangbo
in the Chambal Valley Projects, is positioned Assam Valley Dihang or Siang, South of Sadiya:
approximately 0.8 km upstream of Kota City in Brahmaputra
Rajasthan. Bangladesh Jamuna River
• Water released after electricity generation at the Padma River: Combined Waters of Ganga
Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam, and and Brahmaputra
Jawahar Sagar Dams is redirected by the Kota Barrage
Meghna: From the confluence of Padma and
for irrigation purposes in Rajasthan and Madhya Meghna
Pradesh through an extensive canal system.
One significant right bank tributary is the Rango Tsangpo.
Chambal Ravines The river carves out a deep valley in the Central Himalayas
The Chambal River in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and close to Namcha Barwa takes a syntaxial bend before
and Rajasthan is home to a maze of ravines, valleys, and emerging as a turbulent and active river.
saw-toothed ridges. These ravines are being reclaimed ‰ It enters India as Dibang or Sikang and gets its principal
for agriculture, pastures, social forestry, and wildlife left bank tributary Lohit west of Sadiya town in Arunachal
sanctuaries. Pradesh. It thereafter acquired the name Brahmaputra.
‰ The National Chambal Sanctuary, established in 1979 ‰ Right bank tributaries include Subansiri, Bhareli, Kameng,
is home to the endangered Gangetic Dolphin, eight Jaldhaka, Manas, Sankos, Tista, and Raidak, while left-
turtle species, Chinkara, Sambar, Blue Bull, wolf, and bank tributaries include Dihang, Lohit, and Burhi Dihang
wild boar. Dhansiri, Kalang, and Kapili.
‰ The river’s large sediment load causes floods in flood- ‰ The Teesta was a tributary of the Ganga prior to the floods
affected areas, leading to erosion and the creation of of 1787 after which it diverted its course eastwards to
badlands. The river incision may have resulted from join the Brahmaputra.
tectonic uplift and tilting. ‰ As the Brahmaputra courses through Assam, it adopts a
braided channel, characterized by the flow into shallow,
Betwa River interconnected channels separated by deposited earth.
A Yamuna tributary, which rises in the Vindhya mountains In this region, the channels continually shift, leading
not far from Hoshangabad (Narmadapuram), Madhya to considerable meandering, and the river carries a
Pradesh, and flows for 590 kilometers. It confluences with substantial amount of silt. This is why it is called the
Yamuna near Hamirpur. Major tributaries include Halali and Sorrow of Assam.
Dhasan, with Halali being the longest. ‰ It enters Bangladesh near Dhubri known by the name
Jamuna, joined by Ganga and flows southward joining
Sind River
Teesta on its right bank, known as the river Padma in
‰ The Sind river originates in Vidisha plateau of Madhya Bangladesh. It finally falls into the Bay of Bengal.
Pradesh. ‰ The river in its course forms a large number of Islands.
‰ It flows for a distance of 415 km before it joins the The most important riverine Island of them is “Majuli”
Yamuna. island.

Drainage System of India 91

 utra
ap
m
ah
Br
Ganga

Jamuna
Pad
ma

BANGLADESH a
ghn
Me

Bay of Bengal

Fig. 4.28: Brahmaputra River System & Its Confluence

Let us now examine the tributaries of Brahmaputra in detail. Sankosh River

Lohit River ‰ It is also known as ‘Puna Tsang Chu’ in Bhutan, forms
the boundary between Assam and Arunachal Pradesh,
Originating in Tibet as the Zayu, flows through Mishmi Hills,
meeting the Brahmaputra River below Dhubri.
Arunachal Pradesh. Its total length is about 2677 km. It joins
the Siang River to form the Brahmaputra. It is characterized Manas River
by a reddish color as it carries lateritic soil. ‰ Originating from Tibet, it flows through the Greater
Barak River Himalayas, collecting tributaries in the Lesser Himalayas.
It flows for a total length of about 400 km. It joins the
Originating in Manipur hills, it is part of the Surma-Meghna
Brahmaputra in the plains. It is a transnational river
River System. It flows about 564 km through the four states
between Bhutan and India.
of Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Assam before reaching
the Bay of Bengal. ‰ It flows through two crucial protected areas: The Royal
Manas National Park in Bhutan and the Manas Wildlife
‰ The Barak river enters Bangladesh as it traverses Surma
Sanctuary.
and Kushiyara, both of which reunite into Meghna river.
‰ The river Tiuliu is the most important tributary of the Subansiri River
river Barak. Apart from the Tiuliu River, the Barak River ‰ It is the greatest tributary of the Brahmaputra River that
is joined by various tributaries such as the Jiri, Irang, and travels 442 km across the Himalayas and Upper Assam
Makru in Manipur, and the Tuivawl and Koladyne in Plain. It is a trans-Himalayan river predecessor. It divides
Mizoram. the Miri Hills and the Abor Hills.
‰ The river is very much prone to floods, particularly during Dhansiri River
the monsoon season.
‰ Originating from the Naga Hills, it flows approximately
‰ The Barak basin has Mawsynram and Cherrapunji which 350 km through Nagaon before joining the Brahmaputra
receive the highest rainfall in the world. River. It flows through Itanki National Park, Nagaland.
Kameng River Manipur River
‰ It originates near Arunachal Pradesh’s Gorichen ‰ It originates in northern Manipur, flows southwards.
mountains. Its total length is about 264 km. Its drainage It drains Loktak Lake and joins the Chindwin Valley, a
basin is about 11,843 sq. km. tributary of the River Irrawaddy in Myanmar.
‰ It flows between the Eagle Nest Sanctuary and Pakke
Tiger Reserve. It helps in ensuring ecological balance.
Teesta River
It originates in Kanchenjunga, flows South-west through
Rangit River West Bengal, joining the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh.
‰ Originating from Sikkim, is renowned for its numerous ‰ It merges with the Padma River in Bangladesh, ending
rapids and is known for rafting sports worldwide, in the Bay of Bengal. The river forms a deep gorge
offering excellent camping grounds on its banks. Its total in Darjeeling hills, dividing them into Tiger Hill and
length is about 80 km. Kalimpong Hill Ranges.

92 Indian Geography
‰ The Teesta Barrage Dam aids in irrigation for tea and jute • In August 2014, the village of Gya in Ladakh was
production. struck by a flood resulting from the outburst of a
‰ The Rangeet River (originating in Sikkim), a major glacial lake.
tributary, is a contentious issue between India and • In February 2021, flash floods occurred in Chamoli
Bangladesh. district, Uttarakhand, suspected to be associated
with GLOFs.
Impact of Melting of Glaciers on the • Sikkim recently witnessed a GLOF when the South
Himalayan Drainage System Lhonak Lake, situated at an elevation of 17,000 feet
The melting of glaciers is the primary source of the Himalayan in the northwest of the state, underwent a breach
drainage system. The Himalayas are referred to as the third due to persistent rainfall. This event further led to the
pole. Glaciers are lifeline to the population of major sub- breach of the Chungthang Hydro-Dam on the Teesta
continent countries of Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and River in Sikkim, exacerbating the overall situation.
Bangladesh. The melting of these glaciers is causing problems • The subsidence of Joshimath is thought to be
and putting pressure on the resources of these countries. influenced by the cascading streams originating from
Himalayan glaciers are receding and global warming is also Vishnuprayag and coursing along natural channels,
contributing to it. Some of the key impacts are: with their augmented flow attributed to glacier
‰ Increased Runoff: Melting glaciers contribute to an melting.
increased volume of water entering river systems. • Changes in water quality: The quality of river water
This influx of water can lead to higher levels of runoff, may deteriorate due to increased sedimentation.
affecting river discharge and potentially causing floods Increased melting may lead to changes in nutrient
during peak melting periods. levels, affecting aquatic ecosystems and water quality
downstream.
‰ Shortage in the long term: Compromise the Indian
• The long-term consequences of glacier melt in the
drainage system’s water supply, leading to decreased
Himalayas could affect agriculture, hydroelectric
river flow and potential imbalances in seasonal flow.
power generation, and the ecological balance.
‰ Altered River Flow: Glacier meltwater serves as a
• Mitigation strategies include reducing greenhouse
crucial component of river flow, especially in regions gas emissions and investing in water management
where glaciers are a primary water source. Changes in infrastructure like dams and irrigation systems.
the timing and magnitude of this meltwater can lead to
alterations in the overall flow patterns of rivers. Important Hydro-Power Projects in the
‰ Shifts in Hydrological Regimes: The melting of glaciers Himalayan Region
can result in shifts in hydrological regimes, affecting ‰ Tehri Stage 2: 1000 MW on Bhagirathi River
the seasonality of river flows. This can impact water ‰ Tapovan Vishnugadh: 520 MW on Dhauliganga River
availability for both ecosystems and human activities, ‰ Vishnugadh Pipalkoti: 444 MW on Alaknanda River
with potential consequences for agriculture, industry, ‰ Singoli Bhatwari: 99 MW on Mandakini River
and water supply. ‰ Phata Bhuyan: 76 MW on Mandakini River
‰ Sediment Transport: Glacial meltwater carries a ‰ Madhyamaheshwar: 15 MW on Madhyamaheshwar
significant amount of sediment, including rocks and Ganga River
debris eroded by the glacier. As glaciers melt, there can ‰ Kaliganga 2: 6 MW on Kaliganga River
be changes in sediment transport patterns, affecting
riverbed morphology and potentially leading to
increased sedimentation in downstream areas. IGNITE YOUR MIND
‰ Glacial lake outburst floods: Melting glaciers can give
rise to the formation of glacial lakes. If the moraine dams In recent time there have been concerns about
of these lakes fail, it can result in Glacial Lake Outburst China’s plans for dam construction and potential
Floods (GLOFs), posing significant threats to downstream diversion of the Brahmaputra (Yarlung Tsangpo)
communities, infrastructure, and the overall drainage River, which could impact water flow downstream
system. in India and Bangladesh. Examine the measures
that downstream countries can take to mitigate the
• In June 2013, Uttarakhand experienced an
adverse effects of upstream water projects.
uncommonly high level of precipitation, resulting
in the Chorabari glacier melting and triggering the Let us now move on to the peninsular drainage system that
surge of the Mandakini river. is markedly different from the Himalayan drainage system.

Drainage System of India 93

 in the areas of faulting causing sudden changes in the
PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM speed of flow.
With its wide, shallow valleys and established rivers, the ‰ The east-flowing peninsular rivers form deltas at their
Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan mouths. These are very fertile lands and water-intensive
drainage system. crops are grown here.
‰ Major Peninsular rivers are split by the Western Ghats, ‰ The west-flowing rivers form estuaries in place of deltas.
which run from north to South and run close to the
Western Coast. Due to them, the discharge is split into Evolution of Peninsular River System
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The current drainage networks in Peninsular India can be
‰ Except for Narmada and Tapi, most significant rivers go explained by using the two following significant geological
from west to east. occurrences:
‰ Theory around Sahyadri-Aravali axis: Geologists propose
‰ The Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri are some of
the principal river systems. that in the past, the Sahyadri-Aravali axis served as the
primary water divide.
‰ Peninsular rivers run seasonally (non-perennial), have
• According to the hypothesis, the current peninsula is
well-defined channels, and are characterized by lack of
the remnant of a larger landmass, with the Western
meandering.
Ghats positioned centrally.
‰ The slopes are largely gentle or present a low gradient.
• This setup resulted in two drainage systems—one
Hence, the velocity of the stream is lesser than the young flowing eastwards into the Bay of Bengal and the
himalayan rivers. However, steep slopes can be found other flowing westwards into the Arabian Sea.

Fig. 4.29: The Peninsular River System

94 Indian Geography
 • During the early Tertiary period, corresponding with East Flowing River System
the Himalayan formation, the western part of the The East-flowing rivers of the Peninsular system flow into the
Peninsula experienced cracking and submersion in Bay of Bengal. Most of these rivers form deltas which are
the Arabian Sea. some of the most fertile regions and hence rich in agriculture.
• The collision of the Indian plate with the Eurasian Let us now examine the major rivers of the system in detail.
plate led to subsidence in certain regions of the
Peninsular block, creating a series of rifts and faults. Mahanadi River
(It coincides with the formation of Himalayas) The Mahanadi River has a length of 851 km, making it the
• The Narmada and Tapi rivers, now west-flowing, third longest river in peninsular India. Before reaching the
follow these rifts. Bay of Bengal, it originates in the Sihawa Mountain in the
• The plausibility of this theory is supported by the Dhamtari region of the Amarkantak Plateau (Bastar highlands
straight coastline, the steep western slope of the of Dandakaranya near Raipur) and travels through Madhya
Western Ghats, and the absence of delta formations Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand, and Maharashtra.
along the western coast. ‰ It is surrounded by the Central India hills to the north,
‰ Theory around bending of Northern part of Peninsula the Eastern Ghats to the south and east, and the Maikala
at the time of upheaval of Himalayas: It is theorized range to the west.
that the west-flowing rivers in the peninsula don’t follow • The fertile soil and stream of silt deposition in the
valleys carved by the rivers themselves. Instead, they river valley are well known. The 15 km long artificial
have situated themselves within two fault rifts running Hirakud Dam was built in Sambalpur on a river to
parallel to the Vindhyas. aid in agriculture. Other dams include Tikarpara and
• These faults are believed to have originated during Naronj dams, Jobra Barrage near Cuttack, Amritdhara
the bending of the northern part of the Peninsula at Waterfall on the Hasdeo River and Chandrahasini
the time of the Himalayan upheaval. Devi on the confluence of Mand and Mahanadi.
• The Peninsular block, located south of these cracks,
‰ It encompasses Chilka Lake and is the biggest river in the
underwent a slight eastward tilt during this geological
state of Odisha. The well-known pilgrimage site Puri is
event, establishing the overall drainage orientation
towards the Bay of Bengal. situated along the river. At the tip of the Mahanadi Delta
is Cuttack City.
• Critics argue that such tilting should have led to
an increase in the gradient of the river valleys and ‰ At False Point, the river enters Bay of Bengal through
triggered rejuvenation of the rivers. many channels.
• However, this phenomenon is notably absent in the ‰ Tributaries: The initial stretch of the river is situated
Peninsula, with only a few exceptions such as the within the basin known as the ‘Chhattisgarh Plain,’ which
presence of waterfalls. has a saucer-shaped topography.

Fig. 4.30: Mahandi River System

Drainage System of India 95

 • Encircled by hills on the north, west, and south, paper mill near Cuttack and cement factory at
this basin witnesses the convergence of numerous Sundargarh.
tributaries into the main river from these directions. ˆ Other industries based primarily on agricultural
• Tributaries from the left bank include the Seonath, produce are sugar and textile mills. Mining of
Hasdeo, Mand, and Ib. The Ong, Tel, and Jonk are coal, iron and manganese are other industrial
right bank tributaries. activities.
• Industries around Mahanadi basin: Three important Godavari River
urban centers in the basin are Raipur, Durg and It is the largest river in peninsular India, spanning 1465 km
Cuttack. Mahanadi basin, because of its rich mineral and covering 312812 sq km and it has the largest basin area
resource and adequate power resource, has a among Peninsular rivers, constituting one-third of the Indus
favorable industrial climate. Basin area. It originates at Triambakeshwar of Nashik district
ˆ The Important industries presently existing in in the Western Ghats and drains eastern and southeastern
the basin are the Iron and Steel plant at Bhilai, Maharashtra, Bastar plateau, and Telangana and Andhra
aluminum factories at Hirakud and Korba, regions.

Fig. 4.31: Godavari Basin

‰ It is regarded as ‘Dakshin Ganga’. The river is bound by ‰ It forms a vast delta before flowing into the Bay of
the Eastern Ghats on the south and the east, by Satmala Bengal, which is characterized by a lobate type, featuring
hills, the Ajanta range and the Mahadeo hills on the a round bulge and numerous distributaries.
north, and by the Western Ghats on the west. ‰ It forms an inland lagoon, the ‘Kolleru Lake’, lying to the
‰ Tributaries: The left bank tributaries surpass the right south-east of Kakinada. Important cities located on the
bank tributaries both in number and size. bank of the Godavari River are Nashik, Triambakeshwar,
• Right Bank tributaries: Manjra (724 km) joins the Nizamabad, Seoni, etc.
Godavari after passing through the Nizam Sagar. ‰ Projects on the Godavari River: Significant projects
Others include Pravara, Mula, Peddavagu, Maner. accomplished during the planning period include
• Left bank tributaries: The Dharna, Penganga, Godavari Barrage, Upper Penganga, Jayakwadi, Upper
Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita (conveying the Wainganga, Upper Indravati, Upper Wardha, Pranhita-
combined waters of Penganga, Wardha, and Chevala, Polavaram, Srirama Sagar, Nizam Sagar in
Wainganga), Pench, Kanhan, Sabari, Indravati, and Telangana (on Manjira), Kaleshwaram project in
others. Telangana (off shoot of Chevala(Pranahita)), Polavaram
‰ The river is subjected to heavy floods south of Polavaram, in Andhra (Pattiseema Project interlink Godavari and
where it flows through a picturesque gorge. Krishna rivers); Bheemgarh dam(on Wainganga in MP),
‰ Beyond Rajahmundry, the river bifurcates into two main Sir Arthur cotton Barrage and Pochampad project.
streams— ‰ Mineral Wealth of the Godavari basin: The upper
• The Gautami Godavari on the east and reaches of the Godavari drainage basin are characterized
• The Vasishta Godavari on the west. by the presence of the Deccan Traps, which contain

96 Indian Geography
 metallic minerals such as magnetite, epidote, biotite, ‰ The river is fed by seasonal monsoon rains, causing
zircon, and chlorite. land erosion and deposition of productive soil. It is used
• In the middle part of the basin, the predominant for agricultural purposes but fluctuating flow limits its
geological composition includes phyllites, quartzites, irrigation use.
amphiboles, and granites. ‰ Tributaries: The river has a large number of tributaries.
• Moving downstream in the middle basin, the • Right bank tributaries: Koyna, Ghataprabha
landscape is primarily occupied by sediments and (Hiranyakashi + Markandeya), Malprabha and
rocks of the Gondwana group. The Gondwanas Tungabhadra (Unification of Tunga + Bhadra
consist mainly of detritals, featuring some substantial originating from Gangamula in the Central Sahyadri.
coal seams, including the Singareni Coal Seam. Total length is 531 km).
• The lower part of the drainage basin is prominently • Left bank tributaries: Bhima (longest of length 861
influenced by the Eastern Ghats, primarily formed km, originates from the Matheron Hills and joins the
from the Khondalites. Krishna near Raichur), Dindi, Musi (Origin in Anantgiri
Hills, joins it at Wazirabad) and Munneru.
‰ Industrial richness of the Godavari basin: Key urban
• The Koyna: Although a small tributary, it gained
centres within the basin include Nagpur, Aurangabad,
prominence due to the Koyna Dam. This dam
Nashik, and Rajahmundry. Nashik and Aurangabad are
is believed to have been a primary factor in the
notable for hosting a substantial number of industries,
destructive earthquake of 1967, measuring 7.5 on
particularly in the automobile sector.
the Richter scale, resulting in the loss of about 200
• Apart from these, industries in the basin are lives.
predominantly oriented around agricultural products,
• Bhima River:
encompassing activities such as rice milling, cotton
ˆ Originates in the Matheron Hills, near
spinning and weaving, and the extraction of sugar
Bhimashankar Temple in the Bhimashankar hills,
and oil.
Western Ghats, Sahyadri Hills, Maharashtra. The
• Additionally, the basin houses cement production
Bhima covers a distance of 861 km before joining
and a few small engineering industries.
the Krishna near Raichur.
‰ Drought and Floods in the Godavari basin: The lower
ˆ Left Bank tributaries: Ghod, Sina, Kahini
reaches of the Godavari basin grapple with flooding
ˆ Right Bank tributaries: Bhama, Indrayani,
issues. The coastal regions are susceptible to cyclones.
Mulamutha, Nira
• Drainage congestion is a challenge in the delta areas
ˆ Flows through Maharashtra, Karnataka,
due to the flat topography.
Telangana, then joins Krishna near Raichur.
• A significant portion of Maharashtra within the basin,
ˆ Also known as Chandrabhaga River, particularly
particularly Marathwada, is prone to drought.
at Pandharpur, Maharashtra, due to its moon-like
shape.
The Godavari River has a cultural significance due to
ˆ Important locations: Bhimashankar Temple
the Kumbh Mela which takes place on its banks. Other
locations of Kumbh Mela are the Shipra River (Ujjain), (Jyotirlinga shrine), Vitthal Temple of Pandharpur,
Ganga (Haridwar), and Saraswati River (Prayag). Kanganahalli Buddhist site in Karnataka.
ˆ Dam: Ujani Dam

Krishna River • Malaprabha River:

ˆ It originated in Kanakumbi in the Belgaum district.
It is the second largest river in the peninsula and rises near
ˆ Flows through cities: Kanakumbi, Khanapur,
Jor village of Satara district of Maharashtra at an altitude of
1,337 m just north of Mahabaleshwar in the Sahyadri hills. Soundatti (Malaprabha Dam), Nargund,
Pattadkal, Kudalasangam.
‰ It flows for 1300 km through Maharashtra, Karnataka,
ˆ Important towns on its banks: Aihole, Pattadakal,
Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. It is bounded by the
and Badami.
Eastern Ghats on the south and the east, the Balaghat
ˆ Joins Krishna at Kudalasangama in Bagalkot
range on the north, by and by the Western Ghats on the
district.
west.
• The Tungabhadra: It is created by the confluence
‰ The predominant portion of the basin is characterized by
of the Tunga and the Bhadra, both originating from
agricultural land, constituting 75.86% of the total area. Gangamoola in the Central Sahyadri. It has a total
‰ The Krishna River forms an extensive delta with a length of 531 km.Its origin Gangamula in Varaha
shoreline stretching approximately 120 km. The Krishna Parvatha, Central Sahyadri; Famous City: Hampi;
delta seems to blend with the delta formed by the Tungabhadra also known as Pampa during epic
Godavari and extends around 35 km into the sea. period.

Drainage System of India 97

 Fig. 4.32: Krishna River Basin
• The Musi: At Wazirabad, the Krishna River receives Hyderabad. Hyderabad, the capital of Telangana,
its final significant tributary, the Musi, with the city of has evolved into a major IT hub. Pune, situated in
Hyderabad situated along its banks Maharashtra, is home to numerous automobile and
‰ Drought in the Krishna basin: Certain regions within the IT industries and is a prominent education center.
basin, notably the Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh,
along with Bellary, Raichur, Dharwar, Chitradurga,
Kaveri River
Belgaum, and Bijapur districts of Karnataka, as well as The Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri Hills in the Karnataka
Pune, Sholapur, Osmanabad, and Ahmednagar districts district of Kodagu are the source of the 805 km long Kaveri
of Maharashtra, are prone to drought. (Cauvery) River, also known as “the Ganga of the South.”
‰ Flood Prone areas of the Krishna: The deltaic areas of The river spans a total length of 805 km from its origin to its
the basin face the risk of flooding. There is a consistent outfall. The Cauvery basin covers the states of Tamil Nadu,
observation of the riverbed in the deltaic region being Karnataka, Kerala, and the Union Territory of Puducherry,
elevated due to continuous silt deposition, resulting in
encompassing a drainage area of 81155 square kilometers.
a decrease in the channel’s carrying capacity. The flood
issue is exacerbated by the intense and short-duration ‰ It is surrounded by the Western Ghats to the west, the
rainfall from coastal cyclones. Eastern Ghats to the east and south, and ridges that
‰ Projects on the Krishna river: Key hydro power stations serve as boundaries separating it from the Krishna basin
within the basin encompass Koyna, Tungabhadra, and the Pennar basin to the north.
SriSailam, Nagarjuna Sagar, Almatti, Naryanpur, and ‰ The Nilgiris, an extension of the Western Ghats, reach
Bhadra.
eastward to the Eastern Ghats, creating a natural and
• The Tungabhadra is a significant inter-state project
political division in the basin. This division consists of
within the basin. Its operation is crucial for regulating
flows among the beneficiary states of Karnataka and the Karnataka plateau in the north and the Tamil Nadu
Andhra Pradesh. plateau in the south.
‰ Mining and Industry: The basin boasts abundant mineral ‰ The upper catchment receives rain during the summer
deposits, presenting a promising potential for industrial southwest monsoon and the lower catchment winter
development. retreating monsoon, therefore making it a perennial
• Presently, key industrial activities in the basin include river that carries water all year. It travels across Tamil
iron and steel production, cement manufacturing,
Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.
sugar cane processing, vegetable oil extraction, and
rice milling. ‰ Physiographic division: The basin can be categorized
• Recent discoveries of oil in the basin are anticipated to into three main parts: The Western Ghats, the Plateau of
influence the future industrial landscape significantly. Mysore, and the Delta. The delta region stands out as the
• Major urban centres in the basin include Pune and most fertile tract in the basin.

98 Indian Geography
 Fig. 4.33: Cauvery River System

• Various soil types prevail in the basin, including black forming the boundary between Karnataka and Tamil
soils, red soils, laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils, and Nadu.
mixed soils. ‰ Heading south after Hogenakkal Falls, the river enters
• Red soils dominate extensive areas in the basin, while the Mettur Reservoir.
alluvial soils are prevalent in the delta regions. ‰ The tributary Bhavani, joins about 45 km below the
‰ The Cauvery River is exceptionally well-regulated, with reservoir, and the river widens with a sandy bed, known
90 to 95 percent of its irrigation and power production as ‘Akhanda Cauvery,’ after the addition of Noyil and
capabilities effectively harnessed. A significant portion of Amaravathi on the right bank.
the basin is dedicated to agricultural land, constituting ‰ Beyond Tiruchirapalli district, the river divides into
66.21 percent of the total area. the Northern branch, known as ‘The Coleron,’ and
‰ The Cauvery is known for its relatively less fluctuation of the Southern branch remains as Cauvery, marking the
water level among the peninsular rivers beginning of the Cauvery Delta.
‰ Tributaries: ‰ After 16 km, the two branches reunite to form ‘Srirangam
• Left Bank tributaries: The Harangi, Hemavati, Island.’ Along the Cauvery branch lies the “Grand
Shimsha, and Arkavati. Anicut,” believed to be constructed by a Chola King in
• Right Bank tributaries: Lakshmantirtha, Kabbani, the 1st Century A.D.
Suvarnavati, Bhavani, Noyil, and Amaravati. ‰ Below the Grand Anicut, the Cauvery branch bifurcates
• The Kabini River, which serves as a border between into Cauvery and Vennar, with these branches further
Bandipur and Nagarahole National Parks, meets the dividing into smaller networks all over the delta.
Nagarahole River as it passes through the Nagarhole ‰ Floods in the Cauvery basin: The Cauvery basin is leaf
National Park. The major river that drains the park is shaped in Tamil Nadu and fan shaped in Karnataka.
the Kabini, a branch of the Cauvery River. Due to the shape, the run-off does not drain off quickly
• The Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve (STR) is situated because of and therefore no fast rising floods occur in
where the Western and Eastern Ghats converge. the basin.
• The Palar River empties into the Cauvery River and ‰ Industry of the Cauvery basin: The city of Bangalore lies
flows into it. This region is home to a sizable tiger just beyond the boundaries of this basin. Key industries
population and is adjacent to Bandipur, Mudumalai, within the basin encompass.
and Nagarahole, three Tiger conservation landscapes. • the cotton textile industry in Coimbatore and
‰ The river descends from the South Karnataka Plateau Mysore,
to the Tamil Nadu Plains, passing through the • Cement factories in Coimbatore and Trichinapally,
Shivasamudram waterfalls (101 m high). and industries associated with minerals and metals.
‰ At Shivasamudram, the river bifurcates, creating a series • Additionally, the Salem steel plant and numerous
of falls and rapids with a height of 91 m, utilized for engineering industries in Coimbatore and
power generation. Trichinapally are located within this basin.
‰ The two branches reunite after the falls, flowing through ‰ Important projects on the Cauvery: In the pre-plan era,
a wide gorge known as ‘Mekedatu’ (Goat’s Leap) and several projects were successfully executed in this basin,

Drainage System of India 99

 including Krishnarajasagar in Karnataka(Mysore), Mettur The existing small industries are mostly based on
dam, and the Cauvery delta system in Tamil Nadu. agricultural produce such as cotton weaving, sugar mills,
• Notably, lower Bhavani, Hemavati, Harangi, and oil mills, rice mills etc.
Kabini are significant projects that were completed
during the plan period. The Gandikota Canyon, situated in the Kadapa district
of Andhra Pradesh, is a mesmerizing labyrinth of rugged
Other East Flowing Rivers rocks adorned in various shades of red.
Apart from the major rivers, peninsular region is traversed This breathtaking gorge has been shaped by the flowing
by the following rivers: waters of the renowned Pennar River, originating from
M
ah B B
Su
ba the Erramala hills.
an rahm aita rn
ar
ad
i a n
rn
i ek
ha
Often referred to as the Grand Canyon of India due to its
Ru i
sh striking resemblance to the iconic U.S. landmark, the area
Va ikul
Go ms ya also features two ancient temples and a 12th-century fort
da Na adh
va
ri
ga ara
va
perched atop the hills encircling the gorge.
li L. Chilika
Kris
hna
The Pennar River gracefully descends from the Erramala
hills, contributing to the splendor of this remarkable
Pa
Man leru
canyon, acknowledged as the Grand Canyon of India.
neru L. Kolleru

Penne
ru Ponnaiyar River
Kaveri ‰ Also called Dakshina Pinakini, Ponnaiyar is a modest
L. Pulicat
Palar
watercourse primarily restricted to the coastal region.
Vaipar
Chittar It spans a limited area across the states of Tamil Nadu,
Thamirabarani Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
Fig. 4.34: East flowing rivers ‰ The basin is bordered to the northwest and south
Pennar River by diverse ranges of the Eastern Ghats, including the
The Pennar, also known as Uttara Pinakini, Penneru stands Velikonda Range, the Nagari Hills, the Javadi Hills, the
as one of the prominent rivers in the peninsula. Originating Shevaroy Hills, the Chitteri Hills, and the Kalrayan Hills.
in the Chennakesava hill of the Nandidurg range within To the east, it is demarcated by the Bay of Bengal.
Karnataka’s Chikkaballapur district, the river flows eastward, ‰ Kelavarapalli and Krishnagiri dams; Sathanur Dam near
eventually emptying into the Bay of Bengal. Tiruvannamalai
‰ Covering a total length of 597 km from its origin to the
Bay of Bengal outfall, the Pennar basin extends across the Vaigai River
states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, encompassing To the south of the Cauvery delta, numerous streams
an area of approximately 55 thousand sq. km. traverse the region, with the Vaigai emerging as the longest
‰ The fan-shaped basin is demarcated by the Erramala among them.
range to the north, the Nallamala and Velikonda ranges ‰ The Vaigai basin holds significance among the 12
of the Eastern Ghats to the east, the Nandidurg hills
basins situated between the Cauvery and Kanyakumari.
to the south, and a narrow ridge separating it from
the Vedavati valley of the Krishna Basin to the west. Vattaparai Falls are located in it.
Additional hill ranges to the south of the river include the ‰ Bounded by the Varushanadu hills, the Andipatti hills,
Seshachalam (renowned for Red Sanders) and Paliconda the Cardamom hills, and the Palani hills to the west, and
ranges. the Palk Strait and Palk Bay to the east, this basin covers
‰ A significant portion of the basin is dedicated to an area of 7,741 sq. km, entirely situated within the state
agriculture, constituting 58.64% of the total area. of Tamil Nadu.
‰ Left Bank tributaries include the Jayamangali, the Subarnarekha River
Kunderu and the Right bank tributaries are the Chiravati,
‰ It originates from Jharkhand’s Ranchi Plateau and, in its
the Papagni etc.
lower course, divides West Bengal from Odisha.
‰ Tungabhadra high level canal in the Krishna basin
‰ Between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas, it joins the
continues to irrigate areas in Pennar basin. The Somasila
project is the only major project in the basin. Bay of Bengal to create an estuary. The river provides
water to TISCO Jamshedpur.
‰ Industry: The scope for industrial development is limited
due to scarcity of water, power potential and mineral ‰ Spanning a total length of 395 km, the river features
resources. There are by and large, no major industries. Hundru Falls along its course.

100 Indian Geography

Brahmani River originating in the Western Ghats swiftly flow westward
‰ It is 420 km long, formed by the confluence of the Koel to join the Arabian Sea.
and Sankh rivers at Rourkela. Luni
ti
‰ It drains the western Garhjat Hills, flows through the Sabarma

Bonai, Talcher, and Balasore districts, merges into the Mahi

da
Narma
Bay of Bengal, and forms a delta complex below Bhadrak.

dra

unjk
Tap i

Bha
‰ Rengali Dam, Jokadia & Jenapur Anicuts are notable a
Vaitarn

Shetr
dams here. i
dav
Man ri
Nagavali River Zua di
na
Kali
‰ It is one of the principal rivers in Southern Odisha and a d r i
T ti
Northern Andhra Pradesh is the 256 km long Nagavali h a rava zha
S p uh
River, often referred to as Langulya. rata
Bha
‰ The Eastern Ghats’ Kalahandi District is where it first
iyar
appears. Per a
b
Pam
Sarada River Fig. 4.35: West flowing rivers
‰ A medium-sized east-flowing river, it is situated in the ‰ Notably, these westward-flowing rivers do not create
Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh. deltas but estuaries, as the Narmada and Tapi, flowing
‰ Bound by the Nagavali River to the north, the Gosthani through hard rocks, carry minimal silt due to their small
and Gambiramgedda rivers to the east, the Bay of Bengal tributaries, preventing the formation of distributaries or
to the south, and the Machhkund sub-basin of the a delta before reaching the sea.
Godavari River to the west, the river basin is well-defined ‰ Approximately six hundred small streams originate
from the Western Ghats and flow westwards, eventually
in its geographical context.
emptying into the Arabian Sea. The western slopes of
Vamsadhara River the Western Ghats receive substantial rainfall from the
south-west monsoons, enabling the generation of this
‰ It flows through the states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh,
multitude of streams.
between Rushikulya and Godavari, the Vamsadhara
‰ While only around 3% of the total area experiences
River is a significant east-flowing river.
swift downhill flow on the steep slopes, some of these
‰ The river’s source is in the Odisha districts of Rayagada streams form waterfalls.
and Thuamul Rampur, respectively, in the Kalahandi and ‰ The Jog or Gersoppa Falls, created by the Sharavati River
Kalyansingpur regions. and towering at 253 meters, stands out as the most
‰ It travels for around 254 kilometers until ending up in the renowned waterfall in India.
Bay of Bengal at Kalingapatnam, Andhra Pradesh. Narmada River
‰ Left-bank tributaries include Harangi, Hemavati, The Narmada River is the largest west-flowing river in
Shimsha, and Arkavati, while peninsular India, courses westward through a rift valley
nestled between the Vindhya Range to the north and the
‰ Right-bank tributaries include Lakshmantirtha, Kabbani,
Satpura Range to the south.
Suvarnavati, Bhavani, Noyil, and Amaravati.
‰ Originating from the Maikala Range near Amarkantak in
West Flowing River System Madhya Pradesh, at an elevation of approximately 1057
The rivers of Peninsular India that flow westwards are meters, it traverses a basin spanning the states of Madhya
limited in number and smaller compared to their eastward Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh,
counterparts. covering an expansive area of about 1 Lakh sq. km.
‰ Bounded by the Vindhyas to the north, Maikala Range
‰ The primary westward-flowing rivers are the Narmada
and the Tapi, exhibiting unique behavior as they traverse to the east, Satpuras to the south, and the Arabian Sea
through faults rather than forming valleys. to the west, the Narmada River’s total length extends to
1,312 km from its source in Amarkantak to its estuary in
‰ These faults, aligned parallel to the Vindhyas and
the Gulf of Khambhat.
the Satpuras, result from the bending of the northern
‰ The upper regions of the basin are hilly, while the
peninsula during the Himalayan formation process.
lower and middle reaches are wide and fertile, ideal
‰ Additional westward-flowing rivers include the for agriculture. Notably, Jabalpur stands as the sole
Sabarmati, Mahi, and Luni. Numerous small streams significant urban center within the basin.

Drainage System of India 101

 Fig. 4.36: Narmada River System
‰ As the river slopes down near Jabalpur, it forms the
Tribute in steel and bronze: The Statue of Unity, a
DhuanDhar Falls(meaning “Cloud of Mist”), a 15-meter
182-meter marvel of engineering, dominates Kevadia’s
cascade into a gorge, known as the Marble Rocks due to
its composition of marble. Two additional waterfalls of skyline, symbolizing India’s unity and Patel’s vision.
12 meters each are present at Mandhar and Dardi. Emerging tourism hub: Kevadia, once a sleepy village, has
‰ Moving downstream, near Maheshwar, the river blossomed into a thriving tourist destination, offering
descends from another small fall of 8 metres, called the cultural experiences, adventure activities, and serene
Sahastradhara Falls. Kapildhara falls is also notable here. natural beauty.
‰ The Narmada River’s estuary features several islands,
with Aliabet being the largest among them. Notably, the Tapti River
river remains navigable up to 112 km from its mouth. The Tapti, also known as the Tapi, stands as the second-
‰ Tributaries of the Narmada: Due to its course through largest west-flowing river in Peninsular India and is often
a narrow valley hemmed in by steep hills, the Narmada referred to as the ‘twin’ or ‘handmaid’ of the Narmada.
River exhibits a scarcity of tributaries. ‰ Originating near the Multai reserve forest in Madhya
• Right Bank: Hiran, the Orsang, the Barna, and the Pradesh at an elevation of 752 meters, it meanders
Kolar. for approximately 724 km before finally emptying into
• Left bank: Shakkar, Sher, Tawa (172km, longest, origin the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay (Gulf of
in Satpura), Burhner, Kaveri, and Banjar. Khambhat).
‰ The basin hosts several major hydroelectric projects, ‰ The Tapti River, along with its tributaries, courses through
including Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar, Omkareshwar, the plains of Vidarbha, Khandesh, and Gujarat, covering
Bargi, Tawa Dam (on Tawa river) and Maheshwar. extensive areas in the states of Maharashtra, as well as
smaller portions in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
Kevadia, nestled amidst the verdant hills of Gujarat, ‰ The basin encompasses states such as Madhya Pradesh,
India, cradles the iconic Statue of Unity, a tribute to Maharashtra, and Gujarat, spanning an area of
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel towering over the mighty approximately 65,000 sq. km.
Narmada River. ‰ Situated in the Deccan plateau, the basin is encircled
River island haven: Kevadia sits on Sadhu Bet, a by natural features, including the Satpura range to the
picturesque island amidst the Narmada’s serpentine north, Mahadev hills to the east, Ajanta Range and the
embrace, 3.2 km downstream from the colossal Sardar Satmala hills to the south, and the Arabian Sea to the
Sarovar Dam. west.
Dramatic backdrop: Framed by the majestic Vindhyachal ‰ The basin delineates two distinct physical regions:
and Satpura ranges, Kevadia’s landscape blends verdant • The well-forested hilly areas encompassing Satpura,
valleys with rugged outcrops, offering breathtaking Satmalas, Mahadeo, Ajanta, and Gawilgarh hills,
panoramas. and the broad, fertile plains predominantly in the
Narmada’s embrace: The lifeblood of the region, the Khandesh region
Narmada River carves a sinuous path through Kevadia, ‰ Tributaries of Tapti:
its glistening waters reflecting the sky and the colossal • Right Bank: The Suki, the Gomai, the Arunavati and
statue. the Aner.

102 Indian Geography

 • Left Bank: The Vaghur, the Amravati, the Buray, the
Panjhra, the Bori, the Girna, the Purna, the Mona and
the Sipna.
‰ The Narmada and Tapi are in close proximity to one
another at the Khandwa-Burhanpur Gap.
‰ Projects on Tapi: Hathnur Dam in the Upper Tapi Project
(Maharashtra); Kakrapar weir and Ukai Dam in the Ukai
Project (Gujarat) and Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir in
the Girna Project (Maharashtra)
Sabarmati River
The Sabarmati River is formed by the confluence of the
Sabar and Hathmati streams. Its basin spans the states of
Rajasthan and Gujarat, covering an area of 21,895 sq km. Fig. 4.37: West Flowing Peninsular rivers
‰ Boundaries: It is bounded by the Aravalli hills to the ‰ Boundaries: It is bordered by the Aravalli hills to the
north and northeast, the Rann of Kutch to the west, and north and northwest, the Malwa Plateau to the east, the
the Gulf of Khambhat to the south, the basin takes on a Vindhyas to the south, and the Gulf of Khambhat to the
roughly triangular shape, with the Sabarmati River as the west.
base and the source of the Vatrak River as the apex. ‰ The Mahi River stands as a significant interstate west-
‰ Originating from the Aravalli hills near the village of flowing river in India.
Tepur in the Udaipur district of Rajasthan at an elevation ‰ Originating from the northern slopes of the Vindhyas at
of 762 meters, the Sabarmati River flows for a total an altitude of 500 meters in the Dhar district of Madhya
length of 371 km before reaching its outfall into the Pradesh, the Mahi River extends for a total length of 583
Arabian Sea. km, ultimately draining into the Arabian Sea through the
‰ Approximately 74.68% of the basin is dedicated to Gulf of Khambhat.
agriculture, making it a significant contributor to the ‰ Agricultural land dominates the major portion of the
region. basin, constituting 63.63% of the total area.
‰ Rainfall within the basin varies, ranging from minimal
‰ Hydro power stations are strategically positioned at the
amounts in Saurashtra to over 1000 mm in the southern
Mahi Bajaj Sagar Dam and the Kadana Dam.
part.
‰ Vadodara emerges as the sole important urban center
‰ Tributaries: Noteworthy left bank tributaries include the
within the basin, and while industrial presence is
Wakal, Hathmati, and Vatrak, while the Sei is a significant
limited, some industries, including cotton textile, paper,
right bank tributary.
newsprint, drugs, and pharmaceuticals, are found in
‰ Several key projects have been completed during the Tatlam.
plan period, including the Sabarmati Reservoir (Dharoi), NOTE: The Mahi River uniquely intersects the Tropic of
Hathmati Reservoir, and Meshwo Reservoir Project. Cancer twice within India. Its initial crossing occurs in
‰ Industry: Significant urban hubs within the basin include Madhya Pradesh, from where it flows southward into
Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad. Rajasthan before ultimately entering the state of Gujarat.
• Ahmedabad, an industrial city located on the banks
Luni River
of the Sabarmati, is notable for its diverse industrial
sectors such as textiles, leather and leather goods, The Luni, also known as the Salt River (Lonari or Lavanavari
in Sanskrit), earns its name from the brackish quality of its
plastic, rubber goods, paper, newsprint, automobile,
water below Balotra.
machine tools, drugs, and pharmaceuticals, among
others. ‰ This river basin holds singular significance in Western
Rajasthan, a region predominantly characterized by
• The industrial activities in Ahmedabad raise concerns
aridity.
about potential water pollution in the area.
‰ Originating from the western slopes of the Aravalli
Mahi River ranges at an elevation of 772 meters near Ajmer, the
The Mahi basin spans across the states of Madhya Pradesh, Luni flows in a south-west direction, covering a distance
Rajasthan, and Gujarat, encompassing a total area of 34,842 of 511 km in Rajasthan before ultimately dissipating into
sq km. the Rann of Kachchh, where it gets lost in the marshes.

Drainage System of India 103

‰ The majority of its tributaries stem from the steep north- Understanding the characteristics of inland drainage systems
west slopes of the Aravalli hills, joining the Luni on its left is crucial for managing water resources and addressing
side. The entire catchment area of the Luni is situated potential challenges, such as salinization and ecological
within the state of Rajasthan. impacts in these unique hydrological environments.
‰ One distinctive feature of this river is its tendency to
widen rather than deepen its bed. West Flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris
‰ This is attributed to the easily erodible soils comprising (Western Ghats)
the banks, contrasted with the sandy composition of the ‰ Pamba: It flows in Kerala and falls in the Vembanad lake.
riverbed. • The Pamba River plays a crucial role in the Sabarimala
‰ Floods in the Luni develop and recede so rapidly that pilgrimage, and the Pamba Triveni Sangamam, the
there is insufficient time for the water to scour the confluence of the Pamba, Achankovil, and Manimala
riverbed. rivers, is a sacred site.
• Pilgrims take a ritual dip in the Pamba River before
INLAND DRAINAGE SYSTEM ascending to the temple. It is venerated as the Ganga
of Kerala.
An inland drainage system refers to a network of rivers,
‰ Periyar: The Periyar originates at the Sivagiri Hills in
streams, lakes, and other water bodies that do not flow
Western Ghats. It is an important river for Kerala and
into the ocean or any external body of water. Instead,
Tamil Nadu.
the drainage is internal, and water accumulates in closed
basins or endorheic regions. Inland drainage systems are • It flows through the Periyar National Park, which is
characteristic of certain geographical areas where the terrain home to diverse flora and fauna, including elephants,
and topography prevent the natural outflow of water to the tigers, and various bird species.
seas or oceans. • The Mullaperiyar dam located on this river is crucial
Key features of inland drainage systems include: for providing water to arid regions of Tamil Nadu.
‰ Closed Basins: Inland drainage systems are often
‰ Bharathapuzha: Originating near Anamalai hills, it drains
associated with closed basins or endorheic basins, into the Arabian sea. The river is also known as Ponnani.
where water does not have a natural outlet to the ocean. • The Thrissur Pooram, one of the largest temple
Instead, water accumulates within the basin and may festivals in Kerala, takes place on the banks of the
form lakes or salt pans. Bharathapuzha River in Thrissur. It involves grand
processions and cultural events.
‰ Lack of River Outflow: Unlike rivers in exorheic or open
drainage systems, rivers in inland drainage systems ‰ Mandovi: Originates in the Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary
terminate within the closed basin, and their waters do in the Western Ghats of Karnataka. Boat cruises and
not reach the ocean. river tours on the Mandovi are popular activities in Goa.
‰ Evaporation and Salt Accumulation: In arid or semi-arid • The Mandovi River played a significant role during the
regions with inland drainage, high evaporation rates can Portuguese colonial era in Goa. It was an essential
lead to the concentration of salts in the remaining water. waterway for trade and transportation.
This can result in the formation of saline or brackish ‰ Zuari: It is the longest river of Goa and is a Tidal river.
lakes. Vasco da Gama, the port city of Goa lies on the mouth
‰ Salt Pans: Some inland drainage areas may have salt of this river.
pans or playas where water evaporates, leaving behind • Mandovi and Zuari are the backbone of the economy
salt deposits. These areas are common in deserts or and they together form an estuarine system.
regions with high evaporation rates. ‰ Sharavati: Rises from the Shimoga district of Karnataka.
‰ Examples: The Great Basin in the United States, the The Jog or the Gersoppa falls, one of the highest plunge
Qaidam Basin in China, and certain regions in Australia, waterfalls in the country, is located on this river and is a
such as Lake Eyre Basin, are examples of areas with famous tourist destination.
inland drainage systems. Luni and the Ghaggar are a • The river also traverses through the Sharavathi
great example of the Inland River System in India. wildlife sanctuary, which is home to Lion-tailed
‰ Climate Influence: Inland drainage systems are often Macaque and Malabar Giant Squirrels.
associated with arid or semi-arid climates where ‰ Bedti: The river traces its source to Hubli Dharwad
evaporation rates are high, and precipitation is (Karnataka).
insufficient to sustain a continuous outflow of water. • Recently, a river linking project has been envisaged
‰ Endorheic Lakes: Inland drainage systems may include to connect the river Bedti to Varada, a tributary
endorheic lakes, which are lakes that have no outflow of the river Tungabhadra. It has been criticized by
and retain water within the closed basin. both environmental experts and economists on

104 Indian Geography

 the grounds that the cost outweighs the projected ESTUARY
benefits. An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal water body where
‰ Kalinadi: Begins from the Belgaum district and drains in the convergence of freshwater from rivers and streams with
Karwar Bay. saltwater from the ocean occurs.
• The river is known to flow through the Dandeli
wildlife sanctuary, known for its diverse ecosystem
bedrock
and rare species of birds. saltmarsh
floodplain
• The river forms the natural boundary between the abandoned middle Intertidal
states of Goa and Karnataka. Tidal channnel estuary flats
river Euphotic
‰ Vaitarna: Originates near the Trimbak Hills in Nasik shoals
marine
District (Maharashtra). delta

• The Vaitarna Dam, also known as the Modak Sagar barrier

Dam, is constructed on the Vaitarna River. It is a Upper mangroves
estuary Swamp
significant reservoir that provides water to the city of forest lower
estuary
Mumbai. The reservoir helps in storing water during backswamp
the monsoon for later use.
‰ Dhadhar: It starts from the Ghantar village in PanchMahal
district (Gujarat) and drains into the Gulf of Khambhat. Fig. 4.38: Estuary
‰ Shetrunji: The river originates near Dalkahwa in Amreli ‰ The primary productivity within estuaries is notably high,
district (Gujarat). It flows through the Gir forest or the with fishing emerging as a dominant occupation in these
Gir National Park and the Gir wildlife sanctuary. regions. Many estuaries also serve as bird sanctuaries.
• The Shetrunji River basin attracts bird watchers, as ‰ Estuaries, along with the surrounding lands, represent
it is home to a variety of bird species. The diverse transitional zones from land to sea and from freshwater
ecosystem supports both resident and migratory
to saltwater.
birds.
‰ Despite being influenced by tides, estuaries are shielded
‰ Bhadar: The river begins in the Aniali village in Rajkot
district (Gujarat). from the full impact of ocean waves, winds, and storms
• It is one of the most important rivers of the Kathiawar by features like barrier islands or peninsulas, making
(Saurashtra) peninsula of Gujarat. Bhadar dam is the them suitable for various purposes, including the
second largest dam in Saurashtra after the Shetrunji establishment of ports.
dam. ‰ These environments are among the most productive
on Earth, generating more organic matter annually than
Why Don’t Peninsular Rivers that Flow into
comparable forested, grassland, or agricultural areas.
the Arabian Sea Form Deltas?
‰ The sheltered tidal waters of estuaries support unique
Peninsular rivers that flow over hard rock and lack silt
communities of plants and animals specially adapted to
buildup create estuaries rather than deltas when they enter
the Arabian Sea. Because they travel only a short distance life at the ocean’s edge.
before emptying into the sea, west-flowing rivers do not ‰ Estuaries hold significant commercial value, contributing
develop deltas, which inhibit depositions. to the economies through tourism, fisheries, and
‰ The tributaries of Narmada, Tapi, and Luni are small and recreational activities.
do not contribute to silt. They serve as crucial public infrastructure, functioning as
‰ Western ghats, due to rising sea levels, are submerged harbors and ports vital for shipping and transportation.
coasts, preventing the formation of distributaries or ‰ Estuaries offer additional valuable services. Water
deltas. draining from uplands carries sediments, nutrients, and
‰ High gradients of west-flowing rivers carry sediments pollutants to estuaries, where wetlands, such as swamps
along with them to sea instead of depositing them at the and salt marshes, act as natural filters, removing much of
mouth of the river. the sediments and pollutants.
‰ West-flowing rivers do not meander due to fixed courses. ‰ Estuarine plants, including salt marsh grasses and
Narmada and Tapi flow through faults, rift valleys, or mangroves, play a role in erosion prevention and
troughs. shoreline stabilization.

Drainage System of India 105

 ‰ Monsoon Influence: Ganga shows a monsoon regime,
Why do Rivers Flow from West to East? with significant flow before and during the monsoon
Indian rivers mostly flow eastward and drain into the season.
Bay of Bengal, except Narmada & Tapi. The formation of
‰ Discharge Levels: Ganga’s highest discharge at Farakka
the Western Ghats caused a slight tilt of the Peninsular
Barrage is 55,000 cusecs, lowest is 1,300 cusecs.
Plateau towards the East which looks like the upliftment
of landmass on the Western side. ‰ Groundwater Source: Flows through permeable alluvial
soils, contributing to groundwater.
‰ Himalayan rivers follow the natural cycle of water
flow through the Plateaus depression, falling from Peninsular River Regimes
high altitude to low altitude.
‰ Origin: Begin at low elevations in the Western Ghats.
‰ Gravity is the most determining force for water flow
‰ Dependency: Non-perennial due to reliance on
towards the south.
monsoonal rainfall.
‰ The west-to-east gradient of the Deccan plateau also
‰ Catchment Area: Narrow catchment leads to reduced
influences river flow.
flow.
‰ Seasonal Variation: Narmada, for instance, peaks in
River Regime August after low discharge from January to July.
River regime denotes the typical fluctuations in a river’s flow, ‰ Discharge Levels: Narmada’s maximum flow at
encompassing variations in discharge, velocity, and sediment Garudeshwar is about 2,300 cusecs, minimum is 15
transport throughout the year. River regimes encompass cusecs.
seasonal variations, flashiness, baseflow and stormflow ‰ Rock Composition: Flows through impermeable rocks,
dynamics, snowmelt contributions, human impacts, and limiting groundwater percolation and recharge.
sediment transport variations.
Factors affecting/encompassing river regimes: Major Indian Cities and their River Banks
River regimes encompass various factors: Rivers forge essential associations with cities, shaping their
identity and sustenance. They serve as lifelines, providing
‰ Seasonal Variations: Temperate rivers peak in spring due
water for drinking, agriculture, and industry. Rivers facilitate
to snowmelt, while tropical rivers maintain consistent
trade, offering transportation routes crucial for economic
flow. growth. Cities often flourish along riverbanks, benefiting
‰ Flashiness: Rivers are classified as flashy (rapid changes) from fertile soil and strategic locations. The cultural and
or stable (gradual changes) in response to precipitation. historical significance of rivers is woven into the fabric of
‰ Baseflow vs. Stormflow: Groundwater sustains baseflow, urban life, witnessed in rituals, festivals, and folklore.
while stormflow increases during precipitation events. ‰ Delhi - Yamuna River: Provides water for drinking,
‰ Snowmelt Impact: Spring snowmelt in snowy regions irrigation, and industry. Offers recreational spaces and
significantly affects river flow and sediment transport. enhances city aesthetics.
‰ Human Impacts: Dams, irrigation, and water extraction ‰ Mumbai - Mithi River and Arabian Sea: Arabian Sea
alter natural river regimes, affecting flow and sediment supports maritime trade. Mithi River regulates city
transport. climate; facing pollution challenges.
‰ Sediment Transport: Flow variations influence sediment ‰ Kolkata - Hooghly River: Vital waterway for transportation
transport, shaping channel morphology. and trade. Ports contribute significantly to city economy.
Understanding these factors helps differentiate peninsular ‰ Chennai - Cooum and Adyar Rivers: Historically provided
and Himalayan river regimes, crucial for water management. water for various uses. Estuarine region holds economic
NOTE: The discharge is the volume of water flowing in a river importance.
measured over time. It is measured either in Cusecs (cubic ‰ Ahmedabad - Sabarmati River: Contributes to city
feet per second) or cumecs (cubic meters per second) aesthetics; site of Sabarmati Riverfront Development.
‰ Kanpur - Ganga River: Historically facilitated trade; facing
Himalayan River Regimes pollution issues.
‰ Origin: Begin at high elevations, fed by glacier melt and ‰ Varanasi - Ganga River: Sacred river central to religious
rainfall. activities; focal points for rituals and ghats.
‰ Catchment Area: Wide catchment ensures consistent ‰ Patna - Ganga River: Transportation route; city’s
and abundant flow. economy linked to river activities.
‰ Seasonal Variation: Ganga, for example, peaks in August- ‰ Pune - Mutha River: Contributes to water supply and
September after a minimum flow from January to June. irrigation; offers recreational spaces.

106 Indian Geography

‰ Hyderabad - Musi River: Despite pollution challenges, ‰ Moscow, Russia (Moskva River): Enhances scenic beauty,
used for recreation and city development. winding through the city and playing a role in its history.
‰ Lucknow - Gomti River: Historically provided water; ‰ Bangkok, Thailand (Chao Phraya River): Connects
riverbanks offer green spaces. historical temples with modern developments and
‰ Jaipur - Yamuna River: Historically benefited from river transportation.
for trade and water supply. ‰ Seoul, South Korea (Han River): Scenic backdrop to
‰ Bengaluru - Vrishabhavathi River: Historical water skyscrapers, parks, and cultural attractions.
supply; facing pollution challenges. ‰ Berlin, Germany (Spree River): Meanders through a mix
‰ Bhopal - Upper Lake (Bada Talab): Acts as water source; of historic and contemporary architecture, adding to
contributes to city aesthetics. Berlin’s charm.
‰ Indore - Saraswati River: Historical role in water supply; ‰ Lisbon, Portugal (Tagus River): Estuary offering
altered due to urbanization. panoramic views of the city, with maritime significance.
‰ Chandigarh - Sukhna Lake: Reservoir adds to city beauty ‰ Dublin, Ireland (River Liffey): Contributes to the city’s
and offers recreation. charm, providing a focal point for locals and tourists.
‰ Agra - Yamuna River: Facilitated trade; significant for ‰ Vancouver, Canada (Fraser River): Waterfront featuring
city’s cultural heritage. urban development, parks, and scenic mountain views.
‰ Surat - Tapi River: Historical trade role; riverbanks However, urbanization poses challenges, contributing to
contribute to greenery. pollution and encroachment. Sustainable river management
‰ Visakhapatnam - Meghadri Gedda Reservoir: is paramount, ensuring cities continue to thrive in harmony
Contributes to water supply and recreation. with these vital waterways, fostering ecological balance and
supporting diverse aspects of human existence.
‰ Guwahati - Brahmaputra River: Vital for transportation;
enhances city’s scenic beauty.
Having examined the Indian context, let us now turn to the
LAKES OF INDIA
cities of the world and their river banks. Lakes play a crucial role in drainage systems as they are often
integral components of a watershed. Lakes act as natural
Famous Cities of the World and their River reservoirs, storing water during periods of excess rainfall or
Banks snowmelt. They help regulate the flow of water, preventing
‰ Paris, France (Seine River): Iconic landmarks like the Eiffel floods during heavy precipitation events and releasing
Tower along the Seine River offer scenic river cruises. water during drier periods to maintain a consistent flow in
‰ London, United Kingdom (Thames River): Historical downstream rivers.
architecture, including the Tower of London, lines the Lakes provide diverse habitats for various aquatic species.
Thames River. They contribute to the overall biodiversity of a region and
‰ Rome, Italy (Tiber River): Connects ancient sites like the support a wide range of flora and fauna. Healthy ecosystems
Colosseum and Vatican City, shaping the city’s history. in and around lakes contribute to the resilience of the
drainage system.
‰ New York City, USA (Hudson River): Integral to trade and
transportation, providing a stunning skyline backdrop. Significant Lakes of India
‰ Cairo, Egypt (Nile River): Central to Egypt’s civilization, ‰ Vembanad Lake: Vembanad Lake, the longest lake in
history, and culture, influencing the capital city’s India and the largest in Kerala along the Malabar Coast, is
development. renowned for its intricate backwater ecosystem, weaving
‰ Shanghai, China (Huangpu River): Divides modern through interconnected rivers, lakes, and estuaries.
skyscrapers and historic architecture, showcasing • Vembanad Lake, central to Kerala Backwaters and
Shanghai’s diversity. Kuttanad’s “Rice Bowl,” aids below-sea-level farming
‰ Buenos Aires, Argentina (Río de la Plata): Known for with crucial irrigation.
vibrant culture and tango music along the Rio de la Plata. • The renowned Nehru Trophy Boat Race, held on
‰ Cape Town, South Africa (Atlantic Ocean): Coastal city Punnamada Lake within Vembanad in Alappuzha
influenced by the Atlantic Ocean, offering stunning (Alleppey), features the iconic Chundan Vallam
views. (snake boats), highlighting boatmen’s skill and
‰ Baghdad, Iraq (Tigris River): Part of the fertile crescent, Kerala’s rich heritage.
contributing to the city’s rich history. ‰ Chilika Lake: Chilika Lake, located predominantly in
‰ Sydney, Australia (Sydney Harbour): Iconic harbor hub Odisha on India’s eastern coast, holds the distinction
for tourism and maritime activities, featuring landmarks of being the country’s largest coastal lagoon and Asia’s
like the Sydney Opera House. largest brackish water lagoon.

Drainage System of India 107

 • This habitat is crucial for the endangered Irrawaddy • The barrier island of Sriharikota acts as a natural
dolphins. boundary, separating the lagoon from the Bay of
• Nalabana Island (Forest of Reeds), serves as a vital Bengal and hosting the Satish Dhawan Space Centre.
refuge for winter migratory birds, including flamingos, • The geographical composition includes Venadu
sandpipers, and herons. Reserve Forest and Pernadu Reserve Forest (both
• The 2022 water bird status survey at documented situated in Andhra Pradesh).
nearly 1.07 million water birds ‰ Wular Lake: Wular Lake, a Ramsar site located in the
• It is the first Indian wetland under the Ramsar Kashmir Valley and spanning parts of Bandipora and
Convention, declared in 1981. Baramulla districts in Jammu and Kashmir, stands as the
‰ Sambhar Lake: Sambhar Lake, the largest inland largest freshwater lake in Asia. It serves as a vital water
saltwater lake in India, holds significance as a major hub body within the Jhelum River basin, being fed by the
for salt production, with its expansive salt pans tracing Jhelum River.
their historical roots back to the Mauryan period. • Legend attributes the creation of the artificial island
• Its salt reserves were historically utilized by the of Zaina Lank at the lake’s center to the directive
Mughal dynasty. of Kashmiri Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin in 1444, adding
• Later, it was jointly owned by the princely states of a historical and cultural dimension to the lake’s
Jaipur and Jodhpur. narrative.
• The salt industry has played a crucial role in • The Tulbul Project, described as a “navigation lock
contributing to the region’s economic prosperity. cum control structure” situated at the lake’s mouth,
• Migratory birds make the region their temporary has been a source of contention between India and
home, leading to its designation as an Important Bird Pakistan since 1987.
ˆ The disagreement stems from Pakistan’s claim
Area (IBA).
• In 2019, around 22,000 migratory birds died due that the project violates the terms of the 1960
Indus Waters Treaty (IWT). This unresolved
to avian botulism. In response, the Rajasthan
issue has persisted, contributing to diplomatic
government proactively constructed temporary
discussions between the two nations.
shelters for migratory birds in 2020.
‰ Dal Lake: Situated in Srinagar, the summer capital of
‰ Kolleru Lake: Situated in Andhra Pradesh, nestled
Jammu and Kashmir, the lake is enveloped by the Pir
between the Krishna and Godavari deltas, this expansive
Panjal mountains, creating a picturesque setting.
water body spans an area of 308 km², is one of the largest
• Dal Lake is known as the “Jewel in the crown of
freshwater lakes in India.
Kashmir” or “Srinagar’s Jewel,”
• Acts as a natural flood-balancing reservoir for the
• Ranking as the second-largest lake in Jammu &
Krishna and Godavari rivers.
Kashmir, its shoreline is adorned with Mughal-era
• It is fed by the Budameru and Tammileru streams gardens, parks, houseboats, and hotels.
during their respective seasons.
• The lake freezes during winter, with temperatures
• The lake connects to the Krishna and Godavari dropping to −11 °C (12 °F). Dal Lake is part of a
systems through a network of over 68 inflowing 21.1-square-kilometer natural wetland featuring
drains and channels. floating gardens called “RAAD” that bloom with
• Recognised as Kolleru wildlife sanctuary in November lotus flowers in July and August.
1999 under India’s WildLife (Protection) Act, 1972 as • It is renowned for a floating market where vendors
well as a wetland of importance under the Ramsar on Shikaras offer a unique shopping experience to
Convention in November 2002. tourists.
‰ Pulicat Lake: Pulicat Lagoon, ranking as the second- • In May 2023, an ecological incident resulted in the
largest brackish water lagoon in India, comes after loss of thousands of fish, this was attributed to a
Chilika Lake in this distinction. sudden temperature fluctuation.
• The vast expanse of the lagoon is predominantly ‰ Loktak Lake: Loktak Lake stands as the largest freshwater
distributed, with approximately 96% residing in lake in Northeast India, captivating visitors with its
Andhra Pradesh (Nellore district) and the remaining pristine beauty. Renowned for its unique floating circular
3% in Tamil Nadu. swamps locally known as “phumdis,” the lake attracts
• The two contributing rivers are the Arani river and tourists from distant places.
the Kalangi River. • These phumdis, resembling islands, consist of a
• On the western fringe of the lagoon, the Buckingham composite of soil, organic matter, and vegetation,
Canal serves as a navigation channel. creating a distinctive landscape on the lake.

108 Indian Geography

 • Notably, Loktak Lake is home to the world’s only • Situated in the southwestern region of Guwahati city,
floating national park, the Keibul Lamjao National Assam, Deepor Beel is the former watercourse of the
Park, serving as the last refuge for the endangered Brahmaputra River.
brow-antlered deer, also known as sangai, which • Recently, the Ministry of Environment, Forest
holds the status of Manipur’s state animal. and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has notified the
• It was also included in both the Ramsar sites and the Eco-sensitive zone of the Deepor Beel Wildlife
Montreux Record. Sanctuary (Assam).
‰ Pangong Tso Lake: Nestled in the enchanting landscape ‰ Maha Rana Pratap Sagar lake: The lake is fed by Beas
of Leh Ladakh, this renowned lake draws its name, River and its numerous perennial tributaries such as Gaj,
“Pangong Tso,” from the Tibetan language, translating to Neogal, Binwa, Uhl, Bangana, and Baner.
“high grassland lake.” Commonly referred to as Pangong • It has been declared “a wetland of national
Lake, it is a lengthy and slender endorheic (landlocked) importance,” and also as a Ramsar site.
lake nestled at an altitude exceeding 14,000 feet (4,350 • It is also known as Pong Dam lake.
meters) amid the Ladakh Himalayas. • More than one lakh migratory water birds arrived at
• It is the world’s highest saltwater lake, in a distinctive the Pong Dam Lake Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal
boomerang shape. Pradesh in winter 2020-21.
• Notably, one-third of this extraordinary lake is under
‰ Ashtamudi Kayal: It means 8 braids(branches) in
the control of India, while the remaining two-thirds
Malayalam, due to its octopus shape.
is under Chinese control.
• It has a unique wetland ecosystem and is a Ramsar
• It is renowned for its mesmerizing color
site.
transformations, exhibiting hues of blue, green, and
• It is a gateway to the Kerala Backwaters and is famous
red that captivate observers at different times.
for houseboat tourism.
• It was one of the friction points of the 2020 violent
Galwan clash between our Indian soldiers and the • It is the second largest estuarine lake of Kerala after
Chinese soldiers. Vembanad
• Ashtamudi Lake is a major contributor to Kerala’s
‰ Bhojtal Lake: Also recognized as Upper Lake, stands
extensive network of interconnected canals, rivers,
as a prominent water reservoir situated in Bhopal.
and lakes.
Holding the title of the largest artificial lake in Asia, this
water body owes its name to Raja Bhoj, a Paramara ‰ Kanwar lake: Also known as Kanwar Jheel, it is a
king credited with both the lake’s construction and the significant freshwater lake situated in the Begusarai
renowned Bhojeshwar Temple on its eastern shore. district of Bihar.
• Originating in the 11th century, the lake came into • It is recognized as the largest oxbow lake(crescent-
existence through the construction of an earthen shaped body of water) in Asia. This was formed due
dam, strategically designed to retain the waters of to the meandering of Gandak river,
the Kolans River. • Despite being designated as a Ramsar Wetland of
• Beyond its historical significance, Bhojtal plays a International Importance, it lies neglected and is on
vital role as a primary water source for the residents the brink of drying up.
of Bhopal and the neighboring areas. It is also a • Five critically endangered species inhabit the site,
recognised Ramsar site. including three vultures – the red-headed vulture
‰ Deepor Beel: It is a freshwater lake and serves as a (Sarcogyps calvus), white-rumped vulture (Gyps
crucial biodiversity hotspot. It has been declared as an bengalensis) and Indian vulture (Gyps indicus) –
Important Bird Area(IBA) and also included in the list of and two waterbirds, the sociable lapwing (Vanellus
Ramsar sites. gregarius) and Baer’s pochard (Aythya baeri).

State Lakes Type of Lake Comments

Kolleru, Nagarjuna Sagar Fresh water Kolleru lake is located between the Godavari
Andhra and Krishna river deltas.
Pradesh Pulicat Brackish water It is the second largest brackish water lagoon
lake in India.
Haflong lake, Deepor beel, Son beel Fresh water Deepor Beel is a riverine wetland of Brahmaputra
Assam
Chandubi Oxbow lake It is a natural lagoon lake.
Bihar Kanwar Oxbow lake Asia’s largest freshwater oxbow lake.

Drainage System of India 109

 State Lakes Type of Lake Comments
Hamirsar, Kankaria, Narayan Sarovar Artificial Lake Narayan Sarovar is a pilgrimage site on the Kori
Gujarat Creek.
Thol, Vastrapur Freshwater lake Thol was constructed for irrigation purpose
Badkhal, Blue Bird, Brahma Sarovar, Freshwater lake Karna lake is connected to the epic Mahabharata.
Haryana
Karna, Tilyar, Damdama
Chandra Taal, Suraj Taal, Maharana Freshwater lake Pong dam is the highest earthfill dam.
Himachal
Pratap Sagar(Pong Dam), Prashar
Pradesh
Lake
Jammu and Wular, Dal lake Freshwater lake Wular is the second largest freshwater lake of
Kashmir Asia.
Agara, Ulsoor, Kukkarahalli, Freshwater lake Pampa Sarovar is to the south of Tungabhadra
Karnataka
Honnamana, Pampa Sarovar and is sacred to the Hindus.
Ashtamudi, Kuttanad, Vembanad Brackish water Ashtamudi is an estuarine lake.
Kerala
Sasthamkotta Freshwater lake It is called Queen of lakes.
Madhya Bhojtal Freshwater lake It was constructed by King Bhoj of Paramara
Pradesh dynasty.
Salim Ali, Shivsagar Freshwater lake Shivsagar lake was formed after construction of
Maharashtra Koyna Dam.
Lonar Saline and Alkaline It is a national geo-heritage monument.
Manipur Loktak Lenticular Large number of floating islands.
Meghalaya Umiam Freshwater lake Created for hydropower.
Mizoram Tam Dil Freshwater lake Also called Lake of Mustard.
Odisha Chilika Brackish water India’s largest brackish water and lagoon lake.
Punjab Harike, Kanjili Freshwater lake Both are Ramsar sites
Sambhar Lake Saltwater lake India’s largest inland saline lake.
Rajasthan
Rajsamand Freshwater lake The lake is fed by the Gomti river.
Sikkim Tsomgo, Khecheoplari Freshwater lake Khecheoplari is sacred for Hindus and Buddhists
Ooty, Chembarambakkam Freshwater lake Chembarambakkam is crucial for Chennai’s
water supply and is an artificial lake.
Tamil Nadu
Kaliveli Freshwater and Coastal Lagoon lake
brackish water
Telangana Hussain Sagar, Bhadrakali Freshwater lake Hussain Sagar is an artificially constructed lake
Gobind Ballabh Pant Sagar, Bela Sagar Freshwater lake GB Pant Sagar is an artificially constructed lake
Uttar Pradesh
on Rihand river.
Bhimtal Freshwater lake Bhimtal is a lake formed by constructing a
Uttarakhand
masonry dam.

Usability of Rivers
Rivers have numerous practical applications and contribute
IGNITE YOUR MIND
significantly to the environment, society, and economy. Here
Discuss the success stories of community-led are some key aspects of the usability of rivers, with examples
from the Indian context:
conservation efforts around Loktak Lake. How can
‰ Water Supply:
similar community-based approaches be applied to
other Indian lakes for sustainable management and • Domestic Use: In India, the Ganges River is a vital
source of freshwater for millions, providing water for
biodiversity conservation?
drinking, cooking, and sanitation.

110 Indian Geography

 • Industrial Use: The Yamuna River, flowing through Sustainable management and conservation efforts are
Delhi, plays a crucial role in supplying water to crucial to preserve and enhance the benefits derived from
industries in the region. these vital water bodies.
‰ Agriculture:
Contradiction in India: Floods and Droughts
• Irrigation: The Godavari River is essential for
irrigating extensive agricultural lands in states like India’s climatic contradiction is marked by its dual struggle
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. with both floods and droughts, showcasing the country’s
vulnerability to extreme weather events. These opposing
• Fertile Soil Deposition: The Brahmaputra River
challenges present a complex and delicate balancing act for
deposits nutrient-rich sediments in Assam, enhancing
soil fertility for tea and rice cultivation. India’s agriculture, infrastructure, and water management
systems.
‰ Navigation and Transportation:
• Trade and Commerce: The Hooghly River, a Floods, primarily driven by monsoon rains and river
distributary of the Ganges, facilitates trade and overflows, can wreak havoc. The annual monsoon season
transportation in the Kolkata port, a major brings relief but also the risk of devastating floods. For
commercial hub in India. instance, the 2013 North India floods caused widespread
destruction in Uttarakhand, claiming thousands of lives and
‰ Hydropower Generation: The Bhakra Nangal Dam on
the Sutlej River in northern India is a prime example of causing substantial economic losses.
hydropower generation, supplying electricity to multiple On the flip side, droughts are a recurring menace in many
states. regions, particularly during weak monsoons or extended dry
‰ Recreation and Tourism: The backwaters of Kerala, spells. In 2019, Maharashtra faced one of its worst droughts,
formed by rivers like the Periyar and Pamba, attract with depleted water reservoirs, parched fields, and severe
tourists for houseboat cruises and cultural experiences. water scarcity for millions of people.
‰ Wildlife Habitat: The Ganges River is home to the Agriculture: Both drought and floods have adverse impacts,
endangered Gangetic dolphin, drawing eco-tourists but it is more pronounced in agriculture.
interested in wildlife conservation. ‰ Drought: In times of drought, the scarcity of water leads
‰ Flood Control: The Brahmaputra River in Assam plays a to a reduction in crop productivity. Insufficient water
critical role in natural flood control by distributing excess availability hampers the normal growth and development
water across the floodplains, thus acting as natural of crops, resulting in yield losses and diminished quality.
buffer.
Farmers face challenges in sustaining their livelihoods,
‰ Biodiversity and Ecology:
and communities may grapple with food shortages due
• Habitat: The Western Ghats rivers, like the Cauvery to decreased agricultural output.
and Krishna, harbor diverse ecosystems and are vital
for the rich biodiversity in the region. ‰ Floods: Excessive water absorption by crops during floods
• Migration: The Hilsa fish in the Ganges-Brahmaputra damages their structural integrity and compromises
delta undertake long migrations for spawning, their ability to thrive. Submergence, soil erosion, and
showcasing the importance of river systems. waterlogging contribute to crop losses, impacting the
overall agricultural yield.
‰ Cultural and Historical Significance:
• Cultural Heritage: The Saraswati River, mentioned Thus, both droughts and floods inflict severe consequences,
in ancient texts, holds cultural importance despite exerting profound impacts on food security of the nation.
being mostly perceived to be mythical, reflecting The contradiction lies in the fact that India must
India’s cultural heritage. simultaneously prepare for both these extremes. Adequate
• Religious Practices: Rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, infrastructure for flood control, such as embankments and
Godavari and Krishna are considered sacred in reservoirs, is necessary, but these structures should also
Hinduism, and millions participate in religious rituals allow water storage for times of drought. Implementing
along its banks. efficient water management practices, promoting rainwater
‰ Waste Disposal: The Teesta River in Sikkim acts as a harvesting, and modernizing irrigation systems are crucial.
natural filter, purifying water as it flows downstream and
supporting local ecosystems. RIVER INTERLINKING PROJECT -
‰ Climate Regulation: The Narmada River in central India
NATIONAL WATER GRID PROGRAM
contributes to the regulation of temperatures in the
surrounding areas, providing a cooling effect. Interlinking rivers involves transferring water through
The usability of rivers in India is multifaceted, influencing channels, dams, reservoirs, or upliftment to address water
various aspects of life, culture, and the environment. deficit, drought conditions, and rainfall scarcity.

Drainage System of India 111

‰ This problem is primarily experienced in peninsular
regions due to their seasonal nature and lack of perennial the project faces concerns including the submergence
water sources like northern rivers. of the Panna Tiger Reserve due to the Daudhan dam,
impacting wildlife sanctuaries like Nauradehi, Rani
‰ A few examples of river interlinking projects are
Durgawati, and Ranipur, migration of locals, potential
• The Ken-Betwa River link project, poverty, and environmental clearance obstacles.
• The Godavari River interlinked with the Krishna River
near Vijayawada and
Benefits of Interlinking of Rivers
• The Ravi-Beas-Sutlej interlinking project.
The numerous advantages of interlinking of rivers include,
‰ The National Interlinking River Project (NIRP) was
but are not limited to:
proposed during British Rule to connect rivers for
navigation purposes. It is currently managed by the ‰ Hydropower projects and hydroelectricity will generate
National Water Development Agency under the Ministry green electricity, reduce coal usage, address water
of Jal Shakti. crisis, provide transportation, reduce traffic congestion,
‰ The project aims to connect Himalayan rivers through
and address air pollution.
reservoir construction over the Ganga and Brahmaputra ‰ They will also improve irrigation in regions with water
rivers, along with dams, canals, and reservoirs over scarcity due to less rainfall during monsoon. It will provide
peninsular rivers. another source of transportation and connectivity,
reduce traffic congestion on roads and highways, and
Ken-Betwa River Linking Project reduce air pollution from vehicles.
The Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP), the inaugural project ‰ This will also address inland navigation issues in South
between the states of MP and UP under the National India.
Perspective Plan (NPP), received government approval ‰ River-linking projects can convert floods into irrigation
in December 2021. The estimated cost, set at ₹ 44,605 sources by transferring water between basins.
crore (2020-21 price level), includes a central support ‰ Floods are caused by excessive rainfall, surface runoff,
of ₹ 39,317 crore. Implemented through the Ken-Betwa
and over-storage of reservoirs and dams. Rainwater
Link Project Authority (KBLPA), the initiative focuses on
harvesting helps store and use water for drinking and
connecting the Ken and Betwa rivers in Madhya Pradesh,
irrigation, reducing water peak levels before rainfall and
which later join the Yamuna near Banda and Hamirpur.
releasing it regulated to manage floods in southern India.
KBLP will annually irrigate 10.62 lakh hectares (8.11 lakh
hectares in MP and 2.51 lakh hectares in UP). Concerns with the Interlinking of Rivers
‰ The project aims to provide irrigation facilities, In spite of the many advantages interlinking of rivers offers,
drinking water supply, hydropower generation, and it has many downsides like:
solar power projects. ‰ Inter-state disputes: River disputes among states, such
as Kaveri and Godavari, often overlook human nature.
UTTAR PRADESH
MAPPING ti Yamuna ‰ High Costs: Interlinking rivers is costly due to
KEN-BETWA rva Urad
Pa Datia environmental impacts, high economic costs, and
i a humanitarian issues. It can cause displacement,
ur tw
vp Be
Shi Chitrakoot migration, and rehabilitation issues.
MADHYA Ken-
Betwa Chhatarpur ‰ Transnational Rivers: Conflicts with neighboring
PRADESH Link
Ken
countries, such as Bangladesh, Nepal, and China, also
Tikamgarh
Lalipur exist. For instance,
Panna Satna
• Disputes over the Teesta River and its tributaries with
Bangladesh and
wa

• Over the Kali River with Nepal.

Bet

Vidisha
Raisen RIVER POWER HOUSE DISTRICT TUNNEL ‰ Ecological Impact: The project will adversely affect
COMMAND AREA DISTRICT BOUNDARY
various ecological aspects such as delta formation,
Fig. 4.39: Ken-Betwa riverlinking project mangrove growth, and aquatic life.
‰ The project will help address water scarcity in the ‰ River Course Alteration: Rivers may alter their courses
water deficit region of both states due to delayed approximately every century, rendering the interlinking
rainfall. project potentially obsolete after a century.
‰ The Center will bear 90% cost by constructing a ‰ Loss of Forest Cover: Implementing river interlinking
Daudhan dam and canal to transfer water. However, will necessitate clearing vast swathes of land, leading to
deforestation.

112 Indian Geography

‰ Water Management Challenges: Challenges like water in rivers like the Brahmaputra and Hooghly, exacerbates
logging, heightened salinity levels, and potential water pollution and poses a threat to aquatic ecosystems.
pollution may arise from inland waterway navigation ‰ Mining Activities: Unregulated sand mining in rivers
resulting from the project. like the Yamuna and Chambal leads to erosion,
‰ Impact on society: constructing dams and reservoirs will sedimentation, and habitat destruction, degrading the
cause the displacement of many local communities. overall health of the rivers.
Way Forward ‰ Urbanization and Encroachment: Rapid urbanization
along riverbanks, as seen in cities like Mumbai along
‰ Prioritize efficient utilization of existing water resources
the Mithi River, results in increased impervious surfaces,
through integrated water resource management before
investing in large-scale river interlinking projects. leading to higher runoff and pollution.
‰ Disposal of Religious Offerings: Immersion of religious
‰ Focus on groundwater management, including
identifying and protecting recharge mechanisms, idols and offerings in rivers like the Ganga during festivals
enhancing recharge where possible, and regulating introduces pollutants such as heavy metals and non-
groundwater use at the aquifer level. biodegradable materials.
‰ Promote the concept of virtual water, where importing • ​Dead bodies are ​cremated on the ​river banks and
goods rather than producing them domestically partially burnt b
​ odies are also ​flung into the ​river.
conserves local water for other uses. ‰ Deforestation and Soil Erosion: Deforestation in
‰ Consider the National Waterways Project (NWP) as an catchment areas, particularly along the Western Ghats
alternative to the National River Linking Project (NRLP). affecting rivers like the Kaveri and Periyar, contributes to
NWP operates as a water grid, transferring water from soil erosion and increased sedimentation.
flooded rivers to others, requiring less land, offering ‰ Hydropower Projects: Construction and operation of
year-round navigation, and requiring no pumping. hydropower projects, such as the Tehri Dam on the
Additionally, it can irrigate almost double the land and Bhagirathi River, can alter the natural flow regime,
generate 76% more power compared to river interlinking affecting water quality and aquatic habitats.
projects. ‰ Lack of Regulatory Enforcement: Weak enforcement
Thus, the interlinking of rivers necessitates careful planning of environmental regulations allows industries and
and planning for long-term projects. individuals to continue polluting rivers without
facing significant consequences, contributing to the
ISSUES RELATED TO DRAINAGE deterioration of rivers across the country.
SYSTEM Understanding these specific causes in the Indian context is
crucial for developing effective policies and implementing
River Pollution sustainable practices to address river pollution and ensure
It is estimated that approximately 70% of surface water the long-term health of India’s river ecosystems.
is unfit for human consumption in India. CPCB identified
Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Ghaggar and Gomti as the five CPCB 2021 Study Findings
most polluted rivers in India. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) identified
Causes of River Pollution 351 polluted river stretches in India, with untreated
wastewater discharge being a major contributor.
The major causes of river pollution are dealt in detail below:
‰ Industrial Discharges: The discharge of untreated ‰ Approximately 60% of these polluted stretches
industrial effluents into rivers, such as the Ganga and are concentrated in Maharashtra, Assam, Madhya
Yamuna, contains heavy metals, chemicals, and toxins, Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal, and
impacting water quality and aquatic life. Karnataka. Maharashtra has the highest number of
‰ Agricultural Runoff: Excessive use of fertilizers and polluted river stretches.
pesticides in agriculture leads to runoff containing ‰ According to the CPCB’s 2021 report on the National
pollutants like nitrogen and phosphates, contributing to inventory of sewage treatment plants, the country
eutrophication in rivers like the Godavari and Krishna. generated 72,368 million liters per day (MLD) of
‰ Domestic Sewage: Inadequate sewage treatment sewage, while the operational treatment capacity
facilities in urban areas result in the direct release of was only 26,869 MLD.
untreated domestic wastewater into rivers, affecting the ‰ This untreated or partially treated sewage, when
water quality of rivers like the Sabarmati and Mithi. discharged into rivers, elevates biological oxygen
‰ Solid Waste Dumping: Improper disposal of solid waste, demand, contributing to river pollution.
including plastics and other non-biodegradable materials,

Drainage System of India 113

Methods to Tackle River Pollution in the Indian Implementing a combination of these methods, tailored to
Context the specific challenges of each river, is crucial for effectively
tackling river pollution in the Indian context.
The below are some of the Indian efforts in combating
pollution:
‰ Wastewater Treatment Plants: Implementation and
SAND MINING
upgradation of sewage treatment plants, like the Yamuna Sand mining involves the extraction of primary natural sand
Action Plan in Delhi, to treat domestic and industrial and sand resources, including mineral sands and aggregates,
wastewater before discharge into rivers. from terrestrial, riverine, coastal, or marine environments.
‰ Effluent Standards and Regulation: Enforcing stringent
This process aims to extract valuable minerals, metals,
crushed stone, sand, and gravel for subsequent processing.
effluent discharge standards, as seen in the case of the
Driven by various factors, this activity poses significant
Ganga Action Plan, to control industrial pollutants and
threats to ecosystems and communities.
maintain water quality.
Sources of Sand in India:
‰ Riverfront Development and Restoration: Riverfront
development projects, such as the Sabarmati Riverfront Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines (SSMMG)
in Ahmedabad, focusing on restoring river ecosystems 2016 identify sources:
and improving water quality. ‰ River (riverbed and flood plain)

‰ Community Participation and Awareness: Initiatives like ‰ Lakes and reservoirs

the Namami Gange program involving local communities ‰ Agricultural fields
in cleaning and rejuvenating the Ganga, fostering ‰ Coastal/marine sand
awareness and active participation. ‰ Palaeo-channels
‰ Green Belts and Riparian Vegetation: Planting and ‰ Manufactured Sand (M-Sand)
maintaining green belts along riverbanks, exemplified by Factors Driving Illegal Sand Mining:
the Green Wall of Aravalli along the Sabarmati River, to ‰ Lack of Regulation and Enforcement: Weak regulatory
reduce runoff and improve water quality. frameworks and enforcement contribute to illegal mining
‰ Regulation of Sand Mining: Implementing regulations proliferation.
on sand mining, as witnessed in the case of the Kerala ‰ High Demand for Construction Materials: Construction
government’s measures to control illegal sand mining in industry demand intensifies illegal extraction, stressing
rivers like the Periyar. riverbeds and coastal areas.
‰ Floating Treatment Wetlands: Utilizing floating treatment ‰ Corruption and Mafia Influence: Organized sand mafias
wetlands, demonstrated in Dal Lake, Srinagar, to naturally and corruption perpetuate illegal mining, undermining
treat pollutants and improve water quality. regulation.
‰ Bioremediation Techniques: Applying bioremediation ‰ Lack of Sustainable Alternatives: Limited adoption
techniques, such as the use of microbes, to clean of alternatives like M-sand leads to overreliance on
polluted stretches, as experimented in the Mula-Mutha riverbed sand.
River in Pune. ‰ Weak EIA Implementation: Ineffective EIA implementation
‰ Strict Enforcement of Anti-Pollution Laws: Implementing allows unauthorized sand extraction, unnoticed due to
and strictly enforcing laws like the Water (Prevention insufficient awareness.
and Control of Pollution) Act and the Environment Consequences of Sand Mining:
Protection Act to hold polluters accountable. ‰ Erosion and Habitat Disruption: Unregulated mining
‰ River Monitoring and Data Collection: Establishing alters riverbeds, causing erosion and disrupting aquatic
comprehensive river monitoring systems, like the Real- habitats.
Time Water Quality Monitoring on the Ganga, to collect ‰ Flooding and Sedimentation: Sand depletion contributes
data and promptly address pollution incidents. to increased flooding and altered flow patterns,
‰ Restoration of Riparian Habitats: Focusing on restoring
impacting ecosystems.
and protecting riparian habitats, as seen in the case of the ‰ Groundwater Depletion: Deep pits from mining lower
Kali River Conservation Project, to enhance biodiversity the groundwater table, leading to local water scarcity.
and ecosystem health. ‰ Biodiversity Loss: Habitat disruption results in significant
‰ Sustainable Agricultural Practices: Promoting sustainable
biodiversity loss, affecting aquatic and riparian species.
agricultural practices, exemplified by initiatives in the Initiatives to Prevent Sand Mining in India:
Cauvery basin, to reduce chemical runoff and enhance ‰ Mines and Mineral Development and Regulation Act,
water quality. 1957 (MMDR Act): Under the Mines and Minerals

114 Indian Geography

 (Development and Regulations) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act), ‰ For the country’s many rivers, a number of Inter-State
sand is categorized as a “minor mineral.” Water Disputes Tribunals have been established.
• The authority over minor minerals is delegated to the ‰ Composition of Inter-state river disputes tribunal:
State Governments. Section 3(e) of the MMDR Act is Include the Chief Justice of India, a serving Supreme
designed to counteract illegal mining by empowering Court justice, and two additional judges who are either
the government to enact laws aimed at curbing Supreme Court or High Court judges make up the
unlawful practices.
tribunal.
‰ MMDR Amendment Act, 2023: Recent parliamentary
‰ The Inter-State Water Disputes Act of 1956 governs the
amendment to the MMDR Act, strengthening regulations.
resolution of water disputes.
‰ 2006 Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Mandate:
Supreme Court mandates approval for all sand mining, ‰ According to the law, state governments are free to go
addressing ecological impacts, even for areas less than to the center and request a tribunal to settle any water
5 hectares. disputes they may have with other states. The tribunal’s
‰ Sustainable Sand Management Guidelines 2016: Issued judgment is conclusive.
by MoEFCC, focusing on environmentally sustainable and ‰ The Inter-State Water Disputes Legislation of 1956
socially responsible mining. was amended by the Inter-State River Water Disputes
‰ Enforcement and Monitoring Guidelines for sand (Amendment) Bill, 2017, which was introduced in Lok
mining 2020: Uniform protocol for monitoring sand Sabha.
mining, covering identification, dispatch, and end-use. • A modernized Tribunal with a permanent
establishment, a permanent office, and infrastructure
Way Forward is introduced by the bill.
‰ Sand Alternatives: Prioritize alternatives like • The bill also includes a provision for the Central
manufactured sand, artificial sand, fly ash, and crushed
Government to establish a Dispute Resolution
rock to reduce sand extraction. For example, Singapore
Committee (DRC) to settle disputes amicably within
successfully replaced sand with copper slag in concrete
a six- to one-year time frame.
production.
‰ Other well known River Disputes
‰ Regulatory Strengthening: Classify sand as a major
mineral and centralize regulation to uniformly manage • Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal II (2004) –
sand mining across states. Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
‰ Digital Technology Implementation: Utilize satellite Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal (2018) – Odisha &
imagery, drones, GPS tracking, and remote sensing for Chhattisgarh
real-time monitoring of mining activities. For instance, • Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal (2010) – Goa,
Odisha’s integrated mines and mineral management Karnataka, Maharashtra
system portal facilitates electronic regulation of mining • Ravi & Beas Water Tribunal (1986) – Punjab, Haryana,
activities. Rajasthan
‰ Enforcement Enhancement: Stricter enforcement of • Vansadhara Water Disputes Tribunal (2010) – Andhra
existing mining regulations and higher penalties for Pradesh & Odisha.
illegal sand mining. Bihar has established permanent
checkpoints at sensitive locations to combat illegal sand GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
mining.
‰ Establishing Basic Standards: Implement a global New National Water Policy
program to monitor and standardize the sand mining Until recently, the National Water Policy 2012 was in
industry to prevent illegal activities and ensure practice. To address the recent and emerging challenges of
compliance. the water sector, the new National Water Policy calls for a
Thus, reforming regulations, promoting sustainable multi-stakeholder and multi-disciplinary approach. This was
alter-natives, and enforcing guidelines are crucial in combat- the first time that the government asked a committee of
ing the detrimental impacts of sand mining in India. independent experts to draft the policy in 2019.
Need for a new national policy:
INTER STATE RIVER DISPUTES To overcome the following Drawbacks of 2012 policy:
One of the most controversial topics today flagging the ‰ Overemphasis on Interlinking Rivers:
Indian states is the inter-state river conflicts. The Satluj • The ambitious proposal to link major rivers across
Yamuna Link Canal and the Cauvery Water Dispute are two India has encountered technical, environmental, and
recent, well-known, and contentious river disputes. social concerns, with limited progress made so far.

Drainage System of India 115

 6,042 SHORT ON RESOURCES Issues Dealt with in National Water Policy
World India ‰ Demand Management: The National Water Policy
Population
(In cubic metres)

Water Resources recognizes the limitations of endlessly increasing

water supply and advocates a shift towards demand
India’s per capita water availability constantly decreasing
1,816
Projection
management to ensure sustainable water use.
1,545 1,486 1,367 1,282 1,228
‰ Irrigation: A staggering 80-90 percent of India’s water is
1947 2001 2011 2021 2031 2041 2051 consumed by irrigation, predominantly for rice, wheat,
• Avg annual water by precipitation in India: 4,000 billion cubic metres (BCM) and sugarcane. Without a substantial shift in this water
• Avg annual availability as natural runoff after evaporation 1,869 BCM demand pattern, meeting the basic water needs of
• Avg annual 'utilisable' potential by geological & other factors: 1,123 BCM millions remains a challenge.
(Surface water: 690 BCM) (Ground water: 432 BCM) (1 cubic metre = 1,000
litres) Groundwater: The NWP prioritizes sustainable and
63% of annual ground water recharge is consumed in India. While net ground equitable management of groundwater, emphasizing
water availability (extractable) per year is 393 billion cubic metres (BCM), 249 participatory groundwater management. Stakeholders,
BCM is drawn for irrigation, domestic and industrial uses
designated as custodians of their aquifers, would
Fig. 4.40: Important facts on shortage of water resources be provided user-friendly information on aquifer
‰ Inadequate Focus on Groundwater Management: boundaries, water storage capacities, and flows to
enable effective groundwater management.
• Overexploitation of groundwater resources continues
to be a major challenge, and the policy’s emphasis on River: While historically seen as primarily serving
surface water hasn’t adequately addressed this issue. economic purposes, the NWP accords rivers protection
and revitalization as a top priority. It outlines the
‰ Neglected Inter-State Water Disputes:
development of a Rights of Rivers Act, recognizing their
• Complex water conflicts between states remain right to flow, meander, and meet the sea.
unresolved, hindering effective water management Water Quality: Addressing water quality emerges as a
at a national level. critical, unaddressed issue in India. The NWP suggests
‰ Limited Public Participation: the incorporation of water quality departments in every
• The policy formulation process lacked sufficient public water ministry at the central and state levels.
consultation and stakeholder engagement, leading to Hydro Schizophrenia: The policy proposes radical
concerns about its inclusivity and effectiveness. governance reforms to address three forms of “hydro-
For catering the following New Challenges: schizophrenia” prevalent in water management:
‰ Addressing Climate Change Impacts:
• Irrigation vs. Drinking Water: The policy aims to
bridge the gap between irrigation and drinking water
• The policy must include strategies to manage water
management.
resources amidst changing climatic conditions,
• Surface vs. Groundwater: It seeks to harmonize
including heightened variability and extreme weather
management strategies for surface and groundwater
events.
resources.
‰ Promoting Integrated Water Management: • Water vs. Wastewater: By avoiding the separation of
• An integrated approach is crucial, encompassing water and wastewater in planning, the policy aims to
rainwater harvesting, inter-basin transfers, and the prevent a decline in water quality.
conjunctive use of surface and groundwater. The over-extraction of groundwater, for instance, leads to
‰ Focus on Water Conservation and Efficiency: rivers drying up, affecting base-flows necessary for sustained
• Prioritize water conservation efforts in agriculture, river water levels post-monsoon. Integrating drinking water
industry, and domestic sectors to maximize the and irrigation management prevents aquifers from drying up
utilization of existing resources. due to conflicting uses. Similarly, avoiding the separation of
water and wastewater planning prevents a decline in overall
‰ Strengthening Institutional Framework:
water quality.
• Establish robust institutions with clearly defined
Two Major Recommendations of the Proposed NWP:
roles and responsibilities to ensure effective policy
‰ Shift the focus away from ceaselessly increasing
implementation and water governance.
water supply, instead prioritize measures for demand
‰ Enhancing Public Participation: management.
• Formulate the new policy through a transparent and • This entails diversifying crop patterns to incorporate
inclusive process, incorporating diverse stakeholder less water-intensive varieties, aligning with regional
perspectives to foster public engagement. agroecology.

116 Indian Geography

 • Additionally, it necessitates reducing the industrial ‰ Industrial Effluent Monitoring: Monitoring and
water footprint, currently one of the highest regulating industrial discharges into the Ganges to
globally, by minimizing freshwater consumption and reduce pollution from industries.
transitioning to recycled water. ‰ River Surface Cleaning: Initiatives to cleanse the Ganges
• Cities should mandate the redirection of all non- surface from floating solid waste and debris.
potable uses, such as flushing, fire protection, vehicle ‰ Bioremediation of Rivers: Implementing bio-remediation
washing, landscaping, and horticulture, to treated techniques to enhance the water quality of the Ganges
wastewater. and its tributaries.
‰ A necessary shift in focus is imperative within the supply- ‰ Afforestation: Planting trees and promoting afforestation
side, given the dwindling availability of sites for the along riverbanks to prevent soil erosion, boost
construction of additional large dams in the country. groundwater recharge, and enhance overall riverine
• Simultaneously, water tables and groundwater ecosystems.
quality are diminishing in many areas.
‰ Public Awareness and Participation: Engaging
• Despite trillions of liters of water stored in large communities, religious institutions, and the public to
dams, a significant portion fails to reach the intended
raise awareness about the importance of a clean Ganges
farmers.
and encouraging active participation in its conservation.
• The policy outlines a solution involving the
‰ Biodiversity Conservation: Implementing measures to
deployment of pressurized closed conveyance
pipelines, integrated with Supervisory Control and safeguard and conserve the biodiversity of the Ganges
Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems and pressurized River and its associated ecosystems.
micro-irrigation. ‰ Riverfront Development: Developing riverfront areas
The draft policy also states that a global consensus is for recreational and cultural activities while ensuring
emerging in favor of “nature-based solutions” for water sustainability and eco-friendly practices.
storage and supply. Consequently, the National Water ‰ Research and Development: Promoting research and
Policy (NWP) places a major emphasis on the supply of development activities to find innovative and sustainable
water through the revitalization of catchment areas. This solutions for Ganges rejuvenation.
rejuvenation needs to be incentivized through compensation ‰ Cultural and Spiritual Heritage: Integrating cultural and
for ecosystem services, particularly directed towards spiritual aspects to emphasize the historical and religious
vulnerable communities in upstream, mountainous regions. significance of the Ganges in Indian heritage.
The Namami Gange Programme adopts an integrated
Namami Devi Narmade
and holistic approach to Ganges conservation, involving
The Namami Devi Narmade was a programme aimed at
collaboration among government agencies, Non-
conservation of Narmada river through social mobilization,
governmental organizations (NGOs), and local communities.
started by the Madhya Pradesh government. It was called
Its successful implementation is vital for ensuring the long-
the Namami Devi Narmade Sewa Yatra
term health and sustainability of the Ganges River ecosystem
‰ It lasted for about 118 days, beginning on December 11, and fulfilling the cultural and spiritual aspirations of millions
2016. Throughout the Yatra, many cultural and religious who consider the river sacred.
events were conducted.
‰ The campaigns aimed at increasing public knowledge, National Hydrology Project (NHP)
participation and support for organic farming, soil It is a comprehensive initiative aimed at enhancing India’s
conservation, afforestation and pollution abatement. hydrological information systems and water resource
management. It was launched with the support of the World
Namami Gange Programme Bank.
The Namami Gange Programme, also known as the National
‰ The project seeks to strengthen the country’s capacity
Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG), was launched by the
for hydrological monitoring, data management, and
Government of India in 2014 to address the pressing issue
decision-making processes.
of pollution and degradation in the Ganges River. This iconic
river, revered by millions, has suffered from environmental ‰ The NHP focuses on the modernization of infrastructure,
challenges due to human activities. including the establishment of hydromet stations, river
Key objectives and components of the Namami Gange gauging stations, and data centers to facilitate the
Programme include: collection and analysis of hydrological data.
‰ Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs): Constructing and ‰ By promoting the use of advanced technology and
upgrading sewage treatment infrastructure along the improving institutional capabilities, the project aims
Ganges and its tributaries to effectively treat domestic to enhance flood forecasting, reservoir operations, and
and industrial wastewater. overall water resource planning.

Drainage System of India 117

‰ The NHP plays a pivotal role in promoting sustainable of infrastructure such as Hydroelectric Power
water management practices and addressing the Projects (HEPs).
challenges posed by climate change, ensuring efficient Objective: The Dam Safety Act mandates the
utilization of water resources for the benefit of both rural supervision, inspection, and maintenance of specified
and urban communities. dams nationwide, encompassing those over 15 meters
in height or 10-15 meters with specific design conditions.
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES Salient Features:
‰ Dam Safety Bill • It establishes a two-tiered institutional mechanism,
comprising the National Committee on Dam Safety
The Dam Safety Bill, initially presented in the Lok Sabha
in July 2019, successfully traversed the legislative process (NCDS) and the National Dam Safety Authority
and was approved by the Rajya Sabha in December 2021, (NDSA), along with State Level Bodies and obligations
emerging as the Dam Safety Act of 2021. for dam owners.
• Institutional Mechanism:
Rationale for Dam Safety:
ˆ National Bodies:
• Ageing Dams: India stands as the third-largest builder
of large dams globally, with over 5,200 already ◊ NCDS formulates policies and recommends
in existence. Of these, approximately 1,100 have regulations.
surpassed the 50-year mark, with some exceeding ◊ NDSA implements NCDA policies, aids State
120 years. Dam Safety Organisations (SDSOs), and
ˆ Signs of aging dams, including increased instances
resolves disputes.
of failures, escalating costs for repair and ˆ State Bodies:

maintenance, growing reservoir sedimentation, ◊ SDSOs conduct perpetual surveillance and

and diminished functionality, underscore the inspection.
imperative for dam safety measures. ◊ The State Committee on Dam Safety oversees
• Lower Shelf Life: Medium and minor dams, numbering rehabilitation programmes and reviews SDSO
in the hundreds of thousands, pose an even more work.
precarious situation due to their inherently shorter • Obligations of Dam Owners: Owners are responsible
shelf life compared to large dams. for safe dam construction, operation, and
ˆ This vulnerability jeopardizes water security, maintenance. They must establish dam safety units,
impacts farmers’ income, and heightens the risk conduct inspections pre and post-monsoon, after
of flooding, necessitating urgent attention. seismic events, floods, or signs of distress.
ˆ Functions include emergency action plans,
• Structurally Vulnerable Dams: Scholarly studies
consistently reveal that Indian reservoirs lack a robust regular risk assessments, and comprehensive
understanding of sedimentation science during the safety evaluations.
design phase. • Offenses and Penalties: Obstruction or non-
ˆ Any large storage structure, irrespective of its
compliance may result in imprisonment for up to two
composition (concrete, masonry, or earth), can years in case of loss of life.
weaken structurally over time, emphasizing the • Issues Associated: Debates arise on Parliament’s
need to address these vulnerabilities. jurisdiction over intrastate river dams. Initiatives like
the Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project
• Mitigating Climate Change Impacts: Increasing
(DRIP) complement the Dam Safety Act.
instances of severe flooding and other extreme
environmental events, influenced by climate change, Recommendations for Improved Dam Safety:
can surpass a dam’s design limits. This necessitates • Environmental considerations in inspections.
proactive measures to mitigate the impacts of climate • Recognizing local factors and climate variations.
change on dam infrastructure. • Prioritizing dam decommissioning.
• Hazardous Infrastructure: Despite structural • Establishing an overarching authority to address
integrity, large dams are categorized as “high hazard” interstate disputes, exemplified by the Mullaperiyar
infrastructure due to the potential for catastrophic Dam issue between Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
loss of human lives, livelihoods, and widespread ‰ Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project:
destruction in the event of failure. Recently, the Government of India inked a $250 million
ˆ The recent Uttarakhand flash floods highlight the loan pact with the World Bank for the Second Phase
compounding effect of global warming-induced of Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP
glacier melting exacerbated by the construction Phase II).

118 Indian Geography

 Key aspects of this project are • The overarching vision of the TamiraSES project
• Phase-I: The Government, aided by the World Bank, extends beyond the rejuvenation of the Thamirabarani
initiated DRIP in April 2012, aiming to enhance safety River alone, encompassing the revitalization of all
and performance of selected dams and strengthen water bodies within the riverscape of Tirunelveli.
dam safety institutions. ‰ Rejuvenation Project of 13 Major Rivers:
• It covered 223 dams in seven states, with the Central River rejuvenation is the process of revitalizing a river’s
Water Commission coordinating. natural flow and well-being, which may have been
• A web-based tool, Dam Health and Rehabilitation compromised by human activities like waste disposal,
Monitoring Application (DHARMA), was developed encroachment, and pollution. This restoration process
for data capture and AI-driven dam safety entails the removal of pollutants, cleaning of riverbeds,
management. and the rehabilitation of the surrounding natural
• DRIP Phase-II and Phase III: Based on DRIP’s success, environment.
the Ministry of Jal Shakti launched DRIP Phase II and Impacts: The following are the consequences of river
Phase III in October 2020. rejuvenation:
ˆ It spans 10 years with 19 states and 3 central • Habitat Restoration: River rejuvenation contributes
agencies, budgeting Rs 10,211 Cr for 736 dams. to the restoration of natural habitats for plants
ˆ DRIP Phase-II, co-financed by the World Bank and animals, fostering biodiversity and creating a
and AIIB, focuses on dam safety, institutional healthier ecosystem.
strengthening, and revenue generation from • Cleaner Water: The process results in cleaner water,
selected dams. suitable for both drinking and irrigation purposes,
Objectives: thus addressing water quality concerns.
• Enhance safety and performance sustainably. • Tourism and Livelihood Improvement: Reviving
• Strengthen dam safety institutions. rivers has the potential to boost tourism in the
region, attracting visitors interested in the restored
• Explore alternative revenue generation methods for
natural beauty. Additionally, it positively affects the
dam operation and maintenance.
livelihoods of communities dependent on the river.
Significance: • Flood Control: River rejuvenation plays a crucial
• India ranks third globally with 5334 large dams after role in controlling floods by allowing a healthy river
the China and USA. to absorb excess water during heavy rains. This
• Addresses the aeging infrastructure risk with over helps prevent downstream flooding, saving lives,
1,115 large dams reaching 50 years by 2025. protecting property, and mitigating the economic
• Mitigates flood risks and reduces greenhouse gas impact of floods.
emissions. In the year 2022, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
• Focuses on dam safety legislation and employment Climate Change unveiled Detailed Project Reports (DPRs)
generation. amounting to Rs. 19,342.62 crore for the rejuvenation of
DRIP Phase II advances dam safety, incorporates AI, 13 major rivers. These initiatives focus on implementing
and aligns with climate resilience, flood mitigation, and forestry interventions to enhance the ecological health of
employment generation, crucial for India’s water security the following rivers: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej,
and sustainable development. Yamuna, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Godavari, Mahanadi,
‰ TamiraSES project: The TamiraSES project is a Krishna, Cauvery, and Luni.
comprehensive initiative at the district level, with the Examples of River Rejuvenation:
primary goal of restoring the Social Ecological Systems • The Rhine River in Europe, once heavily
within the Tamiraparani river landscape. contaminated, has experienced a substantial cleanup
• This restoration effort spans from the head- initiative, leading to its transformation into a dynamic
waters to the estuary, aiming to create favorable and flourishing ecosystem.
conditions for the flourishing of native biodiversity. • The Kuttamperoor River, spanning 7.2 km in
The project further seeks to safeguard and enhance Alappuzha, Kerala, has undergone a revival, achieved
multiple ecosystem services for the benefit of local through a collaborative effort involving the public and
stakeholders. government interventions over a span of six years.
• As an initial step, five social ecological observatories ˆ For more than a decade, the river remained

will be established in the first phase of the project. lifeless, grappling with issues such as waste
These observatories will function as pilot sites, dumping, encroachments, and various other
allowing for the extrapolation of insights gained from human-induced activities. The rejuvenation
their experiences to scale up the initiative effectively. process involved deepening the river channel,

Drainage System of India 119

 eliminating encroachments, and constructing • Characteristics: Indus Dolphins display a brown/gray
embankments on both sides. coloration.
ˆ The revitalization of the Kuttamperoor River ˆ Functionally blind, they heavily rely on
is anticipated to play a significant role in flood echolocation for navigation, communication, and
control within the region. hunting prey such as prawns, catfish, and carp.
‰ Rights of Rivers: ˆ With a lifespan of at least 30 years, they can grow
Rights of Rivers encompass various aspects, emphasizing over 2 meters in length.
a holistic view of rivers as ecosystems. These include: • Threats: The primary threat faced by these dolphins
• Flow: Instead of merely quantifying water volume, is the construction of numerous dams and barrages,
considering a river as an ecosystem broadens the which not only fragment the population into smaller
scope of its rights. groups but also degrade their habitat and hinder
• Flora and Fauna: Encompassing aquatic life, migration.
biodiversity in catchment areas, forests, tributaries, ˆ Other factors that contribute include poaching,
groundwater, rocks, and soil in its bed and banks. entanglement in fishing nets, and river pollution.
• Human Settlements: Recognizing the ecological
causes and conditions supporting natural habitats, NATIONAL WATERWAYS
with consideration for human settlements dependent
on the river. National waterways play a crucial role in a country’s
• Economy: Balancing rights to accommodate fishing transportation and economic development. Water transport
and local, subsistence-based needs, fostering a offers numerous benefits, including cost-effectiveness,
respectful relationship with the river as an ecosystem. reduced congestion, eco-friendliness, accessibility, economic
The Universal Declaration of the Rights of Rivers is a global development, trade facilitation, energy efficiency, disaster
civil society initiative acknowledging basic entitlements relief, tourism, infrastructure development, and connectivity.
for all rivers. Originating in 2008 with Ecuador, this ‰ It can carry large quantities of goods over long distances,
movement sees rivers as living entities, marking a shift reducing transportation costs for businesses and
from an extractive mindset to conservation safeguards. consumers.
• Recent campaigns globally, including in the US, ‰ In 2022 FY, the total cargo traffic on Indian national
Canada, Ecuador, and Argentina, have recognized waterways amounted to almost 11 million metric tons.
river rights. ‰ India has notified 111 National Waterways under the
• The passing of legislation in the parliament of New National Waterways Act, of 2016, out of which 13
Zealand in 2017 that recognised the country’s third- are operational for shipping or navigation of cargo/
longest river, the Whanganui river, as a legal person passenger vessels.
with the same set of rights as citizens of the country ‰ The government created the Inland Waterways Authority
would have for themselves, is a significant boost to of India (IWAI) in 1986 for the purpose of regulating and
the campaign. developing inland waterways.
Indian scenario: In 2017, the Uttarakhand HC declared ‰ Waterways also help alleviate congestion on roads and
Ganga and Yamuna, along with glaciers, as legal persons, railways, reducing traffic jams and infrastructure wear.
emphasizing corresponding rights.
‰ They produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions per unit
Challenges include the need for cultural change,
of cargo transported, contributing to cleaner air and
questioning current development paradigms, addressing
lower carbon footprints.
cross-boundary issues, and overcoming a cooperation
‰ National waterways provide access to remote regions,
deficit in implementing laws safeguarding river rights.
promoting economic development and connecting them
‰ Punjab Government has declared the Indus river
to major markets and trade routes.
dolphin as Punjab’s state aquatic animal:
‰ They also facilitate trade by facilitating the import and
Indus river dolphins represent one of only four species
export of goods. Water transport is energy efficient, as
and subspecies of river dolphins globally that exclusively
ships and barges can carry large volumes of cargo with
inhabit freshwater throughout their entire lives.
low fuel consumption per ton-mile, contributing to
• Distribution: The Indus river dolphin stands as the
energy conservation.
second most endangered freshwater river dolphin.
Presently, there are only about 1,800 individuals ‰ Waterways also serve as critical routes for disaster relief
found in the Indus River in Pakistan, with a population and emergency response efforts, attracting visitors for
ranging from eight to 10 in the Beas River. activities like boating, fishing, and sightseeing.
• IUCN Status: Designated as “Endangered” by the ‰ Investment in national waterways can lead to the
International Union for Conservation of Nature construction and maintenance of infrastructure, creation
(IUCN). of jobs and a major support in economic growth.

120 Indian Geography

 National
River System Route Location
Waterway
NW-1 Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly Prayagraj – Haldia Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand,
(Longest waterways 1620 km) West Bengal
NW-2 Brahmaputra Sadiya-Dhubri Assam
NW-3 West Coast Canal, Champakara Canal, Kottapuram – Kollam Kerala
and Udyogamandal Canal
NW-4 Krishna and Godavari Kakinada–Puducherry stretch of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and
canals, Kaluvelly Tank, Bhadrachalam – Puducherry
Rajahmundry, Waziraba–Vijayawada
NW-73 Narmada River – Gujarat and Maharashtra

NATIONAL NW-1 NW-2

GANGA BRAHMAPUTRA
WATERWAYS HALDIA TO ALLAHABAD DHUBRI TO SADIYA
1,620 KM 891 KM
STATES SERVED: UP, STATES SERVED: Assam,
TOTAL LENGTH: Bihar, Jharkhand and West West Bengal, Arunachal
Bengal Pradesh, Meghalaya
4,503 KM
Brahmaputra
TOTAL STATES SERVED Delhi River
NEPAL Sadiya
15
BHUTAN
Ganga River Pandu
PAKISTAN
Allahabad Dhubri
BANGLADESH Darak River
Bhahmani River
Narmada River Mahanadi River Kolkata
Haldia MAYANMAR
Dhamra
Talcher Sundarbans NW-6
Tapi River BARAK
LAKHIPUR TO BHANGA
Paradip
(IN PROCESS)
Arabian Sea Godavari River 121 KM
Krishna River Kakinada Canal STATES SERVED: Assam,
Kakinada Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura
Mandovi, Zuari River & Eluru Canal
Cumberju Canal
Buckingham
Canal NW-4 NW-5
GODAVARI, BRAHMANI, DELTA
Udyog Amandal KRISHNA & CANALS CANALS, ECC
NW-3 Canal Puduchery KAKINADA TO GOENKHALI TO TALCHER
WEST COAST CANAL Kottapuram PUDUCHERY
Champakkara 1,078 KM
588 KM
KOLLAM TO STATES SERVED: Odisha,
KOTTAPURAM Kollam Canal
STATES SERVED: AP, Tamil West Bengal
205 KM Nadu, UT of Puducherry
STATES SERVED: Kerala

Fig. 4.41: National Waterways of India

IGNITE YOUR MIND

The spatial and temporal changes in precipitation across India frequently cause human suffering such as a lack of
drinking water, inundation of agricultural lands, crop failure, and so on. In your opinion would river interlinking provide
a permanent solution to the problem?

CONCLUSION
India’s drainage system, comprising rivers like the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Indus, supports diverse ecosystems and
agricultural livelihoods but faces challenges from pollution, urbanization, and climate change. To sustain it, effective
waste treatment, conservation practices, and resilient infrastructure are crucial. Climate change exacerbates risks like
floods, necessitating adaptive measures. Integrated water resource management is key, involving flood control, watershed
development, and sustainable agriculture. Preserving river health is essential for biodiversity and national well-being,
requiring a united effort towards sustainable practices and responsible governance amid evolving environmental dynamics.

Drainage System of India 121

 Climate of India 5
• On the other side, the severe land heating throughout
INTRODUCTION the summer causes a thermally induced low-pressure
Climate describes the average weather conditions for a given cell to develop over the country’s northwest.
place across time. According to the Köppen classification, • The wind’s direction and strength are governed by
India has six main climatic groups, including deserts in these pressure zones.
the west, alpine tundra, the northern glaciers, and humid ‰ Seasonal Variability in Rainfall: In India, the end of the
tropical areas with rain forests in the southwest and on the summer, which may last anywhere from 1 to 5 months
islands. With several distinct micro-climates, India is one of depending on where you are in the country, receives
the most climatically diverse countries. more than 80% of the country’s annual rainfall.
• Flooding and soil erosion are difficulties brought on
Weather and Climate by rainfall since they come in the form of a heavy
Climate is the average of weather conditions and downpour.
fluctuations across a vast area over a long period of time • Sometimes there is a long stretch of dry weather
(more than 30 years), whereas weather is the state of the followed by days of continuous rain. The rainfall
atmosphere over a specific region at a certain moment at Cherrapunji in a single day is equal to ten years’
in time. While the condition of the atmosphere may rainfall in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.
change rapidly (within a day or a week), climatic shifts are ‰ Unification of Indian Climate: The Himalayas and
more gradual and may take 50 years or more to become surrounding mountain ranges expand into northern India
noticeable. from east to west.
• These towering mountain ranges obstruct India’s
access to the extremely cold northerly winds from
SALIENT FEATURES OF
Central Asia.
INDIAN CLIMATE • Consequently, India’s northernmost regions, which
The diversified climate of India, which spans tropical, extend beyond the Tropic of Cancer, experience
subtropical, and alpine regions, is influenced by a tropical weather.
unique monsoon season, seasonal fluctuations, regional • The monsoon winds are driven by these mountains to
temperatures and rainfall inequalities. These characteristics deliver rain to India, and their effects are felt across
have a substantial influence on agriculture, economics, and the country. As a result, the entire country is affected
lifestyle, making understanding these factors critical for by monsoon-like weather.
analysing India’s environmental and geographical dynamics. ‰ Climatic Variation in India: Due to its large geographical
‰ Reversal of Winds: With the passage of each season, the size and diversified terrain, India experiences a wide
Indian climate is characterised by a full reversal of the range of climate variations. These variations may be seen
wind system. in the winds, temperature, rainfall, humidity, aridity, and
• Over the winter, winds blow from north-east to other factors. The following are key aspects of climatic
south-west in the direction of trade winds. These variation across different regions of India:
winds are known for their dryness, lack of moisture, • Northwestern Plains: Temperatures in the northwest
low temperatures, and high-pressure systems
plains, which include states such as Punjab, Haryana,
throughout the country.
and parts of Rajasthan, vary dramatically. Summers
• The winds completely reverse their course during the
are hot, with temperatures frequently topping 40°C
summer, mostly blowing from the south-west to the
north-east. (104°F), while winters may be extremely cold, with at
night temperatures falling below freezing point.
‰ Formation of Alternatively High and Low Pressure Areas
Over the Land: With each season, there is a shift in the • Himalayan Region: The Himalayan region in northern
atmospheric pressure conditions. India features alpine and subarctic climates, with
• High-pressure regions form on the northern side high-altitude areas experiencing heavy snowfall
of India during the winter due to low-temperature during winter. Throughout the summer, this location
conditions. provides relief from the heat.
 DRAS (WINTER) FACTORS DETERMINING THE
TEMPERATURE COLD DESERT CLIMATE OF INDIA
-40°C (LADAKH) POLAR
CLIMATE The climate of India is influenced by several factors that
(ARID CLIMATE) interact to create India’s diverse climate zones, ranging from
HOT DESERT the warm and humid climate in the south to the cold and
(THAR) × × × × GANGA PLAIN dry climate in the northern Himalayan regions. It’s important
× ××
JAISALMER (HEAVY TO to note that India experiences three main seasons: summer,
(LOWEST MEDIUM
RAINFALL) RAINFALL)
monsoon, and winter, each with its climate characteristics.

DROUGHT MAWSYNRAM Factors Related to Location and Relief

PRONE (HIGHEST RAINFALL) ‰ Location: The temperature rises as one goes closer to
REGION
the equator. When one travels closer to the poles, the
EQUATORIAL temperature drops.
TYPE OF
CLIMATE
• India is located in the Northern Hemisphere, 8°4′
→ COROMANDEL
closer to the Equator, and the 23½° Tropic of Cancer
COAST→NO
SUMMER ANDAMAN runs through the centre of the country.
RAINFALL NICOBAR • As a result, a tropical climate can be found to the
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM (AUGUST) south and a subtropical climate to the north of this
latitude. Andhra Pradesh, for example, would be
Fig. 5.1: Climatic Variation across India warmer than Haryana. In general, regions south of
• Western Coast and Eastern Coast: The Western the Tropic of Cancer receive more solar radiation
Ghats and other western coastal regions benefit from than regions north of it.
a tropical wet climate. These areas receive a lot of ‰ Altitude: It is the height above sea level. As we move
rain, which keeps them lush and green all year long. higher above the earth’s surface, the atmosphere thins
This zone includes large cities like Kochi and Mumbai. and we experience shortness of breath, causing the
The Bay of Bengal has an impact on the eastern temperature to drop.
coastal regions, including parts of Andhra Pradesh • For example, towns on the hills, such as Shimla, have
and Odisha. They have a tropical wet and dry climate, a milder climate than towns on the plains, such as
with the monsoon season bringing a lot of rain. Ludhiana.
• Desert Zone: The Thar Desert in the northwestern ‰ Relief: Temperature, air pressure, wind direction and
state of Rajasthan is arid and has a desert climate. It speed, and the amount and distribution of rainfall are all
experiences extremely hot temperatures during the influenced by India’s physiography or relief.
day and cooler nights, with very little annual rainfall.
• The windward portions of the Western Ghats and
• Deccan Plateau: The Deccan Plateau, comprising Assam receive heavy rainfall from June to September,
states like Karnataka and Maharashtra, has a semi-
while the southern plateau remains dry due to its
arid to tropical climate. It experiences seasonal
leeward position along the Western Ghats.
variations with hot, dry summers and colder winters.
‰ Distance from the Sea: The southern region of India is
• Islands: India has two island groups - The Andaman
geographically bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west,
and Nicobar Islands are located in the Bay of Bengal,
the Bay of Bengal to the east, and the Indian Ocean to
and the Lakshadweep Islands, situated in the Arabian
Sea. These regions have a tropical climate with high the south.
humidity and receive significant rainfall. • Due to the cooling impact of the sea, neither the
• High Rainfall Zones: Some parts of India, such as winters nor the summers in this area are very cold or
the Western Ghats and the northeastern states, are extremely hot.
known for receiving exceptionally high annual rainfall, • As an example, the northern part of India situated
contributing to their rich biodiversity and fertile soil. at a considerable distance from the coastline, has
• Northeastern Region: Because of their closeness to an exceptionally severe climatic pattern, whereas a
the Bay of Bengal, the northeastern states, especially region of south India near the sea has an identical
Assam and Meghalaya, have some of the highest climate.
rainfall levels in the nation. This leads to a subtropical ‰ Distribution of Land and Water: India is surrounded by
environment that is humid and has abundant the Indian Ocean to the south and the Himalayas to the
vegetation. north.

Climate of India 123

 • Water, unlike land, takes longer to warm up or cool
down. This temperature difference between the ‰ Geographical Features: Abundant rivers like the
land and the sea causes varying air pressure regions Indus and extensive canal networks nourish Haryana
around the Indian subcontinent during different and Punjab’s plains, fostering agriculture and vibrant
seasons. ecosystems. Rajasthan’s arid regions, lacking such
• These differences in air pressure cause the monsoon water resources, struggle with desertification.
winds to shift direction.
‰ The Himalayan Mountains: The rising Himalayas in the Factors Related to Air Pressure and Winds
north, along with their subsequent expansions, act as an
To properly understand the variations in local climates across
effective climate boundary.
India, we must first understand the workings of the following
• The Himalayas mountain range shields the
three components:
subcontinent from the harsh northern winds.
• The Arctic Circle is where these very cold winds come 1. Wind and Air Pressure Distribution on the Earth’s
from, and they blow across central and eastern Asia. Surface: During the winter, a high-pressure system
The Himalayas also act as a barrier to the monsoon exists north of the Himalayas.
winds, causing them to spread rainfall over the • Dry and cold winds travel from this region to low-
subcontinent. pressure zones over the southern oceans.
• A low-pressure area could form over the middle of
Causes of the Formation of Thar Desert and Least Asia and in the northwest of India during the summer.
Rainfall in Gujarat and Rajasthan 2. Impact related to upper Air Circulation: Regional and
‰ Monsoon winds flow parallel to Aravallis in Rajasthan global weather control elements, as well as the entry
and Gujarat and are not obstructed by any orographic of numerous jet streams and air masses, all have an
barrier, hence there is no orographic rainfall occurring impact on upper air circulation.
in these regions. • Atmospheric circulation transfers heat throughout
‰ There are no vertical wind patterns or convection cells the Earth’s surface, impacting the water cycle,
in Rajasthan or Gujarat. Horizontal wind movements including cloud formation and precipitation events.
are the only type of wind movement prevalent in The flow of air masses determines our everyday
Gujarat and Rajasthan because the monsoon winds weather, while long-term circulation patterns impact
are directed towards low-pressure cells in Tibet. The regional climate and ecosystems.
STJ, or Subtropical Jet, causes a strong divergence in
• At the equator, air rises, resulting in low pressure and
the area during the winter.
rain. As the air hits the boundary of the atmosphere,
it can no longer move any farther, thus it travels north
Reasons why Haryana and Punjab are not Deserts and south. The air cools, grows denser, and descends,
like Rajasthan Despite Locational Proximity resulting in high pressure and dry conditions roughly
30 degrees north and south of the equator.
Despite their northern proximity, Haryana and Punjab
boast fertile landscapes unlike Rajasthan’s desert • Different weather patterns, jet streams, and
expanses. Three key factors drive this contrast: prevailing winds are a result of the global weather
‰ Himalayan Embrace: Haryana and Punjab are closer to systems caused by the Earth’s rotation and the
the Himalayas, benefiting from moisture-laden winds differing amounts of heat received in various regions.
that bring life-giving rain. Rainfall is significantly lower 3. Impact of Tropical Depressions and Western
in distant Rajasthan, particularly the Thar Desert. Cyclones: Tropical depressions and western cyclones
‰ Rainfall Pattern: Haryana and Punjab receive arriving in India during the southwest monsoon
comparatively higher annual rainfall than Rajasthan. and winter seasons, respectively, create favorable
• The precipitation brought by western disturbances conditions for rainfall.
and monsoon along with the irrigation
• Western cyclonic disturbances are low-pressure
infrastructure fed by rivers, supports agriculture
and prevents desert like conditions in Haryana systems that originate in the Mediterranean Sea
and Punjab. region.
• Rajasthan experiences low and erratic rainfall, • These systems travel towards the Indian subcontinent
with high rainfall variability, making it arid. The under the influence of westerly jet streams.
limited water availability restricts agricultural • As a result, they disrupt the weather, particularly
activities in this region. in the northwestern states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.

124 Indian Geography

 variety of theories, according to meteorology experts. The
Funnelling Effect following list includes some key ideas on the monsoon’s
‰ When clouds are channelled into a narrow region beginnings:
between mountains and hence the cloud density
increases. Classical Theory (Halley’s Theory)
‰ Mountains often cause winds to flatten out and pass ‰ Explanation of Monsoon: Sir Edmund Halley in the
over or around them. If a mountain range is broken by 17th century attributed the monsoon to temperature
a pass or valley, the air is forced through the gap at a variations between continents and seas.
high rate of speed. The funnelling effect is a term used ‰ Solar heating: Halley suggested that the monsoon winds
to describe wind that is driven through small valleys. were driven by differential solar heating of land and sea.
‰ For example, the Funnelling effect occurs in During summer, the Sun is directly overhead or slightly
mountain ranges of western ghats, Eastern ghats north of the equator, leading to more direct sunlight in
and northeastern regions of the Himalayas such as the northern hemisphere, including India.
Cherrapunji and Mawsynram in Meghalaya. ‰ Wind Reversal: The theory proposed that the air over
the cooler ocean would then move toward the warmer,
Funnelling Effect in Cherrapunji and Mawsynram low-pressure land, resulting in a seasonal reversal of the
‰ Cherrapunji is situated on ‰ Mawsynram, located prevailing winds.
the windward side of the not far from Cherrapunji, ‰ Summer Conditions: Intense sunlight causes rapid
Khasi Hills, facing the Bay also experiences a similar heating of the land, creating low-pressure areas over the
of Bengal. funnelling effect. Indian subcontinent.
‰ The funnelling effect occurs ‰ It is situated on the ‰ Winter Conditions: In winter, the Sun is over the southern
as moist air from the Bay of eastern slopes of the hemisphere, causing the northern hemisphere, including
Bengal is forced to ascend Khasi Hills, facing the Bay
India, to cool. And cooler land results in a high-pressure
the windward slopes of the of Bengal.
Khasi Hills. zone.
‰ Moisture-laden air is
‰ As the air rises, it cools funneled and forced to ‰ Limitations of Halley’s Theory: It fails to explain variations
and condenses, leading ascend these slopes, in monsoon development, such as severe rainfall.
to heavy rainfall in leading to cooling and additionally, it was unable to account for irregular delays
Cherrapunji. condensation of the air, in the onset of rain and other observed variations.
‰ The funnel-like topography resulting in significant
enhances the lifting of rainfall. Air Mass Theory
moist air, contributing to ‰ The unique topography ‰ Focus: The air mass theory of monsoon centers
the extraordinary rainfall enhances the precipitation, around the seasonal changes in air masses and their
levels experienced in making Mawsynram one of characteristics, particularly over large land masses and
Cherrapunji. the wettest places globally. adjacent oceans.
‰ Key Features:
INDIAN MONSOON
• It emphasizes the role of temperature and humidity
The term “monsoon” comes from the Arabic word “Mausim,” differences between the land and sea, leading to the
which means “season.”Several centuries ago, Arab navigators development of specific air masses.
used the term monsoon to describe a seasonal reversal of • During summer, the land heats up more quickly than
winds off the coasts of the Indian Ocean, particularly the
the ocean, creating a low-pressure area over the
Arabian Sea. In the summer, it blows from the southwest to
land. This low-pressure area draws in moist air from
the northeast, and in the winter, it blows from the northeast
the ocean, resulting in the monsoon rains.
to the southwest. Arab traders conducted the first scientific
study of monsoon winds. Ten centuries ago, an Arab traveller • In winter, the land cools faster than the ocean, leading
named Al Masudi described how the monsoon winds and to a reversal of wind patterns.
ocean currents across the northern Indian Ocean reversed. ‰ Frontal Boundaries: Air mass theory often considers the
presence of frontal boundaries, such as the monsoon
MECHANISM AND THEORIES front, where different air masses meet and interact.
OF INDIAN MONSOON ‰ Local and Regional Scale: This theory tends to explain
monsoon phenomena at a more local or regional scale,
The monsoons are a complicated meteorological focusing on the characteristics and interactions of air
phenomenon. The genesis of monsoons has given rise to a masses over specific land and sea areas.

Climate of India 125

 • The migration of the ITCZ is influenced by the
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a belt of
changing position of the sun, particularly during the
low pressure near the equator where trade winds from
the Northern and Southern Hemispheres converge and summer and winter solstices.
rise. The ITCZ is also known as the monsoon trough. • The monsoon winds are seen as a result of the
differential heating between land and sea, leading
In July, the ITCZ is centered over the Gangetic plain
at a latitude of about 20°N-25°N. This helps to form to the establishment of a low-pressure system over
thermal lows over north and northwest India. Due to the land during the summer, drawing in moist air from
movement of the ITCZ, the trade winds from the Southern the ocean.
Hemisphere cross the equator between 40° and 60° E ‰ Meteorological Phenomena: The theory considers large-
longitude and start blowing from southwest to northeast. scale phenomena such as the Tibetan Plateau heat low
This is called the southwest monsoon. During the winter, and the development of the Asian low-pressure system.
the ITCZ moves southward, and the northeasterly winds ‰ Synoptic Scale: Dynamic theory often operates on
become southerly winds. These are called the northeast a synoptic scale, analyzing the overall atmospheric
monsoons. circulation and pressure patterns.
‰ Comparison with Airmass theory: In summary, while
Dynamic Theory the dynamic theory of monsoon emphasizes the large-
‰ Focus: The dynamic theory emphasizes the role of scale atmospheric circulation patterns, including the
large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns and global movement of the ITCZ and the influence of pressure
pressure systems in driving the monsoon. systems, the air mass theory of monsoon focuses on
‰ Key Features: the seasonal changes in air masses over land and
• It involves the seasonal shift of the Intertropical sea, driven by differential heating. Both perspectives
Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which is the region near contribute to a holistic understanding of the monsoon
the equator where trade winds converge. phenomenon.

Fig. 5.2: Movement of ITCZ

The Jet Stream Theory (Modern Theory of Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STJ)
Indian Monsoon) ‰ Sub-Tropical Jet stream is a narrow band of fast moving
‰ The Jet Stream Theory of Monsoon is inspired by ideas of air flowing from west to east [Westerlies].
M.T. Yin and Pierre Pedelaborde explains the influence of ‰ STJ in northern hemisphere flows between 25° to 35° N
the jet stream on the onset, progress, and withdrawal of
in the upper troposphere at a height of about 12-14 km.
the Indian monsoon.
‰ The Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ) is important for both
‰ The jet stream is a high-altitude, upper air circulation
of fast-flowing air current in the atmosphere, and its lowering monsoon winds and hastening their onset.
position plays a crucial role in the dynamics of the ‰ The burst of monsoons depends upon the upper air
monsoon in the Indian subcontinent. circulation which is dominated by STJ.

126 Indian Geography

 ‰ Towards the end of the monsoon season, the jet stream
The Major Jet Streams
North Pole starts to shift southward.
Earth
‰ This southward shift weakens the low-pressure gradient
Polar Jet Stream over the Indian subcontinent, leading to the withdrawal
60° N 60° N
Polar-Night Jet Stream of the monsoon.
‰ In the post-monsoon period, the jet stream is positioned
30° N Sub Tropical Jet Stream 30° N to the south of the Himalayas.
Equatorial Jet Stream 10° N ‰ This southward shift allows for the establishment of a
0° 0° Equator high-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent.
African Easterly Jet Stream
Jet Stream in Winter
30° S 30°S ‰ Winter Jet Stream and Subtropical Region: Winter sees
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream
the presence of a rapid westerly Subtropical Jet (STJ)
60° S 60°S stream over the subtropical region.
Polar Jet Stream
‰ Himalayan Influence on Jet Stream: Unfortunately, the
South Pole Himalayan peaks and Tibetan Plateau divide this jet
stream into two distinct branches.
Fig. 5.3: The Major Jet Streams
A TROPOSPHERIC TROPOSPHERIC DEPRESSION 40ºN
Seasonal Migration of Subtropical Jet Stream ANTI CYCLONE CYCLONE

‰ During the summer months, the jet stream over the

Indian subcontinent is positioned to the north of the PAMIRS
Himalayas, around the Tibetan Plateau. HIGH
LOW TIBET
23 1ºN
‰ This northward shift of the jet stream creates a low-
HIMALAYAS 2

pressure area over the Indian subcontinent.

DS CE
IN FA
W UR
WINTER
S
E.
N.

S.E
.
su
rfa
200 mb Winter westerly

ce
wi
Jet Stream

nd
Fig. 5.5: Jet stream during winter
‰ Northern Branch Impact on Tibetan Plateau: The
northern branch of the jet stream affects the northern
border of the Tibetan Plateau.
‰ Southern Branch Movement: The southern branch of
the jet stream moves towards the southern side of the
Himalayan peaks.
Fig. 5.4: Jet stream during summer ‰ Winter Weather Influence on India: India’s winter
weather is significantly shaped by the southern branch
‰ Warm air from the Indian Ocean is drawn towards this
of the jet stream.
low-pressure area, resulting in the onset of the monsoon
winds. ‰ Control over Western Disturbances: This jet stream
governs Western Disturbances, originating in the
• The southwesterly winds carrying moisture-laden air
Mediterranean Sea and reaching North-West India.
from the Indian Ocean are known as the southwest
monsoon. ‰ High-Pressure Zone and Northeast Trade Winds: The
southern branch creates a high-pressure zone over North
• These winds bring heavy rainfall to various parts of
India.
India, marking the onset of the monsoon season.
• Result: Strengthening of the northeast trade winds,
‰ As the monsoon progresses, the jet stream continues to
sometimes termed as northeast monsoon winds.
influence the weather patterns.
‰ Its position and intensity impact the distribution The Jet Stream in Summer
of rainfall across different regions of the Indian ‰ Summer Jet Stream Dynamics: In late May, the southern
subcontinent. jet stream undergoes a split, moving north of Tibet.

Climate of India 127

‰ Monsoon Activation and STJ Weakening: ‰ It also aids in accelerating and intensifying the S-W
• Result: Significant increase in monsoon activity. monsoons as they move towards India by strengthening
• Weakening of the southern branch of the subtropical the high-pressure area around Madagascar.
jet stream (STJ). ‰ It creates a break in the monsoon called the “lull” when
it is weak, and when it is strong, the monsoon will also be
strong. It is much easier for the southwest monsoon to
move towards India when the Somali jet moves through
Kenya, Somalia, and the Sahel.

Fig. 5.6: Sub-tropical jet stream in summer

‰ ITCZ Movement and WJ Stream Departure: By mid- Fig. 5.7: The Summer Monsoon. Low level winds
July, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) moves
‰ It makes the stable high near Madagascar stronger and
northward, running parallel to the Himalayas (20° to 25° N).
speeds up and intensifies the S-W monsoons as they
• The westerly jet stream (WJ stream) or subtropical
move towards India.
jet stream exits the Indian region during this
period.
‰ Correlation with ITCZ and Jet Stream Withdrawal:
Meteorologists observe a correlation between the IGNITE YOUR MIND
northward movement of the ITCZ and the withdrawal of
the westerly jet stream from the North Indian Plain. It would be interesting to note that the existence
of Jet streams was confirmed during World War II
‰ STJ North Migration and TEJ (tropical easterly jet)
when high-altitude pilots noticed strong tailwinds,
Appearance: During STJ’s northward migration, the
revolutionizing aviation by enabling more efficient
Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) emerges over peninsular India. travel through the use of these high-speed air
It results in a burst of Indian monsoon. currents. Assess the importance of understanding
‰ Anticyclonic Divergence and TEJ Formation: Partially jet streams in improving the accuracy of monsoon
caused by anticyclonic divergence in the high atmosphere. forecasting and also Discuss the challenges faced by
• Originates from a thermally produced low-pressure meteorologists in predicting monsoon variability due
area above the Tibetan Plateau during summer. to the influence of jet streams.
‰ Westerly and Easterly Wind Relationship: In the lower
atmosphere, westerly winds are linked to easterly winds Tibet
in the upper atmosphere.
‰ Tibetan Plateau Characteristics:
‰ SW Monsoon Connection: Across the Indian
• Extensive Dimensions: Measures over 3000 km
subcontinent, these westerly winds contribute to the
east–west and 1500 km north–south.
south-west monsoon.
• Considerable Altitude: Typically stands at an
Role of Somali Jet elevation of 4,500 meters.
‰ Somali Jet is a transitory jet stream that coexists with ‰ Insolation Advantage: Receives more insolation due to
Tropical Easterly Jet. The Somali Jet is seen to originate from its substantial height.
Mauritius in the summer and travels over Kenya, Somalia, ‰ Influence on Atmospheric Circulation: It is the key
and the Sahel before arriving on the coast of Kenya at geographical factor shaping the overall atmospheric
roughly 3° S. circulation in the region.

128 Indian Geography

‰ Dual Role as a Barrier and Heat Source: the lower atmosphere and the west-to-east return
• Acts as a substantial physical barrier. flow in the upper atmosphere.
• Serves as a source of intense heat, impacting the ‰ The Walker Cell is associated with variations in sea
atmosphere. surface temperatures (SSTs) in the tropical Pacific ocean.
‰ Jet Stream Movement: Subtropical jet stream completely • In the western Pacific, warm SSTs create a
disappears across northern India in early June. It shifts low-pressure area, leading to ascending air.
to approximately 40° N, just north of the Himalayas and • In the eastern Pacific, cooler SSTs result in a
Tibet. high-pressure area, causing descending air.
‰ Seasonal Influence on Jet Stream: ‰ The Walker Cell’s influence on SSTs affects the Indian
• In winter, extreme coldness of the Tibetan Plateau monsoon by modulating the atmospheric pressure and
prompts the southward movement of the jet stream wind patterns.
by mid-October. ‰ During normal conditions, the Walker Cell helps maintain
‰ Heat Engine Effect: Tibet plateau functions as a high- a low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent,
level heat source during summer. This “Heat Engine” promoting the inflow of moist air from the Indian Ocean.
mechanism generates a thermal anticyclone over the ‰ La Niña, the cold phase of the El Niño-Southern
plateau. Oscillation (ENSO), enhances the Walker Cell. Cooler-
‰ Anticyclone Formation: During summer monsoon, a than-average SSTs in the central and eastern Pacific lead
heated core anticyclone (high pressure) forms at 500 mb to a stronger Walker Cell, contributing to above-average
level in the troposphere and the Formation process is rainfall in the Indian subcontinent.
termed Anti-cyclogenesis. ‰ El Niño, the warm phase of ENSO, weakens the Walker
Cell. Warmer-than-average SSTs in the central and
Role of Walker Cell eastern Pacific suppress the Walker Cell, leading to drier
The Walker circulation, commonly referred to as the Walker conditions in the Indian subcontinent.
cell, is a theoretical representation of how air moves through ‰ The Walker Cell’s variations influence the onset and
the troposphere in the tropics. This model predicts that air withdrawal of the monsoon over India. During La Niña,
packets move in a closed circulation both horizontally and the strengthened Walker Cell promotes an early and
vertically. robust monsoon onset, while El Niño tends to delay the
This circulation, which broadly agrees with observations, is onset and weaken the monsoon.
brought on by variations in heat distribution between the
ocean and the land. Gilbert Walker was the one who found El Nino
it. El Nino is a climate pattern that describes the unusual
warming of surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific
Ocean. It is the “warm phase” of a larger phenomenon called
the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) climate pattern,
which includes both El Niño and its counterpart, La Niña. El
Niño events typically occur every 2 to 7 years and can have
significant impacts on weather patterns around the world.

Fig. 5.8: Walker cycle

Impact on Indian Monsoon

‰ The Walker Cell is an atmospheric circulation pattern that
plays a crucial role in influencing the Indian monsoon.
• Under normal conditions, the Walker Cell consists of
two main branches—the east-to-west trade winds in Fig. 5.9: El-Nino

Climate of India 129

Impact on Indian Monsoon • Parts of North India, including states like Punjab
‰ El Niño is associated with a delayed onset of the and Haryana, experienced below-normal rainfall,
monsoon in India. affecting the sowing and growth of crops.
‰ El Niño tends to weaken the normal southwest monsoon ‰ While El Niño typically leads to drier-than-average
over the Indian subcontinent. conditions in India, the impact can vary across regions.
• The warming of the central and eastern Pacific leads ‰ Some areas may experience more intense drought
to changes in Walker Cell circulation, weakening the conditions, affecting agriculture and water resources.
monsoon winds. • Regions like Marathwada faced acute water scarcity,
‰ The weakening of the monsoon winds results in reduced impacting agriculture and leading to distress
rainfall over many parts of the country. conditions for farmers.

Fig. 5.10: El Nino and Rainfall

La-Nina ‰ La Niña often results in above-average sea surface

‰ In Spanish, La Nina means “The Little Girl.” La Nina events temperatures in the western Indian Ocean and cooler
is the period when the sea surface temperature in the temperatures in the eastern Indian Ocean.
central and western Pacific Oceans falls below normal. ‰ This configuration encourages the inflow of moist air over
‰ La Nina event is observed when the water temperature the Indian subcontinent, leading to enhanced monsoon
in the Eastern Pacific gets comparatively colder than rainfall.
normal, as a consequence of which, there is a strong ‰ La Niña is associated with an early onset of the monsoon
high pressure over the eastern equatorial Pacific. over India.
‰ The strengthened Walker Cell and favorable conditions in
Impact on Indian Monsoon
the Indian Ocean contribute to a prolonged and robust
‰ La Niña is associated with the strengthening of the monsoon season.
Walker Cell, a part of the atmospheric circulation over
‰ The increased rainfall during La Niña events is generally
the tropical Pacific Ocean.
beneficial for agriculture, promoting good soil moisture
‰ The Walker Cell involves the east-to-west trade winds in and supporting crop growth.
the lower atmosphere and the west-to-east return flow
in the upper atmosphere.
ENSO
‰ La Niña tends to enhance the positive phase of the Indian
‰ ENSO’s most influential factor is the Indian Monsoon,
Ocean Dipole (IOD), a climate pattern characterized by
the large-scale circulation pattern responsible for
temperature anomalies in the Indian Ocean.
the majority of the Indian subcontinent’s annual
‰ The combined influence of La Niña and a positive IOD precipitation. India receives the majority of their
usually leads to favorable conditions for the Indian annual precipitation from June to September.
monsoon.

130 Indian Geography

 ‰ The El Nino–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an
unpredictable variation in winds and sea surface IGNITE YOUR MIND
temperatures in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean.
Every three to seven years, the surface waters of the Can you believe that scientists can trace the
tropical Pacific Ocean warm or chill by 1°C to 3°C. occurrence of El Niño events back thousands of
‰ When the sea temperature rises, it is referred to as El years by studying natural records such as tree rings,
Nino; when it declines, it is referred to as La Nina. As a ice cores, and sediment layers? Explore historical
result, El Nino and La Nina are opposite phases of the instances of significant El Niño events and their
El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. consequences on global weather patterns, including
the Indian monsoon.
‰ These variations from normal surface temperatures
can have a significant impact on global weather and
climate, as well as oceanic circulation. Indian Ocean Dipole
The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), sometimes known as the
Indian Nino, is a phenomenon similar to El Nino that occurs
Effect of El-Nino and La-Nina
in the Indian Ocean between the Indonesian and Malaysian
El Nino Effect on Indian La Nina Effect on Indian coastlines in the east and the African coastline around
Monsoon Monsoon Somalia in the west. In the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), a sea
It is associated with weak It is associated with above- surface temperature fluctuation, rarely affects the northern
monsoons and drought-like normal rainfall and flooding.
or equatorial Indian Ocean Area.
conditions.
INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE
The equatorial Pacific Ocean’s The equatorial Pacific Ocean’s
Positive phase
sea surface temperature will sea surface temperature falls
rise above typical levels. below average. increased
convection
Modifications in atmospheric Modification in the patterns
circulation patterns could be of atmospheric circulation
seen. could be seen. Africa
India cooler
than
The position of the jet stream Monsoon winds get stronger, increased
normal
equator
warmer
has shifted, impacting the bringing additional moisture chance
of rain than
Australia reduced
normal Indian ocean chance
strength and direction of the and rains to India. of rain
monsoon winds. 60°E 120°E 180°E
longitude
Less rainfall, dry spells, and Heavy rainfall can also cause
heatwaves result in crop floods and landslides, inflicting INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE
failures and water scarcity. agriculture and infrastructural Negative phase
damage.
increased
convection

Tele-Connections
‰ Variations in the manner in which air travels through Africa India
warmer
than
the atmosphere produce teleconnection patterns. The reduced cooler
normal
equator
chance than
duration of the changes could range from a few weeks of rain normal
Australia increased
chance
Indian ocean
to several months. Patterns of teleconnection are of rain
60°E 120°E 180°E
inherent. These may, however, change when global longitude
temperatures rise. El Nino, for instance, is a significant Fig. 5.11: The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
teleconnection pattern induced by atmospheric and
oceanic El Nino-Southern Oscillation changes (ENSO). Phases of IOD
‰ Positive IOD: When the western side of the Indian Ocean,
‰ During El Nino events, cold and dry air is blown
along the Somalian Coast, becomes warmer than the
into normally warm and moist areas. As a result,
eastern side of the Indian Ocean, along the Malaysian
the weather changes dramatically. For example, the
coastline.
amount of cloud cover in one region may impact
• Positive phase of the IOD alters the wind, temperature,
precipitation elsewhere. Temperature changes at the
and rainfall patterns in the region, typically bringing
ocean’s surface have an effect on the weather in the
floods to eastern Africa and droughts and bushfires
tropical Pacific Ocean.
to eastern Asia and Australia.

Climate of India 131

‰ Negative IOD: The eastern side of the Indian Ocean gets warmer than the western side of the Indian Ocean.
• Negative IOD events can also influence weather patterns, typically resulting in increased rainfall in regions that are
usually dry and drier conditions in regions that are typically wet.
Impact on Indian Monsoon
Positive IOD Negative IOD
‰ Typically enhances the Indian monsoon. ‰ Can have a suppressing effect on the Indian monsoon.
‰ Warm waters in the western Indian Ocean lead to increased ‰ Cooler waters in the western Indian Ocean reduce
evaporation, providing additional moisture to the evaporation and moisture availability.
atmosphere. ‰ This may lead to drier conditions and below-average
‰ This moisture is transported to the Indian subcontinent, rainfall in parts of the Indian subcontinent.
contributing to above-average rainfall during the monsoon ‰ A negative IOD may result in drier conditions, particularly in
season. parts of southern India.
‰ A positive IOD is often associated with increased rainfall in ‰ Southern parts of India, including states like Karnataka,
central and northern India. Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, faced drier-than-average conditions
‰ Central and northern regions of India, including states like due to reduced moisture availability, from negative IOD
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and parts of North India, during the monsoon.
experienced above-average rainfall due to increased moisture
transport from positive IOD during the monsoon season.

Azores High FACTORS INFLUENCING INDIAN

The Azores High, also referred to as the North Atlantic MONSOON
Subtropical High, is a subtropical high-pressure system
that spans over western Europe and Eastern North The Indian monsoon is a complex weather system influenced
Atlantic Ocean in the winter. It is a subtropical high- by a combination of oceanic, atmospheric, and geographical
pressure cell, during summer it moves westward. When it factors. These factors interact to determine the timing,
falls, it is known as Bermuda High. It is created when dry intensity, and distribution of rainfall across the Indian
air ascends from the subtropics and it occurs along the subcontinent, making the monsoon a vital and dynamic
Hadley Circulation’s downstream branch. aspect of India’s climate. The Indian monsoon is influenced
by the following factors:
Recent Concept About the Origin of Indian ‰ Latitudinal Location: The Tropic of Cancer passes through
Monsoon India, from the Rann of Kutch in the west to Mizoram in
the east.
‰ Over the past 50 years, extensive research on higher
atmospheric circulation has challenged the traditional • This means that about half of the country is in the
Indian monsoon origin theory. Recent hypotheses tropical zone, south of the Tropic of Cancer, and the
focus on the Tibetan Plateau, jet streams, and El- other half is in the subtropics, north of the Tropic
Nino, along with the upper atmospheric circulation, of Cancer. As a result, the monsoon in India is both
indicating that the monsoon circulation cannot be tropical and subtropical.
influenced by sea and land warming differently. ‰ Distance From Sea: Coastal areas of India have a
‰ The information obtained by meteorologists following temperate climate because of their long coastline.
World War II has shown that the following events However, areas of India’s interior are far from the sea’s
are connected to the genesis and mechanism of moderating influence, and therefore experience climate
monsoons: extremes.
• The Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau function as a • As a result, residents of Mumbai and the Konkan
natural barrier and a source of intense heat. coast have little understanding of temperature
• The tropospheric circulation of higher air jet extremes and seasonal weather patterns, while
streams. weather patterns in the country’s interior, such as
• The presence of an upper air circum-polar swirl in Kanpur, Delhi, and Amritsar, have a significant impact
the troposphere above the north and south poles. on all aspects of life.
• The vast landmass of Asia, as well as the Indian ‰ The Himalayas: The Himalayas and their northern
and Pacific Oceans, are differentially heated and extensions function as an efficient climatic division. The
cooled. high mountain range protects the subcontinent by acting
• El Nino’s occurrence in the Indian and South as an unbreakable barrier against the cold northern
Pacific Oceans. winds.

132 Indian Geography

 • Monsoon winds are also trapped by the Himalayas,
‰ WDs are a significant source of winter rainfall in parts
forcing them to do rainfall across the Indian
of northern India, particularly in the Himalayan region
subcontinent.
and the adjacent plains. This precipitation is important
‰ Physiography: Temperature, air pressure, wind speed
for winter crops and the overall water balance in the
and direction, as well as the amount and distribution
region.
of precipitation, are all affected by India’s geography or
relief. ‰ In mountainous areas like the Himalayas, Western
Disturbances often bring snowfall. This is crucial for
• From June to September, the windward regions of
the Western Ghats and Assam receive substantial the replenishment of glaciers, rivers, and contributes
rainfall, while the leeward side of the Western Ghats to the availability of water resources during the dry
keeps the southern plateau barren. season.
‰ Seasonal transition: The sudden change in seasons ‰ WDs can lead to fluctuations in temperatures,
is caused by a complete reversal of the monsoon especially when they interact with pre-existing air
winds, which bring most of the rainfall to the Indian masses. The warm air ahead of the disturbance and
subcontinent. the cold air behind it can result in varying temperatures
‰ Upper Air Circulation: The Subtropical Jetstream’s in affected regions.
southern branch is responsible for bringing western ‰ Western Disturbances are associated with increased
disturbances from the Mediterranean region into the cloud cover, which can influence both daytime and
Indian subcontinent. nighttime temperatures. Cloud cover can also have
• The formation of the Tropical Easterly Jet Stream aids implications for solar radiation reaching the surface.
in the rapid onset of the southwest monsoon. • On Daytime Temperatures: The reduction in solar
radiation reaching the Earth’s surface due to cloud
Western Disturbances cover results in a cooling effect leading to lower
Western Disturbances (WDs) are extratropical weather daytime temperatures compared to clear-sky
systems originating in the Mediterranean region and conditions.
traveling eastwards across northern regions of the Indian • On Nighttime Temperatures: Increased cloud
subcontinent. These disturbances play a crucial role in cover due to western disturbances act as a barrier
influencing weather patterns, particularly during the to outgoing longwave radiation, trapping some
winter months. of the Earth’s heat, and preventing rapid cooling
leading to higher nighttime temperatures.
‰ In the presence of clouds, the Earth’s surface radiates
less heat into space, contributing to relatively warmer
nighttime temperatures compared to clear nights.
‰ WDs often induce cyclonic circulation in the region
where they influence the weather. This circulation
contributes to the development of weather systems
and precipitation.
‰ The interaction of Western Disturbances with the
Indian monsoon and other atmospheric features can
Fig. 5.12: Western Disturbances
lead to complex weather scenarios, including the
Key Features formation of cyclonic storms and the modulation of
‰ Western Disturbances typically form over the monsoonal patterns.
Mediterranean region and move eastward. They are
associated with mid-latitude westerly winds and can Monsoon Expedition
extend into the upper troposphere. ‰ Monex (Monsoon Expedition) was founded in 1973
as a collaboration between India and the Soviet
‰ As WDs approach the Indian subcontinent, they
Union. It was organised to conduct research during
bring changes in weather patterns. The most notable the Indian monsoons. In 1973, an Indo-Soviet joint
impact is seen during the winter months, contributing expedition was conducted to better understand the
to precipitation, cloud cover, and variations in causes and mechanisms of the monsoon. Four Soviet
temperature. and two Indian ships were outfitted with scientific

Climate of India 133

 tools for meteorological observations in the Indian NATURE AND IMPORTANT ASPECTS
Ocean, Bay of Bengal, and Arabian Sea. According to
OF MONSOON
Dr. P. Koteswaram and Professor H. Flohn, the Tibetan
Plateau is a source of heat for the upper atmosphere. Monsoon is a complex climatic phenomenon whereby a
single theory hasn’t been able to explain the exact nature
‰ Rising air motion is caused by rising temperatures
and causation of monsoon fully. However, systematic
at higher altitudes. During the summer, the Tibetan
studies of the causes of rainfall in the South Asian region
plateau is 20 - 30 degrees Celsius warmer than the help to understand the causes and salient features of the
surrounding areas. The low pressure created on the monsoon, particularly some of its important aspects, such
Tibetan Plateau pushes the westerly jet northward. as:
It corresponds to the arrival of the Indian summer ‰ The onset of the monsoon.
monsoon. The prevailing easterly winds over south ‰ Rain-bearing systems (e.g. tropical cyclones) and the
India are strengthened by the southward blow of air relationship between their frequency and distribution of
from Tibet. It explains why the easterly jet appears monsoon rainfall.
around the same time as the Indian monsoon. ‰ Break in the monsoon.
‰ There is a correlation between the shifting of the jet
and the slowing of the westerly jet across Eurasia. The Onset of the Monsoon
In contrast, the Tibetan Plateau becomes very cold The onset of monsoon rains is referred to in monsoon
during the winter and is the most important factor literature as the monsoon burst, which usually takes the
in advancing the westerly jet to the south by mid- form of a large thunderstorm.
October. It contributes to the formation of cold waves Mechanism of Onset
and western disturbances over the north Indian ‰ During April and May, there is an intense low pressure
plains, resulting in high pressure over the land surface in the northwestern part of the subcontinent caused by
and low pressure over the Indian Ocean. These the vertical heating of the Sun over the Tropic of Cancer.
meteorological conditions contribute to a favourable ‰ This low pressure cell attracts the south-east trade winds
monsoon. from the high pressure region of Indian Ocean across the
equator.
India Meteorological Department (IMD) • These winds cross the Equator between 40°E and
The India Meteorological Department was established in 60°E longitudes.
1875 which is the country’s main meteorological service ‰ After crossing the equator these south-east trade winds
and the primary government agency responsible for are deflected as south-west monsoon winds towards
the Indian subcontinent due to the Coriolis effect.
dealing with meteorology, seismology, and related topics.
‰ These conditions help in the northward shift in the
The Ministry of Earth Sciences of the Indian Government
position of the ITCZ.
is in charge of the Department’s administrative tasks. The
IMD’s main office is in New Delhi. Categories of Rainfall ‰ The shift in the position of the ITCZ is also related to
the phenomenon of the withdrawal of the westerly
according to IMD:
jet stream from its position over the north Indian plain,
‰ Large Excess: ≥60% of long period average (LPA). south of the Himalayas (Jet Stream Theory).
‰ Excess: 20% to 59% of long period average (LPA). ‰ After the withdrawal of the westerly jet stream, the
‰ Normal: -19% to +19% of the long-period average easterly jet stream sets in along 15°N latitude.
(LPA). • This easterly jet stream is responsible for the onset of
monsoon, also called the ‘monsoon burst’ in India.
‰ Deficient: -59% to -20% of long period average (LPA).
{The Southwest monsoon normally sets in over Kerala
‰ Large Deficient: -99% to -60% of long period average around 1st June. It advances northwards, usually in surges,
(LPA). and covers the entire country around 15th July.}
Long Period Average (LPA): LPA of rainfall is the rainfall
recorded over a particular region for a given interval Rain Bearing Systems and Rainfall
(like month or season) average over a long period like Distribution
30years, 50-years etc. September. When predicting the ‰ The monsoon approaches the landmass through two
quantitative rainfall during the monsoon season each channels:
year, it serves as a standard. • the Arabian Sea channel and the Bay of Bengal
channel.

134 Indian Geography

 • The rains begin in the Bay of Bengal and spread heat up, resulting in much less rainfall on the leeward
across the plains of northern India. The second is side of the mountains.
the Arabian Sea current of the southwest monsoon, • Arabian Sea Branch: Another branch of the Arabian
which brings rain to India’s west coast. Sea monsoon strikes the coast north of Mumbai.
‰ Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea: The monsoon These winds, which blow along the Narmada and
Tapi River basins, provide rain to most of central
winds that originate over the Arabian Sea are further
India. This segment of the branch brings 15 cm of
subdivided into three branches:
rain to the Chotanagpur plateau. They subsequently
• Western Ghats: The Western Ghats mountain range enter the Ganga plains and join with a branch of the
blocks one of the branches of the monsoon winds. As Gulf of Bengal.
the winds ascend the 900-1200 meter slopes of the • Third Branch: The third branch of the monsoon wind
Western Ghats, they cool rapidly, leading to extremely strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and the Kutch region.
heavy rainfall (250-400 cm) on the windward side of It then joins a branch of the Bay of Bengal in Punjab
the mountains and the Western Coastal Plain. After and Haryana. When these two branches merge, they
crossing the Western Ghats, the winds descend and bring rain to the western Himalayas.

Fig. 5.13: India South West Monsoon

‰ Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal: The Arakan Hills, • Under the influence of the Himalayas and a thermal
a mountain range along the coast of Myanmar, deflect a low in northwest India, this branch of the monsoon
large portion of the Bay of Bengal branch of the monsoon winds splits into two.
winds towards the Indian subcontinent. • The first branch continues to follow the coasts of
• As a result, the monsoon winds enter West Bengal Myanmar and southeast Bangladesh, while the
and Bangladesh from the south and southeast, second branch travels westward across the Gangetic
instead of from the southwest. Plain to the Punjab region of India.

Climate of India 135

Break in the Monsoon (July to August)
SIGNIFICANCE OF MONSOONAL
‰ After a few days of rain during the southwest monsoon,
a break in the monsoon occurs when it does not rain CLIMATE
for one or more weeks. During the rainy season, these The monsoonal climate is of significant importance for
dry spells are quite common. These regional breaks are regions that experience it, such as South Asia and parts of
caused by a variety of factors, including:- Southeast Asia.
• Rainfall in northern India is likely to fail if rain-bearing ‰ Agriculture and Food Security: The monsoon is a lifeline
storms do not occur frequently along the monsoon for agriculture in many regions.
trough or the ITCZ over this region.
• The seasonal reversal of winds and the accompanying
• Days when winds blow parallel to the coast along the rainfall provide much-needed moisture for crops.
west coast are connected with dry spells.
• Farmers rely on the monsoon to irrigate their fields
Retreat in Monsoon and cultivate various crops like rice, wheat, and
sugarcane.
‰ Retreating monsoon season commences with the
• The timely arrival and distribution of monsoon rains
beginning of the withdrawal of the south-west monsoon
are crucial for food production and, consequently,
[mid-September – November] and lasts till early January.
food security for millions of people.
‰ It is a 3-month long process where it starts from the
‰ Economic Impact: The monsoon has a significant
peninsula in October and from the extreme south-
eastern tip by December. The south-west monsoons economic impact in affected areas. Agriculture forms a
withdraw from the Coromandel coast in mid-December. substantial part of the economy in countries like India,
In Punjab, the south-west monsoons withdraw from and a successful monsoon season can lead to higher
there in the second week of September. agricultural output, increased income for farmers, and
overall economic growth. Conversely, a weak or delayed
‰ The withdrawal of the retreating monsoon is gradual and
monsoon can lead to crop failures, food shortages, and
takes a longer duration compared to the advancing one. economic challenges.
‰ The end of the southwest monsoon season is indicated by ‰ Water Resources: Water resources such as rivers, lakes,
rising temperatures and clear sky. The earth is still moist. The and reservoirs are restored by monsoon rainfall.
weather may be extremely uncomfortable due to the high • This water is not only vital for agricultural irrigation
temperature and humidity. This is usually referred to as the but also for drinking water supply and industrial use.
“October heat.” Temperatures begin to fall sharply in the • Adequate monsoon rainfall ensures the availability of
second half of October, particularly in northern India. water resources throughout the year.
Weather During the Monsoon’s Retreat ‰ Biodiversity and Ecosystems: Monsoons play a
‰ The weather during the monsoon’s retreat is arid in crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and supporting
northern India but rainy in the eastern peninsula. In this ecosystems.
region, the wettest months are October and November. • They provide the necessary moisture for forests,
‰ This season’s extensive rainfall is caused by cyclonic wetlands, and other natural habitats.
depressions that originate in the Andaman Sea and • Many species of plants and animals have adapted
traverse the southern Peninsula’s eastern coastline. their life cycles to the monsoonal patterns, and
These tropical cyclones pose a grave threat. Their the monsoon contributes to the overall health and
preferred targets are the heavily populated deltas of the balance of these ecosystems.
Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers. Each year, cyclones ‰ Hydroelectric Power Generation: The monsoon’s
wreak devastation on this region. Several cyclones contribution to river flow is essential for hydroelectric
also strike Bangladesh, West Bengal, and Myanmar. power generation.
These depressions and cyclones are responsible for the • The increased water flow during the monsoon season
preponderance of Coromandel’s rainfall. allows for the efficient generation of electricity
through hydroelectric dams.
• This contributes to the energy needs of the region
IGNITE YOUR MIND and reduces reliance on fossil fuels.

The break in the monsoon, with its interplay of MONSOON PREDICTION AND
light and shadow, has inspired poets and writers. It
often serves as a metaphor in literature, symbolizing FORECASTING IN INDIA
moments of reflection, change, or respite amidst
The monsoon 2023 forecast for the month predicts that 32 of
life’s challenges. Compare and contrast the break in
the 36 meteorological subdivisions will receive less rain than
the monsoon in the Indian subcontinent with similar
usual. The rainfall total was expected to be 20 millimetres
phenomena in other parts of the world. Consider
regional variations and their implications. less than the 1996-2013 average. Prediction of Monsoon in
India is very difficult for the meteorological department.

136 Indian Geography

Here are some factors which are responsible for predicting ‰ Current La Nina: Over the equatorial Pacific, the current
the monsoon in India. La Lina conditions, which are typically favourable for the
‰ Complex Weather Systems: The Indian monsoon is monsoon, have become neutral.
impacted by a number of atmospheric and oceanic ‰ Predicting the Monsoon: The monsoon season in India
elements, including the Indian Ocean, El Nino/La Nina runs from June to September, with an LPA of 88 cm and
occurrences, the Tibetan Plateau, and the Himalayan a standard deviation of 9 cm (approximately 10% of the
mountain range. These interrelated processes make mean value). When the average rainfall for the entire
precise forecasting of monsoon patterns challenging. nation falls within 10% of its LPA or between 90% and
110% of its LPA, it is considered “normal,” when it falls
‰ Variability: The Indian monsoon differs greatly from
below 90% of its LPA, it is considered “below normal,”
year to year. Natural climate variability, such as the El
and when it exceeds 110% of its LPA, it is considered
Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), can create droughts
“above normal.”
or heavy rains in certain parts of India. Because of this
unpredictability, making long-term projections is difficult.
Karakoram Anomaly
‰ Spatial Variability: Because of India’s unique geography,
The Karakoram Anomaly is a phenomenon in which
the monsoon does not come consistently across the
the glaciers in the central Karakoram mountains have
nation. Various regions have diverse rainfall patterns
remained stable or even grown, while glaciers in other
and timings, making it difficult to correctly forecast local
nearby mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas and
implications.
other mountains around the world, have been retreating.
‰ Timing: Forecasting the start and end of the monsoon is Himalayan glaciers are extremely important in India,
a huge task. The monsoon season usually starts in June particularly for people living downstream. They rely on
and ends in September, however, the precise time varies perennial rivers for their daily water supply. However,
from year to year and area to region. as a result of global warming and climate change, the
‰ Complicated Modelling: Monsoon forecast requires bodies of water are rapidly disappearing. Glaciers in the
complex computer models that replicate the interplay of central Karakoram, on the other hand, have not changed.
various factors. These models need a massive quantity They have increased slightly over the last few decades.
of data and computational power, and even minor This phenomenon is limited to a small geographical area.
inaccuracies in input data might result in incorrect Aside from the Karakoram range, similar or comparable
predictions. phenomena can be observed in the Kunlun ranges.
‰ Climate Change: Climate change is changing traditional
monsoon patterns, making forecasting even more
difficult. Rising global temperatures have the potential INITIATIVES TAKEN FOR WEATHER
to destabilise existing climate systems and cause FORECASTING
unanticipated monsoon behaviour.
‰ Forecasts and warnings are sent via email, WhatsApp
‰ Local Factors: Land-use changes, deforestation, and
groups, social media, and websites.
urbanisation may all have an impact on local weather
‰ Registered users are also sent SMS alerts, and press
patterns, making it difficult to forecast how these
releases are issued as needed.
variables will interact with the monsoon.
‰ In 2020, IMD launched seven services via the ‘UMANG’
Despite these challenges, meteorologists and scientists
mobile app, providing the public with information on
continue to improve their understanding of the Indian
various weather aspects.
monsoon and develop better prediction models. Advances
in technology and increased data collection are helping to ‰ For weather forecasting, agromet advisory, and lightning
enhance the accuracy of monsoon forecasts, The prediction alerts, mobile apps such as ‘MAUSAM,’ ‘Meghdoot,’ and
is: ‘Damini’ were developed.
‰ Normal to below normal rainfall: Rainfall is expected to ‰ To address meteorological events that cause widespread
be 96% of the long-term average from June to September. damage, IMD developed a web-based Climate Hazard &
Normal to below-normal rainfall in parts of northwestern Vulnerability Atlas.
India, west-central India, and pockets of northeast India. ‰ Through the Central Sector Scheme “atmosphere &
‰ El Nino Effect: El Nino is the primary cause of this year’s Climate Research-modelling Observing Systems &
poor rainfall. Due to the effect of La Nina, India has been Services (ACROSS),” IMD is modernising and expanding
receiving heavy monsoon rains since 2019. El Nino, its services.
caused by warm water in the equatorial Pacific, has the ‰ ACROSS sub-schemes include Atmospheric Observation
potential to affect worldwide weather patterns. El Nino Network (AON), Forecast System Upgrade (UFS),
has been associated with a drier climate as well as less Weather & Climate Services (WCS), and Polarimetric
rainfall in India. Doppler Weather Radar Commissioning (PDWR).

Climate of India 137

‰ Commissioning of Automated Weather Observing season in the northern plains. With the westward flow,
Systems (AWOS/HAWOS) or Heliport Automated these low-pressure systems form over the Mediterranean
Weather Observing Systems (HAWOS), establishment Sea and western Asia and then move to India.
and improvement of Meteorological Centres (MCs), and ‰ They bring freezing rain to the mountains and much-
other facilities throughout the region.
needed rain to the plains in the winter. Even though
Long Range Forecast (LRF) the total proportion of winter rain, known locally as
The India Meteorological Department (IMD) issues the “Mahawat,” is small, it is essential for growing “rabi”
operational long-range forecast (LRF) for the southwest crops.
monsoon seasonal (June-September) rainfall averaged ‰ The peninsular area is devoid of a clear cold season.
across the entire country in two stages. In its most recent Because the sea has a calming effect, winter temperatures
Long Range Forecast (LFR), the India Meteorological don’t change much from one season to the next.
Department (IMD) forecasted that the monsoon will
Temperature
be ordinary this year. The Long Period Average (LPA) of
‰ From south to north, the temperature decreases. The
Rainfall is the Amount of Rainfall Recorded Across a
Particular Region for a Particular Period (such as a Month average temperature in Chennai, which is on the east
or Season) Averaged over a Long Period (like 30 Years, 50 coast, is between 24° and 25° Celsius, while the average
Years, etc.). It functions as a benchmark for predicting the temperature in the northern plains is between 10° and
amount of precipitation for that region during a particular 15° Celsius.
month or season. It is customary to validate the seasonal ‰ During the day, it’s warm, but at night, it’s cold. Frost
rainfall every ten years. happens often in the north, and it snows on the higher
Himalayan slopes.
SEASONS OF INDIA ‰ In January, the mean temperature in the northwestern
Great Plains of India (Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar
Seasons are periods of the year that have unique weather
Pradesh, and Rajasthan) is less than 15°C.
patterns and day lengths. Seasons happen because of the
Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of around 23.4 degrees away ‰ The temperature occasionally drops below freezing at
from vertical, and different portions of the Earth receive night in the plains of Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan
more solar radiation than others. A distinct seasonal pattern (Amritsar, Hissar, and Jodhpur), which causes ground
distinguishes the monsoon climate. The weather varies frost.
significantly from season to season. These changes are most Rainfall
visible in the country’s interior. The temperature does not
‰ The cold weather precipitation, while minor, is extremely
vary much along the coast, but the rainfall pattern does. The
Indian Meteorological Department divides India’s seasons beneficial to Rabi crops. Furthermore, snowfall from
into four categories: western disturbances feeds the Western Himalayan
glaciers. During the winter season, some rain falls in the
A. Seasons of North-East Monsoon northeastern parts of India.
1. Cold Weather Season (Winter season), mid- ‰ During these months, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and
December to mid-March Assam may receive up to 20 cm of rain. India’s rainfall is
2. Hot weather season, mid-March to May unevenly distributed.
B. Seasons of South-West Monsoon ‰ The heaviest rainfall occurs along the southeastern coast
3. Rainy season, June to September of Tamil Nadu and adjacent areas of Andhra Pradesh and
gradually decreases from there.
4. Season of retreating monsoon, October to mid-
‰ Northwest India also receives rain from western
December
disturbances, but the amount decreases gradually from
north and northwest to east. During the winter, rain falls
COLD WEATHER SEASON in the northeastern part of India.
Duration Pressure in the Winter Season
‰ The cold weather season in the majority of India begins ‰ Due to low temperatures and the STJ (Sub Tropical Jet
in late November in the north and by early December in Streams) ridge, which causes divergence, the air pressure
the rest of the country. December and January are the is high over a large part of northwest India.
coldest months in northern India. The days are warm ‰ The pressure in South India is lower than in the rest of
during the cold season, but the nights are cold. the country.
‰ The flow of cyclonic disturbances from the west and ‰ The winds start to move from a high-pressure area in the
northwest defines characteristics of the cold weather northwest to a low-pressure area in the southeast.

138 Indian Geography

 Fig. 5.14: India Temperature (January)
Reasons for no South-West Monsoons During • This cooling reduces the temperature contrast
Winter between the land and the ocean, diminishing the
‰ Reversal of Wind Direction: driving force for the southwest monsoon winds.
• During winter, there is a reversal in the wind direction. • This leads to development of a high-pressure system
• Instead of the southwest, the prevailing wind over the Indian subcontinent.
pattern becomes northeast, commonly known as the
northeast monsoon. • High-pressure systems are associated with
• Hence the north-east monsoon becomes onshore descending air, which inhibits the ascent of moist air
winds that carry less or no moisture. and the development of monsoon rainfall.
‰ Shift in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ):
• The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a belt of
low pressure near the equator, where the northeast IGNITE YOUR MIND
and southeast trade winds converge.
• In winter, the ITCZ and monsoon trough shifts As the severe grasp of winter tightens its hold
southward, causing the retreat of the southwest on Kashmir, the region prepares to enter the
monsoon and the onset of the northeast monsoon. formidable 40-day phase known as Chilla-i-Kalan,
‰ Cooling of the Indian Ocean and high-pressure system which commenced recently. In this light can you
over Indian subcontinent: discuss the specific impacts of climate change on the
• During winter, the northern hemisphere, including winter conditions in the Himalayan region and the
the Indian subcontinent, experiences cooling consequences for the ecosystem and communities?
temperatures.

Climate of India 139

HOT WEATHER SEASON and March 21. In the Southern Hemisphere, it
happens between September 22 and September 23.
Duration Astronomically, the Vernal equinox marks the startt of
‰ The north Indian region experiences a distinct hot spring. This is because the Sun is now shining directly on
weather season from mid-March to mid-June. the equator, and the days and nights are of equal length.
‰ The hot season in southern and western India will last After the vernal equinox, the days start to get longer in
from April until the start of May. In the northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere and shorter in the Southern
India, May is the warmest month.
Hemisphere.
General Characteristics of Weather Conditions
‰ It is characterised by unstable air pressure and wind
circulation as a transitional season between the
northeast and southwest monsoons (rainy season).
‰ The low-pressure area moves from southeast to
northwest as the sun moves northward. It eventually
settles over northwestern India at the end of May or the
beginning of June.
‰ In the neighbouring sea, pressure generally rises towards
the south. Winds blow from the northwest and west
in northwestern India and from the southwest in the
Arabian Sea and its surrounding coasts.
‰ In Punjab, Haryana, and western part of Uttar Pradesh,
there are dust storms that look like tornadoes. In
western India, there are hot winds called “Loo,” and in Fig. 5.15: Equinox and Solstice
West Bengal, they are called “Kalbaisakhis”.
‰ The sun is scorching during the summer, and the relative Heat Wave
humidity is generally less than 30%, occasionally falling
In India, heat waves generally occur from March to June,
below 10%.
but they can sometimes last until July. Every year, five to
Temperature six heat wave events occur in the northern areas of the
‰ The temperature starts rising after the Vernal Equinox as nation.
the sun moves northward towards the Tropic of Cancer.
Criteria for Declaring Heat Wave in India
‰ The temperature starts to rise sharply as March
approaches. By April, the Peninsular regions south of the A heat wave is declared when the highest temperature at
Vindhyan Range have reached 40°C on average. a station is 40 degrees Celsius or higher for Plains and 30
degrees Celsius or higher for Hilly areas.
‰ In May, the average maximum temperature in Rajasthan,
Delhi, west Uttar Pradesh, south Punjab, Jammu and
Haryana is 42°C. Daytime temperatures in some parts of
India, particularly in northwestern India, can reach 45°C ‰ Based on Departure from Normal
or 47°C. In May, most of the interior is around 32–40 °C • Heat Wave: 4.5°C to 6.4°C above or below normal.
(90–104 °F) on average. • Severe Heat Wave: Temperature is more than
‰ The average minimum daily temperature in May remains 6.4°C above normal.
quite high, at around 26°C in Delhi and Jaipur. ‰ Based on Actual Maximum Temperature:
• Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature
Vernal Equinox ≥ 45°C.
The phenomenon occurs when the Sun is directly above • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum
the Equator and day and night are the same length, this temperature ≥47°C.
is called the vernal equinox. The Vernal equinox is one If the above requirements are fulfilled at least in two
of the two times each year when the Sun crosses the
stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two
celestial equator, which is the imaginary line in the sky that
days in a row, and it is declared on the second day.
divides the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. In the

140 Indian Geography

Rainfall ‰ The maritime tropical airmass (mT) from the southern
‰ The season’s total rainfall is less than 2 cm in Rajasthan, hemisphere flows south-westerly to the low-pressure
Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh; between 5 and 15 cm region after crossing from the equator. People often call
in the sub-montane region of Uttarakhand, Himachal this flow of moist air the “southwest monsoon.”
Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Odisha; Frontal Thunderstorms in Summer Season
between 15 and 25 cm along the Malabar coast; and
‰ Thunderstorms occur in the east and north-east of the
more than 50 cm in Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and
country since the westerly jet stream causes strong
Nagaland.
convectional movements.
‰ Tropical depressions are directed towards India by the
‰ Most of the time, they start over the Chota Nagpur
easterly jet stream. These depressions have an impact
plateau and move east on winds that come from the
on the monsoon rainfall distribution over the Indian
west.
subcontinent.
‰ Thunderstorms are most common in Assam, Nagaland,
Pressure in Summer Season Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, West
‰ All over the country, the air pressure is low due to the Bengal, Meghalaya, and adjoining Odisha and Jharkhand.
hot weather.
‰ Strong disparity caused by changes in the atmosphere, Summer Season is also the season for isolated
on the other hand, stops the southwest monsoons from thunderstorms with strong winds and torrential
starting over northwest India. downpours, which are frequently accompanied by hail.
These storms are known as the ‘Kaal Baisakhi’ in West
INDIA Bengal.
PRESSURE, PREVAILING WINDS

Some Famous Local Storms of Hot Weather

AND CYCLONES (APRIL)

Season
‰ Mango Shower: Pre-monsoon showers are short-lived
PAKISTAN C H I N A
NE
PA
L 1009 thunderstorms that occur in the Indian subcontinent
1008 1008
BHUTAN
1010
before the start of the monsoon season. They typically
BANGLA
occur between April and May and are most common
009
DESH
in Kerala and coastal Karnataka. Mango showers get
their name because they help mangoes ripen early.
010 MYANMAR
08
10

‰ Blossom Shower: Coffee flowers bloom in Kerala and

surrounding areas as a result of this rain.
May May 1011
‰ Nor Westers: In Bengal and Assam, evening
April
May
May
May
thunderstorms are expected. Its popularity comes
May April ISOBARS from the local name ‘Kalbaisakhi,’ which refers to a
calamity that occurs during the month of Baisakh.
(IN MILLIMETRES)
PREVAILING WINDS
TRACKS OF TEMPERATE
CYCLONES
These rains are beneficial to tea, jute, and rice growth.
TRACKS OF TROPICAL
CYCLONES
In Assam, these storms are known as “Bardoisila.”
‰ Loo: Winds are hot, dry, and oppressive in the
April
SRI KILOMETRES
100 0 100 200 300 400 500
Northern Plains from Punjab to Bihar, with greater
intensity between Patna and Delhi.
LANKA
1011

Fig. 5.16: India: Pressure, Prevailing Winds and

Cyclones in January RAINY SEASON (SOUTHWEST AND
Winds Distribution NORTH-EAST MONSOON SEASON)
‰ Because of the high temperatures, atmospheric pressure South-West Monsoon Season (Monsoonal
is low throughout the country. The Inter Tropical
Rainfall)
Convergence Zone had formed by the middle of July
(ITCZ) which moved northward, nearly parallel to the Duration
Himalayas between 20° N and 25° N. ‰ It will last from June to September. The majority of the
‰ At this period, the westerly jet stream had left the Indian rain falls during this season, but monsoons are frequently
subcontinent. The ITCZ pulls winds from all directions delayed. The distribution of rainfall varies spatially on a
since it is a low-pressure region. large scale.

Climate of India 141

‰ The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern The Monsoon Comes to the Landmass from two
India to northern India. Directions:
General Characteristics 1. The Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea branch
‰ Monsoonal rainfall is influenced heavily by relief or 2. The Monsoon Winds of Bay of Bengal branch
terrain. For example, The windward of the Western
1. Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea: The monsoon
Ghats mountains receives more than 250 cm of rainfall
winds that originate over the Arabian Sea are further
during the monsoon season.
subdivided into three branches:
‰ Similarly, the northeastern states of India also receive
• First Branch: First Branch is halted by the Western
a lot of rainfall, due to the presence of the Eastern Ghats. These winds go up the 900–1200 m Western
Himalayas. The mountains force the monsoon winds to Ghats slopes. Because of this, the windward side of
rise, just as the Western Ghats do. the Sahyadris and the Western Coastal Plain gets
‰ The amount of rainfall decreases as you move away from between 250 cm and 400 cm of rain every year. After
the sea. This is because the monsoon winds lose moisture going over the Western Ghats, these winds come
as they travel over land. Kolkata, which is located on the down and get warmer. This makes the winds have
coast, receives 119 cm of rain during the monsoon season. less moisture. Because of this, it doesn’t rain much
Patna, which is located further inland, receives 105 cm east of the Western Ghats. The rain-shadow area is
of rain. Prayagraj, which is even further inland, receives a place where it doesn’t rain as much. Take note of
76 cm of rain. Delhi, which is located in the far north of how Kozhikode, Mangalore, Pune, and Bengaluru get
India, receives the least rainfall, at 56 cm. different amounts of rain.
‰ Since more than three-quarters of the rain in the • Second Branch: The coast north of Mumbai is hit
country falls during the southwest monsoon season, by another branch of the Arabian Sea. When these
the monsoons are very important to India’s agricultural winds move along the valleys of the Narmada and
economy. In some parts of the country, it can take a long Tapi rivers, they bring rain to a lot of central India.
time before it starts to rain. Sometimes the rain stops From this part of the branch, 15 cm of rain falls on the
much earlier than usual, which hurts crops that are Chotanagpur plateau. Afterwards, they flow into the
already growing and makes it hard to plant winter crops. Ganga plains and mix with the branch that flows into
the Bay of Bengal.
Temperature • Third Branch: A third branch of the Arabian Sea
‰ With the arrival of the monsoons, temperatures monsoon wind strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and
plummet and humidity levels rise. With the end of the the Kachchh. It then travels over western Rajasthan
southwest monsoons in September, the temperature and along the Aravallis, where it brings only light
rises. Whenever there is a break in the monsoons, the rainfall. In Punjab and Haryana, it joins the Bay of
temperature rises. Bengal branch of the monsoon wind. When these
‰ Because of clouds and rain, the diurnal temperature two branches come together, they bring rain to the
range is small. During the break, it rains a lot in the western Himalayas.
sub-Himalayan areas and on the southern sides of the 2. Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal: The Bay of
Himalayas. Bengal division goes along the coasts of Myanmar
Wind Distribution and southeast Bangladesh.
‰ By early June, the low-pressure system across the • But the Arakan Hills on the coast of Myanmar send a
northern plains has become more intense. It attracts the large part of this branch into the Indian subcontinent.
southern hemisphere’s trade winds. So, the monsoon comes into West Bengal and
Bangladesh from the south and southeast instead of
‰ The warm subtropical areas of the southern oceans give
the southwest.
rise to these south-east trade winds. They go across the
• This branch is divided in two because of the Himalayas
equator and blow into the Indian peninsula from the
and the thermal low in northwest India. One of its
southwest.
branches runs west along the Ganga plains all the way
‰ This is called the southwest monsoon. These winds bring to the Punjab plains. The other branch moves north
a lot of water to the subcontinent because they blow and northeast up the Brahmaputra valley, bringing
over warm oceans. The average speed of these winds is rain to a wide area. Its branch goes through the Garo
30 km/h, which means they are strong. and Khasi hills in Meghalaya. On top of the Khasi hills
‰ All but the far northwest of the country are covered by is the town of Mawsynram, which receives the highest
monsoon winds for about a month. rainfall in the world.

142 Indian Geography

Why the Tamil Nadu Coast Remain Dry During this ‰ The plains undergo longer dry spells and extended rainfall
Season? in the mountainous catchment regions of the Himalayan
‰ The branch of the southwest monsoon that comes from
rivers as the centre shifts closer to the Himalayas. These
the Bay of Bengal and goes along the coast of Tamil Nadu. heavy trains cause devastating floods in the plains,
‰ It is in the rain shadow area of the Arabian Sea branch of
causing loss of life and property.
the southwest monsoon. ‰ The amount and duration of monsoon rains are also
determined by the frequency and intensity of tropical
Rainfall depressions.
‰ The weather in India changes completely when the
‰ These depressions start at the mouth of the Bay of
southwest monsoon comes. Early in the season, more
Bengal and move onto the mainland. The depressions
than 250 cm of rain falls on the side of the Western Ghats
are aligned along with the “monsoon trough of low
that faces the wind.
pressure.”
‰ Even though the Deccan Plateau and parts of Madhya
‰ The monsoon is known for being hard to predict. Dry
Pradesh are in the rain shadow, they still get some rain.
The most rain falls in the northeastern part of the country and wet spells vary in how bad they are, how often they
during this season. happen, and how long they last. In some places, it causes
heavy flooding, but not in others.

Mawsynram (a town in Meghalaya state’s East Khasi Hills

district), the world’s wettest place, is also known for its
stalagmite and stalactite caves. The warm moist air arising
from the Bay of Bengal during the monsoon season is
forced down as it approaches Khasi Hills, which results
in heavy rainfall over Mawsynram. Mawsynram is a hill
station that is known for being the wettest place in India.
The region receives annual rainfall of almost 12 metres.

Monsoon Trough
‰ Monsoon Trough is a long area of low pressure that
stretches from Pakistan to the Bay of Bengal. This is
one of the monsoon’s more permanent features.
Monsoon trough may be a trait of Himalayan ranges
that run east to west and Khasi-Jaintia Hills that run
north to south.
‰ With the progress of the monsoon, this heat low
slowly moves east until it forms an elongated low-
pressure zone that runs west to east along the
Himalayas. This is called the monsoon trough by
Fig. 5.17: Rainfall - South West Monsoon
Indian meteorologists. Its axis runs about parallel to
‰ The most rain falls on average in Mawsynram, which is in the foothills of the Himalayas.
the southern ranges of the Khasi Hills. From east to west, ‰ This monsoon trough moves to the north and south of
it rains less in the Ganga Valley. Rajasthan and some
its normal position from time to time. When it moves
parts of Gujarat don’t get much rain.
north and gets close to the foothills of the Himalayas,
‰ The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of
it changes the way it rains in India in a big way. Over
India decreases from east to west.
the plains of northern India, the rain stops quickly,
‰ Another point about the monsoon is that it tends to stop
raining for a while. Because of this, it has both wet and but over the foothills of northeast India, the rain gets
dry times. This means that monsoon rains only last a stronger quickly.
few days at a time. There are times when it doesn’t rain
between them. North-East Monsoon Season (Retreating
‰ The monsoon trough moves, which makes these breaks Monsoon)
in the rainy season. The trough and its axis keep moving
southward or northward for different reasons. This The Northeast Monsoon, also known as the retreating
affects where the rain falls. When the monsoon trough’s monsoon or post-monsoon season, is a three-month period
centre passes over the plains, there is a lot of rain. that begins in mid-September and ends in early January.

Climate of India 143

 Pressure and Winds During Retreating
Monsoon Season
Pressure
‰ Over the Indian subcontinent, the pressure conditions
start to change during the retreating monsoon season.
‰ The large-scale low-pressure area that dominated the
Indian subcontinent during the peak monsoon season
begins to weaken and shift.
‰ With the retreat of the southwest monsoon winds, high-
pressure areas start forming over northern India and
the adjoining regions.
• The formation of these high-pressure systems is
influenced by the cooling temperatures over the
landmass.
Winds
‰ The wind direction undergoes a noticeable shift from the
southwest to the northeast.
‰ Over northern India, the prevailing winds become
northeasterly, bringing in cooler and drier air.
Fig. 5.18: North East Monsoon in India ‰ As the monsoon trough shifts southward, the northeast
‰ With the Sun’s southward migration, the south-west monsoon begins to establish itself over the Indian
monsoon begins to retreat from northern India by the subcontinent.
third week of September.
‰ Starts with the beginning of the withdrawal of southwest
Rainfall
monsoon (middle of September – November). ‰ As the southwest monsoons move away, humidity and
‰ Monsoons withdraw from the extreme north-west end of cloud cover go down, and most of the country stays dry.
the country in September, from the peninsula by October October and November are the main rainy season in
and from the extreme south-eastern tip by December. Tamil Nadu and nearby parts of Andhra Pradesh to the
‰ In Punjab, the south-west monsoons reach in the first south of the Krishna delta.
week of July and withdraw from there in the second ‰ This is also a secondary rainy season in Kerala. The rain
week of September. is caused by the monsoons taking in water as they move
‰ South-west monsoons reach Coromandel coast in the over the Bay of Bengal on their way out.
first week of June and withdraw from there only in the
middle of December. Cyclones During Retreating Monsoon Season
‰ Unlike the sudden burst of the advancing monsoons, ‰ By the beginning of November, the low pressure that
the withdrawal is rather gradual and takes about three was in northwest India had moved to the Bay of Bengal.
months. Cyclonic depressions that form over the Andaman Sea
Temperature During Retreating Monsoon Season are linked to this change.
‰ In November, the temperature starts to drop, and by ‰ Most of the time, these cyclones pass along India’s
December, it’s cold. The average temperature in the eastern coasts, bringing heavy rain to a wide area. Most
north and northwest of the Indian plains is 15°C, in the of the time, these tropical cyclones do a lot of damage.
centre it’s 20°C, and along the coasts it’s 25°C.
‰ Cyclones often hit the heavily populated deltas of
‰ When October comes, the low-pressure area over the
the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers, doing a lot of
northwestern parts of India goes away and is replaced by
a low-pressure cell above the northern parts of Bengal. damage to people and things.
By the beginning of December, it moves south. ‰ The coasts of West Bengal, Odisha, and Bangladesh are
sometimes hit by these cyclones. The majority of the
While the days are hot, the nights are cool and pleasant. Coromandel Coast’s rainfall is caused by depressions and
The ground is still having moisture. During the day, cyclones.
the weather becomes oppressive due to the high
‰ The months of October and November are when the
temperatures and humidity. This is commonly referred to
as October Heat. frequency of cyclones is highest during the retreating
monsoon season.

144 Indian Geography

 Distribution of Annual Rainfall in India
Reasons for Increase in Frequency of Cyclones in
The average annual rainfall in India is roughly 125 cm, but it
October and November
varies greatly across the country.
‰ October and November represent the transition
period between the southwest and northeast ‰ Areas of High Rainfall: The heaviest rainfall in India
monsoons. occurs on the Western Ghats mountains, the western
‰ Warm sea surface temperatures in the Bay of coast, the sub-Himalayan regions of the northeast, and
Bengal and Arabian Sea provide energy for cyclone the hills of Meghalaya. This area receives more than 200
intensification.
cm of rain per year. Some parts of the Khasi and Jaintia
‰ Favorable upper-level atmospheric conditions with
reduced wind shear support cyclone organization and hills receive more than 1,000 cm of rain per year. The
strengthening. Brahmaputra valley and the surrounding hills receive less
‰ The active monsoon trough contributes to moist air than 200 cm of rain per year.
convergence, facilitating cyclone formation. ‰ Areas of Medium Rainfall: Between 100 and 200 cm
‰ Interaction between northeast and southwest of rainfalls in the southern parts of Gujarat, the east of
monsoon winds aids in air mass convergence,
Tamil Nadu, the northeastern peninsula, which includes
conducive to cyclone development.
‰ Late withdrawal of the southwest monsoon may lead Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, and eastern Madhya Pradesh,
to additional rainfall, providing moisture for cyclone the northern Ganga plain along the sub-Himalayas, the
development. Cachar Valley, and Manipur.
‰ Areas of Low Rainfall: Rainfall in western Uttar Pradesh,
Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat,
TRADITIONAL INDIAN SEASONS
eastern Rajasthan, and the Deccan Plateau ranges
A year is divided into six two-monthly seasons in Indian between 50 and 100 cm.
tradition. The common people of central India and the north ‰ Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of the Peninsula,
follow a seasonal cycle based on practical experience and particularly Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and
age-old perceptions of weather phenomena. This system, Maharashtra, as well as Ladakh and most of western
however, does not correspond to the seasons in southern Rajasthan, receive rainfall of less than 50 cm. Snowfall is
India, where the seasons vary little. limited to the Himalayan range.
Seasons Months (Indian Months (Gregorian
Calendar) Calendar)
Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April
Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June
Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August
Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October
Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-December
Shishira Magha-Phalguna January-February

RAINFALL VARIABILITY IN INDIA

Rainfall variability refers to the amount of fluctuation from
the mean values in rainfall recorded over a long period of
time. It is calculated using the Coefficient of Variability (C.V.)
of rainfall using the following formula:
{The Coefficient of Variability varies between
15-35 per cent for India as a whole}
‰ Rainfall variability is inversely proportional to the total
amount of rainfall. This means areas of low annual
rainfall have high variability, while areas of high annual
rainfall have low variability. Fig. 5.19: India Annual Rainfall

Climate of India 145

 Isohyet

Fig. 5.20: Isohyets - India

‰ An isohyet is a line on a map connecting points that receive the same amount of precipitation within a specified time
period.
‰ In other words, it is a contour line that joins locations with equal rainfall or precipitation values.
‰ Isohyets help meteorologists, climatologists, and geographers analyze and understand the spatial patterns of
precipitation, which is crucial for various purposes, including agriculture, water resource management, and disaster
preparedness in India.
• The information derived from isohyets aids in planning and decision-making related to water availability and
agricultural practices in different parts of the country.

HUMANIZING FACTORS AFFECTING Humanizing Landscape

THE INDIAN MONSOON Humanizing the landscape involves altering the natural
architecture of the landscape to fit the needs of people,
‰ Disturbance in natural balance: The natural balance like “Urbanization or Industrialization.”.Features of
has been disturbed as a result of the humanization human landscapes include elements of infrastructure
of landscapes. As a result, there has been excessive such as buildings, roads, transport, energy, sewerage and
deforestation, an increase in pollution and pollutants, an telecommunication systems.
increase in built-up areas, global warming, and so on.

146 Indian Geography

‰ Rainfall in Urban Areas: Because of the increased
availability of pollutants and dust particles, the number ‰ Many folk songs and dances in the region highlight
of condensation nuclei has increased, resulting in greater the importance of the Purvaiya winds, such as Kajari
songs and Jhijhia dance.
rainfall in urban areas than in rural areas. The increased
‰ The agricultural practices driven by these winds
built-up area has allowed for more surface heating. This
also impact the types of crops grown, subsequently
increased temperature has increased evaporation and
influencing the local cuisine.
influenced rain patterns.
‰ Deforestation: Monsoon distribution has suffered as a
result of deforestation. Increased concretization causes CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT
more runoff and less water infiltration, affecting the ON INDIA & INDIAN MONSOON
water cycle and disrupting the monsoon cycle.
‰ Pressure differences: Pressure differences, which are Climate Change
necessary for monsoonal precipitation, have been ‰ Definition: Climate change refers to long-term
unstable and unpredictable. alterations in temperature, precipitation, and other
‰ High-Rise Buildings: High-rise buildings have changed atmospheric conditions on Earth. It is primarily driven
local wind patterns and precipitation patterns. by human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels,
‰ Wetlands: A wetland is a land area that is permanently or deforestation, and industrial processes, leading to
seasonally saturated with water. Wetlands play a variety an increase in greenhouse gas concentrations in the
of environmental roles, including water purification, atmosphere.
flood control, carbon sequestration, and shoreline ‰ Climate change encompasses both global warming,
stability. The destruction of wetlands in urban areas, the increase in Earth’s average surface temperature,
such as lakes and ponds, is a major cause of irregular rain and broader changes in weather patterns and climate-
patterns in major cities such as Chennai and Srinagar. related phenomena. It involves shifts in temperature,
‰ Materials used for Infrastructure: The widespread use of precipitation, sea levels, and the frequency and intensity
concrete in urban areas reduces groundwater recharge of extreme weather events.
and alters the hydrological cycle of the environment,
India and Climate Change
ultimately disrupting India’s Monsoon system.
‰ India, being a large and diverse country, is highly
‰ Use of Chemicals in Agriculture: Another example of
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The country
humanising the landscape is the widespread use of
experiences changes in monsoon patterns, rising
chemicals and borewell irrigation in agriculture.
temperatures, and increased frequency of extreme
‰ Dams: Humanizing the landscape also includes the
weather events. These changes have far-reaching
construction of large dams in hilly areas that alter the
consequences for agriculture, water resources, and
ecological flow of rivers.
vulnerable communities.
In the Bhojpur region, the South-West monsoon is known Consequences of Climate Change
as “Purvaiya,” denoting the easterly direction from which ‰ Impact on Agriculture: Changes in temperature and
the winds enter the area.
precipitation patterns affect crop yields. For example,
‰ The South-West monsoon winds bifurcate into the
variations in monsoon timings and intensity can impact
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal branches.
rice and wheat production, key staples in India.
‰ The Bay of Bengal branch takes a path towards the
Purvanchal Himalayas, making a northwest turn and ‰ Water Scarcity: Altered precipitation patterns contribute
entering the Bhojpur region of Bihar from the east. to water scarcity. Glacial melt in the Himalayas, crucial for
The term “Purvaiya” specifically signifies the easterly river systems like the Ganges, is accelerating, affecting
winds associated with the South-West Monsoon in the water availability for millions of people.
Bhojpur region, with the local word “Purva” meaning ‰ Extreme Weather Events: Increased frequency of
east. extreme events like cyclones, floods, and droughts poses
These Purvaiya winds play a crucial role in shaping the a threat to infrastructure and human lives. The 2018
culture of Bhojpur, influencing traditions, rituals, and
Kerala floods, exacerbated by intense rainfall, are an
daily life.
example of climate change impacts.

Climate of India 147

‰ Heatwaves in India: Heatwaves during the monsoon Climate change is a global challenge with severe implications
season are extremely uncommon in India. Due to the for India’s diverse ecosystems and communities. Mitigation
delayed arrival of the monsoon in the country’s east, A efforts, along with global cooperation, are essential to
rare heatwave caused damage to the country. address the root causes and reduce the impact of climate
‰ Effect on Rice Producing Areas: Rice-producing states change on India and the world.
have been severely deficient due to the southward
Relationship Between the Shrinking Himalayan
movement of majors, all major monsoon low-pressure
areas, and depressions. Despite an active monsoon Glaciers and the Symptoms of Climate Change
current in July and August, Bihar, West Bengal, and Uttar ‰ Global Warming: The primary driver behind the
Pradesh, which account for one-third of the country’s retreat of Himalayan glaciers is the increase in global
total rice production, have been severely deficient. This temperatures due to climate change.
would immediately have an impact on the country’s food • According to IPCC Assessment Report 6,
security. anthropogenic global warming of 1.1 degrees
Celsius has spurred changes to the Earth’s climate
‰ Pests and diseases impact: Pests and diseases are
that are unprecedented in recent human history.
exacerbated by the uneven distribution of rain, as well as
‰ Altered precipitation patterns: In some regions,
rising temperatures and humidity.
there may be shifts from snowfall to rainfall, reducing
‰ Heat Stress: Extremely high temperatures (above
the accumulation of snow on glaciers. This change in
35°C) cause heat stress and disrupt plant physiological
the form of precipitation affects the mass balance of
processes, resulting in spikelet sterility, non-viable
glaciers, contributing to their shrinkage.
pollen, and poor grain quality.
‰ Glacial Retreat: Higher temperatures cause the
‰ Effect of drought: Drought reduces plant transpiration
glaciers to melt at their lower ends faster than the
rates, which can lead to leaf rolling and drying, reduced rate at which they gain new ice from snowfall at
leaf expansion rates, and plant death. higher elevations. This leads to a net loss of glacial
‰ Rising sea levels: When the Earth’s temperature goes up mass, resulting in the retreat of glaciers.
due to climate change, the sea level rises because warm ‰ Glacial Lake Outburst Floods: As glaciers retreat,
water takes up more space than cooler water. meltwater accumulates in glacial lakes formed at
• The melting of glaciers makes this problem worse. their snouts. These lakes can pose a risk of glacial lake
People who live in low-lying places, on islands, or outburst floods (GLOFs) if the natural moraine dams
near the coast are in danger because the sea is rising. holding them back fail.
• It damages property and kills habitats like mangroves ‰ Impacts on Water Resources: The Himalayan glaciers
and marshes that protect coastlines from storms. serve as a crucial source of freshwater for major rivers,
Mitigation including the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Indus. The
‰ Renewable Energy Adoption: Shifting to renewable
shrinking glaciers can affect the timing and quantity
energy sources, such as solar and wind power, helps of water flow in these rivers, impacting downstream
reduce dependence on fossil fuels and lowers greenhouse water availability for agriculture, drinking water, and
gas emissions. India’s National Solar Mission aims to other purposes.
increase solar energy capacity. ‰ Ecosystem Changes: The retreat of glaciers affects

‰ Afforestation and Reforestation: Planting trees and

the ecosystems that depend on glacial meltwater.
restoring forest ecosystems act as carbon sinks, absorbing Changes in water availability can impact biodiversity,
CO2 from the atmosphere. India’s Green India Mission vegetation, and the livelihoods of communities relying
focuses on increasing forest and tree cover. on these ecosystems.
‰ Global Sea Level Rise: While the Himalayas are
‰ Policy Initiatives: Implementing and adhering to
policies and international agreements aimed at reducing landlocked, the melting of glaciers contributes to
emissions and promoting sustainable practices. India is a rising sea levels globally. This is because the water
signatory to the Paris Agreement, committing to reduce released from melting glaciers eventually flows into
its carbon intensity. the oceans, adding to the volume of seawater.

148 Indian Geography

 Relevant Examples from India
‰ Gangotri Glacier Retreat: The
Gangotri Glacier, one of the largest
glaciers in the Himalayas and the
source of the Ganges River has been
experiencing significant retreat.
This retreat has a direct implications
for the Ganges River’s flow and the
millions of people who depend on it
for water.
‰ Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
(GLOFs): Sikkim recently
experienced a Glacial Lake Outburst
Flood (GLOF).
‰ The South Lhonak Lake, a glacial
lake located at an altitude of 17,000
feet in the state’s northwest, Fig. 5.21: Lhonak Lake Induced GLOF disaster
experienced a rupture as a result of
continuous rainfall.

Koppen Climate
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA Criteria
Classification Types
Monsoon weather prevails throughout India. However, the The lowest average temperature
Tropical Humid Climate (A)
combination of weather elements reveals many regional for a month is more than 18°C.
variations. These variations represent monsoon climate The driest month gets at least 6
Tropical rainforest (Af)
subtypes. A climatic region has consistent climatic conditions cm or more of rain or snow.
as a result of a variety of factors. Temperature and rainfall Even though it rains less than 6
cm in the driest month, that’s
are two important variables that are used in all climatic Tropical monsoon (Am)
still more than 4% of the year’s
classification systems. rain.
There are two important classifications of climatic regions of In the driest month, it starts
India: raining less than 10 cm, which is
Tropical wet and dry (Aw)
‰ Stamp’s Classification less than 4% of the total amount
of rainfall recorded in a year.
‰ Koeppen’s Classifications
Dry Climates: These have been divided into desert or arid
Koeppen’s Classifications
types and steppe or semi-arid types. There are many things
A Koppen classification is an empirical classification based
that the two parts of climate have in common. Koeppen’s
on climatic data. Koppen considered climatic regions when
system for classifying climates uses a formula with three
defining them like
variables to show where wet and dry climates meet.
‰ The Mean Monthly Temperature
‰ The Mean Monthly Rainfall
Koppen Climate
Criteria
Classification Type
‰ The Mean Annual Rainfall
The amount of rain that falls
Koppen’s Classification Criteria Arid desert (BW) each year is less than 50% of the
rain threshold.
Humid Tropical Climate: Humid Tropical climates make up
The amount of rain that falls
half of the earth’s surface (over 40 per cent of the sea surface
Semi-arid steppe (BS) each year is more than 50% of
and 20 per cent of the land). Due to how dry they are, The hot
the rain threshold.
deserts of Arabia and North Africa are not suitable for this
type. The mean annual isotherm of 20°C is used to describe Warm temperate Climates: There are China, West European,
it. Most of the time, you can tell what kind of climate is most and Mediterranean climates within this group. In the
common by how the rain falls at different times of year. In month with the highest temperature, it was over 10°C. The
this belt, the temperature is mostly the same. temperature in the coldest month is between 18° and 0°C.

Climate of India 149

 Koeppen’s Climate These three broad climatic divisions were further subdivided
Criteria
Classification Type into sub-types based on seasonal variations in precipitation
The driest month of summer and temperature distribution patterns, for which the symbols
Mild temperate dry
gets less than 1/3 as much rain S, W, m, f, w, s, c, and h were used. Koeppen identified five
summer (Cs)
as the wettest month of winter. major climatic groups, four of which are temperature-based
The driest month of winter receives and one of which is precipitation-based.
Mild temperate dry winter
less than 1/10 as much rain as the
(Cw)
wettest month of summer.
Doesn’t fit the Cs or Cw types of
Mild temperate humid (Cf)
weather.
Cold Snow Forest Climates: Mid-latitude humid climates
bearing lower temperatures have been subdivided into the
following types
Koppen Climate
Criteria
Classification Type
The average summer
temperature is 15°C, and the
The Taiga Climate (Dwd/ summers last only a few weeks.
Dwe/Dfe) Winter lasts a long time and is
very cold. The temperature can
drop as low as -50°C.
Summers are hot, sticky, and
last a long time. The average
The Cool East Coast
temperature in the winter
Climate (Dwa)
ranges from 0°C to -40°C.
Rainfall comes and goes.
In the summer, it is warm, and the
temperature stays between 10°C
The Continental Climate
and 21°C for less time. During the Fig. 5.22: India Climatic Regions as per Koeppen
(Dfa)
winter, the temperature can drop
below freezing. Groups Characteristics
A-Tropical The average temperature in the coldest
The Cold/Polar Climate: The average temperature of the month is at least 18° C.
warmest month in a polar climate is less than 10°C. These B-Dry Climates The amount of water that could
are different because they don’t have a warm period and evaporate is greater than the amount
stay cold for a long time. This group of weather has been that could fall as rain or snow.
split into two types: Tundra climate, where the warmest C- Warm Temperate In (Mid-latitude) climates, the average
month is above freezing but below 10°C and Frozen climate, temperature of the coldest month of
where even the warmest month is below 0°C. the year is more than -3°C but less than
18°C.
Koppen Divided the Country into three Broad
D-Cold Snow forest The average temperature in the coldest
Climatic Zones month is at least -3° C.
1. Humid (A) E-Cold Climates The average temperature each month
2. Arid (B) is less than 10° C.
H-Highlands Cold due to the altitude.
3. Semi-Arid (C and D)
Koppen’s Classification of Indian Climate
Code Climate Type Features Temperature Rainfall Regions of India
Aw Tropical Tropical Savanna Hottest month– May (max. Occurs during Peninsular India,
savanna grassland, monsoon temp.: 40°C and min. the season of Jharkhand, Chattisgarh,
deciduous vegetation temp.: 27°C) Coldest month the southwest Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
temperature is greater than monsoon–July to Telangana, Maharashtra,
18°C High ranges of annual September Dry Karnataka, Purulia
and diurnal temperatures winters district of West Bengal

150 Indian Geography

Amw Tropical Short winter season Annual temperature ~24°C Heavy rainfall over Konkan, Malabar Coast,
monsoon luxurious evergreen rain to 27°C 200 cm during the adjoining areas of the
forests season of southwest Western Ghats, Plateaus
monsoon of Tamil Nadu, southern
areas of Tripura and
Mizoram
As Tropical moist Dry summers Mean monthly temperature Average rainfall Narrow zone along the
>18°C varies between 75 Coromandel Coast
and 100 cm 75% of
total rainfall occurs
between September
and December
BShw Semi-arid Hot and dry summers Maximum temperature as Seasonal rainfall (in Stretches over rain
steppe from March to May high as 40°C summer) shadow zone of
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
eastern Rajasthan,
Gujarat, south-western
Haryana
Cwg Mesothermal Hot desert type of Average temperature <18°C Below 40 cm Thar desert
climate; climate; dry winters and temperature of coldest
Gangetic Plain month >15°C
Type Max. temperature is
recorded in May or the first
half of June
Dfc Cold humid Short and humid Winter temperatures are Over 200 cm Sikkim, Arunachal
winter summer and cold humid about 10°C and summer Pradesh, Assam, Tripura,
winter temperature 30 to 35°C Mizoram
E Polar Areas remain under the Temperature of warmest Lesser rain on the Higher mountainous
ice during the greater month <10°C Temperature leeward side of areas of Jammu and
part of the year falls by 0.6°C for every 100 the mountains and Kashmir, Himachal
m rise in altitude in the heavy rainfall on the Pradesh, Uttarakhand
Himalayas well-exposed slopes
ET Tundra Polar ice caps, the soil Average temperature of Higher altitudes of
is frozen to hundreds of warmest month is between Ladakh, Kashmir,
metre depth, vegetation 0°C and 10°C Himachal Pradesh,
constitutes of mosses, Uttarakhand
lichens, dwarf trees,
scattered woody shrubs

because of the Coriolis force. Because the Coriolis force

CYCLONES isn’t very strong between 5 degrees north and 5 degrees
‰ Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances in the south, cyclonic systems don’t form in the equatorial
proximity of a low-pressure area, which are distinguished regions.
by quick and often disturbing air circulation. Henry ‰ Cyclone Prone Areas in India
Piddington coined the term cyclone, which is derived • Cyclones typically strike the East Coast of India, along
from the Greek word Cyclos, which means snake coils. the Bay of Bengal, that is, the states of West Bengal,
In meteorology, a cyclone is defined as a system of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, but also
winds rotating inwards to an area of low atmospheric parts of Maharashtra and Gujarat on the West Coast
composition, with anticlockwise circulation in the in front of the Arabian Sea.
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise circulation in the • Example: A very severe cyclonic storm Phailin in
Southern Hemisphere.
2013 and another severe cyclonic storm Hudhud
‰ When a huge amount of energy moves from the ocean in 2014 killed hundreds of people, cattle, and wild
to the air, this is called a cyclone. Studies show that 70 to animals, and damaged property, transportation, and
90 cyclonic systems form around the world every year. communication along the coasts of Andhra Pradesh,
The surface winds spiral towards the low-pressure area Odisha, and West Bengal.

Climate of India 151

 • The IMD (Indian Meteorological Department) vulnerable areas for parks, grazing grounds, or flood
classified Cyclone Mocha, which made landfall in diversion instead of human settlements.
Myanmar in 2023, as an Extremely Severe Cyclonic • Engineered Structures: Adopting good construction
Storm and a ‘Super Cyclone’ that originated in practices, such as building on stilts or earthen mounds
the Bay of Bengal. Amphan had a very high wind and ensuring buildings are wind and water-resistant.
speeds ranging up to 155-165 kmph gusting to
• Cyclone Shelters: Establishing cyclone shelters
185 kmph in 2020, Tauktae had a surface wind
in areas prone to cyclones for the protection of
speed of 160-170 kmph gusting to 185 kmph at the
residents.
time of landfall in 2021, and Gonu had a speed of
210 km/hr in 2007. • Flood Management: Building barriers along rivers
and coasts to prevent flooding in vulnerable areas.
Correlation Between Cyclones and Indian • Plantation of Mangroves: Involving communities
Climate in mangrove plantation efforts organized by local
‰ Monsoon Influence: Cyclones play a crucial role in the authorities, NGOs, or the community itself.
Indian summer monsoon. The formation and movement
of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea can
impact the distribution of rainfall during the monsoon IGNITE YOUR MIND
season. Cyclones bring heavy rainfall to coastal regions
and, in some cases, can enhance the overall monsoon IMD stops recording monsoon data after September
precipitation. 30 but certain parts of India now receive high rainfall
‰ Cyclone Tracks: The paths that cyclones take can affect in October month. Do you think that the monsoon
different parts of India differently. For example, cyclones period in India should be redefined? In your opinion
that move northward from the Bay of Bengal can bring what weather phenomenon can be attributed to this
heavy rainfall to the eastern and northeastern parts of unusual rainfall?
India, while those moving westward from the Arabian
Sea can impact the western coast.
Diverse Impacts of the Indian Monsoon
‰ Flooding and Storm Surge: Cyclones often bring heavy
The Indian monsoon, a unique climatic phenomenon, plays a
rainfall, leading to flooding in coastal and low-lying areas.
pivotal role in shaping the diverse climate of India.
‰ Tropical Cyclones: India experiences tropical cyclones,
which are low-pressure systems characterized by strong This Diversity is Characterized by Various Factors
winds and heavy rain. The frequency and intensity of Associated with the Monsoon System
tropical cyclones in the region can vary from year to year,
‰ Spatial Variability:
influenced by factors such as sea surface temperatures,
atmospheric conditions, and climate phenomena like El • The Indian subcontinent experiences spatial
Niño and La Niña. variations in monsoon dynamics, resulting in different
‰ Impact on Agriculture: Cyclones can have both positive regional climates.
and negative effects on agriculture. While they bring • Coastal regions, such as the west coast, receive heavy
much-needed rainfall, excessive rainfall during a short rainfall due to orographic effects, while inland areas
period can lead to waterlogging and damage crops. like the Thar Desert may be arid.
On the other hand, regions experiencing a deficit in ‰ Seasonal Shifts:
monsoon rainfall may benefit from cyclonic activity. • The Indian monsoon follows a distinct seasonal
‰ Cyclone Seasons: The primary seasons for cyclones in the pattern.
North Indian Ocean are the pre-monsoon (April to June) • The southwest monsoon, occurring from June to
and post-monsoon (October to December) periods. The September, brings the majority of the annual rainfall.
Bay of Bengal is more active during the pre-monsoon
In contrast, the post-monsoon and winter months
season, while the Arabian Sea is more active during the
experience drier conditions.
post-monsoon season.
‰ Temperature Modulation:
‰ General Mitigation and Preparedness Measures Against
Cyclone • The monsoon significantly influences temperature
• Mapping Hazards: Displaying cyclone hazards on patterns.
a map to show the frequency and probability of • The arrival of the southwest monsoon brings relief
different intensities or durations. from high temperatures, cooling the subcontinent.
• Regulating Land Use: Implementing policies to control Conversely, the post-monsoon and winter seasons
land use and enforce building codes. Designating witness lower temperatures.

152 Indian Geography

‰ Agricultural Impact: ‰ Floods: Excessive rainfall, especially during the monsoon,
• The diversity in monsoonal rainfall profoundly affects can lead to floods, causing damage to infrastructure,
agriculture. displacing communities, and affecting agriculture.
• Regions receiving abundant rainfall during the monsoon ‰ Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD):
season are suitable for cultivating crops, while areas • Positive IOD: A positive IOD phase, characterized
with less rainfall may face agricultural challenges, by warmer sea surface temperatures in the western
necessitating water management strategies. Indian Ocean, can enhance monsoonal rainfall in
‰ Economic Implications: India.
• The diversity in monsoonal patterns influences ‰ El Niño: El Niño events, characterized by warmer-than-
economic activities. average sea surface temperatures in the central and
• Sectors like agriculture, which heavily depend on eastern Pacific Ocean, can lead to reduced monsoonal
seasonal rainfall, are directly impacted. rainfall and drought conditions in India.
ˆ Adequate monsoonal rainfall is crucial for crop
yields and food production. Impact on Agriculture
‰ Ecological Variations: ‰ Water Availability for Crops: Adequate monsoon rains
• The monsoon shapes the ecological diversity across are crucial for providing sufficient water to crops.
India. Insufficient rainfall can lead to drought conditions,
• Regions with heavy rainfall support lush vegetation, affecting crop yields and water availability for irrigation.
diverse ecosystems, and biodiversity. ‰ Crop Planting and Growth: Monsoons play a vital role
• In contrast, arid regions may have unique flora and in determining the timing and success of crop planting.
fauna adapted to water scarcity. The timely onset of monsoons is essential for farmers to
‰ Climatic Extremes: initiate sowing, and a well-distributed rainfall pattern is
• The diversity in monsoonal behavior contributes to crucial for the proper growth of crops.
climatic extremes. ‰ Crop Yields: Favorable monsoon conditions contribute to
• Excessive rainfall during the monsoon can lead to higher crop yields. Conversely, erratic or deficient rainfall
floods, while deficient rainfall may result in drought can lead to crop failure, impacting food production and
conditions. the livelihoods of farmers.
• These extremes impact water availability, ‰ Crops Vulnerable to Excess Rainfall: Excessive rainfall
infrastructure, and livelihoods. during the monsoon season can lead to waterlogging and
‰ Hydrological Dynamics: flooding in certain areas, particularly low-lying regions.
• The monsoon significantly influences hydrological This can adversely affect crops like rice and pulses that
cycles, replenishing rivers, reservoirs, and are vulnerable to waterlogged conditions.
groundwater. ‰ Disease Outbreaks: Monsoons create a conducive
• Regions with abundant monsoonal rainfall contribute to environment for the spread of diseases affecting crops.
the water resources that sustain various human activities. Excessive moisture can lead to the outbreak of fungal
‰ Cultural Significance: and bacterial diseases, impacting the health of plants
• The monsoon holds cultural significance in India, and reducing yields.
influencing festivals, traditions, and daily life. ‰ Impact on Cash Crops: Cash crops, such as cotton and
• Seasonal shifts are often celebrated, and the cultural sugarcane, are significantly influenced by monsoon
practices of different regions reflect the dependence patterns. Adequate rainfall is essential for these crops,
on monsoonal cycles.
and variations in monsoon conditions can directly affect
Understanding the diversity in the Indian monsoon is the economic well-being of farmers involved in cash crop
crucial for adapting to climatic variations, managing water cultivation.
resources, and developing strategies for sustainable
‰ Shifts in Crop Patterns: Unpredictable monsoons may
agriculture and economic activities. The dynamic interplay
lead to shifts in crop patterns. Farmers might alter their
between the monsoon and the climate underscores the
complexity of India’s weather patterns and the need for choice of crops based on rainfall expectations, affecting
diverse approaches to climate resilience. the overall agricultural landscape.
‰ Food Security: The monsoon’s impact on agriculture
Extreme Weather Events directly influences food production and, subsequently,
‰ Droughts: Periods of deficient rainfall can lead to food security. A poor monsoon season can lead to
droughts, impacting water availability, agriculture, and shortages in staple food items, affecting both rural and
overall socio-economic conditions. urban populations.

Climate of India 153

‰ Livestock and Pasture Availability: Monsoon conditions extreme weather events associated with the monsoon,
also influence pasture availability for livestock. such as heavy rainfall, cyclones, and floods. These
Inadequate rainfall can lead to a shortage of fodder, warnings are crucial for facilitating timely evacuations
affecting the health and productivity of livestock. and disaster preparedness.
‰ Economic Impact on Farmers: Monsoon variability ‰ Agricultural Advisory Services: The government
can lead to economic stress for farmers. Crop failures provides agricultural advisory services to farmers based
or lower yields reduce income, affecting the financial on monsoon forecasts. These services offer guidance
stability of agricultural communities. on optimal sowing times, crop selection, and water
management practices, enabling farmers to make
informed decisions.
IGNITE YOUR MIND ‰ Drought Management Strategies: In anticipation
of deficient monsoons and drought conditions, the
As you might know Makar Sankranti, Pongal, and government develops and implements drought
Lohri are festivals celebrated during the winter management strategies. These strategies involve water
season and they mark the harvest of crops like conservation measures, provision of relief to affected
sugarcane, rice, and wheat. Can you analyze the role areas, and support for alternative livelihoods during
of Winter Harvest Festivals in promoting agricultural periods of water scarcity.
sustainability and rural development. How can these
‰ National Disaster Response Force (NDRF): The NDRF
festivals be leveraged to enhance farmers’ income
plays a crucial role in disaster response during extreme
and address agrarian challenges?
weather events linked to the monsoon. NDRF teams
are deployed in vulnerable areas for search and rescue
Government Monitoring and Management operations, evacuation, and providing humanitarian
‰ India Meteorological Department (IMD): The primary assistance.
agency responsible for monitoring and forecasting ‰ Research and Development: The government invests
monsoons in India is the India Meteorological Department in research and development initiatives to improve
(IMD). IMD employs advanced technologies, satellite the understanding of monsoon dynamics. This
imagery, and weather models to track the progression of includes collaborations with scientific institutions and
the monsoon across the country. international organizations to enhance the country’s
‰ Monsoon Mission: The Ministry of Earth Sciences in capability to predict and manage monsoons effectively.
India launched the Monsoon Mission, an initiative aimed ‰ Climate Adaptation and Resilience Building: Government
at improving the prediction of the monsoon. It involves policies and programs emphasize climate adaptation
research and the use of advanced technology, including
and resilience building in the face of changing monsoon
high-performance computing, to enhance the accuracy
patterns. This involves incorporating climate-smart
of monsoon forecasts.
practices in various sectors, such as agriculture, water
‰ Seasonal Climate Outlook: IMD releases seasonal management, and infrastructure development.
climate outlooks, providing predictions for the upcoming
monsoon season. These outlooks are crucial for farmers,
policymakers, and various sectors to plan and make
CONCLUSION
informed decisions based on expected rainfall patterns. India’s climate is diverse and influenced by various
‰ Hydro-Meteorological Services: Government agencies, geographical features, including its vast size, topography,
including the Central Water Commission (CWC) and and proximity to the equator. India’s climatic diversity
the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), influences various aspects of life, including agriculture,
work in coordination to provide hydro-meteorological water management, and regional ecosystems. The country’s
services. These services include monitoring river levels, climate resilience is challenged by factors such as climate
water storage in reservoirs, and issuing flood alerts change, leading to shifts in weather patterns and increasing
based on IMD forecasts. frequency of extreme events. Sustainable climate policies
‰ Early Warning Systems: The government has implemented and adaptation strategies are crucial for addressing these
early warning systems to alert communities about challenges and ensuring the well-being of the population.

154 Indian Geography

 Soils of India 6
material), organic matter (decayed plants and animals), air,
INTRODUCTION and water.
Pedology is the scientific study of soil, which focuses on Pedogenesis: Soil is made under certain natural conditions,
the formation, classification, and mapping of soils, as well and each part of the natural environment plays a role in this
as their physical, chemical, and biological properties. It complicated process, which soil scientists call pedogenesis
examines the factors that influence soil development, such or soil formation. It is the natural process of soil formation
as climate, topography, organisms, and parent material. that includes weathering, leaching, calcification, and other
processes.
Biogeography is the interdisciplinary study of the distribution
Soil is a product of several factors: the influence of climate,
of species and ecosystems across geographical space and
relief (elevation, orientation, and slope of terrain), organisms,
through geological time. It explores the interactions between
natural vegetation, land use practices, microorganisms, and
living organisms and their environments, considering factors the soil’s parent materials (original minerals) interacting
like climate, landforms, and historical events that shape the over time. These factors do not act on soil independently
spatial patterns of biodiversity. or in isolation, but rather in close association, resulting in a
complex network of interrelationships.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SOIL

FORMATION
‰ Active factors: Climate and biotic agents serve as the
sources of energy that operate on the material to build
soil.
‰ Passive factors: These include parent material, relief,
and time, which stand for the origin of the soil-forming
mass and the factors that influence it.
‰ Climate: Temperature and rainfall affect the formation
of soil as they influence how well weathering, water
seepage, and microorganisms work. In different climates,
Fig. 6.1: Different Soil Textures different types of soil can be made from different kinds
Soil is a combination of rock debris and organic materials of parent materials. In wet places, crystalline granites
which develop on the earth’s surface. Relief, parent material, make laterite soil, and in some parts of Tamil Nadu, we
climate, vegetation, other life forms, and time are the major can find black soil. Due to evaporation and the build-up
factors influencing soil formation. of lime, the soil in dry and semi-dry areas is light, while
Aside from these, human activities have a significant impact the soil in the Himalayas is acidic and the decay of plants
on it. Mineral particles, humus, water, and air are soil is slow.
components. The exact amount of each of these determines ‰ Parent Rock: The materials from which soils originate are
the type of soil. Some soils are deficient in one or more of referred to as parent materials, and, in most cases, they
these, while others have varying combinations. dictate the soil’s coloration, mineral composition, and
Composition: Soil is mostly made-up of mineral or rock texture.
particles, a small amount of decomposed organic matter, • The physical properties of the soil that forms may or
soil water, soil air, and living organisms. These things live may not align with those of the parent rock in certain
together in a complex and changing way. Natural soil is cases.
affected by its parent material, topography, its climatic • Chemical changes induced by climatic factors also
condition, the physical, chemical, and biological agents impact the physical properties of the soil.
(microorganisms) in it, its usage, and the passage of time. • Surface rocks undergo weathering processes,
Components: In general, soil is made up of four things: transforming them into fine grains that form the
Inorganic or mineral matter (which comes from the parent basis for soil development.
 • Within Indian conditions, the parent material is
generally classified based on the types of rocks
present.
• Red soils, derived from ancient crystalline and
metamorphic rocks, exhibit their characteristic color
due to the presence of iron oxides.
• Calcareous and argillaceous soils result from
Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks, which are ancient
sedimentary rocks lacking metalliferous minerals.
• Gondwana rocks contribute to soils with low fertility
and less maturity, given their status as younger
sedimentary rocks.
• Deccan basalts give rise to regur or black soils, the
Fig. 6.2: Genesis of Soil Structure
dark colour of which is attributed to the richness of
titanium, magnetite, aluminum, and magnesium in Biological Activity
the basalts. ‰ Microorganisms and plants significantly contribute to
‰ Biotic organisms: Natural vegetation in India plays a soil formation.
crucial role in soil formation and development, with ‰ Decay of organic matter by microbes produces humus,
decayed leaf material adding humus and increasing enhancing soil structure and fertility.
fertility. Densely forested areas contain some of the best
soils in India. Initiating Soil Formation
• Vegetation helps control soil erosion, facilitates ‰ The genesis of soil structure begins with the physical
percolation and drainage, and increases mineral and chemical disintegration of rocks.
dissolution through carbon dioxide and acidic ‰ Rocks exposed to the atmosphere and water percolation
substances. Burrowing animals and microorganisms initiate this process.
play a significant role in soil formation, affecting
humification and mineralization.
Result of Weathering
‰ The fundamental outcome is the weakening and
‰ Time: Soils that have been subjected to soil formation
processes over a longer length of time are deeper, more breakdown of solid rocks.
developed, and comparatively more fertile. ‰ Results in the creation of smaller rock particles from
‰ Topography or Relief: Relief is the most important larger ones.
component in soil formation in areas with steep slopes,
such as mountainous regions, plateau boundaries, and so
on. Soil formation is hampered by rampant soil erosion
on bare hillsides. Example: Chambal ravines, upper parts
of the Himalayas with less forest cover, and so forth.

SOIL DEVELOPMENT: GENESIS OF

SOIL-STRUCTURE
Processes Contributing to Soil Formation
Weathering
‰ Weathering is the process of disintegration leading to
the breakdown and weakening of solid rock. It involves
the transformation of larger rocks into smaller ones.
‰ Primary cause of residual soil formation in India,
contributing to red and black soils.
Leaching
‰ Process of water percolating through soil, which carries
away soluble minerals.
‰ In regions with heavy rainfall, like the Western Ghats,
leaching forms lateritic soils rich in iron and aluminium
Fig. 6.3: Soil and Soil Formation
oxides.

156 Indian Geography

Regolith Formation ‰ Decayed Plant Matter: Some O layers consist of partially
‰ Regolith (“blanket rock”) covers intact rock beneath in a decayed plant matter accumulating on the soil surface.
blanket-like manner. ‰ Location: Found on both mineral and organic soils.
‰ Primary Outcome: The primary outcome of weathering ‰ Hydration: Unlike other horizons, O horizons are not
is the formation of a layer of loose inorganic material consistently saturated with water for prolonged periods.
known as regolith. ‰ Topsoil Enrichment:
‰ Composition of Regolith: • Rich in Humus: Part of the top soil which is rich in
• Comprises material weathered from underlying rock. organic material, especially humus.
• Dark Color: Imparts a dark color to the soil.
• Exhibits a gradual variation in particle sizes, with
larger fragments near the bedrock.
‰ Particle Size Gradation:Within the regolith, there is
a gradual change in particle sizes, with the largest
fragments near the bedrock.
‰ Regolith Composition Variation: Occasionally, regolith
may comprise material transported from other locations,
leading to significant composition variations.
‰ Upper Regolith Differentiation: The upper half-metre of
the regolith displays distinctions, particularly in biological
and chemical processes.
Formation of Soil
‰ This upper portion is recognized as soil, consisting of
finely fragmented mineral particles.
‰ It represents the final outcome of weathering processes.
‰ Components of Soil: Soil comprises various components:
root systems, decaying plant matter, microscopic flora
and fauna, air, and moisture.
Continual Evolution
‰ Soil is not the end product but a stage in an ongoing
sequence of physical, chemical, and biological processes.
‰ In forested regions, abundant organic matter
accumulates, leading to the formation of rich, dark forest Fig. 6.4: Soil Profile
soils. ‰ Importance:
• Nutrient Source: It serves as a source of nutrients for
SOIL PROFILE plants.
The soil profile is a vertical section through different layers • Biological Activity: It supports various biological
activities in the soil.
of soil. The texture, colour, depth, and chemical composition
‰ Decay Variation:
of each layer vary.
• Decomposition Levels: It varies from partially
Soil Horizon decomposed to undecomposed litter.
A layer that is generally parallel to the soil surface and has • Organic Enrichment: It contributes to the organic
physical properties that differ from the layers above and enrichment of the soil profile.
beneath it. In most cases, these are distinguished by obvious A-Horizon
physical characteristics, most notably colour and texture. ‰ Position: The A horizon is a mineral horizon. This horizon
O-Horizon always forms at the surface and is what many people
refer to as topsoil.
‰ Composition:
‰ Composition: This layer is composed of a mixture of
• Organic Material: It is primarily composed of organic both organic and mineral matter.
material.
‰ Organic Richness:
• Components: It includes partially decomposed or • The A horizon displays a significant accumulation of
undecomposed litter such as leaves, needles, twigs, organic matter.
moss, and lichens. • It supports a diverse population of soil organisms.

Soils of India 157

‰ Leaching Effects: Within the A horizon, there is a ‰ Occurrence: The eluviated horizons are typically found in
reduction of substances like iron, clay, aluminum, and well-developed, older soils.
soluble components due to leaching. ‰ Position: They generally occur between the A and B
‰ Subsurface Variation: In cases of pronounced depletion, horizons, contributing to the vertical arrangement of soil
a lighter-colored “E” subsurface horizon can be observed layers.
just beneath the A horizon. ‰ Characteristics of E Horizon:
‰ Characteristics of A Horizon: • Residue of Minerals: The resistant minerals like
• Texture: The layer is soft enough to accommodate quartz are the residue left after leaching.
both water and air. • Soil Development Indicator: Presence of E horizon is
• Seed Germination: This layer is crucial for the an indicator of advanced soil development.
germination of seeds. • Vertical Arrangement: It plays a crucial role in the
• Organism Support: It provides food for organisms vertical stratification of soil layers.
such as earthworms and fungi. • Age of Soil: Commonly found in soils that have
• Depleted Constituents: Iron, clay, aluminum, organic undergone extensive weathering and development.
compounds, and other soluble constituents are
depleted in this layer. B-Horizon
• Eluviation Layer: The A horizon is categorized as an ‰ The B-Horizon is a sub-surface layer that indicates the
eluviation layer. chemical or physical modifications of the original parent
material.
Eluviation: It is the procedure by which soil constituents ‰ Characteristics of B Horizon:
are washed out from the higher levels to the bottom layer • Mineral Retention: This horizon retains minerals
by percolating water. leached from upper horizons, contributing to its
‰ Factors Influencing Eluviation: distinct composition.
• Rainfall: Intensity and frequency of rainfall affect • Subsurface Accumulation: It is characterized by the
the rate of eluviation. accumulation of various components beneath the
• High Temperatures: Temperature variations soil surface.
contribute to the eluviation process. • Leaching Impact: It reflects the impact of leaching
• Vegetation Removal: The removal of protective processes from the overlying horizons.
vegetation influences eluviation rates. • Diverse Composition: The composition can vary, and
‰ Material Removal in Eluviation: In the worst cases, it plays a crucial role in soil fertility and structure.
eluviation can remove materials that don’t dissolve, • Parent Material Transformation: Indicates the
like quartz, iron and aluminium hydroxides, and iron transformation of the original parent material over
oxides. A good example of this kind of soil is laterite. time.
‰ Application: Eluviation is a common process in • Alteration of Parent Material: It represents a layer
forest soils, where water percolating from the top to where the original parent material has undergone
the bottom of the soil moves nutrients. In this way, changes either chemically or physically.
eluviation helps the cycle of materials needed to keep • Mineral Accumulation: The B horizon accumulates
forest plants alive and healthy. minerals that were leached from the A and E horizons
above.
• Accumulated Components: This horizon accumulates
E Horizon
iron, clay, aluminum, and organic compounds due to
‰ E-Horizon is characterized by the loss of a considerable the leaching process.
amount of clay, iron oxides, and aluminum oxides, • Subsurface Nature: All B horizons are, or initially
leaving behind resistant minerals like quartz in the sand were, situated beneath the surface of the soil profile.
and silt sizes.
‰ Significance of “E”: The term “E” signifies the eluviated Illuviation is the process of water movement causing
layer, indicating a specific soil horizon. dissolved substances or particles in water to settle into
‰ Leaching Process: This horizon has undergone significant lower soil layers.
leaching of substances like clay, iron, and aluminum ‰ Soil Horizon Dynamics:
oxides. • Surface Horizons: Near the surface, soil horizons
‰ Resistant Minerals: Due to leaching, there is a are full of life, organic matter, and change rapidly.
concentration of durable minerals, such as quartz, found • Deep Horizons: Deeper soil horizons tend to be
in the sand and silt particles. more stable.

158 Indian Geography

 • Sub-surface Composition: It contributes to the
‰ Influence of Rainfall:
overall composition of the soil profile.
• Rainfall significantly impacts soil changes over
time. R-Horizon
• B horizons, influenced by clay minerals, iron, ‰ The R-Horizon represents the layer of partially weathered
humus, and calcium carbonate buildup, often bedrock found at the bottom of the soil profile.
undergo substantial changes. ‰ Characteristics:
‰ Factors Leading to Illuviation: ‰ Continuous Masses of Hard Rock: Unlike preceding
• Clay Minerals: Accumulation of clay minerals in B layers, R-Horizon mainly consists of continuous masses
horizons. of hard rock.
• Iron: Buildup of iron content. ‰ Similarities to Bedrock: Soils formed in situ will share
• Humus: Presence and buildup of organic matter. significant similarities with this bedrock layer.
• Calcium Carbonate: Accumulation of calcium ‰ Underlying Depth: Typically located underneath other
carbonate. profiles, often at depths exceeding 50 feet.
‰ Material Seepage:
‰ Examples of Bedrock: Designations include rocks like
• Illuviation is primarily driven by material seepage granite, basalt, quartzite, and indurated limestone or
from the upper layers. sandstone.
• Substances and particles are transported
‰ Significance:
downwards by the movement of water.
• Striking Similarities: Soils formed in situ will closely
‰ Overall Impact: resemble this layer, indicating a connection to the
• Illuviation contributes to the development and underlying bedrock.
transformation of soil horizons. • Geological Context: It provides insights into the
• It plays a crucial role in the differentiation and geological history and composition of the area.
characteristics of various soil layers. • Depth Indicator: It is positioned at the bottom,
indicating underlying depths beyond 50 feet.
C-Horizon
• Bedrock Identification: It helps identify bedrock
The C-Horizon represents a layer where weathered parent types such as granite, basalt, quartzite, and indurated
material, particularly in sedimentary deposits, accumulates. limestone or sandstone.
‰ Characteristics:
• Accumulated Weathered Material: This horizon GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC
accumulates weathered parent material, especially
in sedimentary deposits. FEATURES OF INDIAN SOILS
• Layer of Large Rocks: Characterized by the presence 1. Formation and Distribution:
of larger, unbroken rocks, which contributes to its • Diverse landscape influences soil formation, with
distinct composition. factors like rock type, climate, and vegetation.
• Accumulation of Soluble Compounds: It might • Alluvial soils dominate northern plains and river
accumulate more soluble compounds (inorganic valleys, known for fertility.
substances). • Black soils, rich in organic matter, found in parts of
• Potential Modification: The C horizon can undergo the Deccan Plateau, ideal for cotton cultivation.
modification, even without clear signs of soil • Red and yellow soils in peninsular India, often
formation (pedogenesis). deficient in nutrients.
• Plant Growth Medium: Despite being less developed, 2. Texture and Structure:
plant roots can penetrate into the C horizon, making
• Vary in texture, ranging from sandy to loamy to clayey.
it important as a medium for plant growth.
• Loamy soils considered ideal for agriculture due to
‰ Significance: good drainage and water-holding capacity.
• Weathered Parent Material: It acts as a repository • Sandy soils drain quickly with low water-holding
for weathered parent material. capacity; clayey soils prone to waterlogging.
• Geological Impact: It reflects geological processes in
3. Chemical Properties:
forming sedimentary deposits.
• Many soils naturally acidic, requiring lime addition
• Root Penetration: It is important for plant root
for optimal crop growth.
penetration despite larger rocks.
• Common nutrient deficiencies in nitrogen,
• Early Soil Formation: It represents an early stage in phosphorus, and potassium, necessitating fertilizer
soil profile development. use.

Soils of India 159

 • Low organic matter content, emphasizing the need the country got its independence, different agencies
for organic farming practices. have done scientific surveys of the soil.
4. Salinity and Alkalinity: ‰ The Soil Survey of India was set up in 1956, it did detailed
• Coastal areas and arid regions may have saline or studies of the soil in places like the Damodar Valley. The
alkaline soils, limiting agricultural productivity. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), which
• Crucial to use land reclamation techniques and salt- is in charge of agricultural research, had the National
tolerant crops in such areas. Bureau of Soil Survey and the Land Use Planning
5. Erosion and Degradation: Institute do much research on Indian soils.
• Soil erosion, driven by deforestation, intensive ‰ ICAR’s Soil Classification: In order to study soil and
agriculture, and overgrazing, poses a major threat to make it comparable internationally, the Indian Council
fertility. of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has put Indian soils
into groups based on their nature and characteristics.
• Essential to implement sustainable land management
These groups are based on the Soil Taxonomy by U.S.
practices and soil conservation efforts. Department of Agriculture (USDA).
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL IN INDIA National Bureau of Soil Survey (NBSS) have put Indian soils
The first scientific classification of Indian soils was made by into four groups based on where they came from, what they
Voeleker (1893) and Leather (1898). According to them, the are made of, what colour they are, and where they are.
Indian soils may be classified into four categories, namely 1. Alluvial soils
alluvial, regur (black-earth), red soil, and lateritic soil. 2. Black soils
‰ Urvara and Usara: India has varied relief features, 3. Red and Yellow soils
landforms, climatic realms and vegetation types. India 4. Laterite soils
has a lot of different kinds of soil because of these things.
5. Arid soils
In the past, soils were put into two main groups: Urvara
and Usara. Urvara, represented fertile soils and was 6. Saline soils
good for growing plants, and Usara represented sterile 7. Peaty soils
soils and did not support vegetative growth. 8. Forest soils
‰ Characteristics-Based Groups: In the 16th century A.D.,
soils were put into groups based on their internal and
external characteristics, such as texture, colour, land
slope, and the amount of water in the soil.
ICAR has classified the soils of India into the
following order as per the USDA soil taxonomy
Area (in Thousand
S. No. Order Percentage
Hectares)
(i) Inceptisols 130372.90 39.74
(ii) Entisols 92131.71 28.08
(iii) Alfisols 44448.68 13.55
(iv) Vertisols 27960.00 8.52
(v) Aridisols 14069.00 4.28
(vi) Ultisols 8250.00 2.51
(vii) Mollisols 1320.00 0.40
(viii) Others 9503.10 2.92
Total 100

Fig. 6.8: ICAR classification - The Soil of India

‰ Texture-Color Classification: The main types of soil were
found to be sandy, clayey, silty loam, and so on. They
were red, yellow, black, etc., based on their colour. Since Fig. 6.5: Major soil Types

160 Indian Geography

Alluvial Soil ‰ Characteristics: Most of the things in these soils came
The alluvial soil covers approximately 143.1 million square from the Himalayan region or were left behind by the sea
kilometres, accounting for approximately 43.4% of the total when it went away. In the Peninsular region, they live
reporting area. along the east coast in the river valleys and deltas. The
‰ Origin: It originates primarily from silt deposits carried texture of these soils is more like sand and clay.
by the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Rivers and coastal ‰ Distribution: In the Brahmaputra valley and the middle
regions through wave actions. and lower Ganga plains. There are a lot of alluvial soils in
‰ Source Material: Himalayan rocks act as the primary the northern plains and river valleys. Through a narrow
source material for alluvial soils. corridor, they reach from Rajasthan to the plains of
‰ Extensive Coverage: The alluvial soil constitutes the Gujarat. In the Peninsular region, they live along the east
largest soil group, covering approximately 45.6% of coast in the river valleys and deltas.
India’s total area.
‰ Minerals: There are various types of alluvial soils, from
‰ Population Support: It is pivotal for sustaining over 40%
sandy loam to clay. They are rich in potash but poor in
of India’s population.
phosphorus.
‰ Immature Profile: It generally possesses weak, immature
‰ Colour: The alluvial soils range from light grey to ash grey
profiles.
in colour and from sandy to silty loam in texture. Both
‰ Texture: It is pre-dominantly loamy, with variations of
good and bad drainage can be found in these soils.
sandy and clayey compositions. Pebbly and gravelly
compositions are rare. ‰ Profile: They generally have an immature profile in

‰ Porosity and Drainage: It is notably porous due to loamy undulating areas and a well-developed and mature
nature, aiding in efficient drainage. profile in levelled areas.In the lower and middle Ganga
‰ Kankar Beds: Some regions harbor kankar beds along plains as well as the Brahmaputra valley, the soils exhibit
river terraces. a higher proportion of loam and clay.
‰ Recurrent Replenishment: Regular replenishment These Soils May be Divided Into
results from periodic floods. ‰ The Khadar soils are low, so they often get flooded when
‰ Chemical Traits: it rains. Because of this, the khadar is in the flood plains
• Nitrogen Proportion: Nitrogen content is typically of the rivers and gets new silt every year. It also has
low. long stretches of salty and alkaline blooms called “Reh,”
• Nutrient Content: Satisfactory levels of potash, “Kallar,” and “Thur” by the people who live there.
phosphoric acid (phosphate), and alkalis (lime). ‰ The Bhangar soil is higher than the flood level. It is
Variable iron and lime levels.
generally well-drained but contains impure calcium
‰ Agriculture and Crops:
carbonate concretion (kankars). The texture of the soil
• Suitability: Highly suitable for agriculture due to flat ranges from loamy to clayey-loam. It has a good drainage
and uniform characteristics.
system.
• Irrigation: Optimal suitability for both canal and well/
• Nature: It is made from older alluvial soil, generally
tube-well irrigation methods.
clayey, with characteristic kankars.
• Rich Crop Varieties: Yields abundant harvests of
crops like Rice, Wheat, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Cotton, • Features: It forms terrace-like structures above the
Jute, Maize, and Oilseeds. flood plain.

Characteristic Bhabar Terai Khadar Bhangar

Northernmost part of Narrow track of swampy Riverbanks and floodplains Made from older alluvial
Area Gangetic plain, 8-16 km land, south of Bhabar soil
wide
Along the Shivalik South of Bhabar Extends along riverbanks and Generally clayey, found
Location foothills floodplains above floodplain
Alluvial fans deposited Lost rivers of Bhabar make Regular deposition of silt and Formed from older
Deposition by rivers from hills reappearance fine particles alluvial soil
Large trees with big Suitable for large trees, Enriched by new silt annually, Terrace-like structures,
Vegetation roots due to porosity not ideal for agriculture suitable for crops suitable for agriculture

Soils of India 161

Black Soil Red and Yellow Soil
‰ Black soil covers about 15% of the total land area of the Red soil forms on crystalline igneous rocks in low-rainfall
country. areas of the Deccan Plateau’s eastern and southern reaches.
‰ It encompasses most of the Deccan Plateau. It covers about 18.5 % of the total land area of the country.
‰ Prominence: Red soils, along with their minor variations,
‰ It is also known as “Regur Soil” or “Black Cotton Soil.”
constitute a significant soil group in India.
‰ It retains moisture for an extended period.
‰ Parent Rock: Major parent rocks are crystalline and
‰ Characteristics of Black Soils:
metamorphic, including acid granites, gneisses, and
• Clay Dominance: Clay-rich (62% or more). quartzite.
• Fertility Variability: Upland soils are less fertile, while ‰ Distinctive Color:
valley soils are more fertile. • These soils appear red due to the presence of iron
• Moisture Retention: Retains moisture effectively, oxides.
aiding in irrigation • Exhibit a yellow hue when found in a hydrated state.
• Expansion and Contraction: Swells significantly when ‰ Chemical Composition of Red Soils:
moist and develops deep cracks in dry seasons. • Acidic Nature: Red soils is generally acidic due to the
‰ Color Diversity: characteristics of their parent rocks. They contain a
• Black color comes from iron-rich parent rock. fair amount of alkali content.
• Presence of magnetite or iron and black constituents. • Deficiencies: These soils are deficient in lime,
• Various tints of the black color. magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen, and humus.
• Potassium Content: Red soils are fairly rich in potash
‰ Chemical Composition:
and potassium.
• Its constituents include 10% alumina, 9-10% iron
‰ Texture Variation: Red soils can exhibit a range of
oxide, 6-8% lime and magnesium carbonates,
textures from sand to clay, with a majority being loams.
variable potash (less than 0.5%), and low levels of
‰ Topographical Influence: On uplands, red soils tend to
phosphates, nitrogen, and organic matter.
be poor, gravelly, and porous, while in lower areas, they
‰ Crops:
are rich, deep, dark, and fertile.
• It is suited for cotton cultivation and various crops
‰ Distribution of Red Soils:
like wheat, jowar, linseed, virginia tobacco, castor,
• Red soils are commonly found in regions with low
sunflower, and millet. rainfall.
• Rice and sugarcane flourish with irrigation facilities. • They cover an area of about 3.5 lakh sq km (10.6%)
• It is utilised for centuries without substantial fertilizers in India.
or manures, exhibiting limited signs of depletion. • They have an extensive presence in states like Tamil
‰ Self-ploughing: These soils are also referred to as “Regur Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra
Soil” or “Black Cotton Soil.” Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha,
• The black soils are typically clayey, deep, and Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
impervious. When wet, they swell and become sticky, and parts of Northeastern states as well as in the
and when dry, they shrink. As a result, during the dry southern reaches of the Ganga plain.
season, these soils develop large cracks. ‰ Crops in Red Soils:
• As a result, there is some self-ploughing. Because of • Due to their mostly loamy nature, red soils have
its slow absorption and loss of moisture, black soil lesser water retention compared to black soils.
retains moisture for an extended period, which aids • With the appropriate use of fertilizers and irrigation,
in irrigation. red soils can yield crops like cotton, wheat, rice,
pulses, millets, tobacco, oilseeds, potatoes, and
‰ Distribution: It covers most of the Deccan Plateau and
fruits.
parts of the states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu, Laterite Soil
covering 5.46 lakh sq km (16.6% of total area).In the Laterite was named after the Latin word “later” which means
upper parts of the Godavari and Krishna rivers and in the “brick”. Laterite soils form in areas with high temperatures
northwestern part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil and rainfall. These are the results of heavy leaching from
is very deep. tropical rains. Laterite soils are commonly cut into bricks

162 Indian Geography

for use in building houses. It accounts for about 3.7% of the • Laterites are thus unsuitable for cultivation; however,
total area of the country. manure and fertiliser application is required to make
‰ Formation: the soils fertile for cultivation.
• This soil is the end product of weathering under high • Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and
temperature and heavy rainfall conditions. Kerala are better suited for cashew nut cultivation.
• It results from alternating wet and dry periods. Tapioca and cashew nuts, tea, coffee etc are other
‰ Leaching Effect:
examples.
• Heavy rainfall leads to leaching, washing away ‰ Economic Value of Laterite – Lateritic Soils:
nutrients like lime and silica. • The soil serves as valuable building materials.
• Leaves behind a soil rich in iron and aluminum oxide • Easily cut into bricks or blocks, but harden significantly
compounds. when exposed to air.
‰ Latin Origin: • Durable due to substantial weathering.
• Term ‘Laterite’ comes from Latin, meaning “brick.” Arid Soils
• It hardens significantly when it loses moisture. Soils in dry areas are made up of sand. Some places contain
‰ Red Color: so much salt in the water that it has to be evaporated to get
• Due to higher content of iron and aluminum regular salt. These come from nearby rocks trying to break
compounds and less clay. apart, and most of them are blown from the coast and the
• Contains more gravel from red sandstones. Indus Valley. These are made of salt. In some places, there is
‰ Chemical Composition: so much salt in the water that common salt can be made by
• Rich in bauxite or ferric oxides. letting the salty water evaporate.
• Low in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate, and ‰ Composition: It is primarily composed of Aeolian sand
calcium. (90 to 95%) and a smaller proportion of clay (5 to 10%).
• Excess amounts of iron oxide and potash. ‰ Coverage: It encompasses an area of 1.42 lakh sq km
• Higher humus content in wetter regions. (4.32%), desert soils are a notable presence.
• Lime and silica are washed away by rain, leaving ‰ Inhibiting Soil Growth: High sand content hampers soil
behind soils that are full of iron oxide and aluminium growth, leading to desertification in nearby soils due to
compounds. Bacteria that do well in hot places quickly the intrusion of desert sand carried by the wind.
eat up the humus in the soil. The dirt is rougher and ‰ Fertility and Limitations:
more crumbly, and it tastes sour. • Despite sandy nature, these soils are fertile, with
• Minerals: Laterites are most often made up of quartz, water scarcity being the primary constraint.
zircon, and oxides of titanium, iron, tin, aluminium, • Reclamation is possible through effective irrigation
and manganese that are left after the weathering measures.
process. Quartz is the mineral that is found most ‰ Distribution of Arid – Desert Soils:
often in the parent rock.
• Geographical Presence: Found in arid and semi-
‰ Distribution of Laterite – Lateritic Soils: arid regions encompassing Rajasthan, Punjab, and
• It covers around 2.48 lakh sq km in India. Haryana,, extending to the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
• It is commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil • Sand transported by southwest monsoon winds from
Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and hilly Odisha and Assam. the Indus basin and the coast.
• It is predominant on Western Ghats’ summits, • Coastal areas of Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala also
Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan, Satpuras, have sandy soils without clay.
and Malwa Plateau. ‰ Chemical Properties of Arid–Desert Soils:
• Also found at lower levels and in valleys in various • Organic Matter: Typically low, exhibiting varying
parts of the country. degrees of alkalinity and soluble salts such as
• Well-developed in south Maharashtra, parts of calcium carbonate.
Karnataka, and scattered in other regions. • Calcium Distribution: Increases downward, with
‰ Crops in Laterite – Lateritic Soils: subsoil containing significantly higher calcium levels.
• Due to intensive leaching, these soils lack fertility. • Phosphate and Nitrogen: Despite low original
• It supports plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, nitrogen levels, these soils often have high phosphate
cinchona, coconut, areca nut, etc. content similar to normal alluvial soils. Some nitrogen
• It is suitable for grazing grounds and scrub forests. is available in the form of nitrates.

Soils of India 163

 • Kankar layers are in the lower horizons of the soil West Bengal. They live in dry and semi-dry areas, as well
because the amount of calcium increases as you go as in areas with a lot of water and swamps especially
down. When the “Kankar” layer forms in the bottom in parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka,
horizons, it makes it harder for water to get into the Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and
soil. Maharashtra. Found in canal-irrigated areas and regions
‰ Crops of Arid – Desert Soils: with high sub-soil water tables.
• Usually not good for growing many crops due to low ‰ Minerals: They are deficient in nitrogen and calcium.
moisture content and buildup of soluble salts. Saline soils have a higher proportion of sodium,
• Management and sufficient water can make these potassium, and magnesium.
soils productive. ‰ Salt Percolation:
• Fertility and Irrigation: Enhanced by phosphates and • In regions with a low water table, salts percolate into
nitrates, given sufficient moisture availability. the subsoil.
• Proper irrigation can potentially reclaim these soils. • In well-drained areas, salts are carried away by
• Support crops that are drought-resistant and salt- flowing water.
tolerant, including barley, cotton, millets, maize, and ‰ High Sub-soil Water Table:
pulses.
• Regions with a high sub-soil water table experience
capillary action transporting injurious salts from
below due to evaporation during dry seasons.
IGNITE YOUR MIND
‰ Colour: Saline soils are easy to spot in the field because
crops grow in spots and there are often white salt breads
Fun fact: Rajasthan is recognized for its distinctive
on the surface. When the salt problem isn’t too bad,
terracotta-colored soils, resulting from the erosion
plants that are going to grow often have a blue-green
of volcanic rocks, contributing a unique reddish tint
to the terrain. Assess the challenges faced by farmers tint. In saline areas, cereal or forage crops may grow with
cultivating crops in terracotta soil regions. What barren spots and plants that are too short.
strategies can be employed to enhance agricultural ‰ Cultivation: Near the coast, there are a lot of coconut
productivity in these areas? trees. As was already stated, farming salt-tolerant crops
like dhaincha, berseem, and other grain legumes may
also help bring these soils back to life.
Saline and Alkaline Soils
‰ Coastal Impact: Gulf of Khambhat has been affected
They are also referred to as Usara soils. These soils
by tides carrying salt-laden deposits. Saline seawater
are top soil impregnated with saline and alkaline
infiltration degrades soil quality along coastlines.
efflorescence, indicating the presence of salts, infertile
and incapable of supporting vegetative growth. They ‰ Coastal Degradation: Low-lying areas of coastal Andhra
have more salts, owing to the dry climate and poor Pradesh and Tamil Nadu face this kind of soil degradation.
drainage. They can be found in arid and semi-arid
Peaty Soils
regions, as well as waterlogged and swampy areas.
These soils have developed in places that are dry and These are found in places with lots of rain and high humidity,
don’t have good drainage. These are places that get a where plants grow well. This kind of soil is found in places
little more rain than desert soils, but not much. with the most water.
‰ Composition: Their composition varies from sandy to ‰ Characteristics: As a result, a large amount of dead
loamy. The fertile alluvial soils are becoming saline in organic matter accumulates in these areas, providing the
areas of intensive cultivation with excessive irrigation, soil with rich humus and organic content. Organic matter
particularly in green revolution areas. In coastal areas, in these soils can reach 40-50 per cent. Characterized
these soils are also made when salty water spreads out by being black, heavy, and highly acidic in nature and
on the land during high tide. Also, seawater seeping into formed under conditions of submergence, resulting in
the deltas helps salty soils grow there. Un-decomposed heavy, dark, and acidic soils.
rock fragments undergoing weathering contribute to the ‰ Distribution: In many places, they are also acidic. It is
formation of sodium, magnesium, calcium salts, and common in the coastal parts of West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil
sulfurous acid. Nadu and Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala
‰ Distribution: Saline soils are more common in western (referred to as “Kari”), as well as in the northern part
Gujarat, eastern coast deltas, and Sunderban areas of of Bihar and the southern part of Uttaranchal. Affected

164 Indian Geography

 areas also include the coasts of Odisha and Tamil Nadu, ‰ Colour: The colour of the soil changes with the vegetation.
the Sunderbans in West Bengal, Bihar, and the Almora The soil in some sections is light grey (dry), whereas in
district in Uttarakhand. others it is darker and damp.
‰ Minerals: They are low in potash and phosphate. ‰ Cultivation: In the peninsular forest area, they are good
‰ Colour: These soils are typically dense and dark in colour. for farms that grow tea, coffee, spices, and tropical
fruits. In the Himalayan forest, wheat, maize, barley,
‰ Cultivation: During the rainy season, most peaty soils
and temperate fruits are grown.
are saturated, but as soon as the rains stop, they are
converted over to paddy farming. Other Types of Soils Classified by ICAR
ICAR has classified mountain and sub montane soil as other
Forest Soils
types:
As the title indicates, forest soils form in forest areas where
‰ Mountain Soils:
there is enough rain. Soils are different in how they are put
• Formation: Found in the Himalayas and other
together and how they feel depending on where they form
mountainous regions, these soils are formed by the
in the mountains.
weathering of rocks and the accumulation of organic
matter from forest vegetation.
• Properties: Texture varies depending on altitude and
slope. Upper slopes typically have coarse-grained,
sandy soil, while valleys and lower slopes have loamy
and silty soil. In snowbound areas, the soil is acidic
and has low humus content due to denudation.
• Distribution: Covers a vast area including the
Fig. 6.6: Forest Soils Himalayas, Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, and other
mountain ranges.
‰ Heterogeneous Composition:
• Suitability: Generally not very fertile due to leaching
• Influenced by factors like parent rocks, ground
and erosion on steep slopes. However, valleys and
configuration, and climate, resulting in diverse
lower slopes can support agriculture with proper
characteristics.
management. Suitable for crops like apples, pears,
• Formation governed by the deposition of organic peaches, and potatoes.
matter from forests, changing with parent rocks, ‰ Sub-Montane Soils:
ground configuration, and climate.
• Formation: These soils are formed by the deposition
• Significant differences even in close proximity. of eroded material from the Shiwaliks and lower
‰ Characteristics: On the sides of valleys, the soil is sandy Himalayas in the Terai region, stretching from Jammu
and muddy, while on the upper slopes, it is coarse- and Kashmir to Assam.
grained. • Properties: Rich in nutrients and well-drained due to
• They are acidic and do not have much humus. In the their alluvial origin. However, prone to soil erosion
snow-covered parts of the Himalayas, they get worn due to their hilly terrain.
down. • Distribution: Found in the foothills of the Himalayas
• The lower valleys have nutrient-rich soils. These have and other mountain ranges, particularly in the
serious consequences for other components of the northern and eastern parts of India.
system, of which they are important parts. • Suitability: Highly fertile and support a variety of
‰ Distribution: These soils cover around 2.85 lakh square
crops like rice, sugarcane, jute, tea, and vegetables.
kilometres or 8.67% of India’s total land area. Such soils However, erosion control measures are crucial for
are usually found in valleys, less steep slopes, and slopes sustainable agriculture.
facing north in the Himalayan area. The south-facing
Karewa soils are the lacustrine deposits in the Kashmir
slopes are pretty steep and vulnerable to denudation,
Valley and the Bhadarwah Valley. Fine silt, clay, and
and so do not sustain soil formation. Forest soils can also
boulder gravel are the composition of Karewa soil.
be discovered in the Western and Eastern Ghats.
They are characterized by fossils. These soils are mainly
‰ Minerals: Humus is present in forest soils. They lack
devoted to the cultivation of saffron, almonds, apple,
potassium, phosphorus, and lime and they need
walnut, etc.
frertilisation.

Soils of India 165

SUMMARY: SOILS IN INDIA

Area (Million Coverage Composition/

Soil type Regions Crops
Hectares) (%) Characteristics

Alluvial Khadar 143.1 43.36 Rich in phosphoric acid, Indus Ganga– Brahmaputra Wheat, Maize,
poor in potash plains, Narmada– Tapi Plains Sugarcane, Pulses,
Oilseeds, Berseem
(Fodder)
Red (Omnibus 61.0 18.49 Ferric oxide gives it red Western Tamil Nadu, Wheat, Cotton,
group) colour; deficient in lime, Karnataka, southern Pulses, Tobacco,
phosphate, manganese Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Millets, Oilseeds,
Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Potato, Orchards
Odisha, some areas of
Bundelkhand, Mirzapur,
Sonbhadra, Banswara,
Bhilwara, Udaipur

Black (Regur); 49.8 15.09 Iron, lime, calcium, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Cotton, Pulses,
internally potassium, aluminium, western Madhya Pradesh, Millets, Linseed,
known as magnesium; deficient in north-western Andhra Castor, Tobacco,
Tropical nitrogen, phosphorous, Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Sugarcane, Citrus
Chernozems organic matter Nadu, Rajasthan, Chattisgarh, Fruits And Vegetables
Jharkhand up to Rajmahal

Mountain 18.2 5.51 Acidic and low humus Mid-latitude zone of Himalaya, Maize, Rice, Legumes,
content regions of Assam, Darjeeling, Fodder, Orchards
Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir

Desert 14.6 4.42 High percentage of Rajasthan, West of Aravallis, Bajra, Pulses, Guar,
soluble salts, low northern Gujarat, Saurashtra, Fodder And Lesser
organic matter, varying Kutch, western parts of Water Requiring
percentage of calcium Haryana, southwestern parts Crops Like Aloe Vera.
carbonate of Punjab

Laterite 12.2 3.70 Rich in iron and Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane,
aluminium; poor in Rajmahal Hills, Satpura, Cashew Nuts
nitrogen, potash, Vindhya, Odisha, Chattisgarh,
potassium, lime, organic Jharkhand, West Bengal, North
matter Cachar Hills of Assam, Garo
Hills of Meghalaya

Submontane 5.7 1.73 Neutral to alkaline Jhelum and Indus Valley of Rice
Tarai region of submontane
from J & K to Assam

Snowfields 4.0 1.21 Covered with ice and Greater Himalayan Region, Unsuitable For
glacier Karakoram, Ladakh, Zanskar Cultivation of Crop

166 Indian Geography

 Area (Million Coverage Composition/
Soil type Regions Crops
Hectares) (%) Characteristics

Grey and Brown 3.6 1.09 Iron oxide Rajasthan and Gujarat Cotton And Oilseeds

Peaty and – – Rich in organic matter, Kottayam, Alappuzha Rice Cultivation

marshy highly saline, deficient (Kerala), Sundarban Deltas of
in phosphate and Mahanadi, Krishna, Kaveri,
potash Rann of Kutch

Karewa – – Characterised with Kashmir Valley, Bhadarwah Saffron, Almond,

fossils of mammals and Valley of Doda district of Walnut, Apple,
peat Jammu Orchards

Red and Black 17.8 – – Isolated parts of Bundelkhand, Maize, Bajra, Millets,
East of Aravallis in Rajasthan, Pulses, Oilseeds
Gujarat

‰ Medicinal Resources: Certain soils contain valuable minerals

SIGNIFICANCE OF SOIL for medicinal purposes, contributing to traditional medicine
‰ Nutrient Cycling: Soil provides essential nutrients for and pharmaceuticals.
plants, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, ‰ Waste Decomposition: Soil decomposes organic mat-
cycle through the soil. The soil-plant system recycles ter, including waste materials, recycling nutrients and
these nutrients, which are vital for plant growth. reducing environmental impact.
‰ Food Security & Agriculture: Soil is the basis of most ‰ Recreation and Aesthetics: Soil provides the foundation
food production in the world, as crops grow on it. High for recreational activities and contributes to landscape
agricultural productivity depends on healthy soil. aesthetics.
‰ Biodiversity Support: Soil hosts a diverse range of ‰ Habitat for Soil Organisms: Soil serves as a habitat for
organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, insects, and other various organisms, enhancing overall biodiversity in
microorganisms. These organisms are important for the ecosystems.
functioning and balance of ecosystems. ‰ Natural Reservoir of Water: Soil acts as a natural
water reservoir, regulating availability, and sustaining
‰ Water Filtration: Soil filters water naturally, removing
vegetation and groundwater levels.
impurities and pollutants as water passes through it.
This helps keep water clean and safe from groundwater ‰ Cultural and Historical Significance: Certain soils hold
contamination. cultural and historical importance, preserving ancient
civilizations and traditional practices.
‰ Carbon Sequestration: Soil stores carbon in organic
‰ Bioenergy Production: Soil contributes to bio-energy
matter, which is part of the global carbon cycle. This
production through crops used as feedstocks for biofuels,
helps reduce the effects of climate change by lowering
aligning with sustainable energy practices.
the amount of carbon dioxide in the air.
‰ Public Health: Soil plays a crucial role in public health
‰ Infrastructure Support: Soil provides various materials
by regulating pathogens, reducing dust, and preventing
for construction, such as clay, sand, and gravel. These
waterborne diseases.
materials are necessary for building infrastructure and
‰ Economic Value: Healthy soil supports productive
fulfilling the needs of construction projects.
agriculture, contributing to economic growth and
‰ Biodiversity Support: Soil is home to a vast array of livelihoods. Degraded soil can lead to economic losses.
micro-organisms, invertebrates, and other organisms, all
of which contribute to the health of the ecosystem.
PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE
‰ Erosion Prevention: Soil prevents erosion by stabilizing
land and reducing the loss of fertile topsoil. INDIAN SOILS
‰ Plant Disease Regulation: Healthy soil regulates plant Human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing of
diseases by hosting beneficial microorganisms that animals, and unscientific use of agricultural land, on the
suppress harmful pathogens. other hand, damage and destroy soils.

Soils of India 167

Soil Erosion
‰ The removal of topsoil is referred to as soil erosion. Soil
erosion is becoming more of a problem in many parts of
India.

Fig. 6.7: Soil erosion types

‰ Sheet erosion occurs when the topsoil is removed,
and gully erosion occurs when run-off creates gullies.
Soil erosion is a widespread issue in India. Water is the
primary agent of soil erosion in areas with heavy rainfall,
whereas wind is the primary agent of soil erosion in arid
and semi-arid areas. Fig. 6.8: Soil Erosion and Its mitigation
‰ The National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning
‰ Wind erosion is prevalent in arid and semi-arid regions
(NBSS & LUP) estimates that soil erosion extends to
of Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, western Madhya Pradesh,
about about 119.2 million hectare area in India.
and Gujarat. Wind erodes soil along Peninsular India’s
‰ The average annual rate of soil erosion in the country coastal plains.
is 16.35 tonnes per hectare i.e. 5334 million tonnes per
‰ The tidal waters of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal
year.
cause significant damage to coastal soils. Kerala, Tamil
‰ Water, wind, sea waves, glaciers, and shifting cultivation Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, and Gujarat
are the primary causes of soil erosion. all have very eroded beaches.
‰ Gully erosion is also prevalent in the Shiwalik tracts ‰ India loses 5,334 million tonnes of soil every year because
of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and of soil erosion, which is caused by the careless and
Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and along the excessive use of fertilisers, insecticides, and pesticides
southern Himalayan slopes, as well as the Western and over the years.
Eastern Ghats.

Energy Source for Soil Erosion

Water Wind Gravity Chemical Tillage Harvest

Land slides Dissolution Roots and
Tubers
Saltation Dust

Raindrop Shallow Concentrated Deep Stream Ocean Ice

Flow Flow in Channels Ravines Flow Current
Splash
erosion Inter-Rill Rill Gulley Stream Coastal Glacial
Erosion Erosion Erosion Bank Erosion Erosion
Man-Made Source Erosion

Drainage Irrigation
Fig. 6.9: Energy Source for Soil Erosion

168 Indian Geography

Mitigating Soil Erosion ‰ Stone Walls: Constructing stone walls along slopes can
‰ Afforestation: Planting trees and shrubs on barren lands provide a physical barrier to erosion and help to stabilize
helps in binding the soil with their roots, reducing erosion the soil.
by wind and water.
Mulching Afforestation
‰ Contour Farming: This practice involves ploughing and
planting crops along the contours of the land, rather than Reducing
Non-point Conservation
straight up and down the slopes. This helps to break up Source Tillage
the flow of water and prevent it from washing away soil. Pollution Sustainable Soil
Management
‰ Terracing: Creating terraces on steep slopes helps to Advanced
Management Cover Crop
break down the slope into smaller, more manageable
Practices
sections, reducing the velocity of runoff water and
Organic
preventing soil erosion. Inorganic
Controlled
Grazing
‰ Cover Cropping: Planting cover crops, such as legumes Manuring
and grasses, between cash crops helps to protect the soil Fig. 6.11: Sustainable Soil Management
from erosion and improve soil fertility.
Water-Logging
Waterlogging occurs when the water table rises to the point
where soil pores in the root zone of a crop become saturated,
resulting in a restriction of normal air circulation, a decrease
in oxygen levels, and an increase in carbon dioxide levels.
‰ It is considered that average every year, 75 lakh hectares
of land is affected of land will be flooded in total. Around
the world, tropical swamps, rice fields, and floodplains
make up about 14, 12, and 10% of all waterlogged land,
respectively. Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar
Pradesh have the most waterlogged soil in India, and the
total area is estimated to be one million hectares.

Mitigating Waterlogging
‰ Improve Drainage Systems: This is the most crucial step.
It involves building and maintaining proper drainage
channels, culverts, and pumps to remove excess water
from low-lying areas.
‰ Desilting of Existing Drains: Over time, drains get clogged
with silt and debris, reducing their effectiveness. Regular
cleaning and desilting of existing drains is essential.
‰ Urban Planning: Urban planning should consider the
natural drainage patterns of an area and avoid building
Fig. 6.10: India Soil Erosion in low-lying areas or blocking natural drainage channels.
‰ Mulching: Applying a layer of organic matter, such as
Physical changes Chemical changes
straw or wood chips, to the soil surface helps to retain (a) Soil compaction (a) lon toxicity
moisture, suppress weeds, and prevent erosion. (b) Increased bulk density (b) Secondary metabolite
(c) Massive structural changes toxicity
‰ Bunding: Constructing earthen embankments across
(d) Oxygen depletion Electro-chemical changes
slopes helps to trap runoff water and prevent it from (e) CO₂ accumulation (a) Increased specific
carrying away soil. (f) Lowered diffusion coefficient for gases conductance
(b) Decreased redox
‰ Gully Plugging: Filling gullies with stones, brushwood, potential (Eh)
(c) Decreased soil pH
or other materials helps to stabilize the soil and prevent
Biological changes
further erosion. (a) Reduced mineralization
‰ Check Dams: Building small dams across streams (b) Reduced aerobic
microbial activity
and gullies helps to slow down the flow of water and (c) Reduced immobilization
trap sediment, preventing it from reaching rivers and
reservoirs. Fig. 6.12: Watterlogging effects on Soil

Soils of India 169

‰ Increase Green Cover: Trees and plants help absorb rainwater and improve soil drainage. Planting trees and creating
green spaces in urban areas can significantly reduce waterlogging.
‰ Wetland Restoration: Wetlands act as natural sponges, soaking up excess water and releasing it slowly over time.
Restoring degraded wetlands can help mitigate waterlogging.
‰ Real-time Monitoring Systems: Installing sensors and monitoring systems can provide early warning of flooding and
allow authorities to take timely action.
‰ Use of Permeable Pavements: Replacing traditional pavements with permeable materials like porous concrete or gravel
can allow water to drain through into the ground.
‰ Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and storing rainwater for later use can reduce the amount of water that runs off and
causes flooding.

Identification
of waterlogged
area Coordination
among authorities
Identification of and organizations
Causes of water
logging Sustainable
solution to
waterlogging
Formulation problem
of proper and
Participation at Each Level
sustainable
• Local people
drainage plan Regular monitoring Local People
•L ocal and national
(Master plan) and maintenance participation
Government
•R esearchers, engineers
and experts Implementation
•O ther stakeholders and of the master
government organizations plan

Fig. 6.13: Sustainable solution to waterlogging problem

Declining Soil Fertility ‰ Green Manuring: Growing cover crops like legumes and
The natural fertility of the soil is rapidly depleting due to incorporating them into the soil adds nitrogen, organic
centuries of use and multiple cropping without following the matter, and suppresses weeds.
agricultural land. Farmers in Punjab, Haryana, and western ‰ Crop Rotation: Planting different types of crops in
Uttar Pradesh frequently complain about their soils’ declining
succession helps to break pest and disease cycles and
fertility. Indeed, unscientific crop rotation (wheat and rice)
replenish nutrients in the soil.
has significantly depleted soil fertility in India’s Great Plains
over several decades. ‰ Precision Agriculture: Using GPS and sensor technology
A National Database on Land Degradation prepared by the to apply fertilizers and water only where and when they
Indian Space Research Organisation in 2016 shows that are needed, reducing waste and environmental impact.
around 120.7 million hectare (mha), or 36.7 per cent of ‰ Agro-forestry: Integrating trees and shrubs into
India’s total arable and non-arable land, suffers from various agricultural landscapes provides shade, windbreaks, and
forms of degradation with water erosion being its chief
habitat for beneficial insects.
contributor.
Soil Degradation
Improving Soil Fertility
‰ Soil degradation can be defined broadly as a decline
‰ Composting: Composting kitchen scraps, yard waste,
and manure creates nutrient-rich humus that improves in soil fertility caused by erosion and misuse when
soil structure, aeration, and water holding capacity. the nutritional status of the soil deteriorates and
‰ Vermicomposting: Using earthworms to break down the depth of the soil decreases. Soil degradation is
organic matter into vermicompost, a potent fertilizer rich the primary cause of India’s depleting soil resource
in nutrients and beneficial microbes. base.

170 Indian Geography

 1. Structural decline 2. Crusting 3. Compaction 4. Erosion
Physical
5. Anaerobiosis

1. Decline in soil quality 2. Reduction in biodiversity

Processes 1. Acidification 2. Salinization 3. Decrease in Cation Exchange
Chemical
Capacity (CEC) 4. Leaching 5. Volatilisation 6. N  utrient imbalance

Biological 1. Reduction in soil biodiversity 2. Decrease Soil organic carbon (SOC)

1. Soil inherent properties • physical • chemical • biological

Soil • horizonation
2. Parent material
Degradation
Soil

Factors Climate 1. Precipitation 2. Seasons 3. Temperature

Terrain 1. Slope 2. Drainage density 3. Landscape position

Vegetation 1. Biomass 2. Biodiversity 3. Succession

Bio- 1. Land use 2. Deforestation 3. Cropping systems

physical 4. Soil and crop management • tillage • drainage

Socio- 1. 1. Tenure 2. Institutional strength 3. Markets

Causes
economic 4. Poverty 5. Health

Political 1. Political stability 2. Policies

Fig. 6.14: Soil Degradation

‰ The degree of soil degradation varies depending on the ‰ In places with little rain, the soil will become salty or
topography, wind velocity, and amount of rainfall. Every alkaline. One such place is Rajasthan. When sea water
year, India loses millions of tonnes of soil and nutrients gets into the land, it makes the soil salty. When there is
to agents of soil degradation, reducing our national kankar (calcium carbonate) under the soil, water pools.
productivity. Soil erosion and salinization are two major This can be seen in the Indira Gandhi Canal areas of
causes of soil degradation. Rajasthan. If the soil is full of salt, it will spread to the
‰ It is assumed that out of India’s 329 Mha total rest of the land. Leguminous crop cultivation following a
geographical area (TGA), 179.9 M ha (60.47% of TGA) soil-exhausting crop can improve soil fertility in affected
is used for agriculture and 120.4 M ha is degraded by areas.
one or more types of degradation, which is hurting the
country’s productive resource base. It is thought that Causes of Soil Salinity
more than 5,000 tonnes of topsoil are lost every year. ‰ Natural Causes:
30% of the total area that has been eroded, or about • Arid and Semi-Arid Climate: Low rainfall and high
1600 million tonnes, is always being lost to the sea. evaporation rates in these regions lead to salt
accumulation in the soil.
SDG 15
• Seawater Intrusion: In coastal areas, rising sea
SDG 15 aims at protecting, restoring and promoting
levels and tidal floods can increase salinity levels in
sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainable
agricultural lands.
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and
• Saline Groundwater: Irrigation with naturally saline
reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
groundwater can gradually salinize the soil.
‰ Human-induced Causes:
Soil Salinity
• Over-Irrigation: Excessive irrigation without proper
‰ Soil salinity refers to the presence of excessive amounts
drainage can lead to waterlogging and salt buildup in
of soluble salts in the soil, primarily sodium and chloride
the soil profile.
ions. These salts can originate from natural sources like
weathering rocks, seawater intrusion, or tidal floods, • Poor Water Quality: Using saline water for irrigation
or from human activities such as irrigation with saline directly adds salts to the soil.
water, excessive fertilization, and deforestation. • Deforestation: Loss of vegetation cover exposes the
• High salt concentration in the soil disrupts its natural soil to erosion and accelerates salt accumulation.
balance and hinders plant growth. • Excessive use of Fertilizers: Certain fertilizers,
• India faces a significant challenge with soil salinity, particularly those containing ammonium and
affecting around 6.73 million hectares of land, chloride ions, can contribute to soil salinization
roughly equivalent to the size of Kerala. over time.

Soils of India 171

Mitigating Soil Salinity ‰ Use of Salt-Tolerant Crops: Planting crops like halophytes
‰ Efficient Irrigation Practices: Using drip irrigation or or varieties with inherent salt tolerance can be beneficial
precision agriculture techniques reduces water wastage in saline areas.
and minimizes salt buildup. ‰ Soil Amendments: Applying gypsum or organic matter
‰ Drainage Systems: Proper drainage channels and
can improve soil structure and drainage, aiding in salt
subsurface drainage systems can remove excess water
leaching.
and salts from the soil.
‰ Saline Water Management: Treating saline water for ‰ Afforestation and Soil Conservation: Planting trees
irrigation or using alternative water sources like rainwater and shrubs helps prevent soil erosion and reduces salt
harvesting can prevent further salinization. accumulation.
Salinity Alkalinity
‰ Refers to the presence of an excess of soluble salts in the ‰ Refers to a high concentration of carbonate and bicarbonate
soil, predominantly composed of sodium chloride (NaCl), ions in the soil, creating a high pH.
but also including other salts like sulfates and carbonates. ‰ Has a high pH, typically greater than 8.5.
‰ Typically has a neutral or slightly acidic pH in the range of ‰ May have a high ESP - Can be high or low (but > 15% if
7 to 8.5. considered sodic soil).
‰ Has a low exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)- Less ‰ High pH reduces the availability of some essential nutrients
than 15%. like phosphorus and iron, making them less accessible to
‰ Excess salts disrupt water uptake by plants, leading to plants.
dehydration and stunted growth. Specific ions like sodium ‰ Sodium dominance in alkaline soils can also harm plant
can also interfere with nutrient uptake and cause toxicity. growth, similar to saline soils.

Deforestation more than 11% of the land area of the country. It lost 117
‰ Human settlements are putting more and more pressure Kha of natural forest in 2022, which is like letting out 62.9
on forests, which has caused forest land to be used for Mt of CO2.
other things, like farming, living, logging, etc. The roots ‰ As per a report by UK-based Utility Bidder - India ranked
of trees and plants hold the soil particles together and the second highest for the rate of deforestation after
control the flow of water, which keeps the soil from losing 668,400 hectares of forest cover in the last 30
years. In India, the study blamed pressures due to
washing away.
expanding human settlements: “As the country with
DEFORESTATION
the largest population in the world, India has had to
compensate for the increase in residents – this has come
at a cost in the way of deforestation.”
Intentional Non-Intentional
Addressing Deforestation
Man-made Man-made Natural
‰ Forest Management and Restoration: Implement
sustainable forest management practices that balance
� Agricultural activities � ncontrolled
U Climatic conditions
�  the extraction of forest resources with conservation
Logging grazing (flood, wind, storm
�
� Mining (overgrazing) and ice) efforts.
� Urbanization � Controlled
 � Veld fires • Promote reforestation and afforestation projects to
� Tourism forest Damage of trees by
� 
� Medicinal purposes burning mammals restore degraded areas and establish new forests.
Firewood harvesting and Hunting Death and decay of
‰ Land Use Planning: Develop and enforce land use
�  � � 
charcoal production trees and plants
� Military affairs � Plant diseases planning that designates specific areas for agriculture,
� Poor land-use planning � Landslides
� Controlled forest fire � High infestation of pests urbanization, and conservation, taking into account the
ecological value of forests.
Fig. 6.15: Causes of Deforestation
• Implement zoning laws and regulations to prevent
‰ When trees are cut down, the soil is more likely to be unauthorized land clearing and deforestation.
eroded by wind and water. Forests also return nutrients ‰ Law Enforcement and Regulations: Strengthen and
to the soil by putting back organic matter that has broken enforce laws and regulations that prohibit illegal logging,
down. Deforestation changes how nutrients are added land clearing, and other activities contributing to
to the soil, which means the soil doesn’t have enough deforestation.
nutrients to support healthy plant life. • Implement monitoring systems, satellite technology,
‰ India’s Deforestation Rates and Statistics show that there and other tools to detect and combat illegal logging
were 31.3 Mha of natural forests in India in 2010. This was and land-use changes.

172 Indian Geography

‰ Economic Incentives: Develop economic incentives
for sustainable forestry practices, such as certification SOIL CONSERVATION
programmes that reward companies for responsible
Soil Conservation is a combination of practices used to
sourcing.
• Explore mechanisms like payments for ecosystem protect the soil from degradation. First and foremost,
services (PES) to financially compensate landowners soil conservation involves treating the soil as a living
and communities for preserving forests. ecosystem.
‰ This means returning organic matter to the soil
Overgrazing
on a continual basis. Farmers in Gujarat, Haryana,
‰ When cattle walk over grasslands, again and again, the
pressure from their feet crushes the soil into smaller Punjab, Rajasthan, and western Madhya Pradesh have
pieces. This makes the soil more likely to be washed successfully protected their fields from soil erosion by
away by wind or rain. planting rows of trees to reduce the velocity of winds
‰ During the dry season, when there isn’t enough grass that erode soil cover.
near the fields to feed the cattle, they are left to graze on Shaping Plowing
the grasslands nearby. This pulls the grass and its roots Water
out of the ground, which makes the ground less stable. Management Terracing
‰ When it rains, the loose soil is quickly washed away. Methods
Crop
More than 70% of the land in states like Madhya Diversification
of Soil Strip Cropping
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Karnataka is used Conservation
for grazing and the problem of overgrazing can be seen Crop Rotation Fallowing
there.
Cover Cropping
Overgrazing Mitigation Fig. 6.16: Methods of Soil Conservation
‰ Rotational grazing: Move livestock between different
pastures, allowing vegetation to recover before being ‰ Soil conservation entails reducing soil erosion,
grazed again. reforestation, rational soil use, and ways to improve soil
‰ Adjust stocking density: Ensure the number of animals sustainability.
matches the carrying capacity of the land. ‰ Some of the important steps that can help with soil
‰ Plant diverse forage species: Promote healthier and conservation are as follows:
more resilient pastures.
• Afforestation: Soil erosion can be reduced by
‰ Rest periods: Allow pastures to rest during critical growth
periods. planting trees. Trees reduce the intensity of runoff
‰ Holistic management: Integrate grazing with other while increasing water seepage to the underground
practices like water management and wildlife water table. Along the banks of rivers, canals,
conservation. lakes, roads, and railway tracks, social forestry can
‰ Stored fodder: Supplement livestock diets with stored be developed.
feed to reduce grazing pressure.
‰ Monitor pasture health: Regularly assess vegetation Mulching Afforestation
cover and soil condition to adjust grazing practices. Reducing
‰ Controlling Invasive Species: Preventing the spread of Non-point Conservation
Source
undesirable plants that compete with forage species. Pollution Sustainable Soil
Tillage
Management
Advanced
Management Cover Crop
Practices
IGNITE YOUR MIND
Organic Controlled
Inorganic Grazing
IoT is enhancing agriculture by using field sensors Manuring

to gather data on soil conditions, temperature, and Fig. 6.17: Sustainable Soil Management
more, empowering farmers with valuable insights for
informed decision-making. Examine the role of soil • Restriction on the Felling of Trees: Aside from
testing in precision agriculture and how can farmers afforestation, it is also critical to prevent indiscriminate
benefit from soil testing, and what policy measures tree felling. People’s awareness, which resulted in the
can be implemented to encourage widespread Chipko Movement’s launch, can aid in achieving this
adoption of this practice in India?
goal.

Soils of India 173

 • Contour Ploughing and Strip Cultivation: Ploughing also known as “slash and burn.” Shifting cultivators
in hilly and mountainous areas should be done need to be trained and encouraged to switch to
along contours rather than in an up-and-down terraced farming.
slope direction. Contour ploughing is an effective ˆ A plan to stop shifting cultivation has been

method of preventing soil erosion. Similarly, small put in place in the seven North-East Indian
strips can be developed on gentle slopes for crop states. This is a beneficiary-focused programme
planting, assisting in overcoming the threat of soil aimed at rehabilitating Jhumia families (shifting
erosion. cultivators). This programme should be
expanded to other states of the country, and
Mulching
sedentary farming should gradually replace this
Rock Dams Contour Barriers agricultural system.
• Restoration of Long Fallow: In 2021, fallow land for
Methods
of Soil India was 23,612 thousand hectares. Though India’s
Strip Cropping Terrace Farming
Conservation fallow land fluctuated substantially in recent years, it
tended to decrease through the 2002 - 2021 period
Shelterbelts Intercropping ending at 23,612 thousand hectares in 2021.
ˆ Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Madhya
Contour Ploughing
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil
Fig. 6.18: Methods of Soil Conservation
Nadu, Bihar, Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh have
• Control of Floods: In India, the issue of soil erosion the most old fallow land. This old fallow land can
is closely linked to floods. Floods are most common be converted to agriculture, grazing, and orchards,
during the rainy season. Efforts must therefore be which will help to reduce soil erosion.
made to either store flood water or divert additional • Five-pronged strategy: The Indian government
rainwater. River interconnections, such as the Garland has a five-pronged plan to protect the land. This
Canal Project or the Ganga-Kaveri Link Canal Project, includes getting chemicals out of the soil, saving the
can be extremely beneficial in this regard. biodiversity in the soil, increasing SOM, keeping the
soil moist, reducing soil degradation, and stopping
• Reclamation of Ravines and Badlands: To address
soil erosion.
the issue of soil erosion, gullies and ravines must
• Soil Health Card (SHC) scheme: Earlier farmers had
be reclaimed. Several such schemes are being
less knowledge about the type, soil deficiencies, and
implemented in the Chambal ravines of Madhya
soil moisture levels. In 2015, the government of India
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan, including
started the Soil Health Card (SHC) scheme to deal
the plugging of gully mouths, the construction of
with these problems.
bunds across the gullies, the levelling of gullies,
ˆ The SHC is used to figure out how healthy the soil
afforestation, and grazing restrictions.
is right now and to see how it has changed over
Improving soil time. The SHC shows soil health indicators and
organic matter
Erosion the words that describe them, which help farmers
Maintaining
control soil ecology know what changes to make to the soil.
Managing Soil health Correction • Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana: The
surface crusting restoration of nutrient Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana is another
deficiencies
important programme that aims to stop soil erosion,
Addressing
Fe toxic soils
Reclamation of restore natural vegetation, collect rainwater, and
Managing problematic soils
contaminated soils refill the groundwater table.
Fig. 6.19: Soil health restoration • National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
(NMSA): Under NMSA, Organic farming practises
• Restriction on Shifting Cultivation: In the states of are being spread. NMSA also has programmes
North-east India and the Western and Eastern Ghats, that support traditional indigenous practices like
soil erosion is mostly caused by shifting cultivation, organic farming and natural farming. This makes

174 Indian Geography

 smallholder farmers less dependent on chemicals ‰ Reducing existing land degradation: This means
and other agri-inputs and lessens their financial implementing sustainable land management practices
burden. like crop rotation, cover cropping, and agroforestry to
Role of the Central Soil Conservation Board (CSCB) in India: improve soil health and fertility.
The CSCB plays a crucial role in promoting sustainable land Land Degradation is a driver of Land Degradation is a driver
biodiversity loss through land of climate change through
management and soil conservation practices across India. use change, habitat loss and emissions of GHGs and reduced
Established in 1953, it operates under the Ministry of fragmentation uptake of carbon

Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.

Biodiversity loss Land degradation Climate change
‰ River Valley Projects (RVPs): These projects aim
to prevent soil erosion and land degradation in the Biodiversity loss intensifies Climate change exacerbates land
catchment areas of major rivers and reservoirs. land degradation processes degradation through increased
by decreasing land soil erosion, vegetation loss,
‰ Watershed Development Projects (WDPs): These productivity and soil health wildfires, and water scarcity
projects focus on the integrated development of natural Fig. 6.20: Connections among biodiversity, land degradation
resources such as land, water, vegetation and livestock in and climate change
a watershed area. ‰ Restoring degraded land: This involves actively bringing
‰ Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Ganga back degraded land to a more productive state through
(SCCRG): This project aims to reduce the sediment activities like tree planting, assisted natural regeneration,
load and improve the water quality of the river Ganga and biochar application.
by implementing soil and water conservation measures India’s LDN Targets: India, a country facing significant land
in its catchment area. The project covers 9.5 million degradation challenges, has set ambitious LDN targets for
hectares in 11 states. itself. These include:
‰ National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed
‰ Restoring 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030
Areas (NWDPRA): This project aims to enhance the
‰ Achieving land productivity neutrality by 2030
productivity and sustainability of rainfed agriculture by
‰ Increasing soil organic carbon content at a rate of 0.4%
adopting a participatory approach involving farmers and
local communities. per annum in the top 1 m soil layer by 2030.
‰ Reclamation and Development of Alkali and Acid Soils To achieve these goals, India is implementing various
(RADAS): This project aims to reclaim and improve the initiatives like:
productivity of salt affected and acidic soils by applying ‰ The National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture:
suitable amendments and agronomic practices. This mission promotes soil health management, water
Land Degradation Neutrality: It is an ambi-tious global goal conservation, and climate-resilient agriculture practices.
that aims to achieve a balance between the ongoing loss ‰ The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
of productive land and efforts to restore degraded land. Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS): This scheme provides
It’s essentially like striving for zero net land degradation, rural employment opportunities while also supporting
ensuring our planet’s valuable land resources remain healthy land restoration activities like afforestation and
and productive for future generations. bunding.
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification ‰ The Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY): This
(UNCCD) plays a crucial role in this mission. Through its crop insurance scheme incentivizes farmers to adopt
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) framework, the UNCCD sustainable land management practices.
encourages countries to set voluntary targets to avoid,
According to a Ministry of Agriculture report, the Government
reduce, and reverse land degradation. These targets can
of India aims to achieve land degradation neutrality by
be tailored to each country’s specific circumstances and
2030. In India, 69% of the land is dry (about 105 million
priorities.
hectares) and 32% is desertifying. Every year, approximately
Global UNCCD Targets 1 mm of top-soil is lost, and the total amount of land lost due
‰ Avoiding new land degradation: This involves to soil erosion is 5334 million tonnes. Integrated land use
protecting healthy land from unsustainable practices like planning has the potential to halt or reverse desertification
deforestation, overgrazing, and soil erosion. on Indian land.

Soils of India 175

 1.1 Eradicate extreme poverty
1.2 Halve people in poverty
1.4 E nsure equal rights to resources,
ownership over land
1.5 Build resilience, reduce vulnerability

2.1 End hunger, ensure access to food

2.2 End all forms of malnutrition
2.3 Double agriculture productivity and incomes
2.4 Ensure sustainable food production systems

6.1 Achieve access to safe drinking water for all

6.4 increase water-use efficiency
6.5 Implement integrated water resources
management
6.6 Protect and restored water related ecosystems

7.2 Increase share of renewable energy

12.3 Halve per capita global food waste

13.1 S trength resilience to climate-related hazards

13.2 integrate climate change measures in policy

15.1 E nsure conservation of ecosystems and their

services
15.2 Promote sustainuble management of forests
15.4 Ensure conservation of mountain ecosystems
15.5 Reduce degradation of natural habitats
15.8 Reduce impact of invasive alien species
15.9 integrate ecosystems and biodiversity values
in policy

Fig. 6.21: SDG goals and targets

Soil Health and Climate Change Mitigation ‰ Preventing Erosion: Improved soil health reduces erosion,
Soil health, often overlooked, plays a crucial role in mitigating prevents the release of stored carbon and maintains
climate change, acting as a silent guardian influencing the agricultural productivity in challenging conditions.
Earth’s capacity to absorb and store greenhouse gases. Improved Food Security
Carbon Sequestration ‰ Fostering Healthy Crops: Healthy soil fosters robust crop
‰ Giant Carbon Sink: Healthy soil serves as a significant growth, resulting in increased food production.
carbon sink, storing substantial amounts of carbon ‰ Reducing Deforestation: Enhanced soil health reduces
dioxide. the need for deforestation, minimizing associated
‰ Preventing Release: Managed organic matter ensures greenhouse gas emissions.
that carbon remains locked away in the soil, preventing ‰ Organic Matter Decomposition: Soil health influences
its release into the atmosphere and contributing to the decomposition of organic matter, affecting
global warming.
greenhouse gas emissions.
Reduced Emissions ‰ Agroforestry and Cover Crops: Agroforestry practices
‰ Minimizing Nitrous Oxide: Unhealthy soil, often due and cover cropping contribute to soil health and carbon
to unsustainable agricultural practices, releases nitrous sequestration.
oxide, a potent greenhouse gas. ‰ Reduced Erosion: Healthy soils are less prone to erosion,
‰ Promoting Cleaner Air: Healthy soil with diverse microbial maintaining their carbon sequestration capacity.
communities minimizes emissions, and contributes to ‰ Water Management: Proper soil health management
cleaner air. enhances water retention, reducing runoff and
Enhanced Resilience contributing to climate change mitigation.
‰ Climate Resilience: Healthy soil, with good water-holding ‰ Nutrient Cycling: Healthy soils support efficient nutrient
capacity and organic matter, exhibits greater resilience to cycling, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers with
extreme weather events like floods and droughts. associated greenhouse gas emissions.

176 Indian Geography

‰ Biodiversity Support: Soil health is connected to practices such as Carbon Sequestration, Reduction of GHGs
biodiversity, contributing to ecosystem resilience. and promotion of overall ecosystem resilience. Integrating
‰ Land Use Planning: Prioritizing soil health in land use soil health management into broader climate mitigation
planning aligns with climate-smart strategies for climate strategies is essential for building sustainable and resilient
change mitigation. agricultural and land-use systems.
Practices for Healthy Soil
‰ Minimize Tillage: Opt for no-till farming or minimal
tillage practices to preserve soil structure and reduce
IGNITE YOUR MIND
carbon release.
Soil formation occurs within distinct natural
‰ Cover Cropping: Plant cover crops between main crops
settings, whereby several components of the natural
to protect the soil, add organic matter, and suppress
environment collectively contribute to this intricate
weeds.
process. In your opinion, why Indian soils are nitrogen
‰ Composting and Mulching: Enrich the soil with nutrients, deficient? Why do black soils have a clayey texture?
improve water retention, and enhance microbial activity Do you think that the nature of the soil is controlled
through composting and mulching. more by climatic factors than the type of parent rock?
‰ Crop Rotation: Break disease cycles and replenish soil
nutrients by rotating different crops.
‰ Diversification: Planting diverse species contributes to a CONCLUSION
healthy soil microbiome and overall ecosystem resilience.
India’s diverse soils are integral to its agricultural prosperity
Studies estimate that improving soil organic carbon content
and environmental sustainability. While the country’s varied
by just 0.4% per year could offset up to 12% of global
carbon dioxide emissions. By adopting these practices and soil types contribute significantly to agricultural productivity,
promoting soil health, we significantly contribute to climate challenges such as soil degradation and improper land use
change mitigation. Understanding the vital link between necessitate urgent attention. Sustainable soil management
healthy soil and climate mitigation is essential for effectively practices are crucial to mitigate these issues. There is a need
addressing the climate crisis. for a collective effort involving policy-makers, scientists, and
Maintaining and enhancing soil health is a multifaceted farmers to preserve and enhance India’s soil health for long-
approach to climate change mitigation, which involves term prosperity and environmental well-being.

Soils of India 177

 Natural Vegetation of India 7
India has a varied natural vegetation influenced by climate from tropical to subtropical, temperate, and alpine
and soil variations. The vegetation includes temperate vegetation.
forests in the Himalayas, tropical rainforests in the Western ‰ Photoperiod (Sunlight): Variations in the duration and
Ghats and Andaman Nicobar Islands, tropical forests and
amount of sunlight due to factors such as latitude,
mangroves in deltaic areas, hardy cacti and thorny shrubs
altitude, season, and day length profoundly impacts
in Rajasthan, and other plant communities. The natural
vegetation of India is a rich and complex mosaic that plant growth. More extended periods of sunlight, as seen
illustrates the country’s environmental diversity. in the Southern slope of the Himalayas, support denser
vegetation than the Northern slopes.
FACTORS INFLUENCING NATURAL ‰ Precipitation: The timing and quantity of rainfall are
VEGETATION IN INDIA pivotal in determining vegetation. Regions with heavy
rain, such as western slope of western ghats during the
The natural vegetation across regions is influenced by many
advancing Southwest monsoon (June to September),
factors, creating a rich diversity of flora and fauna. These
tend to have denser vegetation than areas with lesser
factors can be broadly categorised into two main groups:
rainfall.
Relief Factors • For example, the Western Ghats’ western slopes
‰ Land: The character of the land directly impacts natural see tropical evergreen forests flourish due to the
vegetation. Hilly regions differ from plateaus and plains, southwest monsoon, while the eastern slopes have
with diverse ecosystems. Rich, flat lands are often used less dense forests due to differences in precipitation.
for agriculture, like great plains of northern India, while
Other than these factors, the presence of rivers, lakes,
uneven terrains support grasslands and forests, providing
and other water bodies can foster the growth of specific
habitats for various fauna.
vegetation types, especially in floodplains and wetlands.
‰ Soil: Different soil types serve as the foundation for
various vegetation types. Sandy desert soils support cacti Mangroves, for example, thrive in coastal areas where
and shrubs giving rise to xerophytic vegetation while saltwater and freshwater mix.
marshy deltaic soils foster mangroves and deltaic flora.
Hill slopes with adequate soil depth host conical trees. SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL
‰ Altitude: As the elevation increases, the distribution of VEGETATION IN INDIA
flora changes, akin to the variations seen with changes in
latitude. There is a strong correlation between latitude ‰ The spatial distribution of natural vegetation in India is
and altitude regarding climatic zones and natural closely tied to annual and spatial variations in rainfall.
vegetation, like the mountainous region of northern ‰ Regions receiving over 200 cm of rain annually, such
India houses alpine vegetation. as the Western Ghats, North-eastern India, and the
‰ Topography: India’s diverse topography, including plains, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, support tropical evergreen
plateaus, mountains, and coastal regions, contributes to
rainforests with year-round greenery.
variations in temperature, rainfall, and soil, resulting in a
wide range of vegetation. ‰ Areas with moderate rainfall, between 70 and 200
cm, host deciduous forests where trees shed leaves
Climatic Factors seasonally, including Teak trees. In contrast, regions
‰ Temperature: Temperature, along with humidity, with less than 70 cm of rainfall, like semi-arid areas,
precipitation, and soil conditions, determines the nature
feature thorn forests with specialised drought-resistant
and extent of vegetation. Lower temperatures, often
associated with higher elevations, lead to colder climates vegetation.
and affect the types of vegetation found. ‰ Coastal regions, particularly river deltas, harbour
• For example, the slopes of the Himalayas and mangrove forests adapted to saline and freshwater
peninsular hills above 915 metres experience shifts mixtures, crucial for coastal ecology and biodiversity.
 Fig. 7.1: Precipitation and Distribution of Natural Vegetation In India
‰ Temperature and Humidity Control: Vegetation provides
SIGNIFICANCE OF NATURAL shade, which lowers temperatures in urban areas.
VEGETATION It also releases water vapour through transpiration,
‰ Habitat Preservation: Natural vegetation provides contributing to humidity and local climate moderation.
diverse habitats for plants, insects, animals, and ‰ Natural Water Regulators: Plants absorb rainwater and
microorganisms. These habitats support numerous release it slowly, reducing the risk of floods and droughts.
species, including endangered ones, and help preserve This natural regulation benefits agriculture and reduces
genetic diversity. the impact of extreme weather events.
‰ Ecosystem Preservation: Different species within these ‰ Groundwater Recharge: Vegetation helps replenish
ecosystems interact in complex ways, contributing groundwater by allowing rainwater to percolate into
the soil. This contributes to the sustainability of water
to ecological stability. For example, predator-prey
resources.
relationships help control populations and maintain
equilibrium. ‰ Sustainable Resources: Forests and natural vegetation
offer renewable resources like timber for construction,
‰ Soil Erosion Prevention: The root systems of plants bind
fruits for nutrition, and medicinal plants for traditional
soil particles together, preventing erosion caused by
and modern healthcare.
wind and water. This is particularly important in regions
‰ Economic Contribution: These resources are not only
with steep terrain or heavy rainfall.
essential for local livelihoods but also contribute to
‰ Landslide Mitigation: In hilly or mountainous areas, national economies through industries such as forestry
vegetation helps stabilise slopes. The roots of trees and and agriculture.
other plants provide mechanical support to the soil,
‰ Recreation: Natural landscapes, parks, and forests
reducing the risk of landslides.
provide spaces for outdoor activities, improving physical
‰ Riverbank Stability: Along riverbanks, vegetation and mental well-being. They offer opportunities for
protects against erosion by absorbing the energy of hiking, camping, and wildlife viewing.
flowing water. This maintains the integrity of riverbanks
‰ Cultural and Spiritual Significance: Indigenous cultures
and prevents sedimentation in water bodies. connect deeply to their natural surroundings. Forests,
‰ Carbon Sequestration: Forests and other natural mountains, and rivers hold cultural and spiritual
ecosystems act as carbon sinks. They absorb more significance, often playing roles in traditional ceremonies
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release, and beliefs.
which is crucial in mitigating climate change. ‰ Air and Water Filtration: Trees and vegetation act as
‰ Oxygen Production: Through photosynthesis, plants natural filters, trapping airborne pollutants and purifying
release oxygen into the atmosphere, which is essential water. This helps improve air and water quality, benefiting
for the respiration of animals, including humans. human health and the environment.

Natural Vegetation of India 179

 ‰ Tropical Dry Evergreen
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL Dry Tropical ‰ Tropical Dry Deciduous
VEGETATION IN INDIA ‰ Tropical Thorn
‰ Sub-Tropical Broad Leaves Hill
India’s natural vegetation, extensively studied and Montane Sub-Tropical ‰ Sub-Tropical Moist Hill (Pine)
classified by notable scholars like H.G. Champion and ‰ Sub-Tropical Dry Evergreen
later simplified by others, encompasses a rich diversity of
‰ Montane Wet Temperate
plant life. This classification system has identified 5 major Montane Temperate ‰ Himalayan Moist Temperate
types and 16 sub-types of vegetation across the country. ‰ Himalayan Dry Temperate
These categories help us understand the intricate tapestry ‰ Sub-Alpine
of India’s ecosystems, influenced by climate, geography, Alpine ‰ Moist Alpine Scrub
and rainfall. ‰ Dry Alpine Scrub

Moist Tropical Vegetation

Tropical Wet Evergreen
Maximum Height
60 Metres

Emergent
Layer

40 Metres
Canopy
Layer

20 Metres

Young
Trees

5 Metres
Shrubs
Layer

1.5 Metres

Ground Layer

Fig. 7.3: Tropical Evergreen Forest

‰ Tropical wet evergreen forests, also known as tropical
rainforests, are one of the most biologically diverse
ecosystems on Earth and are known for their lush
Forest Type in India % of Total Area vegetation and high species richness.
‰ They are found between 5° North and South of the
Tropical Moist Deciduous 37
equator.
Tropical Dry Deciduous 28 ‰ Climatic Conditions: Tropical Wet Evergreen forests
Tropical Wet Evergreen 8 thrive in areas with specific climatic conditions.
Sub-Tropical Moist Hill 6 • Rainfall: These areas typically receive an annual
rainfall of more than 250 centimetres.
Tropical Semi-Evergreen 4 • Temperature: The yearly temperature remains
Rest below 4 % around 25°C to 27°C, and the average relative
humidity is over 77 percent.
Fig. 7.2: National Vegetation of India
• Vegetation: One of the main distinguishing features
Classification of Natural Vegetation in India of this type of vegetation is the short dry season.
Major Types of Vegetation Sub-Types ‰ Characteristic: The name “Wet Evergreen” indicates that
‰ Tropical Wet-Evergreen the trees in this forest do not shed their leaves seasonally.
‰ Tropical Semi-Evergreen • There is no specific time period for trees to shed their
Moist Tropical
‰ Tropical Moist Deciduous leaves, flowering and fruition, creating an evergreen
‰ Littoral and Swamp appearance.

180 Indian Geography

 • For Example: The forests of Parambikulam
Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala are challenging
to access due to their remote location and
rugged terrain, limiting large-scale development
initiatives.
‰ Difficult Topography: The Western Ghats, where these
forests are predominant, is characterized by rugged
Fig. 7.4: Vegetation in a Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest terrain, steep slopes, and dense vegetation, making it
• These forests are characterised by their dense and difficult for large-scale development projects.
multi-layered structure. The trees are typically quite • For Example: The Anamalai Hills in Tamil Nadu
tall, reaching up to 45 metres but not exceeding 60 and Kerala are characterized by steep slopes and
metres. dense vegetation, making it difficult for extensive
• The forest canopy is thick and provides continuous infrastructure development.
cover, making it difficult for sunlight to reach the ‰ Conservation Policies: Stringent conservation policies
forest floor. As a result, the undergrowth is limited, and protected area designations limit the extent to
consisting mainly of ferns, climbers, bamboo, and which these regions can be exploited for economic
orchids. development. Regulations are in place to protect the
• Leaf litter decomposes faster than in any other biome unique biodiversity of these ecosystems.
as a result, the soil surface is often almost bare. Apart
• For Example: The Western Ghats, including the
from trees, the vegetation is largely composed of
Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve in Kerala and
plant forms that reach up to the canopy vicariously
by climbing trees or growing as epiphytes, rooted on Tamil Nadu, is subject to strict conservation policies
the upper branches of trees. to protect its unique biodiversity, limiting extensive
development activities.
‰ Distribution:
• Western Ghats: Notable regions with these forests ‰ Indigenous Populations: Many tropical wet evergreen
include the Malabar Coast in Kerala, the Agumbe regions in India are home to indigenous tribal
region in Karnataka, and parts of Goa. communities. Development activities may conflict
• Northeastern States: The heavy rainfall regions of with their traditional lifestyles, and conservation
states like Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram, efforts prioritize the well-being of these communities.
and Tripura. • For Example: The tribal communities in the
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala have
‰ Flora and Forest Resources: The timber obtained from traditional ties to the forest. Development
these forests is highly valued. It is described as fine- projects need to consider and respect the rights
grained, hard, and durable. and lifestyles of these indigenous populations.
• Notable tree species in these forests include
Mahogany, Mesua, White Cedar, Jamun, Canes, Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forest
Dhup, and Bamboo.
‰ Tropical Semi-Evergreen vegetation in India stands as
• Timber a fascinating ecological transition, bridging the gap
ˆ Hardwood: The timber of these forests is fine- between the luxuriant tropical wet evergreen forests and
grained, hard and durable. the deciduous woodlands.
ˆ It has high commercial value but it is highly
challenging to exploit due to dense undergrowth,
absence of pure stands and lack of transport
facilities.

Reasons for Underdevelopment in Tropical Wet

Evergreen Regions
‰ Inaccessibility: Many tropical wet evergreen regions
are geographically remote and have challenging Fig. 7.5: Vegetation in the Tropical Semi Evergreen forest
terrains, making them less accessible for infrastructure ‰ Climatic Conditions: Tropical semi-evergreen forests
development. experience milder moisture conditions compared to
their wet evergreen counterparts.

Natural Vegetation of India 181

 • Rainfall: They receive an annual rainfall over 200 Tropical Moist Deciduous
centimetres. ‰ Tropical Moist Deciduous forests are a distinct type of
• Temperature: They have mean annual temperatures vegetation characterised by a combination of trees and
above 22°C. grasses.
• Relative humidity remains around 75 percent, ‰ Climatic Conditions:
significantly influencing the ecological dynamics of • Rainfall: These forests are typically found in regions
this region. with an annual rainfall ranging from approximately
‰ Characteristic: The flora and fauna in Tropical Semi- 100 to 200 centimetres.
Evergreen forests are exceptionally diverse. • Temperature: They have a mean annual temperature
• Trees often feature buttressed trunks and host of around 27°C.
numerous epiphytes. The bark is characterised by • Humidity: The average relative humidity in these
roughness and thickness. areas falls between 60 to 75 percent.
• These forests are home to an array of heavy climbers ‰ Characteristic: Notably, they often feature heavily
and boast a unique mix of plant species. Bamboo buttressed tree trunks and possess a fairly dense
species are comparatively fewer in number but undergrowth.
contribute to the rich tapestry of the ecosystem. • While these forests cover a larger expanse compared
• Compared to wet evergreen forests, semi-evergreen to evergreen forests, extensive areas have been
vegetation is less dense. They often exist in gregarious cleared for cultivation.
groupings of various plant species, creating a mosaic • These forests display an irregular tree canopy with
of life. trees reaching heights between 20 to 60 metres.
• The undergrowth consists of a rich mix of plants ‰ Distribution:
adapted to the transitional climatic conditions, • Central and eastern India: These forests are present in
showcasing adaptability and resilience. the hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh,
‰ Distribution: the Chota Nagpur plateau, significant parts of Odisha
• Western Ghats: Extensive areas in the Western and portions of West Bengal.
Ghats, particularly in states like Kerala, Karnataka, • Tropical Moist Deciduous vegetation is also present in
Goa, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu. parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
• The Western Ghats, particularly the rain-shadow
regions on the leeward side. These areas experience
IGNITE YOUR MIND a distinct wet season during the monsoon, followed
by a dry season.
It is interesting to know that in the village of Pimpli
• Parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan along the northern
in Maharashtra, non-native Baobab trees, introduced
edges of the Western Ghats also exhibit Tropical
centuries ago, stand as a testament to historical Moist Deciduous vegetation in areas with sufficient
trade and cultural exchanges in the region. Can rainfall.
you evaluate the role of Baobab trees in traditional
• They are also found along the Shivalik range,
medicine practices in the Western Ghats and their
including the Terai and Bhabar regions.
impact on local healthcare.
‰ Flora and Forest Resources: These forests are valuable
• Eastern Ghats: Parts of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, for the resources they provide, including timber from
and Tamil Nadu along the Eastern Ghats may have tree species such as Teak, Sal, Laurel, Lendi, Semul, lrul,
Tropical Semi-Evergreen vegetation. Rosewood, Amla, Kusum, Jamun, and Bamboo, among
others.
• Northeastern States: Certain areas in the
• However, like other forest types, they face challenges
northeastern states, such as Assam, Arunachal
due to deforestation and habitat conversion for
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Mizoram.
agriculture.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
‰ Flora and Forest Resources: Prominent tree species in Littoral and Swamp
these forests include Laurel, Rosewood, Mesua, thorny ‰ “Littoral” and “swamp” are terms used to describe
Bamboo, Kenju, Kusum, Mundani, Semul, Kadam, and specific types of ecosystems, typically associated with
lrul. aquatic or semi-aquatic environments.
• In the Western Ghats, one can encounter White ‰ Climatic Conditions: Littoral and Swamp vegetation is
Cedar, Indian Chestnut, and Champa, while the a unique type that thrives in areas with both fresh and
Himalayan region also hosts these intriguing forests, brackish water, characterised by varying levels of salinity
contributing to the region’s ecological diversity. ranging from 0.5 to 35 grams per kilogram.

182 Indian Geography

‰ Characteristic: These ecosystems are typically found ‰ Flora and Forest Resources: The vegetation in these
in and around deltas, estuaries, and creeks that are areas consists mainly of mangrove trees, which can reach
influenced by tidal flows. They play a crucial role in the heights of around 30 metres.
transition zones between land and water, providing • These mangrove forests are essential for fuel
habitat for specialised plant and animal species.
purposes and serve as a protective buffer against
‰ Distribution:
coastal erosion.
• Littoral Vegetation: Littoral vegetation is found along
• Epiphytes, which are plants that grow on other
the coastlines of India, in states along the Arabian Sea
(west coast) and the Bay of Bengal (east coast), such plants without harming them, are abundant in these
as Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, West forests. Additionally, higher ground areas support
Bengal, Odisha, and parts of Tamil Nadu. screw pines, while marshes and creeks are inhabited
• Swamp vegetation is found in areas characterized by nipa palms (Nypa fruticans).
by waterlogged and poorly drained soils, creating • One well-known example of Littoral and swamp
swampy conditions. Swamps are distributed across vegetation is the Sundarbans delta, which is covered
different regions of India, often associated with river with Sundari trees (Heritiera minor).
deltas, wetlands, and low-lying areas.
• However, these ecosystems are vulnerable to
ˆ Swamp vegetation is observed in various states,
including Assam, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, habitat destruction and pollution, making their
Bihar, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and the Sundarbans conservation crucial for both the environment and
region. local communities.

Differences Between the Littoral Zone and Swamps

Characteristic Littoral Zone Swamp
Along the shoreline of bodies of water (lakes, ponds, Low-lying areas with stagnant water or slow-moving
Location
rivers, oceans). water (wetlands).
Subject to periodic submersion by water, especially Consistently saturated with water, often with
Water Presence
during high water levels. standing water year-round.
Water levels can vary seasonally or with changes in Consistently high water levels with minimal
Hydrology
the water body’s level. fluctuation.
Common Often found in the transitional zone between aquatic A type of wetland ecosystem with standing or slow-
Ecosystem Type and terrestrial ecosystems. moving water.

• Temperature: These regions experience average

annual temperatures spanning from 15°C to 22°C.
IGNITE YOUR MIND Relative humidity levels in these regions fluctuate
between 63 to 77 per cent.
Did you know that Myristica swamps in the Western
‰ Characteristics: These are similar to moist deciduous
Ghats are distinctive ecosystems known for their rich
forests and shed their leaves in dry season. The major
plant endemism, featuring species like Myristica,
difference is that they can grow in areas of comparatively
a primitive angiosperm? Try to analyze the role of
less rainfall.
swamp vegetation in climate change mitigation
• They represent a transitional type – moist deciduous
and adaptation, considering factors such as carbon
on the wetter side and thorn forests on the drier side.
sequestration and resilience to extreme weather
events. • They have a closed but uneven canopy.
• The forests are composed of a mixture of a few
species of deciduous trees rising up to a height of 20
Dry Tropical Vegetation metres.
Tropical Dry Deciduous • Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the ground to
‰ Tropical Dry Deciduous forests serve as a transitional permit the growth of grass and climbers.
vegetation type between moist deciduous and tropical • These forests have been subject to significant
deforestation and clearance for agriculture, leading
thorn forests.
to habitat loss and environmental challenges.
‰ Climatic Conditions: • Tropical Dry Deciduous forests play an important
• Rainfall: These forests typically receive an annual ecological role and are a source of valuable timber
rainfall ranging from 70 to 100 centimetres. and other forest products.

Natural Vegetation of India 183

 • Their conservation is essential to maintain biodiversity as acacia species, Prosopis juliflora (mesquite),
and protect against soil erosion and desertification in and various cacti.
these regions. • Central India:
‰ Distribution: ˆ Parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and

• Central India: Parts of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Chhattisgarh.

and parts of Maharashtra. ˆ Some areas in central India experience a dry

ˆ Notable examples include the forests in Kanha deciduous climate, leading to the presence of
National Park (Madhya Pradesh) and Pench tropical thorn vegetation. Common species
National Park (Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra). include Acacia catechu, Anogeissus latifolia, and
• Eastern India: Particularly in Jharkhand, Odisha, and Boswellia serrata.
parts of West Bengal. • Southern India:
ˆ The Saranda Forest in Jharkhand is an example of ˆ Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, parts of

Tropical Dry Deciduous vegetation. Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra.

• Southern India: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and ˆ Certain regions in the Deccan Plateau, including

parts of Tamil Nadu. parts of the Eastern Ghats, exhibit tropical thorn
ˆ Areas like Bandipur National Park (Karnataka),
vegetation. The vegetation is adapted to the semi-
arid conditions of these areas and includes thorny
Nagarhole National Park (Karnataka), and
shrubs like Ziziphus mauritiana (Indian jujube)
Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu
and species of Acacia.
and Karnataka) feature Tropical Dry Deciduous
• Western India:
vegetation.
ˆ Parts of Gujarat and Maharashtra.
• Western India: Parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan also
ˆ Some areas in the western parts of India
have pockets of Tropical Dry Deciduous forests, where
experience arid to semi-arid conditions, leading to
species like teak, sal, and bamboo are common. the presence of tropical thorn vegetation. These
ˆ Gir National Park in Gujarat, known for its Asiatic
areas may include species like Acacia senegal,
lion population, features this type of vegetation. Anogeissus pendula, and others adapted to drier
• However, they are not found in Rajasthan, the climates.
Western Ghats, and Gujarat. ‰ Characteristics: In these arid and semi-arid regions, trees
‰ Flora and Forest Resources: Key tree species found in tend to be relatively small, ranging from 6 to 9 metres
tropical dry deciduous vegetation include Teak, Laurel, in height, and they often appear stunted. Coarse grasses
Khair, Harra, Bel, Rosewood, Satinwood, Anjeer, Palas, dominate large patches of the landscape.
Amaltas, and Bijsal, among others. ‰ Flora and Forest Resources: Common plant species in
Tropical Thorn this vegetation type include Indian Date Palms, Acacias,
Cacti, Palash, Wild Palms, Kokko, Kanju, and Khejra.
‰ “Tropicathorn” typically refers to plants in tropical
Despite the challenging environmental conditions, these
regions with thorns or spines as adaptations for defence plants have adapted to survive in arid climates, making
against herbivores and water conservation in arid them an essential part of these ecosystems.
environments.
‰ Climatic Conditions:
Tropical Dry Evergreen
‰ Tropical dry evergreen forests are a type of forest
• Rainfall: Tropical Thorn vegetation thrives in regions
ecosystem found in tropical regions characterised by
characterised by very low annual rainfall, typically
trees that retain their green leaves throughout the year
ranging from 50 to 70 centimetres.
despite seasonal dry periods.
• Temperature: The mean annual temperature in these
‰ Climatic Conditions:
areas falls between 25°C to 27°C.
• Rainfall: Tropical Dry Evergreen forests are typically
• Humidity: Relative humidity is quite low, often below
found in areas that receive approximately 100
47 percent. centimetres of rainfall, primarily occurring from
‰ Distribution: October to December.
• Northwestern India: • Temperature: The annual mean temperature in these
ˆ Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Haryana, and Punjab. regions is around 28°C, and the relative humidity
ˆ The Thar Desert, which spans across northwestern levels hover at approximately 74 percent.
India, is a prominent area with tropical thorn ‰ Characteristics: These forests are characterised by
vegetation. The vegetation in this region is relatively low-height trees, with canopies ranging from 9
adapted to arid conditions, featuring plants such to 12 metres in height.

184 Indian Geography

‰ Distribution: ‰ Climatic Conditions: These forests are situated at
• Coromandel Coast: Coastal regions of Tamil Nadu, altitudes ranging from 1000 to 1800 metres above sea
including areas near Chennai, Puducherry, and the level.
surrounding districts, are known for these forests. • Rainfall: The annual rainfall in these areas typically
• Eastern Ghats: parts of Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and falls between 100 to 200 centimetres.
Karnataka along the Eastern Ghats, Seshachalam Hills • Temperature: Average temperature ranges from
in Andhra Pradesh and the Simlipal National Park in 15°C to 22°C.
Odisha. • Relative humidity levels vary from 63 to 77 percent.
• Western Ghats: Karnataka and Kerala, especially in
Montane
the rain shadow regions, may have elements of TDEF. Forest
• Southern Tip of India: parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu,
may feature Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests.
‰ Flora and Forest Resources: Key tree species that are
part of the tropical dry evergreen vegetation include
Toddy Palm, Kokko, Jamun, Ritha, Khirni, Tamarind,
and Neem, among others. These trees have adapted to
survive in regions with a distinct dry season.
‰ Significance: Tropical Dry Evergreen forests are
ecologically significant, providing habitat and resources
for various wildlife species. Preserving these ecosystems
is essential to maintaining biodiversity in these coastal
Fig. 7.6: Montane forest
regions.
‰ Characteristics: During the rainy season, these forests
often have a thick grass cover.
Casuarina Plantation • Sub-tropical moist Pine forests are ecologically
‰ It resembles a feathery conifer in general appearance.
significant and provide valuable habitat for a variety
‰ They are rapid-growing, carefree species for sites of flora and fauna in these regions.
and climates as varied as coastal sand dunes, high
• Maintaining these ecosystems is crucial for
mountain slopes, hot humid tropics, and semi-arid
biodiversity conservation and preserving the unique
regions.
characteristics of these sub-tropical mountainous
‰ They have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. It
areas.
grows 15 to 25 metres in height on average.
‰ Distribution: Sub-tropical moist Pine forests are primarily
Distribution
found in specific regions, including the northwestern
‰ Casuarina is the most popular farm forestry in the
Himalayas (excluding Kashmir), Himachal Pradesh,
states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
Uttarakhand, the Khasi hills, Nagaland, and Manipur.
Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka.
• This vegetation type is particularly prominent in the
Benefits
Shivalik Hills, which are the southernmost range of
‰ Reduces damage in the event of natural calamities.
the Himalayas.
‰ Line planting in the coastal areas helps in controlling
‰ Flora and Forest Resources: One of the prominent tree
the wind force.
species in these forests is the Chir pine, particularly
‰ It is also used for tourism promotion in view of its
prevalent in areas with higher humidity. Additionally,
ornamental appearance.
you can find other important tree species such as Jamun,
‰ It provides top-quality firewood.
Oak, and Rhododendron.
‰ The Wood is suitable for paper pulp and useful raw
material for the manufacture of paper for writing,
printing, and wrapping. IGNITE YOUR MIND
‰ It has some serious medicinal value as well.
The Ghost Trees” in Kaladhungi forest, Uttarakhand,
are Eucalyptus trees covered in thick cobwebs, creating
Montane Sub-Tropical Vegetation a ghostly appearance due to millions of silk-spinning
Sub-Tropical Moist (Pine) caterpillars. Explain the role of traditional knowledge
‰ Subtropical moist pine forests are forest ecosystems
and indigenous practices in the conservation of
endangered vegetation in the Himalayan region.
located in subtropical regions with moderate moisture
How can modern conservation strategies integrate
levels, typically featuring pine trees adapted to these
traditional wisdom for effective preservation?
conditions.

Natural Vegetation of India 185

Sub-Tropical Dry Evergreen ‰ Characteristics: Sub-tropical Wet Hill forests are
‰ Subtropical dry evergreen forests are characterised by characterised by a blend of tropical and temperate wet
evergreen vegetation adapted to subtropical regions evergreen trees.
with pronounced dry seasons. • These trees typically have an average height ranging
‰ Climatic Conditions: from 15 to 30 metres, and the canopy is less dense
• Rainfall: Rainfall in this ecosystem typically falls compared to some other forest types.
within the range of 50 to 100 centimetres annually, ‰ Flora and Forest Resources: Major tree species found in
with the number of rainy days totalling about 26 to the Eastern Himalayan region include Jamun, Machilus,
38 days each year. Elaeocarpus, Colitis, Oak, and Chestnut, among others.
• Temperature: The climate in these areas is
• These forests contribute to the rich biodiversity of
characterised by an average annual temperature of
the region and are essential for ecological balance
around 20°C.
and conservation efforts.
‰ Distribution: Sub-tropical dry Evergreen forests are
typically found in specific regions, including the Bhabar, Montane Temperate Vegetation
the Shiwaliks, and the western Himalayas, up to an Wet Temperate
elevation of approximately 1,000 metres above sea level.
‰ Montane wet temperate forests are high-altitude forest
• These forests cover the Piedmont area of the
ecosystems typically found in mountainous regions with
Himalayas, including parts of Punjab, Haryana, and
some regions of the Kashmir hills. They are situated temperate climates and ample precipitation, featuring a
at elevations ranging from 450 to 1,500 metres. variety of plant and animal species adapted to these cool
‰ Characteristics: During the rainy season, these forests and moist conditions.
often feature lush grass growth. ‰ Climatic Conditions:
• Sub-tropical dry Evergreen forests are ecologically • Rainfall: These forests experience a mean annual
important and provide habitat for various plant and rainfall of 150 to 300 centimetres.
animal species, contributing to the biodiversity of • Temperature: These forests have a mean annual
these regions. temperature that varies between 11 to 18°C.
• Conservation efforts are essential to preserve these During the winter months (December to February),
unique ecosystems. temperatures can drop to freezing levels, often
‰ Flora and Forest Resources: These forests consist of accompanied by dense fog.
various species of acacia, along with trees like Olive, • Humidity: The average relative humidity in these
Acacia, Modesta, and Pistacia, among others. regions is over 80 percent.
Sub-Tropical Wet Hill ‰ Distribution: Wet Temperate forests thrive at elevations
‰ Subtropical wet hill forests refer to forested ecosystems ranging from 1,800 to 3,000 metres above sea level
in hilly or mountainous subtropical regions with and can be found along the slopes of various mountain
abundant rainfall, creating unique ecological conditions ranges, including the Nilgiris, Annamalai, Palni hills
and supporting diverse plant and animal species. (above 1,500 metres), the Himalayas, and the Assam
‰ Climatic Conditions: hills (ranging from 1800 to 2900 metres).
• Rainfall: The annual rainfall in these regions is ‰ Characteristics: Trees in Wet Temperate forests typically
abundant, exceeding 150 centimetres, and it spans reach heights of 15 to 18 metres and are known as
over 78 to 146 rainy days. “Sholas” in South India.
• Temperature: The average annual temperature in • These forests are characterised by dense undergrowth
these areas ranges from 18°C to 24°C, with a relative and host numerous epiphytes, mosses, and ferns.
humidity varying between 51 to 81 per cent. ‰ Flora and Forest Resources: Key tree species found in
‰ Distribution: these forests include Magnolia, Laurel, Rhododendron,
• Sub-tropical Wet Hill forests are typically found in Elm, Prunus, and Plum.
relatively moist areas at lower altitudes on mountain • In the northern part of India, Oak, Chestnut, and
ranges, particularly at elevations ranging from 900 to Laurel are common tree species.
1,050 metres above sea level. ‰ Significance: Wet Temperate forests are ecologically
• These forests are prevalent in various regions, significant and contribute to the rich biodiversity of
including the Eastern Himalayan region around Assam mountainous regions, playing a crucial role in maintaining
and the Khasi hills, as well as in places like Pachmarhi, ecological balance and providing habitat for various plant
Nilgiri, and Mahabaleshwar hills. and animal species.

186 Indian Geography

Himalayan Moist Temperate ranges of the Himalayas, where the southwest monsoon
‰ Himalayan moist temperate forests are forested loses much of its moisture content. Consequently, these
ecosystems located in the Himalayan mountain range, forests are adapted to arid conditions and support
characterised by temperate climates and diverse flora xerophytic shrubs and trees.
and fauna. ‰ Distribution: Himalayan Dry Temperate forests are
‰ Climatic Conditions: These forests are typically found at primarily found in regions such as Ladakh, Chamba,
altitudes ranging from 1,500 to 3,300 metres above sea Lahaul, Garhwal, and Sikkim.
level. • The Himalayan Dry Temperate vegetation is prevalent
• Rainfall: The annual rainfall in these areas varies from in parts of Himachal Pradesh, particularly in the lower
150 to 250 centimetres, elevations of the state.
• Temperature: And average annual temperature • Certain areas of Jammu and Kashmir, especially in the
hovers around 12°C to 13°C. transitional zones between the higher elevations and
‰ Characteristics: These forests form a high but relatively the plains, exhibit characteristics of the Himalayan
open tree cover, often accompanied by shrubby Dry Temperate vegetation.
undergrowth consisting of Oaks, Rhododendrons, and ‰ Flora and Forest Resources: Key tree species found in
some Bamboo. these forests include Deodar, Juniper, Chilgozah (Neoza),
• Mainly composed of coniferous species and Species Maple, Ash, Celtis, Olive, and Oak, among others.
occur in mostly pure strands. • These forests play a vital role in the ecological balance
• Himalayan Moist Temperate forests are ecologically of the region and provide habitat for various species
significant, contributing to the rich biodiversity of the adapted to arid environments.
Himalayan region. • Conservation efforts are crucial to safeguard these
• They provide habitat for a variety of plant and animal unique ecosystems in the Himalayan region.
species, including many endangered and endemic Alpine Vegetation
ones. Conservation efforts are essential to protect ‰ Alpine vegetation is primarily found in the Himalayan
these vital ecosystems. ranges at altitudes ranging from 3,000 metres to 4,000
‰ Distribution: The Himalayan Moist Temperate metres above sea level. This vegetation forms a dense
vegetation is distributed across several states along the cover in these high-altitude regions.
Himalayan range, including Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, ‰ However, as you move from the southern slopes to the
Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and Sikkim. northern slopes of the Himalayas, the alpine vegetation
‰ Flora and Forest Resources: The vegetation in Himalayan transitions into low evergreen shrubs on the southern
Moist Temperate forests is characterised by a mix of slopes and dry xerophytic vegetation on the northern
broad-leaf evergreen and conifer species. slopes.
• Notable tree species include Oak, Fir, Spruce (Picea), ‰ Within the Pir Panjal range, alpine pastures with stunted
Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Celtis, Chestnut, Cedar conifers can be found at altitudes of approximately 2,250
(Chamaecyparis), Maple, Silver Fir, Kail, Yew, and metres to 2,750 metres.
Birch, among others. ‰ These pastures are often used as grazing grounds by the
• Timber: It provides fine wood which is of much use Gujjar nomads who practise transhumance and seasonal
for construction, timber and railway sleepers. migration of livestock in search of better pastures.
‰ These high-altitude ecosystems are essential for the
Himalayan Dry Temperate
biodiversity of the Himalayan region and play a vital role
‰ Himalayan dry temperate forests are forest ecosystems in supporting unique plant and animal species adapted
situated in the Himalayan region, characterised by to these extreme conditions.
temperate climates with lower moisture levels, and they ‰ Flora and vegetation
typically support vegetation adapted to these semi-arid • Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important
or dry conditions in the mountainous terrain. species.
‰ Climatic Conditions: These areas receive minimal • In the Western Himalayas, certain alpine species with
precipitation, typically below 100 centimetres, and much white flowers, such as ‘Brahmakamal’ and ‘Kuth, are
of it comes in the form of snowfall. These forests are used in perfumery.
situated at altitudes above 1,500 metres. • The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense
‰ Characteristics: The unique characteristic of Himalayan growth of rhododendron, birch etc. which occurs
Dry Temperate forests is their occurrence in the inner dry from 3,000 metres and extends upto snowline.

Natural Vegetation of India 187

 • The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub water contamination. Often, additional logging occurs
xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 metres above near mines for debris storage, causing pollution and
sea level and found in dry zone. Juniper, honeysuckle, health issues in nearby communities. Since 2000, coal
artemesia etc. are important species. mining has destroyed 2,500+ hectares in Chandrapur
district (Maharashtra).
Distribution of Alpine Vegetation in India ‰ Population Growth: Growing populations increase
‰ Himalayan Region: demands for resources, resulting in permanent forest
• Northwestern Himalayas: Areas in Jammu and clearance for agriculture and settlements. From 1930
Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Notable alpine zones to 2020, 21.58% of forests were transformed into
can be found in places like Gulmarg, Sonamarg, and agriculture and human settlements.
the Great Himalayan National Park. ‰ Urbanization and Industrialization: Land needed for
• Central Himalayas: Regions like Uttarakhand, where urbanisation and industrial growth leads to substantial
areas around Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve and forest clearance, disrupting ecosystems and causing
Valley of Flowers National Park showcase diverse environmental harm.
alpine flora. ‰ Dam Reservoir Construction: Large dams require
• Eastern Himalayas: In Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, extensive forest destruction, affecting ecological balance,
alpine vegetation is found in higher elevations. and increasing the risk of floods, droughts, and landslides.
Yumthang Valley in Sikkim is known for its alpine Over 30 years, 14,000 km² of Indian forests were legally
meadows and diverse plant species. cleared for mining, defence, and hydroelectric projects.
‰ Forest Fires: Natural or human-induced fires cause
DEFORESTATION IN INDIA significant forest losses, disrupting ecosystems and
biodiversity.
Deforestation is the process of clearing forests for human
needs, including agriculture, urbanisation, grazing, mining, Consequences of Deforestation
and wood use. It has been a practice since ancient times, ‰ Land Use Changes: Deforestation allows for urban
resulting in habitat loss, biodiversity decline, ecosystem development, roads, and agriculture, altering landscapes.
disruption, and carbon emissions. Sustainable land use ‰ Agricultural Challenges: Deforested areas often degrade
practices are essential to combat its environmental in quality, reducing fertility and productivity.
consequences. ‰ Soil Erosion: Loss of forest cover exposes soil to rain and
heat, leading to erosion and reduced arability.
Data-Wise ‰ Disruption of the Water Cycle: Forests play a crucial
‰ India ranks second after Brazil, with an average of role in regulating the water cycle. Deforestation can lead
668,400 hectares cleared between 2015 and 2020 to altered rainfall patterns, reduced water quality, and
(rose from 384,000 hectares between 1990 and 2000), increased risk of floods and droughts.
as per a Utility Bidder report. According to them, India ‰ Loss of Medicinal Plants: Many medicinal plants are
has recorded the highest increase in deforestation. found in forests. Deforestation can lead to the loss of
potential cures and treatments for diseases.
Causes of Deforestation ‰ Impact on Indigenous Communities: Indigenous peoples
‰ Agriculture: Forests are converted to agricultural land often rely on forests for their livelihoods and cultural
to meet the growing food demand. Shifting cultivators, practices. Deforestation can displace these communities
practising slash-and-burn agriculture, clear substantial and disrupt their way of life.
forest areas annually, mainly in North-east India, Andhra ‰ Flooding: Watershed disruption due to deforestation can
Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh. lead to downstream flooding and coastal sedimentation.
‰ Cattle Ranching: Clearing forests for pastureland is a ‰ Biodiversity Loss: Deforestation threatens plant and
significant driver in some regions. Across the world, animal species, causing extinctions and disrupting
between 2013 and 2019, 70% of tropical forest was ecosystems.
cleared illegally for farming and cattle ranching. ‰ Increased Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Deforestation
‰ Commercial Logging: Logging for global markets, contributes to higher levels of greenhouse gases in the
including valuable woods like meranti, teak, mahogany, atmosphere, exacerbating climate change.
and ebony, leads to tree loss and opens land for ‰ Climate Change: Deforestation contributes to increased
agriculture. Trees are also cut for firewood, construction, CO2 levels and climate change.
and fodder, with grazing animals damaging saplings. ‰ Economic Impact: Flooding and droughts impact
‰ Mining: Mining causes erosion, sinkhole formation, economies, and the value of standing forests can surpass
biodiversity loss, and soil, groundwater, and surface that of harvested wood.

188 Indian Geography

Way Forward
Miyawaki Afforestation - Urban Forestry
‰ Legal Frameworks and Enforcement:
‰ Miyawaki afforestation is a technique named after
• Establish and enforce robust legal frameworks that the Japanese botanist Akira Miyawaki.
regulate and control logging, land conversion, and
‰ Miyawaki afforestation involves planting a diverse
other activities contributing to deforestation.
mix of native plant species in a closely spaced and
ˆ Example: India has various environmental laws
multilayered pattern, mimicking natural forests. This
and regulations, such as the Forest (Conservation) technique is particularly effective in urban areas with
Act, Wildlife Protection Act, and the National limited space.
Green Tribunal Act, which provide legal • Cities like Bengaluru and Pune have implemented
frameworks for the conservation and sustainable Miyawaki afforestation projects in public spaces,
management of forests. such as parks and school grounds, to increase
‰ Protected Areas and Reserves: greenery and biodiversity.
• Promote the sustainable use of forests within ‰ Miyawaki afforestation can contribute to carbon
protected areas and wildlife reserves by involving sequestration, improve air and water quality, and
local communities in conservation efforts. create microhabitats for various species. It also
ˆ Example: India has a network of national parks engages local communities and raises awareness
and wildlife sanctuaries, designed to protect about the importance of native flora.
critical ecosystems and biodiversity by promoting
sustainable use of forests.
‰ Afforestation measures: IGNITE YOUR MIND
• Implement afforestation programs to plant trees
In Ladakh, there is a mysterious grove of trees near
in areas where they have been previously cut
Magnetic Hill that appears to defy gravity. The slope
down or degraded in order to restore ecosystems,
of the hill makes vehicles seemingly roll uphill, and
enhance biodiversity, and mitigate the impacts of
the trees, known as “Magnetic Hill Trees,” grow at
deforestation. unusual angles due to the magnetic properties of
ˆ Example: The Green India Mission, part of the terrain. How can sustainable tourism practices
the National Action Plan on Climate Change, be implemented to preserve these natural wonders
aims to increase forest and tree cover, enhance while ensuring responsible visitor behavior?
biodiversity, and restore degraded ecosystems.
‰ Agroforestry:
• India promotes agroforestry practices as a sustainable CORAL REEFS
land-use system that integrates trees and shrubs with
‰ Corals are composed of calcareous rocks formed from
agricultural crops or livestock.
the skeletons of tiny sea creatures called polyps. Polyps
• The National Agroforestry Policy encourages farmers
extract calcium salts from seawater to create protective
to adopt agroforestry to enhance biodiversity,
skeletons for their soft bodies, collectively giving rise to
mitigate deforestation, and provide alternative
corals.
sources of income.
‰ Financial Incentives:
• Provide financial incentives for sustainable forest
management and conservation, encouraging private
landowners and companies to adopt environmentally
friendly practices.
• Explore mechanisms such as payments for ecosystem
services to reward communities for maintaining
healthy and biodiverse forests. Fig. 7.7: Coral Reefs
ˆ Example: The Compensatory Afforestation Fund ‰ These coral colonies are anchored to the rocky seafloor,
Act (CAMPA) establishes funds for compensatory and new generations of polyps develop on the skeletons
afforestation and wildlife management. It provides of deceased polyps.
financial incentives for states to undertake ‰ The tubular skeletons grow upwards and outwards,
afforestation activities and maintain healthy forming a solid, cemented mass of calcareous rock
forest ecosystems. known as corals.

Natural Vegetation of India 189

‰ These rocky formations create shallow areas called reefs, ‰ They are mainly restricted to the Andaman and Nicobar
which can evolve into islands over time. Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Palk Strait, the Lakshadweep
‰ The appearance and colors of corals can vary depending islands, Gulf of Kutch and Malvan.
on the salts and constituents they incorporate. ‰ All of these reefs are Fringing reefs, except Lakshadweep
‰ The development of corals takes place over time, with which are Atolls.
diverse forms emerging on the sea surface due to
ongoing deposition. Coral Bleaching
‰ Small marine plants like algae also contribute to coral ‰ Coral reef ecosystems worldwide have experienced
growth by depositing calcium carbonate. significant deterioration in recent decades, with
disturbances arising from both human activities and
Ideal Conditions natural events.
‰ Corals flourish in tropical waters, specifically within the ‰ The recent accelerated decline of coral reefs is primarily
latitudinal range of 30 degrees north and 30 degrees attributed to human-induced impacts, including
south. overexploitation, overfishing, increased sedimentation,
‰ They prefer depths between 45 metres and 55 metres and nutrient pollution.
below the sea surface, where there is ample sunlight ‰ Natural disturbances that harm coral reefs involve
available. severe weather events such as storms, floods, extreme
‰ The water temperature ideally hovers around 20°C to temperature fluctuations, and phenomena like El Nino
29°C for optimal coral growth. Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events.
‰ Clear saltwater with a salinity range between 27 ppm ‰ Coral bleaching occurs when the symbiotic relationship
to 30 ppm is conducive to coral development, while between coral hosts and marine algae, which provide
both freshwater and excessively saline water can be much of the coral’s colour, breaks down. This breakdown
detrimental to polyp growth. results in the coral’s tissue becoming transparent,
‰ An adequate supply of oxygen and plankton, which are revealing the white skeleton.
microscopic marine organisms, is crucial for the growth ‰ Coral reef bleaching is a common response to stress
and sustenance of corals. Corals tend to grow more caused by various disturbances mentioned earlier.
rapidly on the seaward side due to the greater availability
‰ When corals bleach, they begin to starve. While some
of food in these areas.
corals can feed themselves, most struggle to survive
Location of Coral Reefs in India without their algae. If conditions return to normal, corals
can regain their algae, restore their normal colour, and
survive.
‰ However, this stress often leads to reduced coral growth
and reproduction, making the corals more susceptible to
Gulf of kachch diseases.
‰ Bleached corals frequently die if the stress persists, and
coral reefs experiencing high coral mortality following
bleaching may take many years or even decades to
recover.
Malvan
Way Forward
‰ Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Establishing marine
Andaman
protected areas helps restrict human activities that may
Lakshadweep harm coral reefs.
Gulf of Mannar

Nicobar
• Example: Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park in
Tamil Nadu is a designated Marine Protected Area
which encompasses diverse ecosystems, including
coral reefs, and restricts certain human activities to
Fig. 7.8: Location of Coral reefs in India conserve marine biodiversity.
Coral reefs in India are primarily found along the coastline ‰ Sustainable Fishing Practices: Implementing and
in the tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in the enforcing sustainable fishing practices, such as avoiding
Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The major coral reef destructive fishing methods like blast fishing and cyanide
areas in India are as follows: fishing, helps reduce stress on coral reef ecosystems.

190 Indian Geography

 CORAL BLEACHING
Have you ever wondered how a coral gets bleached?
WHAT CAUSES
CORAL
BLEACHING?
Change in ocean
temperature
Increased ocean
HEALTHY CORAL STRESSED CORAL BLEACHED CORAL temperature caused by

1 2 3
climate change is the
Coral and algae depend If stressed, algae leaves Coral is left bleached and leading cause of coral
on each other to survive. the coral vulnerabel. bleaching.

Runoff and pollution

Storm generated
precipitation can rapidly
dilute ocean water
and runoff can carry
pollutants- these can
bleach near-shore corals.
Overexposure to
sunlight
When temperatures are
high, high solar irradiance
contributes to bleaching
in shallow-water corals.

Extreme low tides

Exposure to the air
during extreme low tides
can cause bleaching in
shallow corals.

Corals have a symbiotic relationship When the symbiotic relationship Without the algae, the coral loses
with microscopic algae called becomes stressed due to increased its major source of food, turns
zooxanthellae that live in their tissues. ocean temperature or pollution, white or very pale, and is more
These algae are the coral’s primary food the algae leave the coral’s tissue. susceptible to disease.
source and give them their color.

Fig. 7.9: Coral Bleaching

• Example: Lakshadweep Islands have implemented change, pose significant threats to coral reefs. Efforts
sustainable fishing practices, including banning to reduce greenhouse gas emissions can help mitigate
destructive methods like blast fishing, which protect these impacts.
coral reef ecosystems from overfishing and habitat • Example: The Lakshadweep Archipelago faces
degradation. threats from rising sea temperatures and climate
‰ Coral Reef Restoration Programs: Initiatives focused change. Efforts to reduce the carbon footprint, such
on coral reef restoration involve activities like coral as promoting renewable energy and sustainable
transplantation, where healthy coral fragments are tourism practices, contribute to mitigating climate
grown in nurseries and then replanted onto damaged change impacts on coral reefs.
reef areas.
• Example: Organizations like ReefWatch Marine Biorock Technology
Conservation have undertaken projects to restore
Biorock technology, also known as mineral accretion
damaged coral reefs through coral transplantation
technology, is an innovative approach to coral reef
and community involvement.
conservation. It involves the use of low-voltage electrical
‰ Reducing Pollution: Minimizing land-based sources of
currents to stimulate the deposition of minerals onto
pollution, such as sediment runoff, agricultural runoff,
metal structures submerged in the ocean. These
and pollutants from urban areas, is crucial to restore
structures, often made of steel, act as a substrate for coral
coral health.
settlement and growth.
• Example: Conservation efforts in the Netrani Island
in Karnataka involve raising awareness about the Example: The Gulf of Kutch has seen experimental
impact of pollution on coral reefs and implementing deployments of Biorock structures to enhance coral
measures to reduce land-based sources of pollution. growth. The Zoological Survey of India, in collaboration
with local communities, has explored the potential of
‰ Climate Change Mitigation: Addressing climate change
Biorock technology as a tool for coral reef restoration and
is essential for coral reef conservation. Rising sea
resilience-building in the region.
temperatures and ocean acidification, linked to climate

Natural Vegetation of India 191

 ‰ Mechanisms for excluding salt.
‰ Mangroves are viviparous, which means seeds
A/C to D/C converter
germinate and develop into seedlings while the seeds
are still attached to the parent tree. These seedlings are
A/C Power supply
normally called propagules and they photosynthesize
Power cables are buried on
the beach for protection
while still attached to the mother tree. The parent
Ocean current direction aids tree supplies water and necessary nutrients. They are
the electrolytic process by Corals
carrying ions to the structure buoyant and float in the water for sometime before
Ion field produced
rooting themselves on suitable soil.
by the Anode Cathode ‰ In some mangrove plants, salt exclusion is achieved
Biorock Structure through impermeable roots, which act as an ultra-
Large boulders on cables to keep from
filtration system to prevent sodium salts from entering
being damaged by a boat etc. the rest of the plant, effectively reducing salt content by
90% to 97%. The plant then sheds its old leaves, which
Fig. 7.10: Biorock Technology concentrate salt and are eventually shed.
‰ Other mangroves store salt in cell vacuoles, while certain
species have glands on their leaves that actively release
MANGROVES salt, leaving visible salt crystals on the leaf’s upper
‰ Mangrove forests are a dominant presence along the surface.
coastlines of tropical and subtropical regions, playing a ‰ Many mangrove trees feature aerial roots known as
vital role in the overall forest ecosystem. pneumatophores, which draw oxygen from the air for the
‰ Mangroves serve as a unique intersection point where
roots. This is necessary because the soil in the shallow
the sea, freshwater, and land converge. regions of mangrove forests is often flooded during high
tides.
‰ There are 54 to 75 species of true mangroves that are
‰ Mangrove plants also have a unique mode of
taxonomically distinct from their terrestrial counterparts
reproduction, with mangrove seeds beginning to grow
and are exclusively found in the intertidal areas of
while attached to the parent plant. These seedlings
coastlines.
develop roots while still connected to the parent.
‰ Mangrove forests represent one of the world’s most
intricate ecosystems, thriving in environmental Largest Mangrove Areas
conditions that would rapidly prove fatal to most other The countries with the largest mangrove areas are Indonesia,
types of vegetation. Brazil, Australia, Mexico and Nigeria.
‰ Their ability to endure extremely saline waters and Mangroves in India
soils is a result of their remarkable adaptability to their
‰ According to the Indian State Forest Report 2021,
surroundings, allowing them to prevent or eliminate salt.
Mangrove cover in India is 4975 sq. Km which is 0.15% of
Mangrove Forests have Evolved Specific the country’s total geographical area.
• India has witnessed a 1.10% increase in its mangrove
Growth Patterns to Adapt to the Challenging
cover, equivalent to 54 square kilometres, according
Conditions of Estuaries to the latest assessment.
‰ West Bengal holds the largest share of India’s mangrove
cover at 42.45%, followed by Gujarat at 23.66%, and the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands at 12.39%. Gujarat has
experienced the most substantial increase in mangrove
forest cover, adding 37 square kilometres.
‰ Notably, nearly half of India’s mangrove area is situated
in the Sundarbans region of West Bengal. Sundarbans in
West Bengal are the largest mangrove forest regions in
Fig. 7.11: Mangroves
the world. It is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Key Adaptations Include ‰ Other states that have shown significant growth in
‰ Tolerance of brackish waters and flooding. mangrove cover include West Bengal (2,114 square
‰ Ability to withstand waterlogging. kilometres), Gujarat (1,140 square kilometres), the
‰ Survival in oxygen-deprived (anoxic) soil. Andaman and Nicobar Islands (617 square kilometres),

192 Indian Geography

 Andhra Pradesh (404 square kilometres), and
Maharashtra (304 square kilometres). THE INDIA STATE OF FOREST
REPORT 2021
INDIA The India State of Forest Report 2021 (ISFR 2021) is a
Important States with
significant biennial evaluation conducted by the Ministry
Mangrove Forest
of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) and
marks the 17th iteration. This report provides an extensive
overview of India’s forests and tree cover, along with several
critical findings and assessments.
‰ The ISFR 2021 provides the most up-to-date information
West
Gujarat
Bengal on the country’s ‘Forest cover’ and ‘Tree cover’.
Maharastra Orrisa ‰ It also presents the estimates of growing stock, the
extent of trees outside forests, mangrove cover, bamboo
resources, and forest carbon stock assessments.
Goa Andhra ‰ The chapter on forest carbon assessment also
Karnataka Pradesh includes India’s progress toward meeting its Nationally
Andaman Determined Contribution commitments.
Tamil Nadu and Nikobar
Kerala Islands
New Features in ISFR 2021
‰ The report includes a special chapter focusing on “Forest
Cover Assessment in Tiger Reserves and Tiger Corridor
Fig. 7.12: Distribution of Mangrove in India Areas”, a notable addition.
‰ Among the states, Kerala has the smallest mangrove ‰ It presents the results of two special studies: “Above
cover at 9 square kilometres, while among the Union Ground Biomass Estimation Using Synthetic Aperture
Territories, Puducherry has the least, covering 2 square Radar Data” (in partnership with ISRO) and “Climate Hot
kilometres. Spots in Forest Areas Studies.”
‰ For research and development purposes, the Environment ‰ A separate chapter highlights new initiatives undertaken
Ministry has established the National Mangrove Genetic by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) in the last two years.
Resource Centre in Bhitarkanika, Odisha. ‰ For the first time, the ISFR assessed forest cover in tiger
Important Mangrove Regions in India reserves, tiger corridors, and the Gir forest, home to the
Asiatic lion.
‰ Gujarat: Mangroves are located in the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf
of Khambhat, and areas like Dumas and Ubhrat. Major Findings of the Report
‰ Andhra Pradesh: Mangrove areas are found in Coringa, ‰ Area-wise Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover
East Godavari Delta, and Krishna Delta. in the country
‰ Odisha: Mangroves are present in Bhitarkanika,
‰ Maximum increase in forest cover witnessed in Andhra
Mahanadi, Subarnarekha, Devi-Kauda, Dhamra, and
Pradesh (647 sq km) followed by Telangana (632 sq km)
Chilka regions.
and Odisha (537 sq km).
‰ West Bengal: The Sundarbans in West Bengal is a
prominent area with mangrove cover. ‰ 17 states/UTs have above 33 percent of the geographical
‰ Andaman & Nicobar: Mangroves are found in North area under forest cover.
Andaman and Nicobar regions. ‰ Total carbon stock in country’s forest is estimated to be
‰ Maharashtra: Mangrove areas can be found in Achra- 7,204 million tonnes, an increase of 79.4 million.
Ratnagiri, Devgad-VijayDurg, Veldur, Kundalika- ‰ Total mangrove cover in the country is 4,992 sq km, an
Revdanda, Mumbra-Diva, and Vikhroli. increase of 17 sq Km is observed.
‰ Goa: Mangroves exist in Goa.
‰ Increase in Total Forest and Tree Cover: The total forest
‰ Karnataka: Mangrove regions can be located in and tree cover in India have increased by 2,261 sq km
Coondapur, Dakshin Kannada/Hannavar, Karwar, and the
since the last assessment in 2019 (ISFR-2019). This
Mangalore Forest Division.
increase consists of 1,540 sq km of forest cover and 721
‰ Kerala: Mangroves are present in Vembanad and in the
sq km of tree cover. In total, the forest and tree cover
northern region of Kannur.
now occupy 80.9 million hectares, which is approximately
‰ Tamil Nadu: Mangrove areas can be found in Pichavaram,
24.62% of the country’s geographical area.
Muthupet, Ramnad, Pulicat, and Kaznuveli.

Natural Vegetation of India 193

 Fig. 7.13: Findings of the Report
‰ Top States with Increased Forest Cover: Andhra Pradesh, ‰ Forest Fires in India: The report highlights that forest
Telangana, and Odisha recorded the highest increase in fires pose a threat to 35.46% of the country’s forest cover,
forest cover, with Andhra Pradesh leading with 647 sq with varying degrees of vulnerability. Approximately
km of additional forest cover. 2.81% are extremely vulnerable, 7.85% are very highly
‰ Area-wise Forest Cover: Madhya Pradesh has the largest vulnerable, and 11.51% are highly vulnerable.
forest cover in the country, followed by Arunachal ‰ Climate Change Hotspots: The report predicts that
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Maharashtra. climate change and rising temperatures will have a
negative impact on 45-64% of Indian forests by 2030.
‰ Percentage-wise Forest Cover: Mizoram (84.53%),
All Indian states, except Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and
Arunachal Pradesh (79.33%), Meghalaya (76%), Manipur
Nagaland, are expected to have highly sensitive climate
(74.34%), Nagaland (73.90%) are the top five states with
hotspots. The Union Territory of Ladakh, with forest
the highest forest cover as a percentage of their total cover ranging from 0.1-0.2%, is most susceptible.
geographical area.
‰ Forest Cover in Tiger Reserves: A new chapter assesses
‰ States/UTs with Significant Forest Cover: The report forest cover in India’s Tiger Reserves, Corridors, and Lion
highlights that 17 states/union territories have forest Conservation Areas. While some reserves have shown
cover exceeding 33% of their land area. Lakshadweep, growth, others have experienced a decline in forest
Mizoram, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Arunachal cover over the past decade.
Pradesh, and Meghalaya have over 75% forest cover.
‰ Increase in Mangrove Cover: The mangrove cover in India Impact of India’s Forest Resources on Climate
has increased by 17 sq km since the previous assessment Change
in 2019, with Odisha (8 sq km), Maharashtra (4 sq km) ‰ Forests act as a crucial natural stabilizer for the
and Karnataka (3 sq km) leading in the expansion of climate, regulating the carbon cycle significantly.
mangrove cover. The total mangrove cover in the country ‰ Carbon sequestration through photosynthesis is
spans 4,992 square kilometres. recognized as one of the most potent and cost-
efficient strategies for addressing climate change.
‰ Total Carbon Stock: India’s carbon stock has increased
• They provide a unique, secure, and cost-effective
by 79.4 million tonnes since 2019, with an annual carbon
method for capturing and storing carbon dioxide,
store increase of 39.7 million tonnes. The country’s forest
potentially mitigating global CO₂ concentrations.
carbon stock is estimated to be 7,204 million tonnes.
‰ Reduction in forest cover diminishes the land’s
‰ Bamboo Forests: Bamboo forests have seen remarkable capacity to absorb carbon dioxide, leading to increased
growth, increasing from 13,882 million culms (stems) in atmospheric concentrations of this greenhouse gas.
2019 to 53,336 million culms (stems) in 2021.

194 Indian Geography

 continued existence and health. It involves various practices
‰ Forests play a critical role in regulating local and
and techniques aimed at preserving and maintaining forests
regional climate patterns through evapotranspiration,
influencing factors like rainfall distribution and for the benefit of both present and future generations.
temperature. The primary goals of forest conservation are to safeguard
‰ Deforestation disrupts these climate patterns, causing biodiversity, mitigate climate change, protect ecosystems,
alterations in rainfall distribution, temperature maintain water resources, and provide sustainable
increases, and shifts in weather patterns. livelihoods for communities dependent on forests.
‰ Loss of forest cover also affects biodiversity, with
many species relying on forests for habitat and
Some of the Key Components and Techniques used
survival, further impacting ecosystem functioning and for Forest Conservation
resilience to climate change. ‰ Reforestation and Afforestation: Reforestation aims
Therefore, efforts to conserve and enhance the to restore existing depleted forests, while afforestation
contribution of forest resources to mitigate climate involves creating entirely new forests in previously non-
change are essential for India’s sustainable development.
forested areas, contributing to increased forest cover,
biodiversity, and carbon sequestration.
FOREST FIRES IN INDIA ‰ Selective Logging: Selective logging is a method of

Forest fires in India have become a growing concern, with harvesting timber that involves carefully choosing which
significant implications for biodiversity, ecosystems, and trees to cut down while preserving the overall health
the environment. We will briefly discuss the recent trends, and structure of the forest. This approach minimises the
statistics and causes of forest fires ecological impact of logging activities.
Recent Trends and Statistics ‰ Forest Fire Management: Forest fires can be destructive

‰ The peak fire season in India typically begins in mid- and often result from both natural and human causes.
February and lasts for approximately 14 weeks. During Conservation efforts include the prevention and
the period between August 29, 2022, and August 28, management of forest fires through techniques like
2023, India experienced an unusually high number of controlled burns, firebreaks, and early detection systems.
forest fire alerts. There were 14,689 high-confidence fire
‰ Sustainable Forest Management: This approach focuses
alerts reported through satellite observations (Visible
Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite). on balancing the economic, social, and ecological
‰ Data analysed by the World Resources Institute (WRI) aspects of forest use. It involves carefully planning
reveals that from 2001 to 2022, India lost 3.59 lakh and monitoring logging activities, ensuring that forest
hectares of tree cover due to fires. Additionally, 2.15 resources are harvested at a rate that allows for natural
million hectares were lost due to other drivers of tree regeneration.
cover loss.
‰ Wildlife Conservation: Protecting wildlife habitats
‰ The year 2008 witnessed the highest tree cover loss due
within forests is an integral part of forest conservation.
to fires, with 3000 hectares lost, accounting for 3.5% of
all tree cover loss for that year. It involves creating and maintaining wildlife corridors,
‰ Data from the Forest Survey of India indicates that protected areas, and habitat restoration initiatives to
between November 2021 and June 2022, there were support diverse species.
2,23,333 forest fires in India. This number decreased to ‰ Community Engagement: Involving local communities
2,12,249 fires between November 2022 and June 2023. in forest conservation efforts is essential. Sustainable
‰ Humid primary forests in India have faced significant forest management practices that consider the needs
losses. From 2002 to 2022, India lost 3.93 lakh hectares and rights of indigenous and local communities can help
of humid primary forest, constituting 18% of the total
ensure the long-term health of forests.
tree cover loss during that period. The area covered by
humid primary forests in India decreased by 3.9% during ‰ Policy and Regulation: Governments and international
this time. organisations play a critical role in enacting and
enforcing policies and regulations that promote forest
FOREST CONSERVATION conservation. These policies can include land-use
Forest conservation refers to the sustainable management planning, protected area designations, and restrictions
and protection of forests and wooded areas to ensure their on deforestation and illegal logging.

Natural Vegetation of India 195

 parks and led to the formation of the National Board
Sacred Groves for Wildlife, which advises the central government on
Sacred groves, found in regions like Rajasthan, wildlife conservation.
Karnataka, Meghalaya, and Maharashtra, are vital for
‰ National Green Tribunal Act, 2010: This act aimed
conserving rare and endemic plant and animal species.
These forested areas, protected due to their cultural and to ensure the effective and expeditious resolution of
spiritual significance, are managed by tribal communities, environmental protection and forest conservation-
who strictly prohibit deforestation and contribute to their related cases, including providing relief and compensation
rich biodiversity. However, sacred groves face modern for damages to individuals and property.
challenges such as habitat fragmentation and invasive ‰ Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016: It is
species, requiring community-based conservation efforts designed to facilitate the efficient and transparent use
to preserve these unique ecosystems. of funds released in exchange for forest land diverted
for non-forest purposes. It also aims to mitigate the
Constitutional Provisions, Acts and Policies impact of forest land diversion through reforestation and
Related to Forest Conservation in India afforestation efforts.
India has a history of forest policies and laws aimed at
protecting and conserving its valuable forest resources: Draft National Forest Policy 2018
‰ Constitutional Provisions: Forests were moved to the ‰ The basic thrust of the draft National Forest Policy of
Concurrent List in the Constitution, allowing both the 2018 is for conservation, protection and management
central and state governments to legislate on forest- of forests along with addressing other issues
related matters. Article 48A mandates the protection associated with forest and forest management.
and improvement of the environment, including forests ‰ To protect the interest of tribals, the Draft Policy
and wildlife. Article 21 of the Constitution includes the of 2018 proposes to launch Community Forest
right to a healthy environment, ensuring protection Management Mission for management of community
from pollution. Article 51A (g) makes it a fundamental forest resources through a participatory forest
duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural management approach.
environment, including forests and wildlife. ‰ Moreover, specific provisions have been made in
‰ Indian Forest Policy, 1952: This policy represented an the draft policy to ensure that the interests of local
extension of the colonial-era forest policy. It recognized communities are protected and also provisions are
the need to increase forest cover to one-third (33%) of made to consider them as partners in the management
the total land area and emphasised various measures, of forests.
including persuading primitive communities to abandon ‰ In addition, forest rights of tribals and other traditional
harmful practices like shifting cultivation, strengthening forest dwellers are safeguarded under a separate Act,
forest administration through adequate forest laws, namely, “The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional
promoting forest research, and controlling grazing in Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Right) Act,
forestry. 2006” (Forest Rights Act, 2006) which recognizes
‰ Forest Conservation Act, 1980: This act mandated central and vests the forest rights of the Scheduled Tribes
government permission for activities like agro-forestry in and other traditional forest dwellers who have been
forest areas, treating violations as criminal offences. Its residing in such forests for generations but whose
primary objectives were to limit deforestation, conserve rights could not be vested”.
biodiversity, and protect wildlife. While it held promise
for forest conservation, its effectiveness was limited.
Government Schemes Related to Forest
‰ Forest Policy of 1988: This policy marked a significant
Conservation in India
shift from commercial concerns to focusing on the
ecological role of forests and promoting participatory India has several government schemes and programs aimed
management. Its key goals included preserving and at forest conservation and sustainable forest management.
restoring ecological balance, preventing soil erosion and These schemes are implemented at both the central and
denudation in catchment areas, substantially increasing state levels. Some notable government schemes related to
forest cover through afforestation and social forestry forest conservation in India are mentioned below:
programs, and boosting forest productivity to meet ‰ National Afforestation Programme (NAP): Launched in
national needs. 2000, NAP focuses on afforestation and reforestation
‰ Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: This act facilitated the of degraded forest lands. It aims to increase forest and
establishment of wildlife sanctuaries and national tree cover, improve biodiversity, and enhance ecosystem

196 Indian Geography

 services. This program is implemented by the Ministry of ‰ Based on Ownership:
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC). • State Forests: Include almost all important forest
‰ National Mission for a Green India (GIM): Part of India’s areas of the country and are under full control of the
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), GIM government (state/central).
launched in 2014 aims to restore and enhance forest and ˆ Cover almost 94% of the Total Forest Area.

tree cover, improve biodiversity, and mitigate climate • Commercial Forests: Owned and administered
change. It focuses on afforestation, reforestation, and by local bodies (municipal corporations, village
sustainable forest management. panchayats, district boards etc.).
‰ Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH): ˆ Cover 5% of the Total Forest Area.

Implemented by the MoEF&CC, this scheme focuses • Private Forests: Under private ownership.
on the conservation and management of wildlife ˆ Cover slightly more than 1% of the Total Forest

habitats, both within and outside protected areas. It Area.

aims to enhance wildlife protection and improve habitat ‰ Based on Composition and Types of Leaves:
quality. • Broad-leaved: Tropical and subtropical forests that
‰ National Bamboo Mission (2018-19): This mission are widely spread and cover ~95% of total forest
promotes the conservation and sustainable management area. Sal and Teak are the most important species
of bamboo resources, which are essential for rural and provide valuable timber.
livelihoods and forest conservation. It includes activities ˆ Other species of broad-leaved forests are Indian

such as bamboo plantation, processing, and market laurel, shistram, garyan and benteak.
development. • Coniferous Forests: Temperate Forests dominated
‰ Joint Forest Management (JFM) Program (1988): by cone-bearing trees, adapted to colder climates
Implemented at the state level, the JFM program involves with a longer winter. They are mainly confined to the
local communities in the protection and management of Himalayan ranges.
forest resources. It encourages community participation ˆ Common species include deodar, chir, fir, spruce,

and sharing of benefits from forest conservation efforts. etc.

‰ Eco-Task Force: The Indian Army, in collaboration Forest Products in India
with the MoEFCC, runs the Eco-Task Force program.
The Forest Rights Act (FRA) of 2006 in India is a legislation
It focuses on afforestation and ecological restoration
that recognizes and vests the forest rights and occupation
in degraded areas, particularly in and around military in forestland in forest-dwelling communities and other
establishments. traditional forest dwellers.
Classification of Forest While the FRA primarily focuses on recognizing individual
As of 2021, the total forest cover in India is 80.9 million and community rights over land, it also has implications for
hectares, which is 24.62 percent of the total geographical the collection and use of forest products.
area. Forests are classified in India on various bases:
Community Forest Resources (CFR)
‰ Based on Administration:
‰ The FRA grants communities the right to protect,
• Reserved Forests: Areas declared by the state regenerate, and conserve Community Forest
government as reserved for the conservation of Resources (CFR) within traditional or customary
forest produce, soil, and water. Access and activities boundaries.
within these areas are restricted. ‰ CFR includes not only land but also the resources in
ˆ They cover 54% of total forest area. such areas, which can encompass a range of forest
• Protected Forests: Designated for the sustainable products.
use of forest resources, with limited restrictions on ‰ Communities have the authority to manage and use
activities. these resources sustainably.
ˆ They cover 29% of total forest area.

• Unclassed Forests: Areas that have not been Forest Produce as Per FRA, 2006
classified as reserved or protected. They are largely ‰ Timber: India has a variety of timber species, including
degraded,unproductive and unprofitable forests. teak, sal, deodar, and bamboo, which are extensively
ˆ They cover 17% of total forest area. used in construction, furniture, and paper industries.
{Reserved and Protected forests are permanent forests which ‰ Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFPs): This category
are maintained for the regular supply of timber and other includes a wide range of products such as gums, resins,
forest products as well as for ecological reasons} medicinal plants, honey, and bamboo shoots.

Natural Vegetation of India 197

 • These products contribute significantly to local ‰ The term “social forestry” was first used by The National
economies and traditional practices. Commission on Agriculture in 1976, when the Indian
‰ Minor Forest Produce government sought to relieve strain on forests by
• The FRA recognizes the rights of forest-dwelling planting trees on all underutilised and barren lands.
communities and traditional forest dwellers to ‰ Objectives of Social Forestry
access, collect, and use Minor Forest Produce (MFP) • Enhance Environmental Resilience: Improve the
from the forests they inhabit. environment to protect crops from adverse weather
• As per FRA 2006, “minor forest produce” includes all conditions.
non-timber forest produce of plant origin including
• Promote Sustainable Resource Availability: Augment
bamboo, brush wood, stumps, cane, tussar, cocoons,
honey, wax, lac, tendu or kendu leaves, medicinal the supply of home fuelwood, small timber for rural
plants and herbs, roots, tubers and the like. housing, animal feed, and minor forest products for
local industries.
‰ Paper and Pulp: Wood from various tree species is used
in the paper and pulp industry. • Beautify the Landscape and Foster Recreation:
• Eucalyptus and bamboo are commonly cultivated for Elevate the natural beauty of the terrain by
paper production. establishing recreational forests, benefiting both
rural and urban communities.
Indirect Uses of Forests in India • Generate Employment Opportunities: Create
‰ Biodiversity Conservation: Forests harbor a vast avenues for unskilled laborers, contributing to
array of plant and animal species, contributing to the economic opportunities and livelihoods.
conservation of biodiversity.
• Contribute to Land Restoration: Impact land
‰ Water Regulation: Forests play a crucial role in regulating
restoration initiatives through sustainable forestry
water flow, preventing soil erosion, and maintaining
practices.
watershed health, ensuring a sustainable supply of water
for various purposes. • Enhance Living Standards: Improve the living
‰ Climate Regulation: Forests act as carbon sinks, helping standards and overall quality of life for both rural and
regulate the climate by absorbing and storing carbon urban populations.
dioxide. They also influence local climate patterns. ‰ Approach to Social Forestry
‰ Tourism and Recreation: Forests attract tourists for • Social forestry is a new approach to forest
activities like trekking, wildlife safaris, and nature management. It is a strategy that balances local
walks. This contributes to the economy and promotes needs with multiple external interests.
environmental awareness.
• Engages communities living in and around forests in
‰ Cultural and Spiritual Significance: Many forests in
the use and management of forests in a sustainable
India hold cultural and spiritual importance for local
manner.
communities, contributing to traditional practices and
• Communities are empowered by raising awareness,
beliefs.
building capacity, developing policies with local
India’s forests provide a wide range of products and services
people, and recognising their rights and knowledge
crucial for the well-being of both the environment and society.
systems.
Sustainable management practices are essential to balance the
extraction of forest products with conservation efforts. • In exchange for participating in sustainable forest
management, the community receives benefits and
Social Forestry in India access to forest resources.
‰ The management and development of forests with
afforestation on barren areas to produce environmental Types of Social Forestry
benefit and rural development is known as social forestry. ‰ Farm Forestry:
‰ It encompasses activities such as forest management, • Farm forestry involves the deliberate management of
forest protection, and reforestation of deforested trees within an agricultural setting, serving specific
regions with the goal of enhancing rural, environmental, purposes and offering various benefits.
and social development. • Soil and Water Conservation: The presence of trees
‰ Unlike other forestry initiatives, the needs of local in farm forestry systems helps in maintaining soil
populations are prioritised in the context of social health, preventing erosion, and conserving water
forestry. resources.

198 Indian Geography

 • Shelter and Grazing for Animals: Trees in farm • It is the practice of forestry in regions devoid of tree
forestry provide valuable shelter for livestock and growth and other flora, located away from traditional
can serve as grazing areas, contributing to improved forest areas, with the goal of expanding the area
animal well-being. under tree growth.
• Customization for Domestic Needs: Individual ‰ Scientific Forestry or Silviculture
farmers are encouraged to cultivate trees on their
• Scientific forestry is concerned with the replacement
own land tailored to meet the specific domestic
and replanting of new crops and trees.
requirements of their families.
• Focus on Non-Commercial Farm Forestry: While farm • The many scientific forestry aims are outlined below.
forestry can have commercial aspects, the majority of • Afforestation in undeveloped regions.
social forestry programs in the nation concentrate on • Attempting to expand raw materials for forest-based
non-commercial objectives, emphasizing the broader enterprises.
societal and environmental benefits.
• Expand employment opportunities.
‰ Community Forestry
• High-quality timber species production.
• Focuses on the involvement of local communities in
the sustainable management and conservation of Significance of Forestry in India
forest resources. ‰ Environmental Conservation:
• Empowers communities to take responsibility for • Forestry helps in conserving biodiversity, preventing
forest protection, regeneration, and equitable soil erosion, and maintaining ecological balance.
distribution of benefits. • Forests act as carbon sinks, mitigating the impacts of
• The primary goal of community forestry is to benefit climate change.
the entire community, providing an opportunity for
‰ Economic Contribution:
landless individuals to participate in tree planting
• Forestry is a significant contributor to India’s
and gain access to the benefits typically enjoyed by
economy through the timber industry, non-timber
landowners. Nearly 85,000 joint forest management
forest products, and ecotourism.
committees oversee approximately 17.3 million
• Employment opportunities are created in both rural
hectares (42.8 million acres) of forestlands in India.
and urban areas through forestry-related activities.
‰ Agro-Forestry
‰ Social and Cultural Values:
• Agro-forestry involves the integrated cultivation of
trees alongside agricultural crops on the same land, • Forests hold cultural significance for many
including previously unused or wasteland. communities, providing resources for rituals,
• Integrates the cultivation of trees with agricultural traditional practices, and spiritual beliefs.
practices, providing multiple benefits such as • Forestry initiatives can empower local communities
improved soil fertility, increased crop yields, and by involving them in decision-making processes and
additional sources of income. benefit-sharing.
• Promotes sustainable land use by combining Problems of Indian Forestry and Remedies
agriculture and forestry practices. Problems of Remedies
• The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has Indian Forestry
documented 45.4 million hectares of land engaged in ‰ Strict enforcement of forest
agroforestry practices in India. conservation laws.
‰ Extension Forestry Deforestation ‰ Promotion of sustainable forestry
• Extension forestry is becoming more widespread in practices.
‰ Afforestation programs.
urban areas and on most residential estates.
‰ Strengthening forest protection
• Extension forestry includes planting trees along
mechanisms.
canals, roadways, and railroads, as well as on Encroachment and
‰ Community involvement in
wastelands. Illegal Logging
monitoring.
• This type of social forestry helps to establish forests ‰ Awareness programs.
on common village lands, panchayat lands, and ‰ Implementing scientifically based
government wastelands. forest management practices.
Forest Degradation
• This method of forestry contributes to the expansion ‰ Monitoring ecosystem health.
of forest borders. ‰ Promoting afforestation.

Natural Vegetation of India 199

 ‰ Implementing community forestry
CONCLUSION
programs.
Lack of Community ‰ Empowering local communities. India’s diverse natural vegetation plays a crucial role in
Participation ‰ Creating awareness about the supporting biodiversity, regulating climate, and providing
importance of sustainable forest various ecosystem services. However, many of these
management.
ecosystems face threats from human activities, including
‰ Adopting climate-resilient forestry
deforestation, urbanization, and climate change.
practices.
‰ Promoting biodiversity conserva- Hence, recognizing the value of natural vegetation,
Climate Change understanding the threats it faces, and implementing
tion.
Impacts
‰ Integrating climate change effective conservation measures are crucial for sustaining
considerations into forest India’s ecological balance and preserving its rich natural
management plans. heritage.

200 Indian Geography

 Appendices 89
MOUNTAIN PEAKS
Mountain Peaks of the Himalayas
Peak Name Height (in meters) Mountain Range Country
Mount Everest 8,848 m Himalayas Nepal
Mt. Godwin Austin (K2) 8,611 m Karakoram Pakistan
Kangchenjunga 8,586 m Himalayas India, Nepal
Lhotse 8,516 m Himalayas Nepal, China
Makalu 8,485 m Himalayas Nepal, China
Cho Oyu 8,188 m Himalayas Nepal, China
Dhaulagiri I 8,167 m Himalayas Nepal
Manaslu 8,163 m Himalayas Nepal
Nanga Parbat 8,126 m Himalayas India (Pakistan occupied Kashmir Region)
(Gilgit-Baltistan Region)
Annapurna I 8,091 m Himalayas Nepal
Gasherbrum I (K5) 8,080 m Karakoram India, China
Broad peak (K3) 8,051 m Karakoram India, China
Gasherbrum II (K4) 8,035 m Karakoram India, China
Shishapangma / Gosainthan 8,027 m Himalayas China

Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau

Hill Range Location Direction Length Highest Peak
Aravali Runs from Delhi in the north to Palanpur NE-SW 800 km Guru Sikhar
in Gujarat (1,722 m)
Vindhyan Overlooks the Narmada Valley, stretching E-W 1,200 km Sad-Bhawna Shikhar
from Jobat in Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar (“Goodwill Peak”)
(752 m)
Satpura Runs south of the Vindhyas, between the E-W 900 km Dhupgarh
Narmada and Tapi rivers (1,350 m)
Western Ghats Forms the western edge of the Deccan N-S 1,600 km Anai Mudi
(Sahyadri) Plateau, from the Tapi Valley to (2,695 m)
Kanniyakumari
Eastern Ghats Runs almost parallel to the east coast of N-S 1131 km Mahendra Giri
India, from the Mahanadi River in Odisha (1,501 m)
to the Vagai River in Tamil Nadu

Nilgiri Hills, Tamil Nadu, Ooty area W-NW 50 km Doddabetta

Western Ghats (2,637)
MAJOR PASSES

Major Passes on the Map Major Passes Description

Connects Kashmir and China, located

Mintaka Pass at the trijunction of Indo-China and
Afghanistan border.

Connects Srinagar, Kashmir to Kargil,

Zojila Pass
Ladakh

The Indo-China border connects

Parpik Pass
Kashmir and China

Indo - China border, connects Kashmir

Khunjerab Pass
and China

Located at 5,000 m above sea level,

Aghil Pass it connects Ladakh with the Xinjiang
Province.

Connects Jammu with Srinagar, located

Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh Banihal Pass across the Pir Panjal range. It remains
snow-covered during the winters.
Mintaka pass
Khunjerab Pass Near Siachen glacier, Saltoro ridge,
Sia La
Aghil Pass Ladakh.
Qara Tagla
Burzil Pass CHINA Changla Pass Between Leh and Changthang
Zojila & Khardung La
Pir Panjal Connecting Leh and Nubra. It is the
Pass J&K Lanak La
Khardung La world’s highest motorable road that
PAKISTAN Chang La passes through this pass.
Banihal Pass Kongka Pass Connects Ladakh with Aksai Chin
Imis La
Lanak Pass Connecting Ladakh and Tibet.

Connects Ladakh with Xinjiang Province

Karakoram Pass
of China.

Connects Nubra Valley with Siachen

Saseer La
Glacier

Spanggur Gap Connects Tibet with Ladakh

Gyong La It is situated in the Siachen glacier

It is on the ancient silk route linking the

Bilafond La
Indian subcontinent and China

It is situated adjacent to the Leh-Manali

Tanglang La
highways.

Imis Pass Connects Ladakh with Tibet

202 Indian Geography

 Connects Himachal Pradesh and Jammu
& Kashmir. The national highway
Baralacha La
connecting Mandi (Himachal Pradesh)
with Leh passes through this pass.
Himachal Pradesh Kunzum Pass Connects Lahaul and Spiti valley.
It acts as a link between the Kullu and
Debsa Pass
J&K Spiti districts.
It links Kullu, Lahaul and Spiti valley.
Bara Lach La Maintenance and construction of roads
ss Rohtang Pass
Rohtang Pa in this region are looked at by the Border
Road Organisation (BRO)
Himachal CHINA
Pradesh (Tibet) Connects Himachal Pradesh with the
Tibet region. Sutlej River enters India
Shipki
La Shipki La (originated in the Tibet region) near this
Debsa pass. Significant pass between Indo-
Pass
China.
It is located in the Shimla district and it
Chanshal Pass connects Rohru to the villages of Dodra-
Kwar.
It links Harsil in Garhwal to Kinnaur in
Lamkhaga Pass
Himachal Pradesh
Kimokal Pass Connects Himachal Pradesh with China.
Located at the trijunction of Uttarakhand
Lipu Lekh
(India), Tibet (China) and Nepal.
Mana Pass Connects Uttarakhand with Tibet
Connects Uttarakhand with Tibet, it
Mangsha Dhura is used by pilgrims going to Kailash –
Mansarovar.
Uttarakhand
Niti La Connects Uttarakhand with Tibet
Muling La
CHINA Muling La Connects Uttarakhand with Tibet
Mangsha (Tibet)
Dhura It connects Bidang in Darma Valley to
Uttarakhand Sin La
Mana Pass Jolingkong Lake in the Kuthi Yankti valley
Niti Pass It is located on the path from Gangotri
Mayali Pass
to Kedarnath.
Lipu Lekh
Nama pass connects the remote villages
NEPAL Nama Pass of Kuti and Sela. It lies in the northern
part of Pithoragarh district.
The pass is situated at an altitude
of 5,490 meters above sea level and
Dhumdhar Kandi Pass
connects two dhams Yamnotri and
Gangotri.
It is also an important pass located on
Auden’ Col
the route from Gangotri to Kedarnath.
Sikkim Connects Sikkim with Tibet. It was an
Nathu La
CHINA offshoot of the ancient Silk Route.
(Tibet)
Located on the Sikkim-Bhutan border,
Jelep La it forms an important link between
Nathula Sikkim and Lhasa.
NEPAL Bhutan
Sikkim Jelepla Dongkha La It connects Sikkim with Tibet.
Goecha La --

Appendices 203
Arunachal Pradesh Bom Di La Connects Arunachal Pradesh with Tibet.
CHINA Connects Arunachal Pradesh with
(Tibet) Yonggyap Pass Dihang Pass
Myanmar
Dihang Pass Pass Yong Yap Pass Connects Arunachal Pradesh with Tibet
Dipher
Bom Dila Located at the trijunction of India,
BHUTAN Arunachal Pradesh Diphu (Dipher) Pass
China, and Myanmar
MYANMAR
Chankan Sela Pass --
Pass
Bum La --

Western Ghat Passes

Pass State(s) Prominent Peaks
Thal Ghat Maharashtra Khandala Point, Needle Point, Lingmala Falls
Bhor Ghat Maharashtra Khandala Point, Peth Fort
Amba Ghat Maharashtra Harishchandragad, Ratangarh Fort
Kasara Ghat Maharashtra Khandala Point, Duke’s Nose
Chorla Ghat Maharashtra, Goa Sahyadri Range, Phonda Mountain
Charmadi Ghat Karnataka Mullayanagiri (highest peak in Western Ghats), Bhairava Parvatha
Shiradi Ghat Karnataka Kemmanagundi Hills, Baba Budan Giri
Niligiri Pass Karnataka, Tamil Nadu Doddabetta Peak, Mukurthi Peak
Palakkad Gap Kerala, Tamil Nadu Anamudi Peak (highest peak in Western Ghats), Nilgiri Hills
Munnar Pass Kerala Anamudi Peak, Devikulam Lake
Athirappilly Pass Kerala Chembra Peak, Vazhachal Falls
Idukki Pass Kerala Anamudi Peak, Periyar National Park

IMPORTANT VALLEYS IN THE HIMALAYAS

States Valleys
Jammu and Kashmir Kashmir valley, Betab valley, Chenab valley, Nubra valley, Suru valley, Indus valley, Mushkosh valley,
Markha valley etc.
Himachal Pradesh Kullu valley, Kangra valley, Chamba valley, Karsog valley, Spiti valley, Lahaul valley, Sangla valley, etc.
Uttarakhand Dun valley – Dehradun valley, Bhagirathi valley, Mandakini valley, valley of flowers, etc.
West Bengal Neora valley
Sikkim Chumbi valley, Yumthang valley
Assam Barak valley, Brahmaputra valley
Arunachal Pradesh Dibang valley
Nagaland Dzukou valley
Manipur Kabaw valley and Imphal valley
Nepal Kathmandu valley

MAJOR GLACIERS IN INDIA

Name Location/State Important Feature River Originated

Siachen Karakoram (Gilgit-Baltistan (in the Largest in Nubra Valley of the Himalayas Nubra River
Pakistani-administered portion) and and the second longest glacier outside the
Leh in Ladakh) Polar region

Biafo Karakoram (Baltistan region of Ladakh) Flows into Shigar River Shigar River

204 Indian Geography

 Chogo Lungma Karakoram (Gilgit-Baltistan [Pakistan Located in Gilgit Baltistan Baltoro River
Occupied])
Gangotri Uttarakhand Originates below the Chaukhamba Peak Bhagirathi River
and it is also known as ‘Gomukh’ (a tributary of the
Ganges)
Rimo Siachen Area of Ladakh Drains in the Shyok River Shyok River
Hispar Gilgit-Baltistan Hispar River
Zemu Sikkim/Nepal The largest glacier in Eastern Himalaya it Teesta River
feeds River Teesta
Sonapani Chandra Valley of Lahaul and Spiti The longest glacier of the Pir Panjal range Chandra River
region/Himachal Pradesh near the Rohtang Pass
Milam Uttarakhand A major source of River Gori Ganga Biggest Gori Ganga River
glacier in Kumaon Himalaya
Diamir Kashmir (Pakistan Occupied) Diamir mountains are known as ‘King of Diamir River
(Nanga Parbat) Mountains’ and are the World’s tallest
mountains
Bara Shigri Chandra Valley of Lahaul in Himachal Chandra Valley of Lahaul in Himachal Chandra River
Pradesh Pradesh
Chong Kumdan Karakoram/Ladakh Ladakh; they feed and are a threat to Shyok River
Shyok River and might block it.
Pindari Kumaon Region of Uttarakhand Gives rise to River Pindari Pindari River

Major Waterfalls in India

Name State Features River Height (m)
Kunchikal Fall Karnataka It lies on the Varahi River, it is the highest waterfall Varahi River 455
in India.
Barehipani Fall Odisha Located in Mayurbhanj district, it is the 2nd highest Budhabalanga 399
waterfall in India. River
Dudhsagar Fall Goa Lies on the Mandovi River, located in Bhagwan Mandovi River 310
Mahaveer Sanctuary and Mollem National Park.
Jog Fall Karnataka Lies on the Sharavathi River in the Western Ghats, it Sharavathi River 253
is the second-highest waterfall in India. Located on
the Uttara Kannada and Sagara border.
Lodh Fall Jharkhand Also known as Budha Ghagh, it is a 2-tiered waterfall Burha River 145
in the middle of Palamau Tiger Reserve.
Shivasamudram Karnataka Lies on the Cauvery River, it is a segmented waterfall Cauvery River 122
Fall consisting of two waterfalls – Gangana Chukki and
Bhara Chukki.
Hogenakkal Fall Tamil Nadu Lies on the Cauvery River. Cauvery River 120
Palani Fall Himachal Pradesh It is one of the highest-surge waterfalls in India, Subarnarekha 105
located near Kullu. River
Kapildhara Madhya Pradesh Lies on the Narmada River. Narmada River 100
Teerathgarh Fall Chhattisgarh A block-type waterfall, also known as the Queen of Kanger River 97
Satpura.
Apsara Fall Madhya Pradesh Also known as Apsara Vihar or Fairy Pool waterfall, Beehad River 80
located close to Pachmarhi Hills.

Appendices 205
Langshiang Fall Meghalaya Lies on the Kynshi River, it is the third-highest Kynshi River 45
waterfall in India.
Dhuandhar Fall Madhya Pradesh The Marble Rocks and surrounding area support Narmada River 30
a diverse range of flora and fauna, including rare
species like the Indian flying fox and freshwater
turtles.

IMPORTANT LAKES IN INDIA

‰ Largest Freshwater Lake: Wular Lake, Jammu and Kashmir
‰ Largest Saline Water Lake: Chilka Lake, Orissa
‰ Highest Lake (Altitude): Cholamu Lake, Sikkim
‰ Longest Lake: Vembanad Lake, Kerala
‰ Largest Artificial Lake: Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar (Rihand Dam); Dhebar Lake (second-largest artificial lake).

Name State Type Description

Pulicat Lake Andhra Pradesh Brackish Water It encompasses Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary;
and Tamil Nadu Satish Dhawan Space Centre is located here
Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh Freshwater Home to migratory birds
Nagarjuna Sagar Andhra Pradesh Freshwater Artificially constructed on Krishna River
Deepor Beel Assam Freshwater Ramsar Site
Son Beel Assam Freshwater Wetland
(tectonically formed)
Kanwar Lake Bihar Freshwater (Oxbow) Asia’s largest freshwater oxbow lake
Kankaria lake Gujarat Artificial During the 14th century Muhammed Shah II
Sudarshan lake Gujarat Artificial Built by Pushyagupta, an officer in the province of
Chandragupta Maurya. Repaired by Rudradaman
Narayan Sarovar Gujarat Artificial freshwater A pilgrimage site for Hindus
Badkhal Lake Haryana Freshwater Man-made
Brahma Sarovar Haryana Freshwater Ancient water pool sacred to Hinduism
Damdama Lake Haryana Freshwater Constructed by the British government for rainwater
harvesting
Karna Haryana Freshwater Connected to the great epic Mahabharat
Chandra Taal Himachal Pradesh Sweet water Ramsar wetland site
Suraj taal Himachal Pradesh Freshwater Bhaga river inflow
(High altitude)
Maharana Pratap Himachal Pradesh Freshwater Ramsar site
Sagar
Prashar Himachal Pradesh Freshwater (Holomitic) It has a floating island
Renuka Himachal Pradesh Freshwater Ramsar site
Dal lake J&K Warm monomictic Remnants of past glacial period
Pangong Tso J&K Endorheic Lake (saline Indo-China Border
water)
Wular lake J&K Freshwater Largest freshwater lake in India
(Tectonic lake)
Tso Moriri J&K Saltwater High altitude lake

206 Indian Geography

Agata lake Karnataka Freshwater Located in the southwest part of Bangalore
Pampa Sarovar Karnataka Freshwater On Tungabhadra River
Astamudi Kayal Kerala Brackish water Ramsar site
Vembanad Kerala Brackish water Ramsar site, famous for boat race
Bhojtal Madhya Pradesh Freshwater Ramsar site, the largest artificial lake in India
Salim Ali Lake Maharashtra Freshwater Birdwatching
Shivsagar Maharashtra Freshwater Koyna dam
Lonar lake Maharashtra Crater lake National Geo-Heritage monument
Loktak lake Manipur Lenticular freshwater Ramsar wetland; Phumdis (Floating Islands); Multipurpose
project
Chilika lake Odisha Brackish water India’s largest brackish water lake, lagoon
Harike Punjab Freshwater Ramsar site
Rupar Punjab Freshwater Man Made riverine lake
Sambhar lake Rajasthan Saltwater Ramsar wetland; largest inland saltwater lake in India
Khecheoplari Sikkim Freshwater Sacred lake for Hindus and Buddhists
Ooty lake Tamil Nadu Freshwater Boathouse
Hussain Sagar Telangana Artificial lake Artificial Gibraltar rock-island
Govind Ballabh Pant Uttar Pradesh Man-made lake Rihand dam
Sagar

Lakes in News
Lake State Why in News
Chilika Lake Odisha Bird Flu outbreak, potential threat to migratory birds
Dal Lake Jammu & Kashmir Encroachment on lake area, pollution concerns
Loktak Lake Manipur Phumdi (floating islands) shrinking, threats to ecosystem
Lonar Lake Maharashtra Mysterious pink color change
Pulicat Lake Andhra Pradesh Cyclone damage, impact on coastal communities
& Tamil Nadu
Sambhar Lake Rajasthan Salt production challenges, environmental concerns
Vembanad Lake Kerala Rising water levels, flooding in surrounding areas
Wular Lake Jammu & Kashmir Shrinking size, livelihood concerns for fishermen

MAJOR HYDRO PROJECTS IN INDIA

State Hydroelectric Power Plant River/Capacity
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam Krishna/816MW
Andhra Pradesh
Srisailam Right Bank Power Station Project Krishna/770MW
Shivanasamudra Hydro Power Project Kaveri/42MW
Assam Karbi Langpi Hydro Electric Project (KLHEP) Borpani River/100MW
Kopili Hydro Electric Project Kopili River/275MW
Kameng Hydro Power Station Bichom and Tenga Rivers/600MW
Arunachal Pradesh
Ranganadi Hydro Power Station Ranganadi River/405MW
Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project Subansiri/2000MW (under consideration)
Bihar Dagmara Hydro-Electric Project Kosi River/130MW (under consideration)

Appendices 207
Chhattisgarh Hasdeo Bango Dam Hasdeo River/120MW
Gujarat Sardar Sarovar Project Narmada River/1450 MW
Bhakra Hydroelectric Project Satluj/1325MW
Pong Hydroelectric Project Beas River/396MW
Himachal Pradesh Dehar Hydroelectric Project Beas River/990MW
Nathpa Jhakri Hydro Electric Project Satluj River/1500MW
Karcham Wangtoo Hydroelectric Plant Sutluj River/1091MW
Koldam Hydroelectric Plant Satluj River/800MW
Baglihar Stage- I Hydroelectric Project Chenab River/450MW
Jammu & Kashmir Salal Hydro Electric Power plant Chenab River/720MW
URI-I Uri power station Jhelum River/480MW
The Pakal Dul Hydro Electric Project Marusudar/1000MW
Jharkhand Subarnarekha Hydel Power Project Subarnarekha River/130MW
Karnataka Almatti Hydroelectric Project Krishna River/290MW
Sharavathi Hydro Power Plant Sharavathi River/ 1035MW
Kerala Pallivasal Hydroelectric Project Periyar River/37.5MW
Idukki Hydro Electric Project Periyar River/780MW
Madhya Pradesh Indira Sagar Hydroelectric Project Narmada River/1000MW
Bansagar Hydroelectric Project Sone River/435MW
Maharashtra Koyna (Pophali) Hydroelectric Project Kyona River/1960MW
Nagaland Dikhu Hydro Electric Project River Dikhu and River Yangnyu/186MW
Odisha Hirakud Hydro Electric Project Mahanadi/276MW
Balimela Hydro Electric Project Sileru River/510MW
Punjab Anandpur Sahib Hydroelectric Project Satluj River/134MW
Ranjit Sagar Dam Hydroelectric Project Ravi River/600MW
Sikkim Teesta-VI hydroelectric power project Teesta River/500MW
Tamil Nadu Kundah Hydroelectric Project Bhavani river/585MW
Kadamparai Hydroelectric Project Kadampari River/400MW
Telangana Srisailam Left Bank Hydroelectric Project Krishna River/900MW
Uttar Pradesh Rihand Hydroelectric Project Rihand River/300MW
Tehri Hydroelectric Project Bhagirathi River/2400MW
Uttarakhand
Kishau Dam Hydropower Project Tons River/660MW
Kotli Bhel Dam Ganga/1000MW

Basic Information
Description Value
Current Capacity of Hydroelectric Plants in India 46,850MW
India’s global position in terms of installed hydroelectric power capacity 5th
Classification of Hydroelectric Energy Renewable source of energy
Administration of Large Hydroelectric Power Projects (Above 25MW) Ministry of Power
Administration of Small Hydroelectric Power Projects (Up to 25MW) Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

208 Indian Geography

MAJOR HIGHWAYS
Old National Highway New National Highway Serial No. in NH Act,
States/UTs Through which it Passes
Number Number 1956
NH 1A and NH 1D NH 1 1 Jammu & Kashmir
NH 19 (Golden 63 Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Jharkhand, Uttar
NH 2
Quadrilateral) Pradesh, West Bengal
NH 3 188 Maharashtra
NH 60
NH 50
NH 223 NH 4 12 Andaman & Nicobar Islands
NH 4 B NH 348 161 Maharashtra
NH 5 49 Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, West
NH 6 NH 16 Bengal
NH 60 (Golden Quadrilateral)
NH 217
NH 48 (Golden 157 Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka,
NH 8
Quadrilateral) Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu
NH 21 13 Haryana, Chandigarh, Himachal Pradesh,
NH 22 NH 5 Punjab
NH 95

RAILWAY ZONES
Railway Zone Division Zonal Headquarters
Central Railway ‰ Mumbai Mumbai
‰ Nagpur
‰ Bhusawal
‰ Pune
‰ Solapur
Eastern Railway ‰ Howrah-I Kolkata
‰ Howrah-II
‰ Sealdah
‰ Malda
‰ Asansol
‰ Chittaranjan
‰ Kolkata Metro
East Central Railway ‰ Danapur Hajipur
‰ Mugalsarai
‰ Dhanbad
‰ Sonpur
‰ Samastipur
East Coast Railway ‰ Khurda Road Bhubaneshwar
‰ Waltair
‰ Sambalpur
Northern Railway ‰ Delhi-I Baroda House, New Delhi
‰ Delhi-II
‰ Ambala
‰ Moradabad
‰ Lucknow
‰ Firozpur
North Central Railway ‰ Allahabad Allahabad
‰ Jhansi
‰ Agra

Appendices 209
North Eastern Railway ‰ Izzatnagar Gorakhpur
‰ Lucknow
‰ Varanasi
‰ DLW
North Frontier Railway ‰ Katihar Maligaon, Guwahati
‰ Alipurduar
‰ Rangiya
‰ Lumding
‰ Tinsukia
North Western Railway ‰ Jaipur Jaipur
‰ Jodhpur
‰ Bikaner
‰ Ajmer
Southern Railway ‰ Chennai Chennai
‰ Madurai
‰ Palghat
‰ Trichy
‰ Trivandrum
South Central Railway ‰ Secunderabad Secunderabad
‰ Hyderabad
‰ Guntakal
‰ Vijayawada
‰ Nanded
South Eastern Railway ‰ Kharagpur Garden Reach, Kolkata
‰ Adra
‰ Chakradharpur
‰ Ranchi
‰ Shalimar
South East Central Railway ‰ Bilaspur Bilaspur
‰ Nagpur
‰ Raipur
South Western Railway ‰ Bangalore Hubli
‰ Mysore
‰ Hubli
‰ RWF/YNK
Western Railway ‰ BCT Mumbai CST
‰ Vadodara
‰ Ahmedabad
‰ Ratlam
‰ Rajkot
‰ Bhavnagar
West Central Railway ‰ Jabalpur Jabalpur
‰ Bhopal
‰ Kota

WATERWAYS IN INDIA
National
River System Route Location
Waterway Nos.
NW - 1 Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly Prayagraj – Haldia Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
(Longest waterways 1620 km) Jharkhand, West Bengal
NW - 2 Brahmaputra Sadiya-Dhubri Assam
NW - 3 West Coast Canal, Champakara Kottapuram – Kollam Kerala
Canal, and Udyogamandal Canal

210 Indian Geography

NW - 4 Krishna and Godavari Kakinada–A Puducherry stretch of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
canals, Kaluvelly Tank, Bhadrachalam – Nadu, and Puducherry
Rajahmundry, Waziraba–Vijayawada
NW - 73 Narmada River It traverses through Maharashtra and Gujarat and Maharashtra
Gujarat
NW - 111 Zuari River Sanvordem Bridge to Marmugao Port Goa

NATIONAL NW-1 NW-2

GANGA BRAHMAPUTRA
WATERWAYS HALDIA TO ALLAHABAD DHUBRI TO SADIYA
1,620 KM 891 KM
STATES SERVED: UP, STATES SERVED: Assam,
TOTAL LENGTH: Bihar, Jharkhand and West West Bengal, Arunachal
Bengal Pradesh, Meghalaya
4,503 KM
Brahmaputra
TOTAL STATES SERVED Delhi River
NEPAL Sadiya
15
BHUTAN
Ganga River Pandu
PAKISTAN
Allahabad Dhubri
BANGLADESH Darak River
Bhahmani River
Narmada River Mahanadi River Kolkata
Haldia MAYANMAR
Dhamra
Talcher Sundarbans NW-6
Tapi River BARAK
LAKHIPUR TO BHANGA
Paradip
(IN PROCESS)
Arabian Sea Godavari River 121 KM
Krishna River Kakinada Canal STATES SERVED: Assam,
Kakinada Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura
Mandovi, Zuari River & Eluru Canal
Cumberju Canal
Buckingham
Canal NW-4 NW-5
GODAVARI, BRAHMANI, DELTA
Udyog Amandal KRISHNA & CANALS CANALS, ECC
NW-3 Canal Puduchery KAKINADA TO GOENKHALI TO TALCHER
WEST COAST CANAL Kottapuram PUDUCHERY
Champakkara 1,078 KM
588 KM
KOLLAM TO STATES SERVED: Odisha,
KOTTAPURAM Kollam Canal
STATES SERVED: AP, Tamil West Bengal
205 KM Nadu, UT of Puducherry
STATES SERVED: Kerala

National Waterways of India

IMPORTANT RIVER
Important cities, National Park,
River System River Name Origin Other
Wildlife Sanctuary
Indus The northern slope of Leh Forms gorge between Ladakh
Kailash in Tibet and Zaskar range
Jhelum Verinag, foothills of the Pir Srinagar Flow through Wular Lake
Panjal range
Himalayan Chenab Near Bara Lacha Pass Doda, Kishtwar, Ramban. –
Rivers
Ravi Near Rohtang Pass Chamba, Kathua –
Satluj Rakas Lake, Tibet Firozpur, Ludhiana Bhakra-Nangal Project
Brahmaputra Chemayungdung Glacier Guwahati, Dibrugarh, Kaziranga –
NP, Orang NP, Dibru-Saikhowa NP

Appendices 211
 Barak Barail range Silchar Tipaimukh Dam in Manipur
Manas Rises in Bhutan Manas Biosphere Reserve –
Dhaleshwari Mizo Hills – Passes through tropic of
Cancer
Ganga Gangotri glacier Varanasi, Patna, Kanpur, Holiest River of India
Haridwar
Alaknanda Satopanth Glacier Badrinath, Gangotri NP –
(it joins Bhagirathi River)
Ramganga Southern slopes of Bareilly, Jim Corbett NP –
Dudhatoli Hill, Uttarakhand
Gomati Gomat Taal Lucknow, Jaunpur –
Sarayu – Ayodhya –
Buhri Gandak Western slopes of Sumesar Muzaffarpur, Valmiki NP –
Hills
Hooghly Giria, Murshidabad Kolkata –
Yamuna Yamunotri Glacier Delhi, Mathura, Agra, Allahabad –
(confluence of Yamuna & Ganga)
Banas Aravalli Range Ranthambore NP –
Kali Sindh It originates in the – Crosses the Tropic of Cancer;
Vindhyan ranges Tribuatry of Chambal
Ken Kaimur Hills Panna NP –
Rihand Ramgarh Hills – Passes through Tropic of
Cancer
North Koel Chotanagpur Plateau Palamau TR Passes through Tropic of
Cancer
Subarnarekha Ranchi Plateau Ranchi, Jamshedpur –
Narmada Amarkantak Plateau Jabalpur Dhuandhar fall, Kapildhara fall
Tapi Mahadeo Hills Surat, Jalgaon, Bhusawal, Flows parallel to Satpura
Burhanpur Range
Godavari Trimbak Plateau Nashik, Trimbakeshwar –
Musi Balaghat plateau Hyderabad –
Krishna Mahabaleshwar Vijayawada –
Tungabhadra Baba Budan Hills Hampi, Kurnool –
Cauvery Taal Cauvery in the Tiruchirapalli –
Brahmagiri Range
Lakshman Western Ghats Nagarhole NP –
Tirtha
Kabani Western Ghats Wayanad Sanctuary, Nagarhole –
NP
Pambiyar Pulachimallai Hills, Sabarimala Temple –
Western Ghats
Peninsular Sharavati Shimoga district – Jog waterfall
Rivers
Mandovi Bhimgad, Karnataka Panaji, Old Goa Dudhasagar Falls, Varapoha
Falls
Mahanadi Sihava Parbat Sambalpur, Cuttack Forms Chhattisgarh Plain -
‘Rice Bowl of India’
Sabarmati Aravalli Hills Gandhinagar, Ahmedabad –
Kshipra Vindhya range Ujjain –

212 Indian Geography

TYPES OF FORESTS IN INDIA
Type Characteristics Geographical Distribution Important Species
Moist Tropical Rainfall: > 250cm Temperature: Western sides of Western Ghats, Measua, cedar,
Forest 25-27°C Humidity: > 77% Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, bamboo, jamun,
Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Andaman & canes
Nicobar Islands
Tropical Semi Rainfall: 200-250cm Temperature: Assam, lower slopes of Eastern Himalayas,
Semul, rosewood,
Evergreen 24-27°C Humidity: ~75% Odisha, Andaman kusum, Indian
Forest chesnut, champa
Tropical Moist Rainfall: 100-200cm - Temperature: Along Western Ghats, Shiwalik range, Teak, sal, lendi,
Deciduous ~27°C Humidity: 60-75% Odisha, West Bengal, Andaman & Nicobar bamboo
Forest Islands
Littoral and Can grow in fresh and brackish water Deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi, Krishna, Sundri, agar, bhendi,
Swamp Forests Dense mangroves along coasts, tidal Cauvery Rhizopora, canes,
creeks, backwaters, salt marshes, mud palms
flats
Dry Tropical Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests - Along coasts of Tamil Nadu Jamun, ritha,
Forests Rainfall: ~100cm Temperature: ~28°C tamarind, neem
Humidity: ~75%
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests - Along foot of Himalayas to Kanniyakumari, Teak, tendu, bamboo,
Rainfall: 100-150cm -Shed leaves in dry except in Rajasthan, Western Ghats, West sal
season -Transitional type between moist Bengal
deciduous and thorn forests

Tropical Thorn Forests - Rainfall: < 75cm NW parts of India, Rajasthan, SW Punjab, Neem, babul, acacias
- Humidity: < 50% - Temperature: western Haryana, Kuchch, parts of
25-30°C -Trees low and widely scattered Saurashtra, along leeward side of Western
Ghats
Montane Sub- Sub-Tropical Broad Leaved Hill Forests Eastern Himalayas, Nilgiri, Palni Hills, Evergreen oaks,
Tropical Forests - Altitude: 1000-2000m - Rainfall: Mahabaleshwar, Satpura, Maikal range, chestnuts, ash, beech
75-125cm - Temperature: 18-21°C - highlands of Aravali range
Humidity: 80%
Sub-Tropical Moist Pine Forests - Western Himalayas, Arunachal Pradesh, Chir (Chil)
Altitude: 1000-2000m - Rainfall: Varied Manipur, Naga Hills, Khasi Hills
- Dominated by Chir or Chil - Used for
timber and resin/turpentine production
Sub-Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests - Bhabar belt, Shiwalik, western Himalayas Olive, acacia, pistachio
Altitude: Up to 1000m - Rainfall: up to 1000m above sea level
50-100cm - Hot summers, cold winters
Montane Montane Wet Temperate Forests Higher hills of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Eastern Deodar, Indian
Temperate - Altitude: 1800-3000m - Rainfall: Himalayas, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal chesnut, birch, plum,
Forests 150-300cm - Temperature: 11-14°C - Pradesh, Sikkim, Nagaland oak, hemlock
Humidity: > 80%
Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Pines, Cedars, Silver
- Altitude: 1500-3300m - Rainfall: 150- Sikkim Firs, Spruce
250cm
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal, Deodar, oak, ash,
- Predominantly coniferous - Found Sikkim maple, olive
in inner dry ranges of Himalayas -
Precipitation:
< 100cm

Appendices 213
Alpine Forests Start at an elevation of above 3000m, up Main Himalayan regions, Trans Himalaya Black juniper, drooping
to the region just below the snowline juniper, honeysuckle,
willow
Low Alpine Vegetation not growing higher than 1.5m Main Himalayan regions, Trans Himalaya Juniper, honeysuckle,
Grasslands - Climatic conditions vary from sub-arctic Artemisia, etc.
to arctic

Geographical Distribution of Forests in India

Statistic Information
Percentage of Geographical Area under Forest cover 21.71% (ISFR 2021) (Below world average of 31%)
National Forest Policy Desired Percentage Around 33% of the total area
State with the Largest Forest Cover Madhya Pradesh > Arunachal Pradesh > Chhattisgarh >
Odisha > Maharashtra
States with highest percentage of Geographical Area under Mizoram (84.53%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.33%), Meghalaya
Forests (76%), Manipur (74.34%), Nagaland (73.90%)

SOIL TYPES IN INDIA

Type of Soil Formation and Characteristics Distribution in India Crops Suitable
Formed from silt deposited by Indo- Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains, Rice, wheat, sugarcane,
Gangetic-Brahmaputra rivers. Porous and deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, tobacco, cotton, jute,
Alluvial Soil
well-drained. Cauvery, Narmada, Tapi valleys, maize, oilseeds, vegetables,
Northern parts of Gujarat fruits
Formed from weathering of basaltic rocks Deccan Plateau regions of Maharashtra, Cotton, wheat, jowar,
in the Deccan Plateau. Highly argillaceous Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana, linseed, virginia tobacco,
Black Soil
(clayey) with good moisture retention. Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu castor, sunflower, rice,
Known as regur or black cotton soils. sugarcane
Developed on Archean granite, red due to Peninsula regions from Tamil Nadu to Rice, sugarcane, millets,
Red Soil ferric oxides. Well-drained soil with sandy Bundelkhand, Raj Mahal in the east to pulses, wheat
structure. Subtypes based on rainfall. Kathiawad in the west
Developed in regions with laterite rock or Western Ghats, Karnataka, Kerala, Groundnut, cashew nut,
structure. Brown in color, rich in iron and Orissa, MP, Gujarat, Jharkhand coffee, rubber
Laterite Soil
aluminum, poor in nitrogen, phosphorous,
potash.
Found on mountains with steeper slopes, Himalayas, Western Ghats, Nilgiri, Rubber, bamboo, tea,
Mountain
high relief. Thin layered, poorly developed Annamalai, Cardamom hills coffee, fruits
Soil
profiles. Rich in organic content.
Deposited by wind action, found in arid Rajasthan, West of Aravallis, Northern Bajra, pulses, fodder, guar
Desert Soil and semi-arid areas. Lacks moisture, low Gujarat, Saurashtra, Kachchh, Western
in organic matter. Haryana, Southern Punjab
Contains a large content of NaCl, infertile. Natural in dried lakes, anthropogenic in Leguminous crops
Saline and
Found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, UP, western UP and Punjab
Alkaline Soil
Bihar, Maharashtra.
Peaty, Found in delta regions. Dominated by clay Bengal delta, Alleppey (Kerala),coastal Jute, rice, spices, rubber
Marshy Soil and mud, high moisture content. odisha

214 Indian Geography