Topic: Social Change
Ety Rani
Assistant Professor
Sociology discipline
Khulna University
Definition of Social Change
• Social change is the process through which social structures and
institutions are reconstructed, undergoing a cultural transformation.
• According to M. E Jones, social change occurs when social processes,
social patterns, social interactions or social organizations encounter
modifications from their everyday functioning.
• Jon. M. Shepard said that “Social change is the alteration in social
structures that have long-term and relatively important consequences.”
Factors of social change
Physical Environment
Demographic (biological) Factor
Cultural Factor
Psychological Factor
Economic Factor
Political Factor
Technological Factor
Linear theories of Social Change
• The notion of social evolution which is used in linear theories was
taken from the theories of biological evolution.
• Some theorists which have employed a Linear Model or Evolutionary
Model include Comte, Tylor, Spencer, Morgan, Hobhouse, Marx,
Durkheim, Tonnies etc.
• The evolutionary theory of social change gained prominence in the
19th century.
• Sociologists latched on to Darwin’s theory of evolution, applying it to
society. Auguste Comte, known as the “father of sociology,” believed
in the evolutionary model.
Linear theories of Social Change (continue)
Auguste Comte
Comte used a progressive sequence accounting for new forms in his ‘Law
of the Three Stages’. These stages of history were designated theological,
metaphysical, and positivistic.
In theological stage, thinking was guided by religious ideas and beliefs that
society was an expression of God’ will.
Metaphysical stage started with Renaissance in which society was seen in
natural terms.
Positivistic stage started with new scientific discoveries. Comte believed
that eventually man would be able to measure empirically and explain
conclusively all forms of social behavior in the latter stage.
Another aspect of his idea of social change is that some aspects remain
constant which he termed as ‘social statics’ and some change which he
described through ‘social dynamics’.
Linear theories of Social Change (continue)
Herbert Spencer
Spencer took a classic evolutionary view and he often termed as a
‘Social Darwinist’ as his ideas were influenced by biological theory of
evolution offered by Darwin.
According to him evolution involves differentiation of simple things
into complex or differentiated things. He also believed in the idea of
‘survival of the fittest’. According to him, like organisms, societies are
also made up of large number of interconnected parts and these parts
evolve into more complex ones as needs of society grow. He also
identified certain stages of evolution of societies – simple, compound,
doubly compound and trebly compound.
Linear theories of Social Change (continue)
• Tonnies – a German sociologist – used Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
to account for the same phenomena. These two social groups exist due
to existence of two types of will viz – ‘Essential will’ and ‘Arbitrary
will’. Essential will is associated with peasants and artisans, while
arbitrary will is associated with businessmen, scientists, political class
etc. People of groups belonging to the first type of will are called
Gemeinschaft or community and those associated with the latter are
called Gesellschaft or society. Societies also evolve from
Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft.
Cyclical theories of social change
“Cyclical theories of social change focus on the rise and fall of civilizations
attempting to discover and account for these patterns of growth and decay”
– (Ian Robertson). Spengler, Toynbee and Sorokin can be regarded as the
Champions of this theory. Their ideas may be briefed here.
Spengler: ‘The Destiny of Civilizations’
• Oswald Spengler, a German school teacher, in his book “The Decline of the
West”-1918, pointed out that the fate of civilizations was a matter of
“destiny”. Each civilization is like a biological organism and has a similar
life-cycle; birth, maturity old age and death.
• After making a study of eight major civilizations, including the West, he
said that the modern Western Society is in the last stage, i.e. old age. He
concluded that the Western Societies were entering a period of decay – as
evidenced by wars, conflicts, and social breakdown that heralded their
doom.
• This theory is almost out of fashion today. His idea of ‘destiny’ is hardly an
adequate explanation of social change. His biological analogy is also too
unrealistic and his work is too mystical and speculative.
Cyclical theories of social change (continue)
Toynbee: ‘Challenge and Response’
• Arnold Toynbee, a British historian with enough sociological insight has offered a
somewhat more promising a theory of social change. His famous book “A Study
of History”-1946, a multivolume work, draws on materials from 24 civilizations.
• The key—concepts in Toynbee’s theory are those of “challenge and response”.
“Every society faces challenges-at first, challenges posed by the environment;
later challenges from internal and external enemies.
• The nature of the responses determines the society’s fate. The achievements of a
civilization consist of its successful responses to challenges; if it cannot mount an
effective response, it dies”.-(Ian Robertson).
• Toynbee’s views are more optimistic than those of Spengler’s, for he does not
believe that all civilizations will inevitably decay. He has pointed out that history
is a series of cycles of decay and growth. But each new civilization is able to learn
from the mistakes and tomorrow from cultures of others.
Cyclical theories of social change (continue)
• It is, therefore, possible for each new cycle to offer higher levels of
achievement. Still he has not explained why some societies are able to
offer effective responses to their challenges while others do not, or
why a society should overcome one challenge but become a victim of
another.
