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🧨 Revolt of 1857

Causes:

 Political: Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie), annexation of Oudh (1856), dethronement of native

rulers.

 Economic: Heavy taxation, ruin of artisans & peasants, discontent among landlords.

 Socio-Religious: Reforms seen as interference (e.g., Widow Remarriage Act 1856), fear of
forced conversions.

 Military: Disparity in ranks, low pay, greased cartridge incident (animal fat on Enfield rifles).

Key Leaders & Centers:

 Delhi: Bahadur Shah Zafar

 Kanpur: Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope

 Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai

 Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal

 Bihar: Kunwar Singh

 Faizabad: Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah

Nature of Revolt:

 Views:

o Nationalist Historians – First War of Independence

o British – Sepoy Mutiny

o Marxists – Feudal revolt with popular elements

Impact & Consequences:

 End of Company Rule, beginning of British Crown Rule

 Queen’s Proclamation (1858): Equal rights, non-interference in religion

 Government of India Act 1858: Viceroy replaces Governor-General; Secretary of State

appointed

Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Hindu Reform Movements:

  Brahmo Samaj (1828): Raja Ram Mohan Roy – against Sati, for widow remarriage,
monotheism

 Debendranath Tagore, Keshab Chandra Sen carried forward

 Arya Samaj (1875): Swami Dayanand Saraswati – “Back to Vedas,” Shuddhi Movement

 Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Swami Vivekananda – Practical Vedanta, religious unity

 Theosophical Society: Annie Besant – spread Hindu philosophy, education

 Young Bengal Movement: Henry Vivian Derozio – rationalism, western liberal thought

Muslim Reform Movements:

 Aligarh Movement: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan – Scientific education, founder of Aligarh Muslim
University

Lower Caste & Other Movements:

 Jyotiba Phule: Satyashodhak Samaj – social justice, women’s education

 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Anti-untouchability, rights for Dalits

 Periyar (EV Ramasamy): Self-Respect Movement – anti-Brahminism, rationalism

Key Social Reforms:

 Sati Abolished: 1829 (Bentinck, Roy)

 Widow Remarriage Act: 1856

🇮🇳 Rise of Indian Nationalism & Early Associations

Factors Promoting Nationalism:

 British exploitation, racial arrogance

 Spread of Western education

 Vernacular Press

 Modern transport & communication

Pre-Congress Associations:

 East India Association (1866): Dadabhai Naoroji – London

 Indian Association (1876): Surendranath Banerjee – Calcutta

INC Formation:

 1885: Bombay

 Founder: A.O. Hume

 1st President: W.C. Bonnerjee

✊ Phases of Indian National Movement

1. Moderate Phase (1885–1905)

 Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, G.K. Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta

 Methods: Petitions, resolutions

 Demands: Civil rights, economic reforms, legislative councils

 Achievements: Awareness creation, exposed British economic drain

2. Extremist Phase (1905–1917)

 Causes: Disillusionment with Moderates, Partition of Bengal (1905)

 Leaders: Lal-Bal-Pal

 Methods: Swadeshi, Boycott, National Education

 Surat Split: 1907 (Moderates vs. Extremists)

 Morley-Minto Reforms (1909): Separate electorates for Muslims

3. Revolutionary Terrorism (1st Phase)

 Groups: Anushilan Samiti, Abhinav Bharat

 Individuals: Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki, Savarkar brothers

4. Home Rule Movement (1916)

 Leaders: Annie Besant (South), B.G. Tilak (West)

 Demand: Self-Government within British Empire

5. Lucknow Pact (1916)

 INC + Muslim League unity on constitutional demands

Gandhian Era (1917–1947)

Early Satyagrahas:

 Champaran (1917): Indigo farmers

 Ahmedabad (1918): Mill strike

 Kheda (1918): Peasant tax relief

Major Movements:

 Rowlatt Act (1919): No appeal, no wakil

 Jallianwala Bagh (1919): Gen. Dyer, massacre in Amritsar

 Khilafat Movement (1919): Muslim protest for Caliph – led by Ali brothers

 Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22): Boycott of British goods, schools

 o Chauri Chaura (1922): Violence, Gandhi withdrew movement

 Swaraj Party (1923): Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das – legislative entry

 Simon Commission (1927): No Indian member – Boycotted, “Simon Go Back”

 Lahore Session (1929): Purna Swaraj resolution, 26 Jan = Independence Day

 Civil Disobedience Movement (1930):

o Dandi March (1930): Salt Satyagraha

o Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): End of CDM (1st phase)

o Round Table Conferences (1930–32): Gandhi attended only 2nd RTC

 Poona Pact (1932): Gandhi + Ambedkar on Dalit representation

 Government of India Act 1935:

o Provincial autonomy, federal structure (never implemented), reserved subjects

 Quit India Movement (1942):

o Launched: 8 August 1942 – "Do or Die"

o Leaders jailed, parallel govts in Satara, Ballia, Tamluk

 INA & Subhash Bose:

o INA: Azad Hind Fauj

o Slogan: "Give me blood, I’ll give you freedom"

 Cabinet Mission (1946): Grouping of provinces, Interim Govt

 Mountbatten Plan (1947): Partition, Independence

 Indian Independence Act (1947): 15 Aug 1947 – India & Pakistan created

💣 Revolutionary Terrorism (Second Phase)

 HSRA: Hindustan Socialist Republican Association

 Leaders: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru, Chandrashekhar Azad

 Activities: Lahore Conspiracy (Saunders killing), Assembly bombing

 Surya Sen: Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930)

Governor Generals & Viceroys

Name Tenure Key Contributions

Warren Hastings 1772–1785 Regulating Act 1773

Cornwallis 1786–1793 Permanent Settlement

Name Tenure Key Contributions

Wellesley 1798–1805 Subsidiary Alliance

Bentinck 1828–1835 Abolition of Sati

Dalhousie 1848–1856 Doctrine of Lapse, Railways

Canning 1856–1862 Revolt of 1857, First Viceroy

Lytton 1876–1880 Vernacular Press Act, 1877 Delhi Durbar

Ripon 1880–1884 Local self-government

Curzon 1899–1905 Partition of Bengal

Minto II 1905–1910 Morley-Minto Reforms

Chelmsford 1916–1921 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, Jallianwala Bagh

Irwin 1926–1931 Gandhi-Irwin Pact

Linlithgow 1936–1943 Quit India Movement

Wavell 1943–1947 Cabinet Mission

Mountbatten 1947 Independence & Partition

📜 Constitutional Development under British Rule

 Regulating Act (1773): Governor-General of Bengal created

 Pitt's India Act (1784): Dual control (Crown + Company)

 Charter Acts (1813, 1833, 1853): Trade monopoly ended (1813), Governor-General of India
(1833), open competition in civil services (1853)

 GOI Act 1858: Crown rule begins

 Indian Councils Act 1861: Portfolio system

 Act 1892: Indirect elections

 Act 1909 (Morley-Minto): Separate electorates

 Act 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford): Dyarchy in provinces

 Act 1935: Provincial autonomy, federal plan

 Indian Independence Act (1947): Partition & transfer of power

👤 Important Personalities, Organizations, Newspapers & Books

Leaders:

 Sardar Patel: Integration of princely states

 Maulana Azad: Freedom fighter, 1st Education Minister

INC Sessions:

 1885 (1st): W.C. Bonnerjee

 1907: Surat Split

 1916: Lucknow Pact

 1929 (Lahore): Purna Swaraj

Newspapers:

 Bengal Gazette (1780): James Hickey – First newspaper in India

 Kesari & Maratha: Bal Gangadhar Tilak

 Young India & Harijan: M.K. Gandhi

 Al Hilal: Maulana Azad

Books:

 Poverty and Un-British Rule: Dadabhai Naoroji

 Discovery of India: Jawaharlal Nehru

 Hind Swaraj: M.K. Gandhi

 India Wins Freedom: Maulana Azad

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📜 The Delhi Sultanate (1206 – 1526 CE)

🏯 Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty (1206–1290)

 Founder: Qutb al-Din Aibak (1206–1210)

o Built Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque.

o Started Qutub Minar.

 Iltutmish (1211–1236)

o Real consolidator of the Sultanate.

o Introduced Iqta system.

o Formed Chalisa (Turkan-i-Chahalgani - nobles’ group).

o Made Delhi the capital.

 Razia Sultana (1236–1240)

o First and only female ruler of Delhi Sultanate.

 Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266–1287)

o Strengthened monarchy: theory of kingship (“Shadow of God”).

o Introduced spy system and military reforms.

⚔ Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320)

 Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316)

o First standing army.

o Market reforms: fixed prices, rationing.

o Revenue reforms: measured land.

o Deccan campaigns: captured Devagiri, Warangal.

o Abolished Iqta to nobles.

🛡 Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414)

 Muhammad bin Tughlaq

o Token currency, capital shift to Daulatabad – both failed.

o Increased taxes in Doab region.

 Firuz Shah Tughlaq

o Built canals, founded cities (e.g., Firozabad).

o Imposed Jizya on Brahmins.

o Patron of learning.
🏰 Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties

 Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451): Weak rulers.

 Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526):

o Sikandar Lodi: Founded Agra, promoted agriculture.

o Ibrahim Lodi: Defeated in First Battle of Panipat (1526) by Babur.

🏛 Administration & Architecture

 Administration:

o Central: Diwan-i-Wizarat (Finance), Diwan-i-Arz (Army).

o Iqta system: Land revenue assigned to nobles.

o Jizya: Tax on non-Muslims.

 Architecture:

o Indo-Islamic style.

o Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza, tombs with domes, arches.

🏯 The Mughal Empire (1526–1707 CE)

🧿 Founding & Early Rulers

 Babur (1526–1530)

o Founded Mughal Empire.

o Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in First Battle of Panipat (1526).

o Won Battle of Khanwa (1527) against Rana Sanga.

 Humayun (1530–1540; 1555–56)

o Lost to Sher Shah Suri at Battle of Chausa (1539) & Kannauj (1540).

o Regained throne shortly before his death.

⚒ Sur Dynasty (1540–1555)

 Sher Shah Suri

o Introduced Zabti system of land revenue.

o Built Grand Trunk Road, standard currency (Rupiya).

o Improved administration.

🌟 Akbar (1556–1605)

 Second Battle of Panipat (1556) vs Hemu.

 Rajput policy: Matrimonial alliances, inclusion in army.

  Religious policy:

o Ibadat Khana, Din-i-Ilahi, Sulh-i-Kul (universal tolerance).

 Administration:

o Mansabdari & Jagirdari system.

o Dahsala system (Todar Mal) – land revenue.

 Architecture: Fatehpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza.

👑 Jahangir (1605–1627)

 Continued Akbar’s policies.

 Patron of painting.

 Sir Thomas Roe (British envoy) visited in 1615.

 Nur Jahan: Influential queen.

🏛 Shah Jahan (1628–1658)

 Golden Age of Mughal architecture:

o Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid.

 Focus on aesthetics, less on expansion.

⚔ Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

 Empire at its largest territorial extent.

 Imposed Jizya, strict Islamic policies.

 Wars in Deccan, conflict with Shivaji.

 Died in 1707; Mughal decline began.

📋 Administration

 Mansabdari System: Ranking officials by number of soldiers.

 Jagirdari System: Land grants for salary.

 Efficient central bureaucracy.

🕌 Art, Architecture & Literature

 Architecture: Fusion of Persian & Indian styles.

 Key Monuments: Humayun’s Tomb, Taj Mahal, Agra Fort.

 Literature: Persian dominance.

o Akbarnama – Abul Fazl.

o Urdu emerged as blend of Persian + local languages.

🕉 Religious & Cultural Movements

🙏 Bhakti Movement

 Core Idea: Personal devotion to god, against ritualism & caste.

 Nirguna Saints (God without form):

o Kabir: Unity of God, opposed idol worship.

o Guru Nanak: Founded Sikhism.

 Saguna Saints (God with form):

o Mirabai: Devotee of Krishna.

o Chaitanya Mahaprabhu: Bengal-based Vaishnavite saint.

 Impact: Promoted social equality, local languages.

🧘 Sufi Movement

 Core Principles: Love, tolerance, mysticism.

 Orders:

o Chishti: Emphasized simplicity & service (e.g., Moinuddin Chishti – Ajmer,

Nizamuddin Auliya – Delhi).

o Suhrawardi: More orthodox.

 Focused on inner purity, harmony between religions.

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🏛 Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) – c. 2500–1750 BCE

🌍 Geographical Extent

 North: Jammu (Manda)

 West: Pakistan (Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Chanhudaro)

 East: Uttar Pradesh (Alamgirpur)

 South: Maharashtra (Daimabad)

 Major Regions: Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana

Major Sites & Discoveries

 Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan):

o Granaries, coffin burials, working floors

 Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan):

o Great Bath, Great Granary, Dancing Girl, Priest King, multi-pillared hall, Pasupati
Seal

 Lothal (Gujarat):

o Dockyard, fire altars, rice husks

 Kalibangan (Rajasthan):

o Ploughed field, fire altars

 Dholavira (Gujarat):

o Water harvesting system, large sign board (10 large signs)

 Rakhigarhi (Haryana):

o Largest Indian site

 Banawali (Haryana):

o Evidence of barley cultivation

 Chanhudaro (Sindh, Pakistan):

o Only site without citadel

Town Planning

 Grid pattern city layout

 Burnt bricks of uniform size

 Advanced drainage system

  Division: Citadel (west) & Lower town (east)

👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Socio-Economic Life

 Crops: Wheat, barley, cotton

 Trade:

o Inland (via bullock carts & boats)

o Foreign: Mesopotamia (Mesopotamian seals found)

 Occupations: Bead-making, pottery, seal-carving, metallurgy

 No evidence of caste system

🛕 Religion

 Mother Goddess, Pasupathi Mahadeva (proto-Shiva)

 Tree, bull, and animal worship

 No temples found

📉 Decline Theories

 Floods, climatic change, Aryan invasion, declining trade

📝 Script

 Pictographic, undeciphered, written right to left

🧘‍♂️Buddhism

🧑 Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)

 Birth: Lumbini (Nepal)

 Enlightenment: Bodh Gaya under Bodhi tree

 First Sermon: Sarnath (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta)

 Death (Mahaparinirvana): Kushinagar

📜 Four Noble Truths

1. Dukkha – Life is suffering

2. Samudaya – Cause of suffering is desire

3. Nirodha – Cessation of suffering is possible

4. Magga – Eightfold Path leads to cessation

🧭 Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

 Right: Understanding, Thought, Speech, Action, Livelihood, Effort, Mindfulness,

Concentration
Tri Ratnas (Three Jewels)

 Buddha, Dhamma (doctrine), Sangha (community)

🏛 Buddhist Councils

Council Place Patron Outcome

1st Rajagriha Ajatashatru Compilation of teachings

2nd Vaishali Kalasoka First schism in Sangha

3rd Pataliputra Ashoka Compilation of Tripitakas, spread of Buddhism

4th Kashmir Kanishka Division into Hinayana & Mahayana

📚 Sacred Texts

 Tripitakas:

o Sutta Pitaka (Buddha's discourses)

o Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules)

o Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy)

🌏 Rise & Spread

 Simple teachings

 Use of Pali (common people's language)

 Patronage by rulers: Ashoka, Kanishka

 Monastic life appealed to many

Jainism

🧑‍Founder & Tirthankaras

 Total: 24 Tirthankaras

 1st: Rishabhanatha

 23rd: Parshvanatha – 4 vows

 24th: Mahavira

o Birth: Kundagrama (Bihar)

o Enlightenment: Jrimbhikagrama

o Death: Pava (Bihar)

✋ Five Vows (Mahavratas)

1. Ahimsa (non-violence)

2. Satya (truth)
 3. Asteya (non-stealing)

4. Aparigraha (non-possession)

5. Brahmacharya (celibacy) – added by Mahavira

Tri Ratnas (Three Jewels)

 Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct

🏛 Jain Councils

Council Place Outcome

1st Pataliputra Compilation of teachings

2nd Vallabhi (Gujarat) Compilation of 12 Angas

 Led to division:

o Svetambaras (white-clad)

o Digambaras (sky-clad)

📚 Sacred Texts

 Angas (core texts), Upangas (supplementary texts)

🌏 Rise & Spread

 Emphasized non-violence and simple living

 Language: Prakrit – easily understood by common people

 Patronage: Kings like Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela