N ative to tropical America, the cacao tree produces beans that

have been cultivated for at least 3,000 years. Though Columbus sent co-
coa beans back to Spain, the first anecdotal evidence of Aztec reverence
and consumption of cocoa beverages was given by members of Cortez’s
expedition. Crew members witnessed the emperor Montezuma drink-
ing cup after cup of a bitter drink made from ground cocoa beans and
water. The emperor claimed chocolate to be an aphrodisiac. The con-
quistadors were surprised to discover that cocoa beans were prized al-
most as much as gold. Indeed, they served as currency and were given
to the emperor as tribute payment.
At first, Europe did not hold chocolate in the same esteem as the
New World. The Aztec drink recipe of unsweetened chocolate and
ground dried chiles just didn’t take off, despite its promotion among
the upper classes as an exotic novelty. However, when the European
colonists began adding sugar to their chocolate, its popularity spread
across class lines and continents. A perfect combination was born.

C A C AO C U L T I VAT I O N
Today, cacao cultivation extends around the globe, limited to countries
near the equator where the necessary rainfall and warmth prevail. Cen-
tral and South America, Africa, and Indonesia dominate production
worldwide. In 1737, Linnaeus, the famed Swedish botanist, classified
the species as Theobroma cacao, literally “food of the Gods,” referring to

115
116 Understanding Baking

an ancient Aztec legend. Three varieties of the cacao tree are recog-
nized: criollo, the most rare and difficult to grow; forastero, the most
common and hardy; and trinitario, a hybrid of the first two varieties.
Most chocolates are blends of the three types, with each type con-
tributing its own strengths. Like many wines, great chocolate is the re-
sult of skilled blending to achieve complex, but balanced flavor. For
example, forastero lacks the delicate flavor of the criollo, but it gives
body to the chocolate. And, as in wine or coffee, the soil in which the
trees are grown imparts its own distinctive flavor. Sweetness, acidity,
and smokiness are all geographically linked characteristics.

H A RV E S T I N G AND PRODUCING
C H O C O L AT E
Cocoa beans are harvested year-round. The cacao trees are rather frag-
ile, necessitating that the pods be harvested by hand. Within each pod,
up to forty seeds (beans) nestle in a sticky pulp. The pods are split open
immediately and the beans are scooped out with the pulp, covered, and
left to ferment. This first step of fermentation is essential in developing
chocolate flavor. Next, the beans are dried in the sun or in a gently
heated room, then graded and packed for export.
The beans are processed at individual chocolate company locations,
usually far from the country of origin. Each company jealously guards
its specific “chocolate” recipes and has developed a characteristic style
of manufacturing. Generally, however, the first step is careful roasting
of the beans to bring out flavor. At this point, the bean skins slip easily
from the kernels, or nibs, which are then ready to be made into choco-
late or cocoa powder.
If cocoa powder is the desired end product, the nibs are ground and
pressed to extract the cocoa butter. The nibs retain a little of the cocoa
butter, but are now dry enough to be pulverized and sieved into cocoa
powder. The separated cocoa butter (about 54 percent of the nib by
weight) may be used later for the manufacture of bar chocolate, or sold
118 Understanding Baking

BITTERSWEET AND SEMISWEET CHOCOLATE both must

contain at least 35 percent chocolate liquor. Sugar, added cocoa butter,
lecithin (usually derived from soybeans), and vanilla are other typical
ingredients. Strangely, there is no official distinction between the two
chocolates. Some assume that bittersweet is less sweet than semisweet,
but one company’s semisweet may be less sweet than another’s bitter-
sweet. Over the past decade, many bittersweet chocolates have come on
the market that contain 50, 60, even over 70 percent chocolate liquor.
These chocolates are intensely “chocolaty” and less sweet than typical
bittersweet chocolates, and recipes may need adjustment to accommo-
date them.

MILK CHOCOLATE contains at least 12 percent milk solids and 10

percent chocolate liquor. The sweetest of the chocolates, it is also the
most popular plain eating chocolate. Milk chocolate also contains
lecithin, vanilla, and, of course, sugar.

WHITE CHOCOLATE, made from cocoa butter, contains no cocoa

solids, and hence lacks the characteristic chocolate flavor. At the time
of this writing, the FDA does not recognize (or regulate) the label
“white chocolate.” Sugar, vanilla, milk solids, and lecithin are added to
cocoa butter to create white chocolate. Read labels carefully. If another
vegetable fat has been substituted for cocoa butter, you are dealing with
confectionery (also called summer or compound) coating. It will not
perform in recipes the same way as white chocolate.

COUVERTURE denotes a coating chocolate with a high cocoa butter

content, usually 32 to 39 percent, useful for making chocolate candies,
decorations, and ultra-smooth glazes. The higher percentage of cocoa
butter promotes the flow of melted, tempered chocolate, enabling the
pastry chef to create thin chocolate coatings or decorations that have a
good snap when set. Couverture is available for any type of chocolate,
white or dark.

DUTCH-PROCESS C O C OA , also known as alkalized cocoa or

European-style cocoa, is processed with an alkali to neutralize the nat-
ural acidity of cocoa powder. Dutchman Conrad van Houten invented
 Chocolate 119

this process in 1828, hence the name. Until van Houten’s machine,
which separated cocoa solids from cocoa butter, chocolate beverages
had been made from ground cacao beans. Remember, the beans have an
inherent cocoa butter content of 54 percent, making previous choco-
late beverages oily. By alkalizing the cocoa, increasing its pH from 5.5
to between 7 and 8, he improved cocoa’s ability to disperse in a liquid
and also mellowed the flavor. Today, Dutch-process cocoa is made
nearly the same way; the machinery is just more sophisticated. Dutch-
process cocoa is darker in color than regular cocoa powder, and its fla-
vor is smoother. Regular cocoa powder is reddish brown, with a more
intense, even fruity, robust flavor than alkalized cocoa. These two types
of cocoa powder are not always interchangeable, as they are often
paired with specific leaveners that complement their acidity or alka-
linity. Most of the cocoa butter has been separated from cocoa powders.
Breakfast-grade cocoas denote a cocoa butter content of 22 percent,
which is higher than typical cocoas. Therefore, substituting breakfast
grade for regular cocoa changes the fat content of the recipe. All of
these cocoas are unsweetened and should not be confused with hot co-
coa mixes.

CHOCOLATE CHIPS are included in this section to differentiate

them from basic chocolate. They contain different vegetable fats and
special stabilizers that help them retain their shape during baking.
They are not interchangeable with regular chocolate, whose cocoa but-
ter behaves (and tastes) differently from other fats. The additional sta-
bilizers mean that sauces, puddings, and mousses will set firmer than
ones made with regular chocolate.

Q U A L I T Y C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
Factors affecting quality include the initial quality of the beans and
proper fermentation, roasting, and conching. Some deficiencies are
easily detected. Chocolate that has undergone minimal conching is no-
ticeably less smooth. Waxy chocolate may indicate the presence of veg-
etable fats other than cocoa butter. Certainly, quality chocolates will
120 Understanding Baking

not contain artificial ingredients, such as vanillin. Beyond that, choos-

ing chocolate becomes a matter of taste. Indeed, wine-tasting terminol-
ogy is sometimes applied to chocolate these days. Today’s consumers are
also more status conscious regarding high-end chocolates, and restau-
rant menus often identify the brand of chocolate used in a dessert as a
selling point.
Pastry chefs usually have strong brand preferences. While taste com-
parisons are key, keeping the end product in mind is just as important.
Two high-end chocolates can have equally pleasing tastes, but one may
have better flow for making hard shells and decorations. The most won-
derful-tasting chocolate may not make the best cake. At the very least,
the nuances of flavor may be lost because combining chocolate with
other ingredients can change or mask its flavor. Sauces and mousses
often convey the purest chocolate flavor. Therefore, pastry chefs may
utilize several different brands of chocolate for different purposes.

S T O R AG E
Cocoa butter, a vegetable fat, will eventually become rancid, like all
natural fats. Beyond shelf life, trying to maintain chocolate in perfect
form is also a consideration. Newly purchased chocolate should be in
temper (see discussion, below), meaning that the most stable form of
cocoa butter crystals have been encouraged to form, and the chocolate
is smooth and shiny with a pleasant snap to it. In order to keep the
chocolate in temper and maximize shelf life, it should be stored near
65°F in a room that is not overly humid and is free from temperature
fluctuations. Those of you working in a professional kitchen at this
moment can start laughing. In these ideal conditions, bitter and dark
chocolates will last for a couple years. The key here is to assess how
much chocolate you need on hand, since ideal long-term storage is not
possible in hot kitchens. White chocolate and milk chocolate should be
given priority safe-storage status, since the milk solids they contain are
much more sensitive to rancidity. They should also be stored in a dark
place. As a last resort, chocolate for baking may be stored briefly in the
refrigerator of freezer, but never chocolate to be used for coatings or
candymaking (see below).
 Chocolate 121

Warmer or fluctuating temperatures can cause the cocoa butter to

melt, separate, and recrystallize with white filmy streaks called fat
bloom. Humidity changes may cause water to condense on the choco-
late. Sugar is dissolved in the water, and then recrystallizes on the sur-
face when the water evaporates. This is called sugar bloom. Neither is
harmful for baking, but only fat-bloomed chocolate may be used for
candymaking, after being retempered, of course.
All chocolate will readily absorb kitchen odors and should be pro-
tected accordingly.

WORKING WITH C H O C O L AT E
Cocoa butter has a sharp melting point, which means it does not have
a long intermediate stage of being semi-soft, like shortening, but is
either solid or melting. This melting point is just below our body tem-
perature, so that chocolate melts as soon as it hits the tongue, account-
ing for its pleasure factor. Cocoa butter is what makes eating chocolate
a sublime experience, but it is also what makes chocolate difficult to
work with.
Cocoa butter is seldom discussed without an explanation of its
unique properties of crystallization. That is not to say that other fats do
not possess a unique crystal structure. No one thinks twice about how
melted butter will return to its solid form, but much nail biting goes on
during the wait to see “if the melted chocolate sets up.” The cocoa but-
ter in chocolate must be coaxed into becoming a solid, hard, shiny
form. As melted cocoa butter cools, it inevitably begins to recrystallize.
But there are four different types of crystals that form, and each form
multiples rapidly at specific temperatures.

• Alpha crystals melt between 70° and 75°F.

• Beta crystals melt at 95°F.

• Beta prime crystals melt between 81° and 84°F.

• Gamma crystals melt at 63°F.

122 Understanding Baking

Only one of the four types of crystals, called the beta, is considered sta-
ble, resulting in a shiny, solid piece of chocolate.
Tempering is simply the melting and cooling of chocolate at spe-
cific temperatures to ensure proper solidification. Similar to the idea of
seeding in candymaking, where the size of the sugar crystals is con-
trolled to create specific textures, tempering creates the ideal environ-
ment for the beta crystals to dominate the crystal formation of the
melted chocolate. The theory of tempering chocolate is straightfor-
ward. In practice, however, tempering chocolate requires dedication
and repetition to be mastered.

MELTING

The chocolate can be melted over a hot water bath, in a double boiler,
or even in the microwave. Gentle heat to prevent scorching is the prime
consideration, as cocoa butter will separate from cocoa solids at tem-
peratures just beyond 120°F. Care should be taken to prevent water
droplets from touching the chocolate. Chocolate will tolerate added
water, but only a drop or two causes it to seize. The minimum liquid to
add to prevent seizing is 11⁄2 teaspoons per ounce of chocolate, but thin-
ning the chocolate to smooth it out also means the chocolate can no
longer be used for hard shells and decorations (see Corriher, p. 461).

BASIC TEMPERING

An accurate thermometer is essential for tempering. There are special-

ized thermometers available for chocolate work, which have a range
between 80° and 130°F. Those who become proficient at tempering
eventually use their wrist or upper lip to determine temperature. (Fin-
gertips are not adequate, as seasoned pastry chefs have usually lost heat
sensitivity from repeated burns.)

1. Melt the chocolate to a temperature of 115° to 120°F. The chocolate must

reach this range to ensure that all the cocoa butter crystals have been thor-
oughly dissolved. There should be no remaining lumps of chocolate in the
 Chocolate 123

mixture. The temperature should not exceed 120°F, or the cocoa butter may
separate from the cocoa solids.

2. Let the chocolate sit at room temperature, stirring occasionally, until the tem-
perature of the chocolate falls to just over 80°F. Carefully bring the chocolate
back to 86°–91°F, using the lower end of the range for white and milk choco-
lates and the higher temperatures for dark chocolates. Now the chocolate is
ready to use. The tempered melted chocolate may be kept at its ideal range
(which ensures good control of flow for making thin coatings) by any gentle
means at hand: a warm spot on the stove near the pilot light, a hot water bath,
a heating pad, or a even a hair dryer aimed at the bottom of the bowl. If the
temperature reaches 92°F, or falls below 77°F, the chocolate is no longer in
temper. It must be melted to 115°–120°F and cooled all over again.

OTHER METHODS

In the classic method of tempering chocolate, the melted chocolate is

cooled to about 100°F. Between a quarter and a third of the chocolate is
poured onto a clean dry surface, preferably marble, steel, or Formica (as
opposed to wood or plastic). The chocolate is repeatedly scraped and
spread over the surface using a long offset metal spatula or bench
scraper. The motion must be continuous to prevent lumps from form-
ing. Gradually the chocolate will thicken and lose its shine. When it
reaches 84°F (82°F for milk and white chocolates), the paste is ready to
be returned to the bowl of melted chocolate. The term for this paste is
“mush.” The temperature of the chocolate, after the paste has been
stirred in and melted, should be between 86° and 91°F.
If you have a small amount of chocolate on hand that is still in tem-
per, it can be used to “seed” melted untempered chocolate. Once again,
let the melted chocolate cool slightly, then stir in the chopped tem-
pered chocolate. For this method, the ratio of melted chocolate to
chopped tempered chocolate is about 4 to 1. Some chefs use larger
chunks of tempered chocolate as seeds, and simply remove the lumps
that have not melted when the ideal temperature is reached.
Blocks of chocolate that are still in temper do not require all these
steps. If they are carefully melted so that the temperature never exceeds
91°F, the chocolate will remain in temper.
PAT I E N C E A N D T E M P E R

Correct tempering is checked by spreading a small amount of choco-

late on a sheet pan or piece of waxed paper and then waiting to see if
the chocolate sets with an even surface color and shine. It is better not
to hasten the process by placing the chocolate in the refrigerator, as
crystal formation is sensitive to air temperature. For example, many
hurried chefs have placed chocolate-dipped strawberries in the refrig-
erator to force the chocolate to solidify. However, when the strawber-
ries are placed on a platter at room temperature, the chocolate quickly
softens and begins to sweat. If improperly tempered chocolate does not
set up, it can be forced to harden in the refrigerator, but this means that
it will revert to being soft and dull at room temperature.

G A NA C H E
In its purest form, ganache is a mixture of heavy cream and chocolate.
But that is just the beginning. Butter, coffee, tea, and even fruit purées
make their way into ganache. Despite its simplicity, ganache is one of
the most versatile components in the pastry kitchen.
Ganache can be thick or thin by adjusting the ratio of cream to
chocolate. Thick ganache has more chocolate than cream. The large
 Chocolate 125

residual heat to melt the chocolate using the above method. Instead,
use a larger pot to bring the cream to a boil. Remove the pot from the
heat and stir in the chocolate. The heat held in the pan should melt the
chocolate easily.

B R O K E N GA NA C H E

Despite its simple appearance, ganache is actually a fat-in-water emul-

sion, much like mayonnaise. The milk solids and cholesterol present in
the heavy cream stabilize the mixture; indeed, cholesterol itself is an
emulsifier. But occasionally the ganache will break, and the fat will
separate, giving the ganache a curdled appearance.
When the chocolate and cream are combined, the chocolate solids
and the sugar are suspended in the water phase (the heavy cream con-
tains a substantial amount of water) and the cocoa butter joins the but-
terfat from the cream. So even though ganache consists of two primary
ingredients, there are several variables affecting the stability of the
emulsion. Too little water and too much fat spells trouble. For example,
a thick ganache made with very bittersweet chocolate may break, but
semisweet chocolate may work fine. Unsweetened chocolate and (usu-
ally) bittersweet chocolates have more cocoa butter and less sugar than
semisweet chocolate, a difference that can affect a ganache made with
little cream. The semisweet chocolate provides more sugar (to the wa-
ter phase) and contributes less fat, which brings the recipe into a happy
equilibrium.
Every brand of chocolate differs in its ratio of cocoa solids to fat, not
to mention other ingredients like sugar. Thus, ganache formulas will
have to be adjusted for each specific chocolate used in order to get con-
sistent results. Ganache clearly requires more care and thought than its
simple formula would suggest. Butter, for example, provides both fat
and water. If alcohol is added, it joins the water phase. Every ingredient
affects the emulsion differently.
Even a stable ganache may slowly break during storage. To bring it
back, the same principle is employed as bringing back broken mayon-
naise. This can be done two ways: The first and foolproof method is to
gradually beat the broken sauce into a tiny amount of heavy cream.
According to professional chocolatiers, as little as 1⁄4 cup cream will
126 Understanding Baking

bring back a bathtub of broken ganache. The broken ganache and

heavy cream should be at the same temperature, preferably just barely
warm. The second method also depends on slowly incorporating the
broken ganache into the cream but takes a daring shortcut. A small
amount of warm cream is directly poured onto the top of the broken
ganache. Whisking begins just on the surface of the ganache with the
cream at the center and gradually moves outward to incorporate the
entire mixture.
If ganache breaks while on the stove top, more cream or sugar can
be added immediately. However, the method above is best for preserv-
ing the consistency of the original formula. After all, adding large
amounts of cream is not helpful if a thick ganache is the goal.

W H I P P E D GA NA C H E

Whipped ganache can be tricky to make because beating the mixture

causes the cocoa butter to crystallize and solidify. When this happens,
the mixture turns from silky and spreadable to stiff and grainy. The
best way to make whipped ganache is not to hurry. Use a ratio of two
parts cream to one part chocolate. Let the ganache cool overnight in a
cool spot (55°–65°F is ideal) or in the refrigerator. Waiting at least eight
hours makes the ganache easier to whip without seizing. Some chefs
insist that rapid cooling over an ice water bath will work, but that has
not been my experience. Exposing cocoa butter to extreme cold does
initiate crystallization, even if it isn’t visible to the naked eye.
Ganache should be cool when whipped, but it doesn’t have to be
truly cold. Some chefs prefer the ease of whipping cold ganache,
which, like plain heavy cream, incorporates air quickly when chilled.
Other chefs feel 55° to 65°F is safer, since it lessens the probability of
sudden hardening. Ganache should be whipped only to soft peaks,
since greater agitation only encourages the cocoa butter to crystallize.
Beating ganache in a cool room provides better volume (as for whipped
cream) but causes the ganache to seize more easily. Some chefs, trying
to get the best of both worlds, beat the ganache in a cold room while
aiming a heat gun at the bowl of the mixer.
 Chocolate 127

C H O C O L AT E PA S T E O R
M O L D I N G C H O C O L AT E
Chocolate paste can be sculpted, rolled, and cut to form decorations for
cakes and tortes. It is a simple mixture of chocolate and corn syrup,
usually a ratio of 3 to 1. The chocolate is melted and cooled slightly be-
fore the corn syrup is stirred in. The mixture is wrapped and left out at
room temperature overnight to ripen. The next day, the chocolate paste
is kneaded until smooth and pliable, usually with a small amount of
cornstarch or confectioners’ sugar. Chocolate paste will harden as it
cools, but it easily warms under a lamp or in your hands for reshaping.
Different types (white or dark) and brands of chocolate will require
slightly different amounts of corn syrup.