ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY

Aims and scope

Environmental Geology deals with the prevention, analysis and correction of
interactions between human activities and natural systems, in terms of natural and
cultural resources, environmental impacts (including impacts on geological
heritage), geological hazards and environmental land use planning and
management

IMPACTS OF URBANIZATION ON ENVIRONMENT

Urbanization refers to general increase in population and the amount
industrialization of a settlement. It includes increase in the number and extent
of cities. It symbolizes the movement of people from rural to urban areas.
Urbanization happens because of the increase in the extent and density of urban
areas. Due to uncontrolled urbanization in India, environmental degradation
has been occurring very rapidly and causing many problems like land insecurity,
worsening water quality, excessive air pollution, noise and the problems of waste
disposal. This paper emphasizes on the effect of urbanization on
environmental components mainly climate, biosphere, land and water
resources.
Urbanization is a process that leads to the growth of cities due to
industrialization and economic development, and that leads to urban- specific
changes in specialization, labor division and human behaviors. The population
is growing at the rate of about 17 million annually which means a staggering
45,000 births per day and 31 births per minutes. If the current trend continues, by
the year 2050, India would have 1620 million populations. Due to uncontrolled
urbanization in India, environmental degradation has been occurring very
rapidly and causing many problems like shortages of housing, worsening
water quality, excessive air pollution, noise, dust and heat, and the problems of
disposal of solid wastes and hazardous wastes.

IMPACTS OF URBANIZATION ON VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF

ENVIRONMENT
Probably most of the major environmental problems of the next century
will result from the continuation and sharpening of existing problems
that currently do not receive enough political attention. The
problems are not necessarily noticed in many countries or then
nothing is done even the situation has been detected. The most
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emerging issues are climate changes, freshwater scarcity, deforestation,
and fresh water pollution and population growth. These problems are
very complex and their interactions are hard to define. It is very
important to examine problems trough the social-economic-cultural
system. Even the interconnections between environmental problems are
now better known, we still lack exact information on how the issues are
linked, on what degree they interact and what are the most effective
measures
IMPACTS ON THE ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE

The creation of heat island; Materials like concrete, asphalt, bricks etc
absorb and reflect energy differently than vegetation and soil.Cities remain
warm in the night when the countryside has already cooled.

Changes in Air Quality; Human activities release a wide range of emissions

into the environment including carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, sulfur
oxides, nitrogen oxides, lead, and many other pollutants

Changes in Patterns of Precipitation ;

Cities often receive more rain than the surrounding countryside since dust can
provoke the condensation of water vapor into rain droplets.

IMPACTS ON THE LITHOSPHERE AND LAND RESOURCE

Erosion and other changes in land quality; Rapid development can result
in very high levels of erosion and sedimentation in river channels

Pollution; Pollutants are often dispersed across cities or concentrated in

industrial areas or waste sites. Lead- based paint used on roads and highways and
on buildings is one such example of a widely dispersed pollutant that found its way
into soil. Burying tremendous amounts of waste in the ground at municipal and
industrial dumps

IMPACTS ON THE HYDROSPHERE AND WATER RESOURCES

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Flow of Water into Streams; Natural vegetation and undisturbed soil are
replaced with concrete, asphalt, brick, and other impermeable surfaces. This
means that, when it rains, water is less likely to be absorbed into the ground
and, instead, flows directly into river channels.

Flow of Water through Streams; Higher, faster peak flows change streams
channels that have evolved over centuries under natural conditions. Flooding can
be a major problem as cities grow and stream channels attempt to keep up with
these changes

Degraded Water Quality; The water quality has degraded with time due
to urbanization that ultimately leads to increased sedimentation there by also
increasing the pollutant in run-off.

IMPACTS ON THE BIOSPHERE;

Modification of Habitats; The fertilizers that spread across lawns finds its way
into water channels where it promotes the growth of plants at the expense of fish.
The waste dumped into streams lowers oxygen levels during its decay and cause
the die-off of plants and animals.

Destruction of Habitats; There is also complete eradication of habitats as

an outcome of urbanization and native species are pushed out of cities.

Creation of New Habitats; New habitats are also created for some native
and non-native species. Cities also create habitats for some species considered
pests, such as pigeons, sparrows, rats, mice, flies and mosquitoes. Urbanization
has, for example, eliminated many bat colonies in caves, but has provided sites
such as bridges for these species to nest.

What is land pollution?

Land pollution is defined as a degradation or even destruction of the earth’s
surface and soil as a result of human activities. Sources of soil pollution can
be direct, for example, from dumping toxic chemicals directly on to a site,
or indirect, for example where toxic chemicals leach through the soil from
particulates that have settled from air pollution from a nearby lead smelter.

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The expansion of housing developments, businesses, industry, infrastructure and
agriculture all necessitated by an unprecedented population explosion over recent
years accounts for humans modifying over 50 percent of the earth’s topsoil It can
also simply be degradation from transforming the land by clearing it so that
beneficial organisms can no longer provide services supporting growth and
protect it from further erosion. This human activity appears more than a little
reckless when considering that it takes 500 years to naturally produce 2.5 cm
topsoil in ideal conditions, absent of ecological changes.

Effects of land pollution on the environment

Land pollution, whether it is a barren space where nothing can grow but a few
weeds or a site that harbors garbage and debris, like old tires, gas cans and plastic
bags is an aesthetic drain. Studies consistently show the health benefits of
enjoying nature at its finest, with its lush growth, clean air and water renewing
world-weary urbanites [4]. The health-promoting practice of drinking in nature in
Japan is a cornerstone of healing therapies in Japan and South Korea, where it is
known as “forest bathing”.Conversely, while not documented, no one would
dispute that the effect of seeing barren or polluted land is depressing. But there
are even more serious problems how land pollution affects the environment.This
has further consequences for us as part of the web of life. The web has been
broken when the biodiversity that enables life has been destroyed. Where there
are no plants, there is no oxygen-generating mechanism (photosynthesis), no food
or habitat for wildlife, amphibians, insects, and probably few, if any
microorganisms to aerate, detoxify and regenerate the soil.Soil that is filled with
toxic chemicals will not sustain life and poses a health risk to children who might
play there. Toxic chemicals can leach into the soil and reach the water table
below, often a source of drinking water for the nearby community. When it rains,
a soil without plants to hold it in place will erode and the chemicals it contains on
its surface and within the soil itself will runoff and pollute rivers and streams the
water empties into, or bays and oceans, either directly or via tributaries. The toxic
chemicals can lodge in the ground sediment of the stream, adversely affecting the
aquatic life that sustains itself by sheltering and feeding there. The toxic
chemicals absorbed via ingestion or skin absorption make their way up the food
chain as they are stored in the tissue of the marine life and magnified as larger

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fish eat more of the tinier prey, so that the meal can be quite toxic by the time the
fish makes it to our dinner plate.It is not just direct pollution of toxic chemicals
that can cause these problems. Nor is the problem confined to abandoned lots or
illegal dumpsites

What are the causes of land pollution?

Land pollution is a major problem around the world and is caused by a
variety of factors. Some of main causes of soil pollution include deforestation and
consequent erosion, agriculture, industry, mining, landfills and illegal dumping of
waste as well as urbanization and construction

Deforestation

In the Amazon rain forest in Brazil, an area the size of a football field is clear-cut
by loggers every second [9]. The removal of plant cover not only eliminates
wildlife habitats and food for wildlife, but it also degrades the soil by leaving it
barren and without the roots of plants to hold it in place, vulnerable to erosion.

Agriculture
The world population increase and increased demand for a food supply is causing
forests and grasslands to be converted to farmland. Natural vegetation has deep
roots that hold the soil in its place. Many of the replacement plants, like cotton,
coffee, wheat and soybeans do not have deep roots and allow soil erosion. This
means that flooding is worsened as the land no longer has the ability to absorb
excess rainfall.

Industry
Industrial activities often release toxic and material wastes onto the land or into
the atmosphere where they settle onto the land. While most developed countries
now regulate land dumping and emissions, the regulations balance the costs to
industry and do not necessarily adequately safeguard the integrity of our
biosphere or more specifically, human health.

Mining
Forty percent of the world’s mines are strip mines. This is where the earth is
either scraped or blasted to get to the mineral seams. The balance of mining is

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done underground, where pillars support the earth while work is performed
underground and at the end, removed or simply left to collapse. Strip mines
obviously remove the topsoil and contribute to erosion. In many developed
countries, regulations now require land reclamation when the project is over.

Landfills and waste

The construction of landfills is generally overseen by a governmental agency
responsible for solid waste disposal and involve compliance with regulations to
safeguard the leaching of their contents into the soil. However, the clay or plastic
liners often fail over time or of course, when compromised by construction
breaking through them.

Urbanization
Urbanization contributes to land degradation in a number of ways, including the
negative impact of construction on soil, the displacement and destruction of
animal and species habitat and the greater demand for waste disposal, generally
meaning larger landfills removed from the city.

Ways to reduce land pollution

Economic incentives need to be put in place for farmers at the frontier of forests
so that they intensify their production without expanding their land by cutting
down the forests [27]. Governments could put money into researching higher
yielding varieties of tropical crops and then develop policies like subsidized seeds
to encourage their use.

The farmers could be educated by local extension agencies in sustainable

practices like conservation tillage, cover crops, crop rotation and adding crop
residuals to increase the fertility of their soil instead of fertilizers that cause
greenhouse gas emissions, and land, water and air pollution.

We must be diligent in insuring that tough laws are enacted that require the very
best pollution control technologies imaginable, pass strict pollution emission
standards and make sure they are enforced. This applies too to regulations
governing mining and industrial waste and disposal of solid and hazardous waste.

The world’s population needs to be educated in the health hazards of these

pollutants to create an awareness of what is happening and the importance of

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being involved. Only by possessing adequate knowledge we can focus on the
necessary prevention of land and global pollution overall .

Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's
atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be
without this atmosphere

Radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) in a planet's atmosphere radiate

energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface,
warming it.[3] The intensity of the downward radiation – that is, the strength of the
greenhouse effect – will depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on the
amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains

Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life, and initially was a
precursor to life moving out of the ocean onto land. Human activities, however,
mainly the burning of fossil fuels and clearcutting of forests, have accelerated the
greenhouse effect and caused global warming.

What are greenhouse gases?

The “greenhouse effect” is something that people have known about for decades.
These gases, when emitted, become trapped in the Earth’s atmosphere, much as
heat becomes trapped inside a greenhouse. The most greenhouse gases that create
the largest impact include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and several
gases known as fluorinated gases.Some of these gases, such as CO2 or carbon
dioxide, are easily recognizable. Although some greenhouse gases do occur
naturally, an increasing amount of greenhouse gases are due to human causes. One
of the biggest challenges facing environmentalists is coping with the effects of
these greenhouse gases while finding ways to provide energy that is affordable for
the majority of consumers. Addressing the sources of these gases is one way the
public can work towards practical solutions

IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT

A. Global Warming
Increase of greenhouse gases concentration causes a reduction in outgoing
infrared radiation, thus the Earth's climate must change somehow to restore the
balance between

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Atmosphere as warming up is the simplest way for the climate to get rid of the
extra energy. However, a small rise in temperature will induce many other
changes, for example, cloud cover and wind patterns. Some of these changes may
act to enhance the warming (positive feedbacks), others to counteract it
(negative feedbacks). Using complex climate models, the "Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change" in their third assessment report has forecast that
global mean surface temperature will rise by 1.4℃ to 5.8℃ by the end of 2100.
This projection takes into account the effects of aerosols which tend to cool the
climate as well as the delaying effects of the oceans which have a large thermal
capacity. However, there are many uncertainties associated with this
projection such as future emission rates of greenhouse gases, climate
feedbacks, and the size of the ocean delay
How are humans impacting the greenhouse effect?
Human activities are changing Earth's natural greenhouse effect. Burning fossil
fuels like coal and oil puts more carbon dioxide into our atmosphere. NASA has
observed increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and some other greenhouse
gases in our atmosphere. Too much of these greenhouse gases can cause Earth's
atmosphere to trap more and more heat. This causes Earth to warm up .

What Is Noise Pollution?

Noise pollution is generally defined as regular exposure to elevated sound levels
that may lead to adverse effects in humans or other living organisms. According to
the World Health Organization, sound levels less than 70 dB are not damaging to
living organisms, regardless of how long or consistent the exposure is. Exposure
for more than 8 hours to constant noise beyond 85 dB may be hazardous. If you
work for 8 hours daily in close proximity to a busy road or highway, you are very
likely exposed to traffic noise pollution around 85dB.

This type of pollution is so omnipresent in today’s society that we often fail to

even notice it anymore:

 street traffic sounds from cars, buses, pedestrians, ambulances etc.

 construction sounds like drilling or other heavy machinery in operation
 airports, with constant elevated sounds from air traffic, i.e. planes taking off
or landing
 workplace sounds, often common in open-space offices

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  constant loud music in or near commercial venues
 industrial sounds like fans, generators, compressor, mills
 train stations traffic
 household sounds, from the television set to music playing on the stereo or
computer, vacuum cleaners, fans and coolers, washing machines,
dishwashers, lawnmowers etc.
 events involving fireworks, firecrackers, loudspeakers etc.
 conflicts generate noise pollution through explosions, gunfire etc. The
dysfunctions, in this case, are likely caused by the conflict and insecurity
and less by the noise pollution in itself, although that compounds stress
levels too.

Effects of Noise Pollution on Wildlife and Marine Life

Our oceans are no longer quiet. Thousands of oil drills, sonars, seismic survey
devices, coastal recreational watercraft and shipping vessels are now populating
our waters, and that is a serious cause of noise pollution for marine life. Whales
are among the most affected, as their hearing helps them orient themselves, feed
and communicate. Noise pollution thus interferes with cetaceans’ (whales and
dolphins) feeding habits, reproductive patterns and migration routes, and can
even cause hemorrhage and death. Other than marine life, land animals are also
affected by noise pollution in the form of traffic, firecrackers etc., and birds are
especially affected by the increased air traffic.

Human Diseases Caused by Noise Pollution

Whether we realize we are subjected to it or not, noise pollution can be hazardous
to our health in various ways.

 Hypertension is, in this case, a direct result of noise pollution caused

elevated blood levels for a longer period of time.
 Hearing loss can be directly caused by noise pollution, whether listening to
loud music in your headphones or being exposed to loud drilling noises at
work, heavy air or land traffic, or separate incidents in which noise levels
reach dangerous intervals, such as around140 dB for adult or 120 dB for
children.

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  Sleep disturbances are usually caused by constant air or land traffic at
night, and they are a serious condition in that they can affect everyday
performance and lead to serious diseases

DISASTER
A catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from
natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which results in
substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to and destruction of,
property or damage to and degradation of , environment, and is of such a nature or
magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected
area.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
A continuous and integrated process of planning, organising, coordinating and
implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for prevention of danger
or threat of any disaster, mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its
severity or consequences, capacity building, preparedness to deal with any disaster,
prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster, assessing the
severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster, evacuation, rescue and relief, and
rehabilitation and reconstruction.

EARTHQUAKES
Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may occur at any
time of the year, day or night, with sudden impact and little warning. They can
destroy buildings and infrastructure in seconds, killing or injuring the inhabitants.
Earthquakes not only destroy the entire habitation but may de-stabilize the
government, economy and social structure of the country.

What are the Effects of Earthquakes?

Ground Shaking
Ground shaking is a term used to describe the vibration of the ground during
an earthquake. Ground shaking is caused by body waves and surface waves. As a
generalization, the severity of ground shaking increases as magnitude increases and

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decreases as distance from the causative fault increases. Although the physics of
seismic waves is complex, ground shaking can be explained in terms of body
waves, compressional, or P, and shear, or S, and surface waves, Rayleigh and
Love.

Surface Faulting
Surface faulting is the differential movement of the two sides of a fracture at the
Earth's surface and can be strike-slip, normal, and reverse (or thrust).
Combinations of the strike-slip type and the other two types of faulting can be
found. Although displacements of these kinds can result from landslides and other
shallow processes, surface faulting, as the term is used here, applies to differential
movements caused by deep-seated forces in the Earth, the slow movement of
sedimentary deposits toward the Gulf of Mexico, and faulting associated with salt
domes.
Landslides
Past experience has shown that several types of landslides take place in
conjunction with earthquakes. The most abundant types of earthquake induced
landslides are rock falls and slides of rock fragments that form on steep slopes.
Shallow debris slides forming on steep slopes and soil and rock slumps and block
slides forming on moderate to steep slopes also take place, but they are less
abundant. Reactivation of dormant slumps or block slides by earthquakes is rare.

Tsunamis
Tsunamis are water waves that are caused by sudden vertical movement of a large
area of the sea floor during an undersea earthquake. Tsunamis are often called tidal
waves, but this term is a misnomer. Unlike regular ocean tides, tsunamis are not
caused by the tidal action of the Moon and Sun. The height of a tsunami in the
deep ocean is typically about 1 foot, but the distance between wave crests can be
very long, more than 60 miles. The speed at which the tsunami travels decreases as
water depth decreases. In the mid-Pacific, where the water depths reach 3 miles,
tsunami speeds can be more than 430 miles per hour. As tsunamis reach shallow
water around islands or on a continental shelf; the height of the waves increases
many times, sometimes reaching as much as 80 feet. The great distance between
wave crests prevents tsunamis from dissipating energy as a breaking surf; instead,
tsunamis cause water levels to rise rapidly along coast lines.

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EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS IN INDIA
India has had a long history of earthquake occurrences. About 65% of the total area
of the country is vulnerable to seismic damage of buildings in varying degrees. The
most vulnerable areas, according to the present seismic zone map of India, are
located in the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions, Kutch and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. Depending on varying degrees of seism city, the entire country
can be divided into the following seismic regions:

 Kashmir and Western Himalayas - Covers the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and sub-mountainous areas of Punjab
 Central Himalayas - Includes the mountain and sub-mountain regions of
Uttar Pradesh and the sub-mountainous parts of Punjab
 North-east India - Comprises the whole of Indian territory to the east of
north Bengal
 Indo-Gangetic basin and Rajasthan - This region comprises of Rajasthan,
plains of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal
 Cambay and Rann of Kutch
 Peninsular India, including the islands of Lakshwadeep
 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands

MEASURES FOR EARTHQUAKE RISK REDUCTION

For better understanding of all the possibilities of earthquake risk reduction, it is
important to classify them in terms of the role that each one of them could play.
Therefore, in the pre-earthquake phase, preparedness, mitigation and prevention
are concepts to work on. Post-disaster, immediate rescue and relief measures
including temporary sheltering soon after an earthquake until about 3 months
later and re-construction and re-habilitation measures for a period of about six
months to three years need to follow. To encapsulate, the most effective
measures of risk reduction are pre-disaster mitigation, preparedness and
preventive measures to reduce vulnerability and expeditious, effective rescue
and relief actions immediately after the occurrence of the earthquake.
Depending upon the calamity and its consequences, strategies can also be
divided into long term (five to fifteen years), medium term (one to five years)
and short term (to be taken up immediately in high risk areas). Since it has been
realized that earthquakes don't kill people but faulty constructed buildings do,
the task of reducing vulnerability of structures and buildings will be the key to
earthquake risk reduction. Also, pre-disaster preparedness through a post-
earthquake response plan, including training of the concerned personnel in

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 various roles, is considered essential for immediate and effective response after
an earthquake occurrence. The major action points are highlighted in the
following paragraphs.

TSUNAMI
What is a tsunami?
A tsunami is a series of waves with a long wavelength and period (time between
crests). Time between crests of the wave can vary from a few minutes to over an
hour. Tsunamis are often incorrectly called tidal waves; they have no relation to
the daily ocean tides.

Tsunamis and earthquakes happen after centuries of energy build up within the
earth. A tsunami (in Japanese ‘tsu’ means harbor and ‘nami’ means wave) is a
series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of
water, usually an ocean. In the Tamil language it is known as “Aazhi Peralai”.
Seismicity generated tsunamis are result of abrupt deformation of sea floor
resulting vertical displacement of the overlying water. Earthquakes occurring
beneath the sea level, the water above the reformed area is displaced from its
equilibrium position. The release of energy produces tsunami waves which have
small amplitude but a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometer long). It
may be caused by non-seismic event also such as a landslide or impact of a meteor.

Some Historical Tsunamis Prior to the Tsunami of 26 December 2004, the most
destructive Pacific-wide Tsunami of recent history was generated along the coast
of Chile on May 22, 1960. No accurate assessment of the damage and deaths
attributable to this Tsunami along the coast of Chile can be given; however, all
coastal towns between the 36th and 44th S (latitude) parallels either were
destroyed or heavily damaged by the action of the waves and the quake. The
combined Tsunami and earthquake toll included 2,000 killed, 3000 injured
2,000,000 homeless and $550 million damages. Off Corral, the waves were
estimated to be 20.4 meters (67 feet) high. The Tsunami caused 61 deaths in
Hawaii, 20 in the Philippines, and 100 or more in Japan. Estimated damages were
$50 million in Japan, $24 million Hawaii and several millions along the west coast
of the United States and Canada. Wave heights varied from slight oscillations in
some areas to range of 12.2 meters (40 feet) at Pitcairn Islands; 10.7 meters (35

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feet) at Hilo, Hawaii and 6.1 meters (20 feet) at various places in Japan. The
hydrographic survey in Japan after the great Kwato earthquake of September 1,
1923 showed that vertical displacements of the order of 100 meters had occurred
over a large area of sea floor. Tsunamis are very common in the Pacific Ocean
because it is surrounded on all sides by a seismically active belt. In the Hawain
Islands, Tsunamis approach from all directions, namely, from Japan, the Aleutian
Islands and from South America. Tsunamis in India The Indian coastal belt has not
recorded many severe tsunamis in the past. Waves accompanying earthquake
activity have been reported over the North Bay of Bengal. During an earthquake in
1881 which had its epicenter near the Andamans in the Bay of Bengal, tsunamis
were reported. The earthquake of 1941 in Bay of Bengal caused some damage in
Andaman region. This was unusual because most Tsunamis are generated by
shocks which occur at or near the flanks of continental slopes. During the
earthquakes of 1819 and 1845 near the Rann of Kutch, there were rapid
movements of water into the sea. There is no mention of waves resulting from
these earthquakes along the coast adjacent to the Arabian sea, and it is unlikely that
Tsunamis were generated. Further west, in the Persian Gulf, the 1945 Mekran
earthquake (magnitude 8.1) generated Tsunami of 12 to 15 metres height. This
caused a huge deluge, with considerable loss of life and property at Ormara and
Pasi. The estimated height of Tsunami at Gulf of Kutchch was 15m but no report
of damage is available. The estimated height of waves was about 2 metres at
Mumbai, where boats were taken away from their moorings and casualties
occurred. A list showing the Tsunami that affected Indian coast in the past is given
in Table-3.2. The information given in the Table for the first three events is
sketchy and authenticity cannot be confirmed except the Tsunami of 26th
December 2004. Above facts indicate the coastal region of Gujarat is vulnerable to
Tsunamis from great earthquakes in Mekran coast. Earthquake of magnitude 7 or
more may be dangerous. It may be noted that all earthquake do not generate
Tsunami.

Recommended priorities for tsunami response planning and

management
Clearly the December 2004 tsunami has inspired in the international community
commitment to prevent a similar catastrophic loss of life and livelihoods should
such an event recur. But translating these good intentions and grand plans into

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effective action on the ground is a longer project. Sound strategies and careful
work right down to community level will be needed to make sure that projects such
as the early warning system actually do make people safer. Planners and managers
of tsunami responses should consider the following suggestions

COASTAL EROSION
Coastal erosion is a common problem faced in almost all coastal areas. Only the
magnitude and nature of erosion changes from place to place. Along the Karnataka
coast much of the erosion observed is only seasonal in nature, that is, beach gets
eroded during monsoon and regains its original profile during fair weather season.
Only in a few pockets, erosion of permanent nature has been observed (KREC
Study Team, 1994). To understand the process ofcoastal erosion one should know
about the beach profiles.

Beach profile changes frequently in response to winds, waves and tides. Profiles
are also affected by Civil Engineering activities in and along the shore which
influence the long shore transport ofsand. The most notable rapid arrangement of a
profile is by storm waves. During monsoon season because of high wave activity
beach gets eroded due to off-shore movement of sediments. This profile is called
storm profile. During fair weather season because of swell wave activity, beach
regains its original profile by the on-shore movement ofsediments. Fig 2.1 shows
the storm and swell profiles.

The factors influencing the phenomenon of coastal erosion as reported in literature

are discussed in the following sections .

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR COASTAL EROSION

1. Geological factors

2. Sea level changes

3. Waves

4. Interception oflittoral drift

5. Tides

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6. Off-shore relief

7. Sand mining.

8. River mouth changes

Geological Factors

In geologically old areas the coastline would have achieved a state of equilibrium.
In contrast, in geologically younger areas, there will be readjustment processes and
hence erosion or deposition is felt predominantly. The West coast ofIndia is
geologically younger and has not yet attained an equilibrium condition. Hence it is
prone to minor adjustments (erosion)

Sea Level Changes

Sea level changes may be due to eustatic sea level change or due to the shifting
ofshoreline because oflocal tectonic movements. Eustatic sea level rise contributes
to the process of erosion at a slow but gradual rate. It has been estimated that the
present day sea level rise is at a rate of 1.2 mm/year due to deglaciation and with
every millimetre rise in the sea level 1 to 1.5 meters ofland gets submerged (Bruun,
1962, 1990). As a result of this, the wave breaker zone and shoreline move
landwards

Waves

Wind waves affect the beaches in two ways,

1. Steep waves cause the beach erosion by taking away the material.

2. Waves when travelling from deep to shallow waters, the phenomenon of

refraction occurs.

Due to this wave orthogonals may converge or diverge on the beach. At places of
divergence, a relatively calm water exists and gradual deposition takes place. At
places of convergence, energy gets concentrated and erosion occurs. It also
depends on grain size, wave steepness and beach slope.

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Tides
Tides increase the zone over which destructive waves can erode the beach. The
high tide prevents the premature breaking ofthe waves on the off-shore sand bars
which dissipate some oftheir energy at that location. So the waves break closer to
the shore which is responsible for eroding the beach material. Hence, places with
high tidal range are more susceptible to erosion.

Off-shore

Relief Off-shore reliefaffects wave refraction and diffraction pattern ,thus the
energy received by a section of the beach may be different. In case of mudbanks
the shoreward side ofthe sea will be calm and traps the littoral material. The
downdrift side due to the lack oflittoral material starts eroding. In Karnataka coast
there is no mudbank formation and hence the erosion observed in this area may be
attributed to other factors.

River Mouth Changes

The major river mouths along the D. K. Coast, as one moves from the South to the
North are the Netravathi - Gurpurrivers near Mangalore, Pavanje - Mulki rivers
near Mulki and Udiyavara river near Malpe. These river mouths, particularly sand
spits on either side show strong tendencies ofmigration. These movements do not
follow any regular pattern. Some ofthese sand spits ofunconsolidated sand extend
for long distances with river on one side and the sea on the other side. These long
and narrow sand spits are highly vulnerable areas since they consits ofsand which
can be easily worked by waters ofboth the sea and the river. The KREC Study
Team (1994) concludes that the beaches in these places are more vulnerable to
erosion due to the high water table caused by the flood flows in the adjoining rivers

COASTAL EROSION CONTROL STRATEGIES

Hard-erosion control methods provide a more permanent solution than soft-erosion

control methods. Seawalls and groynes serve as semi-permanent infrastructure.
These structures are not immune from normal wear-and-tear and will have to be
refurbished or rebuilt. It is estimated the average life span of a seawall is 50–100
years and the average for a groyne is 30–40 years. Soft-erosion controls: Soft

17
erosion strategies refer to temporary options of slowing the effects of erosion.
These options, including Sandbag and beach nourishment, are not intended to be
long term solutions or permanent solutions

FLOODS
A flood is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits,
especially over what is normally dry land.Flooding may occur as an overflow of
water from water bodies, such as a river , lake, or ocean, in which the water
overtops or breaks leeves , resulting in some of that water escaping its usual
boundaries

Causes of Floods
Floods are caused by many factors: heavy precipitation, severe winds over water,
unusual high tides, tsunamis, or failure of dams, levels, retention ponds, or other
structures that contained the water. Periodic floods occur on many rivers, forming
a surrounding region known as the flood plain. During times of rain or snow, some
of the water is retained in ponds or soil, some is absorbed by grass and vegetation,
some evaporates, and the rest travels over the land as surface runoff. Floods occur
when ponds, lakes, riverbeds, soil, and vegetation cannot absorb all the water.
Water then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried within stream
channels or retained in natural ponds, lakes, and man-made reservoirs. About 30
percent of all precipitation is in the form of runoff small and that amount might be
increased by water from melting snow. River flooding is often caused by heavy
rain, sometimes increased by melting snow. Aflood that rises rapidly, with little or
no advance warning, is called a flash flood. Flash floods usually result from intense
rainfall over a relatively small area, or if the area was already saturated from
previous precipitation.

Effects of Floods
Flooding has many impacts. It damages property and endangers the lives of
humans and other species. Rapid water runoff causes soil erosion and concomitant
sediment deposition elsewhere (such as further downstream or down a coast). The
spawning grounds for fish and other wildlife habitats can become polluted or
completely destroyed. Some prolonged high floods can delay traffic in areas which
lack elevated roadways. Floods can interfere with drainage and economic use of

18
lands, such as interfering with farming. Structural damage can occur in bridge
abutments, bank lines, sewer lines, and other structures within floodways.
Waterway navigation and hydroelectric power are often impaired. Financial losses
due to floods are typically millions of dollars each year.

Management of floods: national disaster management

guidelines
These guidelines aim to assist the ministries and departments of the Government of
India (GOI), the state governments and other agencies in preparing Flood
Management plans (FMPs).

The guidelines rest on the following objectives:

(i) shifting the focus to preparedness by implementing, in a time-bound manner, an

optimal combination of techno-economically viable, socially acceptable and eco-
friendly structural and non-structural measures of FM

(ii) ensuring regular monitoring of the effectiveness and sustainability of various

structures and taking appropriate measures for their restoration and strengthening;
(iii) continuous modernisation of flood forecasting, early warning and decision
support systems

(iv) ensuring the incorporation of flood resistant features in the design and
construction of new structures in the flood prone areas; (v) drawing up time-bound
plans for the flood proofing of strategic and public utility structures in flood prone
areas

(vi) improving the awareness and preparedness of all stakeholders in the flood
prone areas

(vii) introducing appropriate capacity development interventions for effective FM,

including education, training, capacity building, research and development, and
documentation

(viii) improving the compliance regime through appropriate mechanisms

(ix) strengthening the emergency response capabilities.

19
Landslides
A landslide is the rapid mass movement of soil, mud and/or rocks downhill due to
the pull of gravity. Landslides are very common and occur in a variety of forms.
Land may topple off in a big chunk, or slip down in bits. Landslide may be
composed of mud or may contain rocks and other debris. Most landslides occur
gradually, but some may be sudden.

Natural causes of landslides include:

1) Heavy and/or prolonged rain
Gravity is an invisible force that pulls all objects towards Earth. The effect of
gravity is more prominent on a steep slope or on a hilly area. When rain falls,
water enters or infiltrates into the top soil which makes the soil become heavier
and therefore more vulnerable to the pull of gravity. When soil absorbs all the
water that it is capable of holding, it is said to be saturated. Soil is therefore
heaviest and most susceptible to the effects of gravity, when saturated. When large
areas of soil become saturated on steep slopes, the pull of gravity causes the top
layers of the soil to slide downhill, therefore resulting in a landslide.
2) Tremors And Shakes
An Earthquake is a tremor or movement in the Earth’s crust. They are a deadly and
unpredictable type of natural disaster and are the leading reason for landslides or
Rock falls occurring worldwide. Loose soil, rocks and boulders can easily be
dislodged from hilly areas and allowed to move downhill when the violent shaking
of the ground transpires. Landslides are more likely to take place when the
earthquake is of a high magnitude.
Human Induced Activities that produce landslides:
1. Deforestation
2. Quarrying/ Rock Mining
3. Bad agricultural practices such as slash and burn agriculture

Deforestation is the removal or cutting down of trees and other types of vegetation
from the land. The firm roots of the trees also help to keep the soil in place, even
when it absorbs water, thus diminishing the effects that gravity has on the soil. It is
when these trees are removed that the bare and exposed soil is left defenceless
against the pulling force of gravity when saturated since trees help to keep soil
firmly in place. Soil movement takes place more easily and rapidly resulting in
deadly landslides.
Quarrying or rock mining refers to the cutting away or excavation of hilly or

20
mountainous areas so that rocks and minerals can be extracted from the land.
Quarrying is rampant in the Northern Range and results in the land being left
devoid of trees and vegetation. Without trees to hold the soil in place, soil
movement occurs easily and rapidly.

Mitigation of Landslides
Frequency of landslide hazards and type of human activity as well as location
determine impact

• Total avoidance of landslide hazard areas or restriction on hazard zone activity is

an effective method of management

• Land use policies and regulations should also be in place in areas prone to
landslides

• Hazard potentials of sites should be evaluated

• Landslides can be mitigated in following ways:

- The landslide can be covered with an impermeable membrane

- Surface water is directed away from the landslide
- Ground water is drained from the landslide

• Education and awareness about the impact of landslides is also a must

Man made hazards

21
 Man made hazards

A disaster is a hazard resulting in an event of substantial extent causing

significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change
to the environment. Disasters fall into two major categories. These
include man made and natural disasters. Man-made disasters are
disasters due to result of of human intent, negligence or involving a
failure of a man-made system that leads to human suffering and
environmental damage. Man-made disasters are the consequence of
technological or human hazards. Fires, transport accidents, industrial
accidents, oil spills and nuclear explosions/ radiation are some examples
resulting the human hazards. Man has cut forests recklessly to clear the
land for cultivation and along with this environmental degradation has
taken place, which also affects human life. Man-made hazards or
disasters are sometimes referred to as anthropogenic. Man-made
disasters can be divided into different categories. As with natural
hazards, man-made hazards are events that have not happened, for
instance terrorism. Man-made disasters are examples of specific cases
where man-made hazards have become reality in an event. The rising
population has resulted in high fuel consumption and reduction of
natural resources. Over population also affects our social environment.
Another type of disaster that falls in this category is nuclear bomb. Other
types of man made disasters which are just as catastrophic include
chemical spill, oil spill, arson and terrorism.

5 Worst Man-Made Disasters in History

 1) Bhopal Gas Tragedy, India:
 2) Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Gulf of Mexico:
 3) Chernobyl Meltdown, Ukraine:

22
 4) Fukushima Meltdown, Japan:
 5) Global Warming, Third Planet from the Sun:

Mass wasting
Mass wasting, also known as slope movement or mass movement, is
the geomorphic process by which soil, sand, regolith, and rock move
downslope typically as a solid, continuous or discontinuous mass,
largely under the force of gravity, frequently with characteristics of a
flow as in debris flows and mudflows.[1] Types of mass wasting
include creep, slides, flows, topples, and falls, each with its own
characteristic features, and taking place over timescales from seconds to
hundreds of years.
When the gravitational force acting on a slope exceeds its resisting
force, slope failure (mass wasting) occurs. The slope material's strength
and cohesion and the amount of internal friction within the material help
maintain the slope's stability and are known collectively as the
slope's shear strength. The steepest angle that a cohesionless slope can
maintain without losing its stability is known as its angle of repose.
When a slope made of loose material possesses this angle, its shear
strength counterbalances the force of gravity acting upon it.
Mass wasting may occur at a very slow rate, particularly in areas that are
very dry or those areas that receive sufficient rainfall such that
vegetation has stabilized the surface. It may also occur at very high
speed, such as in rockslides or landslides, with disastrous consequences,
both immediate and delayed, e.g., resulting from the formation
of landslide dams. Factors that change the potential of mass wasting
include: change in slope angle, weakening of material by weathering,
increased water content; changes in vegetation cover, and overloading.

23
Role of water
Water can increase or decrease the stability of a slope depending on the
amount present. Small amounts of water can strengthen soils because
the surface tension of water increases soil cohesion. This allows the soil
to resist erosion better than if it were dry. If too much water is present
the water may act to increase the pore pressure, reducing friction, and
accelerating the erosion process and resulting in different types of mass
wasting (i.e. mudflows, landslides, etc.). A good example of this is to
think of a sand castle. Water must be mixed with sand for the castle to
keep its shape. If too much water is added the sand washes away, if not
enough water is added the sand falls and cannot keep its shape. Water
also increases the mass of the soil, this is important because an increase
in mass means that there will be an increase in velocity if mass wasting
is triggered. Saturated water, however, eases the process of mass wasting
in that the rock and soil debris are easily washed down-slope.

Creep
Soil creep is a slow and long term mass movement. The combination of small movements of soil or rock in
different directions over time is directed by gravity gradually downslope. The steeper the slope, the faster the
creep. The creep makes trees and shrubs curve to maintain their perpendicularity, and they can trigger
landslides if they lose their root footing. The surface soil can migrate under the influence of cycles of freezing
and thawing, or hot and cold temperatures, inching its way towards the bottom of the slope forming terracettes.
Landslides are often preceded by soil creep accompanied with soil sloughing — loose soil that falls and
accumulates at the base of the steepest creep sections. [2]

Landslide
A landslide, also called a landslip, is a slow or rapid movement of a
large mass of earth and rocks down a hill or a mountainside. Little or no
flowage of the materials occurs on a given slope until heavy rain and
resultant lubrication by the same rainwater facilitate the movement of
the materials, causing a landslide to occur.
In particular, if the main feature of the movement is a slide along a
planar or curved surface, the landslide is termed slump, earth slide,
debris slide or rock slide, depending on the prevailing material.

24
Movement of soil and regolith that more resembles fluid behaviour is
called a flow. These include avalanches, mudflows, debris flows, earth
flow, lahars and sturzstroms. Water, air and ice are often involved in
enabling fluid-like motion of the material.
A fall, including rockfall and debris fall occurs where regolith cascades
down a slope, but is not of sufficient volume or viscosity to behave as a
flow. Falls are promoted in rocks which are characterized by the
presence of vertical cracks. Falls can also result from undercutting by
running water as well as by waves. They usually occur at very steep
slopes such as a cliff face. The rock material may be loosened by
earthquakes, rain, plant-root wedging and expanding ice, among other
things. The accumulation of rock material that has fallen and resides at
the base of the structure is known as talus.

Human Impact on Mass Wasting

Causing Mass Wasting

Humans can contribute to mass wasting in a few different ways:

1. Excavation of slope or its toe

2. Loading of slope or its crest
3. Drawdown (of reservoirs)
4. Deforestation
5. Irrigation
6. Mining
7. Artificial vibration
8. Water leakage from utilities

25
 What is the environmental impact of Dams?
 Habitat fragmentation: Unless specifically engineered to allow fish to pass
through them, dams present a barrier to fish that need to migrate to spawn and
reproduce downstream and upstream along a river. This not only impacts the
populations of the fish themselves, but it can negatively impact other species in
the food chain that either eat that fish or are preyed upon by that fish.
 Flooding and the destruction of surrounding habitat: Dammed rivers create a
reservoir upstream from the dam, which spills out into the surrounding
environments and floods ecosystems and habitats that once existed there. Such
flooding can kill or displace many different organisms, including plants, wildlife,
and humans.
 Greenhouse gases: The flooding of surrounding habitat around dams kills trees
and other plant life that then decomposes and releases large amounts
of carbon into the atmosphere. Because the river is no longer flowing freely, the
water becomes stagnant and the bottom of the reservoir becomes becomes
depleted of oxygen. This lack of oxygen creates a situation where methane (a
very potent greenhouse gas) is produced from the decomposition of the plant
materials at the bottom of the reservoir that eventually gets released into the
atmosphere, contributing to global climate change.
 Sediment builds up behind the dam: Because a dammed river no longer flows
freely, the sediment that would have otherwise been deposited naturally
downstream begins to build up behind the dam, forming new riverbanks, river
deltas, alluvial fans, braided rivers, oxbow lakes, levees and coastal shores. These
changes in sedimentation can lead to dramatic alterations in plant life and animal
life and how they are distributed.
 Downstream sediment erosion: Due to the restrictions in the sediment flow
above a dam, the lack of sediment that would have once flowed downstream
ultimately leads to a deficiency in sediment load, and therefore, leads to
an increase in downstream erosion. This lack of sediment load causes the
riverbed to deepen and narrow over time, a compromised water table, the
homogenization of the river’s flow, reduced wildlife support, and a reduction in
sediment that reaches coasts and deltas.
 Negative impacts on local fish populations: Typically, local fish species will
not be adapted to the new environment that is present after a dam is built and
do not survive, leading to the extirpation of local populations. Many factors
26
 impact their survival, including the blockage of migration routes, a disconnection
from the river’s flood plain, changes in a river’s flow, changes in temperature,
turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and changes in local plant life.
o Organic materials from within and outside the river that would normally wash
downstream get built up behind dams and start to consume a large amount of
oxygen as they decompose. In some cases this triggers algae blooms which, in
turn, create oxygen-starved “dead zones” incapable of supporting river life of
any kind.
o Also, water temperatures in dam reservoirs can differ greatly between the
surface and depths, further complicating survival for marine life evolved to
handle natural temperature cycling. And when dam operators release oxygen-
deprived water with unnatural temperatures into the river below, they harm
downstream environments as well.

The Environmental Impact of Roads

Roads are increasingly common in today's world as human development

expands and people increasingly rely on cars for transportation on a
daily basis. The United States contains over 4 million miles of roadways
and an estimated 20% of land in the country is impacted by the presence
of roads.1 This large network of roads has dramatically altered the
landscape and can impact wildlife in a number of deleterious ways. In
addition to causing mortality, roads can also shift population
demographics and be a source of pollution into the environment.
Studying the ecological impacts of roads is an important area of study in
conservation biology and environmental science, as the impacts often
extend far beyond the surface of the road itself.
While the consequences of road mortality can be severe, many factors
influence the degree to which roads impact particular animal
populations. When a road crosses through an animal's preferred habitat,
the chances increase for road mortality. For example, Highway 27 in
Florida that passes over a lake inhabited by many turtles has been shown
to have very high turtle mortality rates and be one of the most dangerous
roads for wildlife in the country.3 Particular behaviors also put some
27
animals more at risk. Chimney swifts eat insects and fly close to the
ground as they follow prey. When these birds follow prey that fly over
roads, it increases their chances of being struck by a car.4 Groups of
animals like amphibians that have regular mass migrations are also
particularly vulnerable. 4
Animals may also be attracted to the road surface. Reptiles like snakes
and turtles sometimes bask on the warm asphalt of the road to regulate
their body temperatures.5 Many scavengers prey on the carcasses of
animals that have been killed on the road. These kinds of behavior
increase the risk of mortality as they cause animals to spend more time
around the road.

Habitat Fragmentation & Alteration

In addition to causing direct mortality, roads can have a number of
indirect impacts such as habitat fragmentation. This can result from
either animals not being able to cross the road without being killed or
through avoidance of the road. For example, some snakes have been
shown to turn around and not cross the road when they encounter
it.6 Some animals avoid the surface of the road even when there are no
cars driving on it. Birds that typically fly short distances from one tree to
the next may also be hesitant to fly across a large open space, which
restricts their movements across roads.13
When roads create barriers to movement they can impact animal
populations in many ways. One of these is through prohibiting gene
flow. For example, in timber rattlesnakes, a study of genetics at
hibernacula showed that in hibernacula that were blocked off by roads,
genetic diversity was lower than in those that occurred across contiguous
habitats.12 Additionally, some male snakes follow trails of pheromones
along the ground in order to locate mates. Roads can disrupt the
pheromone trail and make it difficult for males to follow the trails and
find a mate.14

28
Pollution
Roads can also be a conduit for pollutants into the environment. The
debris from tires on the road can decrease the time to metamorphosis of
wood frogs.20 Deicing salts that run off from roads into adjacent ponds
can decrease survivorship of wood frogs and spotted
salamanders.21 Frogs have been shown to have higher skeletal
abnormalities closer to roads, possibly as a result of contamination.19 In
addition to causing mortality, deicing salts can alter the behavior of
frogs and decrease locomotor performance. This can impact fitness, as
they may be less adept at catching prey or eluding predators. 22 Roads
also carry oils from cars that travel across them, which have the potential
to harm wildlife when they enter the environment.
Pollution from roads extends beyond just chemicals, as light and noise
pollution from roads can be detrimental as well. Noise from cars can
impact birds by disrupting acoustic communication and interfering with
warning signals, leading to bird population declines in the proximity of
roads.23 Not all birds are equally affected, however, as those that have
song frequencies similar to car frequencies are more likely to be absent
from roadside areas. In addition to decreasing the numbers of birds, road
noise can alter the community composition of birds as certain species are
differentially excluded.24 Similarly, roads can interfere with the calling
of frogs and make it difficult for them to find a mate.25

Mitigation
A number of mitigation strategies have been developed to decrease the
harmful impacts of roads on wildlife. In cases where patterns of
mortality are predictable during certain times of the year, road closures
or speed limit reductions during these times may decrease mortality
rates.10 Road closures during breeding migrations have been used to
successfully decrease mortality of the Jefferson's salamander in Ontario.
Since many gravid reptiles are killed while trying to find a nesting site,
the construction of artificial nesting sites may prohibit them from
needing to cross the road. For snakes, artificial hibernacula can also be
29
constructed to reduce distance traveled and the chances of road
mortality.
Decreasing traffic volume is not likely to be effective when animals
avoid the physical surface of the road. In such cases, constructing
alternative ways of crossing the road can be more successful. For
smaller animals, culverts that pass under roads can allow for safe
passage. Barriers along the road are also constructed to guide animals to
the culverts. This has shown to be extremely effective in reducing road
mortality in some cases. A drawback of culverts is that they primarily
facilitate crossing by smaller animals. For larger animals, wildlife
overpasses have been used to allow crossing. They sometimes have
vegetation planted over them to mimic the natural habitat. Studies have
shown that red deer and wild boar will use such structures to cross the
road and usage may increase over time as animals become accustomed
to them.31

Environmental impact of mining

Environmental impacts of mining can occur at local, regional, and
global scales through direct and indirect mining practices. Impacts can
result in erosion, sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, or the contamination of
soil, groundwater, and surface water by the chemicals emitted from
mining processes. These processes also have an impact on the
atmosphere from the emissions of carbon which have effect on the
quality of human health and biodiversity.[1] Some mining methods may
have such significant environmental and public health effects that
mining companies in some countries are required to follow strict
environmental and rehabilitation codes to ensure that the mined area
returns to its original state.

Erosion
Erosion of exposed hillsides, mine dumps, tailings dams and
resultant siltation of drainages, creeks and rivers can significantly impact

30
the surrounding areas, a prime example being the giant Ok Tedi
Mine in Papua New Guinea. In wilderness areas mining may cause
destruction of ecosystems and habitats, and in areas of farming it may
disturb or destroy productive grazing and croplands

Sinkholes
A sinkhole at or near a mine site is typically caused from the failure of a
mine roof from the extraction of resources, weak overburden or
geological discontinuities.[3] The overburden at the mine site can
develop cavities in the subsoil or rock, which can infill with sand and
soil from the overlying strata. These cavities in the overburden have the
potential to eventually cave in, forming a sinkhole at the surface. The
sudden failure of earth creates a large depression at the surface without
warning, this can be seriously hazardous to life and
property.[4] Sinkholes at a mine site can be mitigated with the proper
design of infrastructure such as mining supports and better construction
of walls to create a barrier around an area prone to sinkholes. Back-
filling and grouting can be done to stabilize abandoned underground
workings.

Water pollution
Mining can have harmful effects on surrounding surface and
groundwater. If proper precautions are not taken, unnaturally high
concentrations of chemicals, such as arsenic, sulfuric acid,
and mercury over a significant area of surface or subsurface
water.[5] With large amounts of water used for mine drainage, mine
cooling, aqueous extraction and other mining processes, increases the
potential for these chemicals to contaminate ground and surface water.
As mining produces copious amounts of waste water, disposal methods
are limited due to contaminates within the waste water. Runoff
containing these chemicals can lead to the devastation of the
surrounding vegetation. The dumping of the runoff in surface waters or
in a lot of forests is the worst option. Therefore, submarine tailings
disposal are regarded as a better option (if the waste is pumped to great
31
depth).[6] Land storage and refilling of the mine after it has been depleted
is even better, if no forests need to be cleared for the storage of debris.
The contamination of watersheds resulting from the leakage of
chemicals also has an effect on the health of the local population.[7]
In well-regulated mines, hydrologists and geologists take careful
measurements of water to take precaution to exclude any type of water
contamination that could be caused by the mine's operations. The
minimization of environmental degradation is enforced in American
mining practices by federal and state law, by restricting operators to
meet standards for the protection of surface and groundwater from
contamination.[8] This is best done through the use of non-toxic
extraction processes as bioleaching.
Acid rock drainage
Sub-surface mining often progresses below the water table, so water
must be constantly pumped out of the mine in order to prevent flooding.
When a mine is abandoned, the pumping ceases, and water floods the
mine. This introduction of water is the initial step in most acid rock
drainage situations.
Acid rock drainage occurs naturally within some environments as part of
the rock weathering process but is exacerbated by large-scale earth
disturbances characteristic of mining and other large construction
activities, usually within rocks containing an abundance of sulfide
minerals. Areas where the earth has been disturbed (e.g. construction
sites, subdivisions, and transportation corridors) may create acid rock
drainage. In many localities, the liquid that drains from coal stocks, coal
handling facilities, coal washeries, and coal waste tips can be highly
acidic, and in such cases it is treated as acid mine drainage (AMD). The
same type of chemical reactions and processes may occur through the
disturbance of acid sulfate soils formed under coastal or estuarine
conditions after the last major sea level rise, and constitutes a similar
environmental hazard.
The five principal technologies used to monitor and control water flow
at mine sites are diversion systems, containment ponds, groundwater
32
pumping systems, subsurface drainage systems, and subsurface barriers.
In the case of AMD, contaminated water is generally pumped to a
treatment facility that neutralizes the contaminants.[10] A 2006 review of
environmental impact statements found that "water quality predictions
made after considering the effects of mitigation largely underestimated
actual impacts to groundwater, seeps, and surface water"

Effects of mine pollution on humans

Humans are also affected by mining. There are many diseases that can
come from the pollutants that are released into the air and water during
the mining process. For example, during smelting operations large
quantities of air pollutants, such as the suspended particulate matter,
SOx, arsenic particles and cadmium, are emitted. Metals are usually
emitted into the air as particulates as well. There are also many
occupational health hazards that miners face. Most of miners suffer from
various respiratory and skin diseases such as asbestosis, silicosis,
or black lung disease.
Furthermore, one of the biggest subset of mining that impacts humans is
the pollutants that end up in the water, which results in poor water
quality.[40] About 30% of the world has access to renewable
freshwater which is used by industries that generate large amounts of
waste containing chemicals in various concentrations that are deposited
into the freshwater[40]. The concern of active chemicals in the water can
pose a great risk to human health as it can accumulate within the water
and fishes[40]. There was a study done on an abandon mine in China,
Dabaoshan mine and this mine was not active to many years yet the
impact of how metals can accumulate in water and soil was a major
concern for neighboring villages.[41] Due to the lack of proper care of
waste materials 56% of mortality rate is estimated within the regions
around this mining sites, and many have been diagnosed with
esophageal cancer and liver cancer[41]. It resulted that this mine till this
day still has negative impacts on human health through crops and it is
evident that there needs to be more cleaning up measures around
surrounding areas.

33
Mitigation
To ensure completion of reclamation, or restoring mine land for future
use, many governments and regulatory authorities around the world
require that mining companies post a bond to be held in escrow until
productivity of reclaimed land has been convincingly demonstrated,
although if cleanup procedures are more expensive than the size of the
bond, the bond may simply be abandoned. Since 1978 the mining
industry has reclaimed more than 2 million acres (8,000 km²) of land in
the United States alone. This reclaimed land has renewed vegetation and
wildlife in previous mining lands and can even be used for farming and
ranching.

Health Hazards associated with mining

The mining industry has a reputation for being a risky business,
with health risks that are varied and often quite serious, and it is
important for miners to protect themselves accordingly.

1. Coal dust
Dust inhalation or coal dust is one of the most common concerns for
miners.

“The ongoing inhalation of coal dust can cause what is colloquially

known as ‘miner’s lung’ or ‘black lung’. Miner’s lung is a form of the
occupational lung disease group pneumoconiosis. It varies in severity,
but symptoms include shortness of breath and scarring of lung tissue,
which can cause ongoing respiratory issues,” says Clark.

Even though measures to prevent black lung have been legally enforced
for many years now, new cases still occur among coal miners.

Mining companies need to develop a dust control plan, and supervisors

should ensure that dust control systems are working properly for every
production shift.
34
Mine workers should be trained on the hazards of over-exposure to coal
mine dust.

Respiratory protection should be used when dust control protection is

being installed, maintained or repaired. Medical screening and
surveillance is also essential.

2. Noise
Mines are noisy places, with the constant of drilling and heavy
machinery, and the potential for hearing damage is quite serious.

“It can be easy for you to mentally get used to loud noises, but that
doesn’t mean that damage isn’t still being done. Many people don’t
notice the damage to their hearing until long after they were first
exposed to the noisy environment, as most damage occurs very slowly.

“Over-exposure to excessive noise can result in tinnitus (ringing in the

ears), sleep disturbances, concentration problems and even permanent
hearing loss,” Clark explains.

To protect workers against noise, mining companies should evaluate

working conditions and noise exposure through risk assessments.

Avoiding and reducing exposure can be achieved by appling engineering

controls at the noise source or along the noise path to reduce exposures,
such as vibration dampeners or absorptive panels.

Regular maintenance of machines is also essential to reducing noise.

Employer must ensure proper use of personal hearing protection
amongst noise-exposed employees, while providing necessary health
and safety training and maintaining up-to-date health surveillance
records.

35
3. Whole body vibration
Whole body vibration (WBV) is a slow forming physical hazard that
occurs in mining workers and other occupations that work with heavy
machinery.

“In the mining environment, WBV can be caused either by spending a

lot of time sitting on machinery, which is most of the time in mining
extraction, or by standing, such as working on jumbo operators.

“Some forms of vibration are ok, but they become dangerous when they
involve uneven surfaces, vehicle activity such as ripping versus pushing
material in a bulldozer, and engine vibrations.

“Symptoms of WBV include musculoskeletal disorders, reproductive

damage in females, vision impairment, digestive problems and
cardiovascular changes,” Clark outlines.

Again, reducing exposure also reduces the health risks and should be the
first step that mining companies take. This might include filling in
potholes on unmade roads, minimising the transport of goods or
materials, or replacing manned with unmanned machines such as
remotely controlled conveyors.

Where risks cannot be avoided, supervisors should reduce the time for
which the employee uses the machine each day. Instruction and training
are critical, and symptoms of back pain in employees should be closely
monitored.

4. UV Exposure
For open-pit miners, understanding the risk of over-exposure to UV
(ultraviolet) radiation in sunlight is essential.

“Over exposure of ultraviolet rays can put you at risk of skin cancer, of
which Australia has the highest rate in the world. Not only can UV rays
36
cause melanomas to form, but they can cause serious damage to your
eyes if you are not wearing protective eye wear.

“In the short-term, overexposure to the sun can cause dehydration,

headaches and nausea. Mine workers often spend whole days out in the
baking hot sun, so are naturally at a very high risk of developing cancer
and eye problems if they are not adequately protected,” Clark explains.

Employers should conduct a risk assessment on outdoor work scheduled

to assist in developing appropriate sun protection measures.

The most effective way of reducing UV exposure is to use a

combination of protection methods, including re-organising work to
avoid the UV peak of the day, providing natural or artificial shade,
providing appropriate protective clothing, and applying sunscreen.

It is also important that employers train employees to raise awareness of

the risks associated with exposure to UV and the sun protection
measures required.

Employers can provide skin cancer checks as part of regular workplace

medical examinations and in pre-employment medical checks.

5. Musculoskeletal disorders
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) refer to any problems affecting your
bones, muscles, blood vessels and nerves.

“Mine workers are exposed to a variety of potential health risks that fall
under this broad category. While musculoskeletal damage can occur due
to a trip, fall or heavy lift, the more serious ones occur slowly over time.
This could be due to ongoing heavy lifting or repetitive strains,” says
Clark.

Preventing MSDs needs to be a key part of every workplace health and

safety program. In safe and healthy workplaces, employers should
37
identify and assess job-related MSD hazards and put in place controls to
reduce workers’ exposure to MSD hazards.

Furthermore, workers should be advised and trained about MSD hazards

in their job and workplace and should be encouraged to participate in
health and safety programs through early reporting of MSD symptoms
or concerns to their supervisors.

Employers should follow up to ensure preventative measures are

working.

6. Thermal stress
A common health risk that miners face is thermal – or heat – stress.

“Mining environments are often very hot and humid, particularly those
in outback Australia, which over time can cause thermal stress in
workers.

“Overexposure to heat and humidity can cause the body to become

fatigued and distressed. This can result in heat stroke or more serious
ongoing health problems,” Clark reveals.

Where there is a possibility of heat stress occurring, companies need to

carry out a risk assessment that considers the work rate, working climate
and worker clothing and respiratory protective equipment.

Where possible, control the temperature using engineering solutions,

provide mechanical aids where possible to reduce the work rate, and
regulate the length of exposure to hot environments.

Furthermore, personal protective equipment should be provided, such as

specialised protective clothing that incorporates personal cooling
systems or breathable fabrics.

38
Furthermore, companies should provide training for workers, especially
new and young employees, and monitor the health of workers at risk.

7. Chemical hazards
Mine workers are often exposed to harmful chemicals.

“As an example, the most common group of chemicals that cause

concern in a coal mining environment are polymeric chemicals.

Regardless of the chemicals you work in close proximity to, appropriate

safety wear and precautions need to be taken to minimise your body’s
exposure to them. Risks include chemical burns, respiratory problems
and poisoning,” Clark outlines.

Each chemical has a unique set of hazards and needs to be handled

properly to ensure worker safety, so employers need to conduct risk
assessments to establish best practices.

A standard operating procedure (SOP) that addresses the use of correct

personal protective equipment, safe handling, safe use, and proper
disposal should be established.

Ventilation is also an important factor in minimizing exposure, as well

as general housekeeping and cleanliness. Thorough training and drills
should be conducted regarding the company’s spill response plans and
chemical hygiene plans.

Waste disposal practices, recycling

Waste management (or waste disposal) include the activities and
actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final
disposal.[1] This includes the collection, transport, treatment and disposal
of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste
management process.

39
Waste can be solid, liquid, or gas and each type has different methods of
disposal and management. Waste management deals with all types of
waste, including industrial, biological and household. In some cases,
waste can pose a threat to human health.[2] Waste is produced by human
activity, for example, the extraction and processing of raw
materials.[3] Waste management is intended to reduce adverse effects of
waste on human health, the environment or aesthetics.
Waste management practices are not uniform among countries
(developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural areas),
and residential and industrial sectors can all take different approaches.[4]
A large portion of waste management practices deal with municipal
solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the waste that is created by
household, industrial, and commercial activity
Principles of waste management
Waste hierarchy
The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" Reduce, Reuse and Recycle,
which classifies waste management strategies according to their
desirability in terms of waste minimisation. The waste hierarchy is the
cornerstone of most waste minimisation strategies. The aim of the waste
hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and
to generate the minimum amount of end waste; see: resource
recovery.[6] The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the
basic premise is that policies should promote measures to prevent the
generation of waste. The next step or preferred action is to seek
alternative uses for the waste that has been generated i.e. by re-use. The
next is recycling which includes composting. Following this step is
material recovery and waste-to-energy. The final action is disposal, in
landfills or through incineration without energy recovery. This last step
is the final resort for waste which has not been prevented, diverted or
recovered.[7] The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product
or material through the sequential stages of the pyramid of waste

40
management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle
for each product.
Life-cycle of a product
The life-cycle begins with design, then proceeds through manufacture,
distribution, and primary use and then follows through the waste
hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse and recycle. Each stage in the life-
cycle offers opportunities for policy intervention, to rethink the need for
the product, to redesign to minimize waste potential, to extend its
use.[7][ Product life-cycle analysis is a way to optimize the use of the
world's limited resources by avoiding the unnecessary generation of
waste.
Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans
was insignificant due to low levels of population
density and exploitation of natural resources. Common waste produced
during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable
waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with
minimum environmental impact. Tools made out of wood or metal were
generally reused or passed down through the generations.
However, some civilizations do seem to have been more profligate in
their waste output than others. In particular, the Maya of Central
America had a fixed monthly ritual, in which the people of the village
would gather together and burn their rubbish in large dumps.
Waste handling and transport
Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and
regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local
government authorities, or by private companies for industrial and
commercial waste. Some areas, especially those in less developed
countries, do not have formal waste-collection systems.

Waste handling practices

41
Curbside collection is the most common method of disposal in most
European countries, Canada, New Zealand, United States, and many
other parts of the developed world in which waste is collected at regular
intervals by specialised trucks. This is often associated with curb-side
waste segregation. In rural areas waste may need to be taken to a transfer
station. Waste collected is then transported to an appropriate disposal
facility. In some areas, vacuum collection is used in which waste is
transported from the home or commercial premises by vacuum along
small bore tubes. Systems are in use in Europe and North America.

Disposal methods
Landfill
A landfill is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial.
Landfill is the oldest form of waste treatment, although the burial of the
waste is modern; historically, refuse was simply left in piles or thrown
into pits. Historically, landfills have been the most common method of
organized waste disposal and remain so in many places around the
world.

Incineration
Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes
are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and
gaseous products. This method is useful for disposal of both municipal
solid waste and solid residue from waste water treatment. This process
reduces the volumes of solid waste by 80 to 95 percent.[18] Incineration
and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes
described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials
into heat, gas, steam, and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a
large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous
waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of

42
certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste).
Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues
such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more
scarce, as the facilities generally do not require as much area as
landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad
terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat,
steam or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect
and there have been concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions
from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very
persistent organic compounds such as dioxins, furans, and PAHs, which
may be created and which may have serious environmental
consequences.
Recycling
Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the
collection and reuse of waste materials such as empty beverage
containers. The materials from which the items are made can be
reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be collected
separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection
vehicles, a procedure called kerbside collection. In some communities,
the owner of the waste is required to separate the materials into different
bins (e.g. for paper, plastics, metals) prior to its collection. In other
communities, all recyclable materials are placed in a single bin for
collection, and the sorting is handled later at a central facility. The latter
method is known as "single-stream recycling."
The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium such
as beverage cans, copper such as wire, steel from food and aerosol cans,
old steel furnishings or equipment,
rubber tyres, polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and
jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines and light paper,
and corrugated fiberboard boxes.
PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also
recyclable. These items are usually composed of a single type of
43
material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The
recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic
equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and
separation required.
The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country.
Each city and country has different recycling programs in place that can
handle the various types of recyclable materials. However, certain
variation in acceptance is reflected in the resale value of the material
once it is reprocessed. In July 2017, the Chinese government announced
an import ban of 24 categories of recyclables and solid waste, including
plastic, textiles and mixed paper, placing tremendous impact on
developed countries globally, which exported directly or indirectly to
China.
Energy recovery
Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-
recyclable waste materials into usable heat, electricity, or fuel through a
variety of processes, including combustion, gasification, pyrolyzation,
anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas recovery.[22] This process is often
called waste-to-energy. Energy recovery from waste is part of the non-
hazardous waste management hierarchy. Using energy recovery to
convert non-recyclable waste materials into electricity and heat,
generates a renewable energy source and can reduce carbon emissions
by offsetting the need for energy from fossil sources as well as reduce
methane generation from landfills.[22] Globally, waste-to-energy
accounts for 16% of waste management.[23]
The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using
them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into
another type of fuel. Thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a
fuel source for cooking or heating and the use of the gas fuel (see
above), to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in
a turbine. Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal
treatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures with
limited oxygen availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel

44
under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into
solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to
produce energy or refined into other chemical products (chemical
refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products
such as activated carbon. Gasification and advanced Plasma arc
gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a
synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The
gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. An alternative to
pyrolysis is high temperature and pressure supercritical water
decomposition (hydrothermal monophasic oxidation).
Resource recovery
Resource recovery is the systematic diversion of waste, which was
intended for disposal, for a specific next use.[29] It is the processing of
recyclables to extract or recover materials and resources, or convert to
energy.[30] These activities are performed at a resource recovery
facility.[30] Resource recovery is not only environmentally important, but
it is also cost-effective.[31] It decreases the amount of waste for disposal,
saves space in landfills, and conserves natural resources.[31]
Resource recovery (as opposed to waste management) uses LCA (life
cycle analysis) attempts to offer alternatives to waste management. For
mixed MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) a number of broad studies have
indicated that administration, source separation and collection followed
by reuse and recycling of the non-organic fraction and energy and
compost/fertilizer production of the organic material via anaerobic
digestion to be the favoured path.
As an example of how resource recycling can be beneficial, many items
thrown away contain metals that can be recycled to create a profit, such
as the components in circuit boards. Wood chippings in pallets and other
packaging materials can be recycled to useful products for horticulture.
The recycled chips can cover paths, walkways, or arena surfaces.
Application of rational and consistent waste management practices can
yield a range of benefits including:

45
 1. Economic – Improving economic efficiency through the means of
resource use, treatment and disposal and creating markets for
recycles can lead to efficient practices in the production and
consumption of products and materials resulting in valuable
materials being recovered for reuse and the potential for new jobs
and new business opportunities.
2. Social – By reducing adverse impacts on health by proper waste
management practises, the resulting consequences are more
appealing civic communities. Better social advantages can lead to
new sources of employment and potentially lifting communities
out of poverty especially in some of the developing poorer
countries and cities.
3. Environmental – Reducing or eliminating adverse impacts on the
environment through reducing, reusing and recycling, and
minimizing resource extraction can result in improved air and
water quality and help in the reduction of greenhouse
gas emissions.
4. Inter-generational Equity – Following effective waste management
practises can provide subsequent generations a more robust
economy, a fairer and more inclusive society and a cleaner
environment.[7]

The role of environmental geology in the

geoenvironment management
The man in the course of his evolution employed all the time in a greater
extent geopotentials, struggled against geohazards and surmounted
geoconstraints taking always more ingenious measurements. But
sometimes, in course of various activities, he brought about geohazards
or deteriorated the geoenvironment by himself. Hence it follows that the
main role of environmental geology in the geoenvironment management
is the care of its rational use and protection.
The concept rational use of the geoenvironment covers generally these
aspects:

46
1. Most useful from point of view of economic demands

2. Without harmful impacts on geoenvironment and landscape

3. Technical and economic unpretending

4. Architectonic and landscape suitable

The geoenvironmental conditions of a territory enable generally various

possibilities of land use (mining of mineral raw materials, civil and
industrial construction, transport construction, ground water
exploitation, recreational, sanitary and sporting purposes, etc.).

Decision making process in that case is aimed at the best way of land
use from point of view of nation-wide or regional economic
requirements. So, the first demand covers possible collisions of interests
in a territory.

The second point tends care on trouble free exploitation of the

geoenvironment and landscape, i.e. without unacceptable consequences
such as invocation or activation of harmful geodynamic phenomena
(landslides, suffosion, erosion a. o.), pollution of groundwater and rock
environment, negative impact on superficial water and biota, etc.

Technical and economic unpretending exploitation of the

geoenvironment requires the choice of reasonable methods of mining or
constructions foundation and optimum sitting of activities in landscape.
That calls for sites, which do not necessitate protection against stability
failure or against pollution of the geoenvironment, alternatively only
unassuming and inexpensive ones.

The last point calls for designs in harmony with nature. It means that
interventions into the geoenvironment and landscape must be technically
and ecologic sound and aesthetic suitable.

From listed above results that the concept rational use of the
geoenvironment includes also its protection. Why than we speak
47
separately of the geoenvironment protection? It is mainly in connection
with old objects of techno-sphere, which were not built up in accordance
with requirements of the geoenvironment rational use, in case of old
ecologic loads, on the chance of accidents and in case of unstable
territories (slope movements, erosion, subsidence, sagging a. o.). In
general we distinguish the geoenvironment protection against pollution
and against stability, integrity and structure failure, which bring about
instability of a territory.
In the case of the protection against pollution we basically use four
methods:

1. Removal of the techno-sphere objects

2. Removal of polluted rocks and/or soils

3. Technical improvement of techno-sphere objects

4. Technical measurements in the geoenvironment

Removal of techno-sphere objects is under consideration providing

unassuming, not too expensive constructions or in the case of more
challenging constructions with obsolete technology. Otherwise we go to
technical improvement of techno-sphere objects, i.e. to improvement of
technology and/or to increasing of objects sealing capacity. Another
possibility is to seal up the rock environment under the construction or
to apply a hydraulic shield. Removal of polluted rocks and/or soils is
applied on the chance of accidents (e.g. crash of trailers or railway
carriages conveying toxic materials) and after removing of techno-
sphere objects, if necessary.

In case of unstable territories we use appropriate methods according to

the way of the geoenvironment injury. Some of them are listed below:

1. Removal of the techno sphere objects (constructions,embankments,..)

2. Removal of unstable parts of rocks mass (blocks of rocks,landslides,..)

48
3. Measures against slopes stability failure (abutment walls, anchoring,..)

4. Anti-erosion measurements (modification of slopes, method of

farming,..)

5. Countermeasure against sagging, suffosion, liquefaction, ..

6. Monitoring of unstable territories

Solution of these problems needs an extensive interdisciplinary

approach. Consequently environmental geology is an interdisciplinary
science, as within the system of geological sciences as in its position at
the boundary of geology and other natural sciences, as well as technical
and socio-economic sciences (Hrana, 1999). It analyses all
environmental aspects of the geoenvironment taking into account mainly
its evaluations from point of view of engineering geology,hydrogeology,
economic geology, geochemistry and geophysics. At the same time it
utilizes the knowledge of other geological sciences as physical geology,
tectonics, mineralogy, petrology, etc. Knowledge of technical sciences,
mainly of geotechnics it applies at proposals of rational means of the
geoenvironment exploitation, at solving of problems of mans
interference with geoenvironment and at proposals of the environment
protection from harmful geological processes and from pollution.

Therefore an environmental geologist must work systemic, on the

basis of all components of the environment and their mutual connection
evaluation, and, at the same time prognostic on the basis of fore-casting
of natural development as well as of possible changes of the
geoenvironment due to mans intervention. Following such evaluation he
can put forward proposals of the geoenvironment rational use or its
protection against undesirable natural or by human activities induced
geological processes. According to the nature and difficulty of the
problems he solves them alone, in cooperation with other specialists
(experts at the problems) or orders their solving at specialized
establishment.

49
 An environmental geologist has in geology similar position as a general
practitioner in medicine. This has to know something of all problems of
medicine (internal medicine, paediatrics, surgery, etc.) and must know
when he is competent to deal with problem alone and when to send the
patient to a specialist. There is necessary to subjoin that environmental
geologists, when comparing them with physicians, should be included
among the better ones, which take care of the health of the population
mainly on the basis of prevention.

Environmental management and conservation.

Methods of Conserving Environment
 Forest Conservation. Forest plays the vital role for the environment
conservation. ...
 Soil Conservation. Soil conservation is an important work of
environmental conservation. ...
 Waste Management. House, market area, industry, settlement area, etc. ..
 Public Awareness. ...
 Pollution Control. ...
 Conservation of Heritage.
Different types of environmental sources are used by people in their
daily life to fulfil their survival needs. Various types of developmental
works like industries, construction of roads, construction of buildings,
irrigation project, etc are conducted in the country to get valuable
services and facilities that we need. We should not destroy the
environment while conducting the developmental activities.

Some of the efforts and programmes that are being implemented in the
protection of environment are as follows:

50
1. Forest Conservation

Forest plays the vital role for the environment conservation. The
Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation has launched various
programmes for the conservation of forest and environment. Community
Forest Programme is one of the examples of conservation programmes
that help to protect the land, water and other components of the
environment. Afforestation must be done for the conservation of forest.
Laws about forest protection and awareness generation help in the
conservation programme

2. Soil Conservation
Soil conservation is an important work of environmental conservation.
Control of landslides, flood, soil erosion helps to protect the land.
Afforestation, tree plantation, protection of pasture land help to conserve
the soil. Terrace farming on slope land, use of compost fertilizer and
minimizing the use of chemicals also helps to protect the soil. Ministry
of Forest and Soil Conservation, Ministry of Agriculture, etc. are
conducting various programmes to protect the soil.

3. Waste Management
House, market area, industry, settlement area, etc. are the sources of
solid wastes. Proper management of solid wastes helps to keep the
surrounding healthy. Local level authorities like municipalities, VDC,
etc. have been conducting various programmes for the management of
solid wastes. Construction of toilets in every house and management of
enough public toilet also help to keep the environment healthy

4. Public Awareness
People should be aware of the consequences of their activities. There are
various means to aware people by conducting rally and drama. Media
should also play the active role to aware the people.

51
5. Pollution Control

Industries and vehicles emit the smoke, dust and harmful gases that
pollute the environment. Chemical fertilizer and chemical poisons like
insecticides, herbicides, pesticides, etc. also pollute the environment.
Pollution must be controlled to keep the environment healthy. The
government of Nepal is making an effort to control the pollution.

6. Conservation of Heritage
Temple, gumba, chaityas, Dharamshala, parties and pauwas are our
cultural heritage. They are our identity. They must be preserved for
future generation. We must keep the areas of cultural heritage free from
pollution.

Environmental resource management is the management of the

interaction and impact of human societies on the environment. It is not,
as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself.
Environmental resources management aims to ensure that ecosystem
services are protected and maintained for future human generations, and
also maintain ecosystem integrity through considering ethical, economic,
and scientific (ecological) variables.[1] Environmental resource
management tries to identify factors affected by conflicts that rise
between meeting needs and protecting resources.[2] It is thus linked
to environmental protection, sustainability and integrated landscape
management.

Environmental resource management is an issue of increasing concern,

as reflected in its prevalence in several texts influencing
global sociopolitical frameworks such as the Brundtland
Commission's Our Common Future,[3] which highlighted the integrated
nature of environment and international development and
the Worldwatch Institute's annual State of the World reports.
The environment determines the nature of people, animals, plants, and
places around the Earth, affecting behaviour, religion, culture and
economic practices.
52
Environmental resource management strategies are intrinsically driven
by conceptions of human-nature relationships.[6] Ethical aspects involve
the cultural and social issues relating to the environment, and dealing
with changes to it. "All human activities take place in the context of
certain types of relationships between society and the bio-physical world
(the rest of nature),"[7] and so, there is a great significance in
understanding the ethical values of different groups around the world.
Broadly speaking, two schools of thought exist in environmental
ethics: Anthropocentrism and Ecocentrism, each influencing a broad
spectrum of environmental resource management styles along a
continuum.[6] These styles perceive "...different evidence, imperatives,
and problems, and prescribe different solutions, strategies, technologies,
roles for economic sectors, culture, governments, and ethics, etc

Anthropocentrism, "...an inclination to evaluate reality exclusively in

terms of human values,"[8] is an ethic reflected in the major
interpretations of Western religions and the dominant economic
paradigms of the industrialised world.[6] Anthropocentrism looks at
nature as existing solely for the benefit of humans, and as a commodity
to use for the good of humanity and to improve human quality of
life.[9][10][11] Anthropocentric environmental resource management is
therefore not the conservation of the environment solely for the
environment's sake, but rather the conservation of the environment, and
ecosystem structure, for humans' sake.

53