NOTES

decidedly positive (Emmons & Shelto�' 2002).

Thus, this highly required virtue of gratitude needs to be inculcated in
infants since their childhoods. They should be taught the importance of being
thankful and gratitud . This virtue develops over a period that requires constant
motivation and an environment that is provided by teachers and parents.
9.5LOVE
9.5.l Defining aose Relationships
The relationships involved in our daily social interactions are very
significant, but relationships involving friendship, romantic love and marriage are
different and have a profound impact on our well-being
throughout the life. Degree of intimacy is something that separates close
relationships from casual relationships. It refers to the depth of understandfog,
trust, in.volvemenl, connection and whether or not the relationship is sexual.
Therefore it is in this sense we can say that the close relationships are the most
intimate ones. Brehm (2007) suggest six core characteristics that set intimate
relationships apart from more casual relationships:
i. Knowledge- mutual understanding based on reciprocal self-disclosure.
ii. Trust- assumption that no harm will be done by the other person in the
relationship.
iii. Caring- genuine concern for the other and ongoing monitoring and
maintenance of relationship.
iv. Interdependence- intertwining of lives and mutual influence.
v. Commitment- intention to stay in the relationship through its ups and downs.

9.5.2 History of R arch on Romantic Love

In Gr.eek terms, four. lraditions in the history oflove (Singer, 1984, 1987)
can be noted: (a) Eros: the search for the beautiful, (b) philia: the affection in
friendship, (c) nomos: submission and obedience to the divine; and (d) agape: the
bestowal of love by the divine. 1n an attempt to give a
85

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decidedly positive (Emmons & Shelton. 2002).
Thus. this llighly required virtue of gratitude needs to be inculcat.ed in
infants since lheir childhoods. They should be !aught lhe importance of being
thankful and gratitude. This virtue develops over a period that requires constant
motivation and an environment that is provided by teachers and parents.
Checkvour

9.5 LOVE
9.5.1 Defining Close Relationships
The relationsh.ips involved in our daily social interactions are very
significant, but relationships involving friendship, romantic love and marriage are
different and have a profound impact on our well-being throughout the life.. Degree
of intimacy is something that separates close
relationships from casual relationships. It refers to the depth of understanding,
trust, involvement, connection and whether or not the relationship is sexual
Therefore it is in this sense we can say that the close relationships are lhe most
intimate ones. Brehm (2007) suggest six core characteristics that set intimate
relationships apart from more casual
relationships:
i. Knowledge- mutual understanding based on reciprocal self-disclosure.
ii. Trust- assumption that no hann will be done by the other person in the
relationship.
iii. Caring- genuine concern for the other and ongoing monitoring and maintenance
of relationship.
iv. Interdependence- intertwining of lives and mutual influence.
v. Commitment- intention to stay i,n the relationship through its ups and downs.

9.5.2 History of Research on Romantic Love

In Greek teans, four traditions in the history of love (Singer, 1984, 1987)
can be noted: (a) Eros: the search for the beautiful, (b) phiJiJl: the affection in
friendship, (c) nom.os: submission and obedience to the divine: and (d) agape: the
bestowal of love by the divine. ln an attempt to give a
85

NOTES
comprehensive history of love, Irving Singer came up with the classic
-The Nature of Love, a book that comes in three large volumes (1984, 1987).Tbe
Nature of Love is a philosophica:l history of love from antiquity to the modern
era. Hatfield ( 1988), Hatfield & Rapson ( I996) proposed that passionate love, as
an intense attraction, has existed in all cultures and all historical periods and
is essentially a -human
univcrsal.l

9.5.J Models for Explaining Love

Theories of love are difficult to classify. Nevertheless, they may be grouped
under two broad headings; naturalistic/biological and psychologicaVsocial.
Nat11ra/istic/Biological ApproacJres: Recent studies have begun to explore
some of the biological underpinnings of our need for belon_gingness. For example,
oxytocin is a pitujtary honnone which sometimes is referred to as the -cuddle
hormone! because close physical contacts such as touching.
hugging and kissing stimulate its release (Hnzan, Campa & Gur-Yaish,
2006).
Oxytocin, along with vasopressin helps humans and about 3 percent of other
mammal species to experience lasting, monogamous love. These two chemicals are
associated with our ability to form memories of others and help us recogniz other
people. They're also released. along willl dopamine, during sex, Oxytocin levels
however are at their highest during sexual orgasm, in both rncn and women (Uvnas-
Moberg, 1997).
In order to understand the brain's response to love, one must examine the
brain and fully comprehend the myriad array of structures involved. One of the main
stru.ctures involved with falJing in love is the limbic system. The particular
system is well known as being the part of the
brain involved in emotional response. The limbic system is actually several
structures combined, including the basal nuclei. the thalamus, and the
hypothalamus. While all of these structures are vital, the hypothalamus is directly
involved in both behavioral and sexual function. Combining these two important
functions, one can see bow the limbic system is so crucial to falling in love;
Self instructional material 86

Evolution of Love
The question as to why humans love bas been answered from an evolutionary
perspective. We love because we are meant to reproduce. Species continue through
reproduction, and oontinuation of the species is paramount�in evolution. Since
mating is the ultimate goal, then feelings of romantic love are merely a vehicle
towards this goal. Mellen (1981) argued that the survival of the human species
necessitated an emotional bond
between breeding pairs of partners so that both partners would attend to
their helpless infants. Adult humans are designed 10 respond to the cries and
babbles of infants; and rush to feed tbern and pick th.em up. The burden of chiId
care is so intense that it takes two parents to bring up even one baby. Buss (I
988) defined love as consisting of behaviors enacted by
both females and males that slJ'engthen the bonding function and ultimately
serve to perpetuate the human species.
Psychological/Socia/ Approaches: Given the intense interest in love, psychologists
over the past few decades have taken a different stand on this humane feeling of
love. Few of these conceptualizations are discussed below:
Passionate and Compa11ionate Love: Berscheid and Wa.lster (1978) classified
romantic love into passionate and companionate love. They defined passionate love
as a state of tota.l absorption of two lovers, typically involving strong sexual
attraction, infatuation, exclusivity, and emotions that run full gamut from ecstasy
to anguish.
Companionate love on the other band is manifested in a strong bond and an
intertwining of lives that brings about feelings of comfort and peace. It is
slower-developing in comparison to passionate love and also, less emotional, calmer
and more serene. The two forms can occur simultaneously or interminenlly rather
than sequentially (from passionate to companionate).

The Triangular Theory of Love:

In Sternberg's triangular theory of Jove, .intimacy, passion and commitment
each represent one side of a triangle describing love shared by two people
(Sternberg, 1986, 1987). The intimacy component is primarily emotional or affective
in nature and involves feelings of warmth, closeness and connection in the love
relationship. lbe passion component is
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motivational and consists of the drives that are involved in romantic and physical
attraction, sexual consummation, and related phenomena. The com.mitment component
is largely cognitive and represents bottl the short� tenn decision that one
individual loves another and the longer tenn commitment to maintain that love.
Acci;mling to Sternberg, these threeJove components differ with respect to a number
of properties, including stability, conscious controllability, and experiential
salience.

Self-Expansion Theory of Love

Aron and Aron (1986, 1996), based on Eastern traditions (e.g.� Hinduism)
concerning the concept of self, proposed that humans have a basic motive for self-
expansion.The emotions, cognitions and behaviors of love fuel one's ability to
expand the self This growth of self may incorporate physical possessions, as well
as power and influence. Falling in love creates a rapid expansion of self-
boundaries and therefore is pleasurable.
Attachmellt Approaches: This approach raises the intriguing possibility that some
of our most basic, and perhaps unconscious, emotional responses to intimacy are
shaped by the kind of relationship we bad with our parents. .It was developed out
of the work of Bowlby (1969) end Ainsworth (1979), who studied the types of
relationships that infants form with their caregivers. For example, Hazan and
Shaver. (1987) applied attachment theory to adult love relationships, noting that
it provides an explanation for both the joys and the sorrows manifested in adult
love and embraced the categories of secure, avoidant and anxious attachments. lo
1991, Bartholomew and Horowitz further categorized the avoidant attachment type
into dismissive and fearful.
9.6 Empat.hy & Altruism:
Human behavior is hoHstically guided by an interdependent nature and we spend
a lot of time 10 our lives helping others in many different ways. From a small act
of helping someone locate an address to volunteering to help victims of natural
disasters, we engage in a lot activity, consciously or unconsciously that basically
benefit someone else� a friend or stranger for that matter. But in t.erms of
Psychology, the
question lies in exploring the reasons behind this human nature to even put
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NOTES

Unit 1
Introduction to Positive Psychology

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Definition
1.4 Goals and Assumption
1.5 Authentic Happiness and the Good Life
1.6 Relationships with other Branches
1.7 Let's Sum Up
1.8 Unit End Ex ise
1.9 Answers for Check Yo.ur Progre$S
1.10 Suggested Readings

I.I Introduction
ln today's world, society is facing extremely tough challenges in the form of
globa] wanning, natural disasters, economic recession. unprecedented homelessness,
terrorism and the draining continua.tion of war. With alJ this sadness and horror,
where in the world does a scie.nce based on t happiness, wellbeing, pecsonal
growth and 'the goodlife' fit into the modem-day agenda? Thus, the new science of
positive psychology emerges.
112 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to understand the following concepts
o Definition
o Goals and Assumptions
o Relationships with other branches

1.3 DEFrNIJION
Positive psychology focuses on wellbeing, happiness, flow, personal
strengths, wisdom, creativity, imagination and characteristics of positive groups
and institutions. Furthermore,1be focus is not justonhow to make individunls
happy, thereby perpetuating a self-centered,
1
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NOTES

narcissistic approach, but on happiness and flourishing at a group level as well

Positive psychology concentrates on positive experiences at three time

points: (1) the past, centering on wellbeing, contentment and satisfaction; (2) the
present, whjch focuses on concepts such as happiness and tlow experiences; (3) the
future, with concepts including optimism and hope. Not only does positive
psychology distinguish between wellbeing across time points but it also separates
the subject area into three nodes:
� The subjective node, which encompasses things like positive experiences
and states across past, present and future (for example, happiness, optimism,
wellbeing);
� The individual node, which focuses on characteristics of the 'good
person' (for example, talent, wisdom. love, courage, creativity); and
� The group node, which studies positive institutions, citizenship and communities.
At its best, positive psychology bas been able to give the scientific
community, society and individuals a new perspective on existing ideas as well as
providing empirical evidence to support the phenomenon of human flourishing.

1,4 Goats and Assumptions

Positive psychology focuses on wellbeing, happin.ess, flow, personal
strengths, wisdom, creativity, imagination and characteristics of positive groups
and institutions. Furthennori,, the focus is not just on how to make individuals
happy, thereby perpetuating a self centered, narcissistic approach, but on
happiness and flourishing at a group level as well. We will look al how individuals
and groups thrive and how increasing the wellbeing of one will have a positive
effect on the other, leading to a win-win situation. the area of positive
psychology is focused on what makes individuals and communitiesllourish, rather
thanlanguish.
Positive psychology concentrates on positive ex:pe.riences at three time
points: (I) tbe past, centering on wellbein contentment and satisfaction; (2) the
present, which focuses on concepts such as happiness and flow experiences; (3) the
furun; with concepts including optimism and hope. Not only docs positive psychology
distinguish between wellbeing across time points but it also separates the subject
area into three nodes:

the subjective node, which encompasses things like positive experiences and states
across past, present and future (for example, happiness, optimism. wellbeing); the
individual node, which focuses on characteristics of the 'good person' (for
example, talent, wisdom, love, courage, creativity); and the group node, which
studies positive institutions, citizenship and communities (for example, altruism,
tolerance, work ethic) (Pos.itive Psychology Center, 1998).
At its best, positive psychology has been able to give the scientific
community, society and individuals a new perspective on existing ideas as well as
providing empirical evidence to support the phenomenon of human flourishing.

1.5 Authentic happiness and the good life

What is the good life? Socrates, Aristotle and Plato believed that when
people pursued a virtuous life, they would become authentically happy. Epicurus and
lat.er utilitarians preached that happiness was indeed
the abundance of positive feelings and pleasures. Positive psychology has
traditionally conceptualized authentic happiness as a mix of hedonic and eudaimonic
wellbeing (Seligman and Csikszentmil1alyi, 2000). Hedonic happiness encompasses
high levels of positive affect and low levels of
negative effect, in addition to high subjective life. Eudaimonic wellbeing
focuses more on the creation of meaning and purpose in life, although the
distinction between these two concepts is subject to d.ebate (Kashdan et al.� 2008;
Keyes and Annas, 2009; Tiberius and Mason, 2009).
The notion of 'authentic happines.o;' bas been further broken down by Seligman to
indicate a life th.at is a combination of a pleasurable life, an engaged life and a
meaningful life. The pleasurable life encompasses feelings of positive emotions
(for example, joy, gratitude, serenity, interest, hope, pride, amusement,
inspimtion, awe and love - Fredrickson, 2009), which are integral components to our
success and wellbeing. Positive emotions widen our thought processes, which can he
built up over time and banked to create a 'protective reservoir' upon which a
person can draw from during unpleasant or distressing times.
The engaged life focuses on flow, engagement. absorption and wetrbeing.
while the meaningful life encompasses service to something higher than the self.
Thus, individuals can find happiness with the pursuit of all three
3

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Unit2
History of Positive Psychology
Sdf instructional material

Structure
2.1 introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Historical perspective of positive psychology
2.3.1 Greeks
2.3.2 Utilitarianism
2.3.3 William.James
2.3.4 Humanistic psychology
2.4 Eastern perspectives
2.4.1 Confucianism
2.4.2 Taoism
2.4.3 Buddhism
2.4.4 Hinduism
2.5 Value system
2.6 Positive prevention
2.7 Positive therapy
2.8 Let's Sum Up
2.9 Unit End exercise
2.10 Answers for check your progress
2.11 Suggested Readings
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Life's challenges may be harbingers of our triumphs. This balance of good and
bad is sought throughout life. Indeed, this expectation of and desire for balance
distinguishes Easterners' views of optimal functioning from the more linear path
taken by Westerners to resolve problems and monitor progress. Easterners thereby
seek to become one with the march of changes.. finding meaning in the natural ups
and down of living.
Ever adaptive and mindful, Easterners move wilh the cycle of life unt.il the
change process becomes natural and enlightenment (i,c., being able to see things
clearly for what they are) is achieved. Unlike Westerners, who search for rewards
in the physical plane, Easterners seek to transcend the human plane and rise to the
spiritual one.
6

2.2 Objectives
After completing this unit, you will be able to understand the following conc pt
Eastern peri;pectives Westctn perspectives Positive prevention Positive therapy

2.J llistorv orpositi.ve psvchoJogy

bne of the criticisms of positive psychology is that the ideas are not new. Even
the term 'positive psychology' was used by Abraham Maslow, many decades before
Seligman (Maslow; 1954: 20 l). However Seligman has done a phenomenal job of
bringing the thoughts and ideas of past reseat'chers, philosophers and scientists
back to our consciousness. We have identified four groups of individuals who were
looking at 'the good life' before tbe discipline of positive psychology even
existed.
2.J.l Greeks
Aristotle's (384-322 BCE) greatest contribution to philosophy is arguably his
work on morality, virtue and what it means to live a good life. As he questioned
these topics, he concluded that the highest good for all humanity was indeed
eudaimonic (or happiness). Ultimately, his work argued that although pleasure may
arise from engaging with activities that are virtuous, it not the sole aimof
humanity (Mason and Tiberius, 2009).
2.3.2 Uhlitarianism
Utilitarianism, created .by Jeremy Bentham and carried .on by John Stuart
Mill, is a philosophy that argued that the right act or policy from government is
that which wm cause 'the greatest good for the greatest number of people', also
known as the 'greatest happiness principle', or the principle of utility.
Utilitarianism was the first sector that attempted to measure happiness, creating a
tool composed of seven categories, assessing the quantity of experienced happiness
(Pawelski and Gupta, 2009). Whereas _philosophers before had assumed that happiness
was not measurable, utilitarianism argued and attempted to demonstrate that it was
indeed possible. .Pawelski and Gupta (2009) proposed that utilitarianism influences
some areas of positive psychology today, such as subjective wellbeing�and the
pleasurable-life. Ultimately, positive psychology accepts
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that while pleasure is a component of overall wellbeing, it is not enough, and the
inclusion of eudaimonic pursuits is necessary as a complement to utilitarian
philosophy.
2.J.3 William James
A brilliant scholar, William James is best known for bis contribution to psychology
through his widely read text, The Principles of Psychology (James, 1890). James
originally trained as a. medical doctor at Harvard University. Boston, USA, before
becoming interested in religion, mysticism and epistemology (Pawelski, 2009). His
chapter, 'The Emotions', is most relevant for positive psychology to acknowledge.
He suggests there that emotions come after we have physically acted out. For
example 'common-sense says, we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep; we meet a.
bear, are frightened and run; we are insulted by a rival, are angry
and strike. The hypothesis here to be defended says that this order of sequence is
incorrect. That we feel sorry because we cry.angry because-we strike. afraid
because we tremble. (James 1890: 1065-6). 'This was one of
the first examples, if not the very first example, of writing to connect
emotions and expressions together. His years of intertwining physiology, psychology
and philosophy still have an impact in philosophical issues surrounding the mind,
the body and the brain today.

Scl( iMtructiolllll IDlllerial

2.3
,4 Humanffltic nnc;bology
Humanistic psychology emerged in the late 1950s and early L960s as a backlash
to the predominant psycholo ical theories of psychoanalysis, behaviorism and
conditioning. The humanistic movement introduced and solidified qualitative inquiry
as an imperative paradigm to research human thought, behaviour and experience,
adding a holistic dimension to psych<>logy. ln a nutshell, humanistic psychology is
the psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person.
Humanistic psychologists believe that (I) individuals' behaviour is
primarily determined by their perception of the world around them and their
personal meanings; (2) individuals are 001 solely the product of their environment
or their genes; and (3) individuals an: intcmally directed and motivated to fulfill
their human potential.
The main drive of humanis1ic psychology was to focus on mental health, specifically
positive attributes such as happiness, contentment, ecs
8

kindness, caring, sharing and generosity. Humanists fell that, unlike their
behaviorist cousins, humans had choice and responsibility for their own destiny.
This perspective ultimately views life as a process, with all humans beholding an
innate drive for growth and fulfillment of potentials. The humanists even went as
far as to include spiritual proprieties of the
self, the world and wellbeing; an area that is controversial even in today's
scientific societies.
Unfortunately, positive psychology didn't start off on the right foot with
its humanistic cousins. In the beginning, there was a clear drive to separate
positive psychology from th h1,lllWlistic discipline, claiming a major difference
in methodological inquiry. Positive psychology is the scientific study of
wellbeing, and therefore uses the scientific method to test hypotheses. We believe
that there is much that positive psychology can learn from and continue to learn
about the humanistic movement and this need to separate from the humanistic appears
divisive and.unnecessary.
Humanistic psychology criticizes positive psychology for its short� sighted
drive to separate itself from the humanistic discipline, as by adopting this
approach, it has left out vital areas of research and methods of inquiry
(qualitative) that limit the generalization of its main findings. Furthermore,
humanistic psychologists feel that to prove that positive psychology is indeed
'scientific' it has over;compensated and stuck to quantitative inquiry. This is a
very important historical fact that students must be aware of when undertaking
their studies in _positive psychology. We truly believe that in order to understand
where we are in positive psychology we have to know where we have come from.

2.4 Eastern Penpectives

We also articulate the Eastern idea of the "good life" and discuss the
associated strengths (embedded more in Eastern cultun:s than in Western ones) that
assist Easterners in attaining positive life outcomes. Eastern views of the
concepts of compassion and harmony as the two primary and necessary qualities for
acrueving the good life. Easterners thereby seek to become one with the march of
changes, finding meaning in the natural ups and down of living.
Easterners move with the cycle of life until the change process becomes
natural and enlightenment (i.e., being able to see things clearly
9

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NOTES

for what they are) is achieved. The previously neglected wisdoms of the Eastern
traditions are being consulted to add different viewpoints about human strength.
Jn this chapter, we discuss Eastern perspectives and teachings in tenns of
their influences on positive psychology research and applications. First, we
introduce the main tenets of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and Hinduism and
demonstrate bow each tradition characterizes important strengths and life outcomes.

2.4.1 CONFUCIANISM
Contilcius, or the Sage, as he is sometimes called leadership and education
are central to morality. Born during a time when his
Chinese homeland was fraught with strife, Confucius emphasized morality as a
potential cure for the evils of that time(Soot hill, 1968) Th.e tenets of
Confucianism arc laden with quotations that encourage looking to the welfare of
others. 1n fact, one of Confucius's most famous sayings is a precursor of the
Golden Rule and can be translated,'"You would like others to do for you what you
indeed like for yourself' (Ross, 2003; Analects 6:28).
Self insin11:1iooe.l material

The attainment of virtue is at the core of Confucian teachings. The

.five virtues deemed central to living a moral existence are jen (bumanity, the
virtue most exaJted by Confucius); yi (duty); Ii (etiquette); zhi (wisdom), and xin
(truthfulness). The power of jen stems from the fact that it was said to
encapsulate the other four virtues. The concept of yi describes appropriate
treatment of others and can be defined as the duty to treat others well. The
concept of Ji promotes propriety and good manners along with sensitivity for
others' feelings (Ross, 2003). Finally, the ideas of zbi and xin define the
importance of wisdom and truth.fulness, respectively.
Confucian followers must strive to make wise decisions based on tbc;se five
virtues and must be true to them as well Continual striving for these virtues leads
the Confucian follower to enlightenment, or the good life.
2.4.2 TAOISM
Lao-Tzu (the creator ofth.e Taoist tradition) states in his works that his
followers must live according to the Tao (pronounced "Dow" and J"oughly translated
as "the Way"). Tao is the energy that surrounds
19

everyone and is a power that "envelops, surrounds, and flows through all things"
(Western Rcfonn Taoism, 200S, p. 1).
According to Taoist traditions, the \difficulty in understanding the Way
st.ems liom the fact that one cannot teach another about it.
Instead, understanding flows from experiencing the Way for oneself by fully
participating in life. In this p. both good and bad experiences can contribute to
a greater understanding of the Way On this latter point, the yin and yang symbol
(described in more detail subsequently) reflects this ever-changing balance of
opposing forces and des.ires.
Achieving naturalness and spontaneity in life is the most important goal in the
Taoist philosophy.

2.4.3 BUDDfflSM
The Buddha teaches that suffering is a part of being and that this suffering
is brought on by the human emotion of desire. Such desire is reflected in the Four
Noble Truths of Buddh.ism:
L Life is suffering, essentially painful liom birth to death.
2. All suffering is caused by ignorance of the nature of reality and the resultant
craving, attachment, and grasping.
3. Suffering can be ended by overcoming ignorance.
4. The way to relief from suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path (right views, right
intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right-
mindedness, and right contemplation).
 As long as craving exists, in Buddhist ideology, true peace cannot be known,
and such existence without peace is considered suffering (Sangharakshita, 1991).
This suffering can be lessened only upon reaching nirvana, which is the final
destination in the Buddhist philosophy.
Accordingly, nirvana is a state in which the self is freed from desire for
anything (Schumann, 1974) More specifically, the premortal nirvana may be likened
to the idea of the ultimate "good life." Post mortal nirvana may be similar to the
Christian idea of heaven.
Like the other Eastern philosophies, Buddhism gives an important place to virtue,
which is described in several catalogs of personal qualities.
Buddhists speak of the Brahma Viharas, those virtues that arc above all
others in importance (described by Peterson and Seligman, 2004, p. 44, as
"universal virtues"). These virtues include love (maitri),
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Compassion (karuna), JOY (mudita), and equarumaty (upeksa} (Sangbarakshit.a, 1991).

The paths to achieving these virtues within Buddhism require humans to divorce
themselves from the human emotion
of desire to put an end to suffering

2.4,4RINDmSM
The main teachings of the Hindu tradition emphasize the interconnectedness of
all things. The idea of a harmonious union among all individuals is woven
throughout the teachings of Hinduism that refer 10 a "single, unifying principle
underlying aU of Earth" (Stevenson & Haber
man, p. 46) The Upanishads discuss two possible paths after death: that of
reincarnation (or returning to Earth to continu�e to attempt to achieve n sary
enlightenment), or that of no reincarnation (meaning that the highest
knowledge_possible was achieved in life).
Hindu teachings are very clear about the qualities one must embody to avoid
reincarnation: "To return to this world is an indication of one's failure to
achieve ultimate knowledge of one's self" (Stevenson & Haber man, p. 53).
Upanishads state, "A man turns into something good by good action and something bad
by l;>ad action" (Stevenson & Haber man, p. 54).

2.5 VALUE SYSTEMS

Cultural value systems have significant effects on the detenninatfon of
strengths versus weaknesses (Lopez, Edwards, Magyar-Moe, Pedrotti, & R)'der, 2003).
Whereas most Western cuJtures have individualist perspectives, most Eastern
cultures (Japanese, Chinese, Vielnamese, Indian. and others) are guided by
collectivist viewpoints (see also Chapter 18). In individualist cultures, the main
focus is the single person, who is held above the group in terms of importance.
Competition and personal achievement are emphasized within these cultures. In
collectivist cultures, however, the group is valued above the individual, and
cooperation is accentuated (Craig & Baucum, 2002). These different emphases on what
is valued determine which constructs are considered strengths in ea.ch type o
cul�ture. The cultural orientation detennines which characteristics transmitted as
the valued strengths to its members.
Self instruct.ional material 12

Check your progress

NOTES
2.6 Positive Preyention
ln the last decade psychologists have become concerned with prevention, and
this was the theme of the 1998 American Psychologica.1 Association meeting in San
Francisco. How can we prevent problems like depression or substance abuse or
schizophrenia in young people who are genetically vulnerable or who live in worlds
that nurture these problems?
How can we prevent murderous schoolyard violence in chi.ldren who have
poor parental supervision, a mean streak, and access to weapons? Human strengths
that act as buffers against mental illness: courage, future� mindedness, optimism,
interpersonal skill, faith, work ethic, hope, honesty, perseverance, the capacity
for flow and insight, to name several.
Much of the task of prevention in thisnew century will be to create a science
of human strength whose mission will be to under.stand and learn how to foster
these virtues in young people.
My owa work in prevention takes this approach and amplifies �a skill that all
individuals possess but usuaUy deploy in thewrong place.
The skill is called disputing (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979), and its use is at
the heart of Mleamed optimism." lf we wish to prevent schizophrenia in a yoWlg
person at genetic risk. I would propose that the repairing of damage is not going
to work. Rather, I suggest that a young person who learns effective interpersonal
skills, who has a strong work
ethic. and who has learned persistence under adversity is at lessened risk
.for schizophrenia. This, then, i$ the general stance of positive psychology toward
prevention. It claims that �there is a set of buffers against p!>-ychopathology:
the positive human traits. The Nikki principle holds that
by identifying. amplifying, and concentrating on these strengths in people at risk,
we will do effective prevention.
2.7 Positive Therapy
The "building of buffering strengths " or the Nikki principle.1 believe that it is
a common strategy among almost all competent psychothe.rapists to

13
Sclfinslr\lc
r- -"\
I , I
\. J

NOTES

first identify and hen help their patients buiJd a large variety of strengths,
rather than just to deliver specific damage-healing techniques. Among the strengths
built in psychotherapy are
� Courage
� Inteq,ersonal skill
� Rationality
� Insight
� Optimism
� Honesty
� Perseverance
� Realism
� Capacity for pleasure
� Putting troubles into perspective
� Future-mindedness
� Finding purpose
Assumefor a moment that the buffering effects of strength-building strategies
have a larger effect than the specific "healing" ingredients that have been
discovered. If this is true, the relatively small specificity found when different
active therapies and different drugs are compared and the massive placebo effects
both follow.
One illustrative deep strategy is "narration." l believe that telling the
stories of our lives, making sense of what otherwise seems chaotic, distilling and
discovering a trajectory in our lives, and viewing our lives with a sense of agency
rather than victimhood are all powcrfuJly positive (Csikszentrnihalyi, 1993). I
believe that all competent psychotherapy forces such narration. and this buffers
against mentaJ disorder in just the same way hope does.
2.sLet'sSum Up
Positive psychology is not a new branch of psychology. It has roots from
ancient periods like Greeks, Athenian. The great philosophers like Aristotle,
Socrates contributed more to positive psychology. Eastern perspectives are varies
from western thoughts. All religious Jeader explained well about various virtues
that leads the man to mortality. Each one of them described positive psychology in
their own way.
Self instrue1ional material 14

NOTES

Unit3
Foundation of Happiness
Structure
3.1 lotroduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Meaning of happiness
3.4 Effects of happiness
3.5 Science ofhappin�ess
3.6 Biological foundation of happiness
3.7 Positivefeeling
3.8 Let's sum up
3.9 Unit End Exercise
3.10 Answer for check your p.rogress
3.11 Suggested readings

3.J INTRODUCTION
Understanding and facilitating happiness and subjective well-being JS the
central objective of positive psychology (Seligman, 2002). Happiness and weU-being,
in this context, refer t.o both positive feelings, such as joy or serenity, and to
positive states such as those involving flow or absorption. As a scientific
enterprise, positive psychology focuses on understanding and explaining happiness
and subjective well-being and accurately predicting factors that influence such
states. As a clinical Endeavour, positive psychology is con.cemed with enhancing
subjective well-being and happiness, rather than remediating deficits. Thus,
positive psychology complements rather than replaces traditional clinical
psychology.

3,1 Objectives
After completing this unit you will be able to understand the following concepts:
� Measurement of happiness
� Biological factors of happiness
� Science of happiness
Self instructional materin.l 16

111UIC::>

3.3 Meaning and measure of happiness

Happiness seems to be one of those terms that people understand until they try
to define it. lndeed, defining happiness has turned out to be much more contentious
than defining positive psychology. Even in philosophy, defining happiness is a
troublesome issue. Positive psychologists often refec to two types of
happiness: hedonic and
eudaimonic. Briefly, hedonic happiness refers to bow happy you feel whereas
eudaimonic happiness involves being true to your authentic self Researchers
interested in eudaimonic happiness arc most interested in
whether individuals are using their capacities-both their general human capacities
and their own peculiar individual strengths-to flourish in life. Most positive
psychologists follow Aristotle in their unden;tandiog of eudemonia; nevertheless,
it is important to acknowledge that Aristotle was one of several different ancient
Greek philosophers who took the eudaimonic approach to happiness. AU of these
approaches, however, emphasized the importance of fulfilling one's true nature.
lo this sense. eudaimonic happiness is achieved when we fulfill our
true .human potential. We flourish when our life fulfills our human capacities.
Aristotle tended to emphasize the importance of becoming a virtuous person.
Importantly for Aristotle. it was the virtues that should be pursued, not happiness
in and of itself. There are several advantages to the eudaimonic tradition of
happiness. Perhaps most importantly. this approach does not divon::e morality and
virtue from the study of happiness. Most of us would agtee with Aristotle in tha.t
a life simply filled with consumptive pleasure is not a happy life. Cows may have
all the pleasure of eating grass and grain to their heart's cont.eat, but are they
really happy? No. Aristotle woul<I claim that the authentically happy life is also
the vjrtuous life. The eudaimonic view of happiness is an important tradition that
positive psychologists would be foolish to neglect. But there are a number of
problems with this approach to defining happiness. First, it can come across as
being overly prescriptive or even paternalistic. The eudaimonic definition
of .happiness basically tells people that they have to be doing certain things or
they have to be developing certain qualities.

17
Self instruclional material

NOTES

3.4 THE EFFECTS OF HAPPINESS

Martin Seligman (2002) has argued thal positive and negative emotions may be
distinguished from each other in tenns of the degree lo which they ink they are
happy. Prepare,us for win-lose or win-win transactions, or
zero-sum and nonzero-sum games. From an evolutionary perspective negative emotions
such as fear or anger are our first line of defense against threats. For ex.ample,
fear and anger tell us that danger is probable or that harm is imminent. Negat�ive
emotions narrow our attention to the source of the threat and mobilize us for fight
or flight Negative c;motions narrow our attention to the source of the threat and
mobilize us for fight or flight Positive emotions broaden our allenlion so we
become aware of the wider pnysical and socialenvironment
Self instructional material

3.5The science orhappiness

Two important coocepts emerge from this understanding of happiness: (a)
happiness is enduring (it's not just that I feel pleased in the moment). and (b)
happiness is global (I'm satisfied with my life as a whole, not just with select
domains in my life).
Ancient Greek Ideas of Happiness
The rich Greek tradition of happiness involves much more than Aristotle and
the eudaimonfo approach described earlier. For example, many Greek philosophers
followed a hedonistic approach to happiness. But even the most famous hedonists-
the Epicurcans--had a much more nuanced view of happiness than popular hedonism
would suggest. Indeed, those of the Epicurean�camp were much more likely to
represent happiness as the -pleasures of tranquility,! rather than the accumulation
of raw unadulterated pleasure. One thing tliat seemed to distinguish the
Epicureans from the disciples of Aristotle. however, was that this tranquil,
happy life could be an explicit goal, whereas for Aristotle any kind of psychic
harmony was simply the result of the virtuous life. Even the Stoics-who strove to
push pleasure and pain toward the margins of life-� felt that inner psychologicol
harmony was an important aspect of the virtuous life. Thus, for virtually all
philosophers, the good life was a pleasant life, although they would emphasize
different paths to this end.
McMahop lil!s emphasized (2006, 2008), there was a.I something of a tragic
theme in the Greek approach to happiness Ii
18

NOTES
seemed that happiness for the Greeks was never completely und.er one's control; for
one never knew when luck, fate. or the capricious a.ct of
some god might completely derail one's journey to happiness. McMahon emphasizes
that this theme seems to come through in early Judeo� Christian thought as well,
albeit in a notably different fonn.
Many theories of happiness have been proposed which can be categorized into three
groups:
(I) Need and goal satisfaction theories,
(Z) Process or activity theories, and
(3) Genetic and personality predisposition theories.
Need and goal satisfaction theories focus on the idea that the reduction of
tensions, satisfaction of needs. and moving towards a valued goal leads to
happiness. Process or activity theories state that engageme.nt in an activity
provides happiness. Csikszentmihalyi (1975) suggested that people are happiest when
they are engaged in interesting actillities that march their level of skill. He
calls this the state of -flow1.
Other theorists argue that subjective well-being is influenced by personality
dispositions. Some of these important traits are extraversion, neuroticism, hope.
dispositional optimism etc.
Income is consistently related to subjective well-being. Age and sex are related to
subjective well-being, but these effects are small. Marital status and religious
activity arc also positively correlated with subjective well� being. With the rise
in empirical research on happiness, a central question is how happiness might be
measured. A complete device might be
.impossible even in principle, smce happiness might involve multiple dimensions.

Happiness underlying factors are considerable from two dimensions: endogenic

factors (biological, cognjtjve, personality and ethical sub-factors) and exogenic
factors (behavioral, social cultural, economical, geographical, life events and
aesthetics sub-factors). Among all endogenic factors., biological sub-factors are
the significant predictors of happiness.

NOTES

Genetic factors
Among all related genes with mood and emotionaJ characteristics, effects of
two genes investigated directly oo happiness: 5-HITLPRand MAO-A studies suggested
an association between 5-HT/lPR and life satisfaction as a cognitive dimension of
happiness (!-l!). This gen�e is coding serotonin distribution in brain cells and
therefore leads to mood regulation.

Brain and neurotransmitten

The emotion circuitry of the brain is complex, involving primarily structures
in the prefrontal cort.ex, amygdale, hippocampus, anterior ciogulated cortex, and
insular cortex. These structures oorrnalJy work together to process and generate
emotional information and emotional behavior. Research bas particularly focused on
the prefrontal oort.cx which, unlike most other brain regions .involved in emotion
processing, shows al.')'lllmetric activation in relation to positive and negative
emotions.
At the other band, studies showed that positive and negative moods
affected by brain chemical in several ways. Two of the most important neuro-
transmitters that involved in mood are dopamine and serotonin. Positive mood and
negative mood mediated by dopamine and serotonin levels.

AdreoaUne
Adrenaline (aJso known as Epinephrine) is a hormone and a neurotransmitter
that re.leases from AdrenaJ glands. Adrenali.ne has many functions in the body,
regulating heart rate, blood vessel and air passage diameters, and metabolic
shifts; Adrenaline release is a crucial component of the fight-or-flight responseof
the sympathetic nervous system.
therefore, adrenaline produces similar effects to Cortisol, such as increased
heart rate and immune system suppression. Researches indicate that urinary
adrenaline is a good predictor of happiness. Individuals with higher levels of
"personal growth" and "purpose in life" registered lower and more stable levels
of.salivary Cortisol and urinary Adrenaline.
Physical health

Self insl.ructional material

Medicine and psychological findings showed that positive emotl reactions against
life events can influence in various ways oo physiologic
29

NOTES
char.acteristics. Therefore, several studies investigate the association between
physical health and happiness. A groupof rese-archers studied the general
association between physical health and happiness and others investigate the
relation between physical illness (hypertension, bulimia...) and happiness.
Recently. several studies concluded that positive mood in individuals is a strong
predictor of physical health an there is a significant correlation between positive
mood and physical health. Researchers stated that people with happiness experience
a long life.

The secret of smile

Smiling elevates your mood and creates a sense of well-being.

...Each time you smile you throw a little feel-good party in your brain." The
notorious party animals dopamine. endorphins, and serotonin start whooping it up
when you smile. Anda bonus: those endorphins serve as natural pain relievers and
act as the body's own opiates.
According to Ron Gutman, the author of Smile: The Astonishing Powers of a
Simple Act, "British researchers found that one s.mile can generate the same level
of brain stimulation as up to 2,000 bars of chocolate.''

3.7 fositive teelings

Seligman (2002) in bis book Authentic Happiness classifies positive emotions into
three categories: those associated with the past. the present and the future.
Posit.ivc emotions associated with the future include optimism, hope, confidence,
faith and trust Satisfaction, contentment, fulfillment, pride and serenity an: the
main positive emotions associated with the past. There are two distinct classes of
positive emotions concerned with the present: momentary pleasures and more enduring
gratifications. The pleasures include both bodily pleasures and higher pleasures.
Bodily
pleasures come through the senses. Feelings that come from sex, beautiful
21
Self in$ll\lcliooal material

NOTES

Unit4
Emotional Intelligence, Well Being and Happiness

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
43 Definition of emotion
4.4 Positive emotion and well being
4.5 The value of positive emotion
4.6 Broaden and build theory
4.7 Hedonic and eudaimonic happiness
4.8 Distinguishing positive and negative functions
4.9 Subjcotive well being
4.10 Determinants of subjective well being
4.1 IComplete mental health model
4. l2 Let's Sum Up
4.13 Unit End exercise
4.14 Answers for check your progress
4.15 Suggested Readings

4.t tntrodyctiog
We would like you to stop for a minute and reflect upon the last time you
felt �really happy'. Have you done this? What did you think ofl How do you now
feel? Hopefully, you are now in a perfect place to learn about the intere ting area
of positive emotions._Emotions are part of being human. In fact, when we are unable
to feel emotions, either good or bad, doctors put in place drastic ures
tounderstand why and to intervene.
4.2 Qbiec;tiyes
After completing this unit, you will be able to understand the following concepts
o Positive emotion
o Types.of happiness
o Subjective well being
o Complete mental health model
Sdf instn11:tiotl.lll material 24

4.3 Definition of emotion

An emotion can be defined as a 'psychological state defined by subjective
feelings but also characteris.tic patterns of physiological arousal thought and
behavior's (Peterson, 2006: 73). Emotions tend t.o focus on a specific event or
circumstance during the past, present or future. However, emotions are likely to be
short lived and we are aware of them at the time of occurrence.
Moods, on the other hand, are different from emotions as they are
� free floating or objectless, more long-lasting and occupy the background
consciousness' (Fredrickson and Losada. 2005: 121). Thus moods. unlike emotions,
tend to be unfocused and enduring.
When psychologists began studying emotions. they focused on the term 'hedonic
capacity', which refers to our ability lo feel good {Meehl. 1975). Today,
researchers focus on 'affectivity', which is defined as 'the extent to which an
individual experiences positive/negative moods� (Peterson, 2006: 62). Positive
affect is the ex.tent to which someo.ne experiences joy, contentment, and so on,
whereas negative affect is the extent to which someone experiences feelings such as
sadness or fear.

NOTES

4.4 Positive emotions and well-being

Psychologists often employ the nolion of affect as an umbrella term for
various positive and negative emotions, feelings and moods we frequently experience
and easily recognize.
Seligman (2002) in bis book Authentic Happiness classifies positive emotions
into three categories: those associated with the past su.ch as satisfaction,
contentment ere, the present and the future such as optimism. and _hope. Momentary
pleasures and more enduring gratifications are related to the present.
Gratifications involve states of absorption that result from engagement in
activities in which the unique signature strengths are utilized. Positive emotions
have received little empirical attention since traditionally the focus was more on
psychological problems and their remedies. Another reason could be that there is a
habit among emotion theorists of creating general models of emotions which
typically focus on negative emotions with positive emotions added later.
Positive emotions facilitate approach behaviors. They motjvate individuals

25

Sclfinstniccionul material

NOTES

lo engage with their environments and undertake activities which facilitate

adaptation and survival
Self instructio.nal maieiial
4.5
The value of positive emotions
For years, psychology turned its atteoiion to the study of negative emotions
or negative effect. including: depression, sadness, anger, stress and anxiety. Not
surprisingly, psychologists found them interesting because they may often lead to,
or signal the presence of, psychological disorders. However, positive emotions are
no less fascinating, if only because of many common sense misconceptions that exist
about positive affect. We te.nd to think, for example, that positive affect
typically, by its
very nature, distorts or disrupts orderly, effective thinking, that positive
emotions are somehow simple' or that, because these emotions are short lived, they
cannot have a long tenn impact. Research bas shown the above not to be the case but
it took it a while to gel there. It is only relatively
recently that psychologists realized that positive emotions can be seen as valuable
in their own right.and started studying them.
Negative emotions, like anxiety or anger, are associated with tendencies to act in
specific ways, which are adaptive in evolutionary terms, i.e. the- fight and flight
response. Thus, fear contributes to a ten toescape and anger to a tendency to
atta.ck:. lf our ancestors were not equipped with such effective emotional tools,
our own existem:e could have been doubtful
Moreover, negative emotions seem to narTOw our action repertoires (or actual
behaviors) when running from danger we are unlikely to appreciate a beautifuJ
sunset. This function of negative emotions can help mioiroi:ze distractions in an
acute situation. Positive emotions, on the other hand, are not associated with
specific actions. So what good are th.ey, apart from the fact that they merely feel
good? What is the point in feeling happy or joyful, affectionate or ecstatic?
The broaden and build theory of positive emotions, developed by Barbara
Fredrickson, shows that positive affective experiences contribute and have a long
lasting effect on our personaJ growth and development .
(a) Positive e111otions broad,n 011r thoug/rt action repertoires: First of all,
positive emotions broaden our anention and thinking, which means that we have more
positive and a greater variety of thoughts. When we are experiencing positive
emotions, like joy or interest. we are more likely to
26

be creative, tQ see more opportunities, to be open to relationships with others, to

play, to be more flexible and open mjnded.
(b) Positive emotions undo negative e111otions: It's hard 10 experience both
positive and negative emotions simultaneously, thus a deliberate experience of
positive emotions at times when negative emotions are dominant can serve to undo
their lingering effects. Mild joy and contentment can eliminate tb.e stress
experienced at a physiological level
(c) Positive emotions enhance resilience: Enjoyment, happy playfulness,
contentment. satisfaction, warm friendship, love, and affection a]I enhance
resilience and the ability to cope, while negative emotions, in contrast, decrease
them. Positive emotions can enhance problem focused coping, positive reappraisal,
or infusing negative events with positiv.e meaning. all of which facilitate fast
bouncing back after an unpleasant event.
(d) Positive a.otions build psychological n rtoire: Far from having only a
momentary effect. positive emotions help lo build important pbysic,al,
intellectual, social and psychological resources that are enduring, even though the
emotions themselves are temporary. For example, the positive emotions associated
with play can build physical abilities and self mastery, enjoyable times with
friends - increase social skills.
(e) Positive emotions can trigger an upward deve/op,,,ental spiral: More than that,
just as negative emotions can lead one into downward spirals of depression,
positive emotions can trigger upward developmental spiraJs towards improved
emotional wellbeing and transform people into bener versions of themselves.
4.6 Broaden and build theory
Barbara Fredrickson (2000) has developed a new theoretical framework, the
broaden-and-build model, that may provide some explanations for the robust social
and cognitive effects of positive emotional experiences. ln Fredrickson's review of
models of emotions (Smith, 1991), she found that responses to positive
emotions.have not been extensively studied and that, when researched, they were
examined in a vague and underspecified manner.
Furtbennore, action tendencies generally have been associated with physical
reactions to negatjve emotions (again, imagine "fight or flight"), whereas human
reactions to positive emotions oft.en are more cognitive than pbysjcal. Fo( these
reasons, she proposes discarding the specific
27

NOTES

Self inslrU.cliooal material

NOTES

Self instructional material

action tendency concept (which suggests a restricted range of possible behavioral

options) in favor of newer, more inclusive tenn, momentary thought-action
repertoires (which suggest a broad range of behavioral options; imagine "taking off
blinders" and seeing available opportunities).
To illustrate the difference in that which follows positive and negative
emotions, consider the childhood experience of one of the authors (SJL). Notice how
positive emotions (e.g., excitement and glee) lead to cognitive flexibility and
creativity, whereas negative emotions (e.g.� fear and anxiety) are linked to a
fleeing response and termination of activities. In testing her model of positive
emotions, Fredrickson (2000) demonstrated that the experience of joy expands the
realm ofwbat a person feels like doing at the time; this is referred to as the
broadening of an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire. Following an
emotion� eliciting film clip (the clips induced one of five emotions: joy,
coi;rtentment. anger, fear, or a neutral condition), research participants were
asked to list everything they would like to do at that moment. Those participants
who experienced joy or contentment listed significantly more desired possibilities
than did th.e people in the neutral or negative conditions. In tum, those expanded
possibilities for future activities should lead the joyful individuals to initiate
subsequent actions.
Those who expressed more negative emotions, on the other hand.
tended to shut down lhe-ir thinking about subsequent possible activities. Simply
put, joy appears to open us up to many new thoughts and behaviors, whereas negative
emotions dampen our ideas and actions.
Joy also increases our likelihood of behaving positively toward other people, along
with developing more positive relatiot1$hips. Furthermore, joy -duces playfulness
(Frijda, 1994), which is quite important because such behaviors are evolutionarily
adaptive in acquisition of necessary resources. Juvenile play builds (1) enduring
social and intellectual. resources by encouraging attachment. (2) hi er levels of
creativity, and
(3) brain development (Fredrickson, 2002). It appears that, through the effects of
broadening processes, positive emotions also can help build resources. In 2002,
Fredrickson and her colleague. Thom.as Joiner. demonstrated this building
phenomenon by assessing people's positive and negative emotions and broad-minded
coping (solving 'Problems with creative means) on two occasions 5 weeks apart. The
researchers found
28

NOTES
Self instrutli.onal material

action tendency concept (which suggests a: restricted range of possible behavioral

options) in favor of new.er, more inclusive tenn, momeniary thought-action
repertoires (which suggest a broad range of behavioral options; imagine "taking off
blinders" and seeing available opportunities).
To illustrate the difference in that which follows positive and
negative emotions, consider the childh.ood experience of one of the authors (SJL).
Notice how positive emotions (e.g., excitement and glee) lead to cognitive
nexibility and creativity, whereas negative emotions (e.g., fear and anxiety) are
linked to a fteeing response and termination of activities. In testing her
model of positive emotions, Fredrickson (2000) demonstrated that the
experience of joy expands the realm of what a person feels like doing at the time;
this is referred to as the broade11ing of an individual's momentary thought-action
repenoire. Following an emotion� eliciting film clip (the clips induced one of
five emotions.: joy, contentment, anger, fear, or a neutral condition}, research
participants were asked to list everything they would like t.o do at 1ha1 moment.
Those panicipants who experienced joy or contentment listed significantly more
desired possibilities than did the people in the neutral or negative conditions. In
l'um, those expanded possibilities for future activities should lead the joyful
individuals to initiate subsequent actions.
Those who expressed more negative emotions, on the other hand, tended to shut
down their thinking about subsequent possible activities. Simply put, joy appears
to open us up to many new though and behaviors, whereas negative emotions dampen
our ideas and actions.
Joy also increases our likelihood of behaving positively toward other people, along
with developing more positive relationships. Furthermore, joy --duces playfulness
(Frijda. 1994), which is quite important because such behaviors are evolutionarily
adaptive in acquisition of necessary resources. Juvenile play builds ( l) enduring
social and intellectual resources by encouraging a.ttachment, (2) higher levels of
creativity, and
(3) brain development (Fredrickson, 2002). lt appears that, through the effects of
broadening processes, positive emotions also Cllll help build resources. In 2002,
Fredrickson and her colleague, Thomas Joiner, demonstrated this building phenomenon
by assessing people's positive and negative emotions and broad-minded coping
(solving problems with creative means) on two occasions 5 weeks apart. The
researchers found
28

that initial levels of positive emotio.ns predicted overall increases an

creative problem solving.
These changes in coping also predicted further increases in positive
emotions. Similarly, controlling for initial levels of positive emotion, initial
levels of coping predicted increases in positive emotions, which in tum predicted
increases in coping. These results held true only for positive emotions., not for
negative emotions. Therefore, positive emotions such as joy may help generate
resources, maintain a sense of vital energy (i.e., more positive emotions), and
create even more resources. Fredrickson (2002) referred to this positive sequence
as the "upward spiral'' of positive emotions.

Extending her model of positive emotions, Fredrickson and colleagues examined

the "undoing" potential of positive emotions (Fredrickson, Mancuso, Branigan, &
Tugade, 2000) and the ratio of positive to negative emotional experiences that is
associated with human flourishing (Fredrickson & Losada, 2005). Fredrickson et al.
(2000) hypothesized that, given the broadening and building effects of positive
emotions, joy and contentment might function as antidotes to negative emotions.

NOTES

Positive psychologists often refer to two types of happiness: bedonic and

eudaimonic. Briefly, hedonic happiness refers to how happy you Feel whereas
eudaimonic happiness involves being true to your
authentic self. Researchers interested in cudaimonic happiness are most interested
in whether individuals are using their capacities-both their general human
capacities and their own peculiar individual strenglhs---to flourish in life.
Most positive psychologists follow Aristotle in their understanding of
eudemonia; nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge that Arist.otle was one of
several different ancient Greek philosophers who took the eudaimonic approach to
happiness. AU of these approaches, however, emphasized the importance of fulfilling
one's true nature. ln this sense, eudaimonic happiness is achieved when we fulfill
our true human potential. We flourish when our life fulfills our human capacities.
Aristotle
29
Self instruc

r--"'
I , I
\. J

NOTES

tended to emphasize the importance of becoming a virtuous person. Importantly for

Ari.stot.le, it was the virtues thal should be pursued, not happiness in and of
itself. There are several advantages to the eudaimonic tradition of happiness.
Perhaps most importantly, this approach does not divorce morality and virtue from
the study of happiness.
Most of us would agree with Aristotle in that a life simply filled with
consumptive- pleasure i.s not a happy lif Aristotle would claim that the
authentically happy life is also the virtuous life.
The cudaimonic view of happiness is an important tradition that positive
psychologists would be foolish to neglect But there are a number of problems with
this approach to defining happiness. First, it can come
across as being overly prescript.ivc or even paternalistic.
The eudaimonic definition of happiness basically tells people thal they have
to be doing certain things or they have t.o be Q.eveloping certain qualities or
they aren't happy, regardless of whether they think they are happy.

But the real rub involves the issue of human nature. What really are our
ca.pacities as humans? What is my personal potential? What are the human needs that
need to be satisfied in order to flourish? On this issue. even among eudaimonic
theorists, there is little agreement. A related issue has to do with the
measurement of this kind of happiness. Although measures have been developed for
this construe! (often referred to as measures of psychological wellbeing), are they
really measuring eudaimonic happiness? A good measure of Aristotle's eudemonia
would accurately assess whether we really are fulfilling our human po1ential.
Sdf instructional material

4.8 Distinguishing the Positive and the Negative functions

Hans Selye (1936) is known for his research on the effects of prolonged
exposure to fear and anger. Consistently, be found that physiological stress harmed
the- body yet bad survival vatue for humans. Indeed, the evolutionary functions of
fear and anger have intrigued both resean:hers and laypeople. Given the historioal
tradition 11Dd scientific findings p.ertaining to the negative effects, their
importance in our lives
not been questioned over the last century.
Historically, posi1ive affects have received scant attention over the century
because few scholars hypothesized that the rewards of joy
38

NOTES

tended to emphasize the importance of becoming a virtuous person. Importantly for

Aristotle, it was the virtues that should be pursued, not happiness in and of
itself. There are several advantages to the eudaimonic tradition of happiness.
Perhaps most imponantly, this approach does not divorce mora.liry and virtue from
the study of happiness.
Most of us would agree with Aristotle in that a life simply filled with
consumptive pleasure i.s not a happy life. Aristotle would claim that the
authentically happy life is also th.e virtuous life.
The eudaimonic view of happiness is an imponant tradition that positive
psychologists wouJd be foolish to neglect. Bul there are a number of
problems with this approach to defining happiness. First, it can come across as
being overly prescriptive or even paternalistic.
The eudaimonic definition of happiness basically tells people that they have
to be doing certain things or they have to be developing certain qualities or they
aren't _happy, regardless_ of whether they think they are happy.

But the real rub involves.the i.ssue of human nal1,lre: What really are our
capacities as humans? What is my personal potential? What are the human needs that
need to be satisfied in order to flourish? On this issue,
even among eudaimonic theorists, there is little agreement. A related issue has to
do with the measurement of this kind of happiness. Although measures have been
developed for this construct (often referred to as measures of psychologic.ol
wellbeing), are they really measuring
eudaimonic happiness? A good measure of Aristotle's eudemonia would
accurately assess whether we really are fulfilling our human potential.
Self instructional mntcria.l
4.8
Distinguishing the Positive and the Negative functions
Hans Selye (1936) is known for his research on the effects of prol<mged
exposure to fear and anger. Consistently, he found that physiological stre.,;s
harmed the body yet bad survival value for humans. Indeed, the evolutionary
functions of fear and anger have intrigued both researchers and laypeople. Given
the historical tradition and scientific findings pertaining to the negative
effects, their importance in our lives bas not been questioned over the last
century.
Historically, positive affects have received scant attention over the last century
because few scholars hypothesized that the rewards of joy and 38

contentment went beyond hedonic (pleasure-based) values and had possible

evolutionary significance. The potentialities of positive affect have become more
obvious over the last 20 years (Fredrickson, 2002) as research has drawn
distinctions between the positive and negative effects.
David Watson (1988) of the University of Iowa conducted research on the
approach-oriented motivations of pleasurable affects-including rigorous studies of
both negative and positive effects. To facilitate their research on the two
dimensions of emotional experience, Watson and his collaborator Lee Anna Clark
( 1994) developed and validated the Expanded Form of the Positive and Negative
Affect Schedule (PANAS-X), which has become a commonly used measure in this area.
This 20-item scale has been used in hundreds of studies t.o quantify two dimensions
of affect: valence and content. More specifically. the PANAS-X taps both "negative"
(unpleasant) and "positive" (pleasant) valence. The content of negative affective
states can be described best as general distres.<;, whereas positive affect
includes joviality, self-assurance, and attentiveness. (See the PANAS, a
predecessor of the PANAS-X. which is brief and valid for most clinical and research
purposes.) Although negative and positive affects once we.re thought to be polar
opposites.�
Bradburn (1969) The Principles of Pleasure demonstrat.ed that unpleasant and
pleasant affects are independent and have different correlates. Psychologists such
as Watson {2002) continue to examine this issue of independence in their research.
In a recent study, he found that negative affect correlated with joviality, self-
assurance, and attentiveness at only� .21, � .14, and� .17, respectively. The small
magnitudes of these negative correlations suggest that, while negative and positive
affect are inversely correlated as expected, the relationships arc quite weak and
indicative of independence of the two types of affect The size of these
relationships, however. may increase when people are ta,ced by daily stress.ors
(Keyes & Ryff, 2000; Zautra, Potter, &Reich. 1997).

4.9 SUBJECTIVE WELL-eElNG

Subjective well-being emphasizes peoples' reports of their life experiences.
Accordingly, the subjective report is taken at face value. This subjective approach
to happiness assumes that _people from many cultures arc comfortable in focusing on
individualistic assessments of their affec.ts
31

NOTES
Self insll\lclional material

NOTES

and satisfaction and that people will be forthright in such personal analyses
(Diener et al., 2002). These assumptions guide the researchers' attempts to
understand a person's subjective experiences in light of his or her objec1ive
circumsiances.

4,10 DETERMlNANTS OFSUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING

When examining college students' (from 31 nations) satisfaction in various
life domains, financial status was more highly correlated with satisfaction for
students in poor nations than for those in wealthy na1ions (Diener & Diener, 1995).
Moreover, the people in wealthy nations generally were happier than those in
unpoverished nations. Within-nation examination of this link between income and
well-being reveals that, once household income
PsychologJcal weU-being
Psychological well-being refers to the achievement of one's full
psychological potential, The construct is central to the humanistic tradition.
Professor Carol Ryff is the leading researcher in this area. She has developed a
scale called The Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being. It measures multiple
facets of psychological wellbeing as the following:
C autonomy
? envirorunenlal mastery
U personal growth
[7 positive relations with others D purpose in life
? self-acceptance
Key et al (2002) in a factor ana.lytic study involving over 3,000 Americans aged
25-74 found that psychological well-being and subjective well-being were related,
but distinc" constructs which correlated differentially with socio-demographic
variables and personality.

Self instructional material

Social weU-being
Social well-being refers to positive states associat.ed with optimal
functioning within one's social nerwodc and community. U refei:s to an end state in
which basic human needs are met and people coexist peacefully. There is an equal
access to basic facilities such as water, food, shelter,
health services cto.
32

NOTES

4.11.Complete Mental Health: Emotional, Social. and Psychological

Well-Being
Ryff and Keyes (1995; Keyes & Lope7 2002; Keyes & Magyar� Moe, 2003) combine
many principles of pleasure lo define complete ment.al health.
Specifically. they view optimal functioning a.,; the combination of emotional well-
being (as they refer to subjective well-being; defined as the presence of positive
affect and satisfaction with life and the absen.ce of negative affect), social
well-being (incorporating acceptance, actualization,
contribution, coherence, and integration), and psychological well-being (combining
self acceptance, personal growth. purpose in life; environmental mastery, autonomy,
positive relations with others). Taking
the symptoms 0� mental illness into consideration, they define "complete mental
health" as the combination of "high levels of symptoms of emotional well-being,
psychological wellbeing, and social well-being, as well as the absence ofrccent
mental illness" (Keyes & Lopez, 2002, p. 49). This view of mental health combines
all facets of wel.l-being .into a model that is both dimensional (because extremes
of mental health and illness symptomatology arc reflected) and categorical (because
assignment to distinct diagnostic categories is possible). This complete state
model
(Keyes & Lopez, p. 49: see Figure 7.5) suggests that combined mental health and
mental illness symptoms may be ever-changing, resulting in fluctuations in states
of overall well-being ranging from complete mental illness 10 complete mental
health.

4,12 Let's sum uo

Emotions are part of being human. In fact, when we are unabl.e to feel
emotions, either good or bad. doctors put in place drastic measures to understand
why and to intervene. Seligman (2002) in his book Authentic Happiness classifies
positive emotions into three categories: those
33
Sdf instruct'

NOTES

Unit 10
Positive Response to Loss Role ofHumour

Structure
10.1 Introduction L0.2 Objectives I0.3 Spirituality
I0.3.1Benefits of spirituality
10.3.2 Application of positive psychology
10.4 Positive youth development
I0.5 Life lasle of adulthood
I0.6 Successful aging
10.7 Let's sum up
I0.8 Unit end exercise
l 0.9 Answers for Check Your Progress
I0.10 Suggested Readings
10,1 INTRODUCTION
lndia is a secular country in our country we have rights to foUow any religion as
own wish. The main purpose of the religion is it helps people to attain a peaceful
life and reach the eternal life. The spirituality helps people to lead a happy
life. The researchers proved that spiritual people have an inner peace in them and
have a successful aging.
JO. 2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit you wiU be able to understand the following concepts
like
� Spirituality
� Positive life in childhood and adulthood
� Successful aging

10,3 Spjritualjty
The term search for the sacred is a widely accepted description of
spirituality. (Religion and religious behaviors represent the many ways in which
the search for the sacred b mes oiganized and sanctioned in
95

NOTES

society; for example, through the attendance of religious services and the
frequency and duration of prayer.) ln 2000, Hill et al. defined spirituality as
"the feelings, thoughts. and behaviors that arise from a seai,ch for the sacred"
(p. 66). Pargament and Mahoney (2002) also defined spirituality "as a search for
the sacred ... " Pathways involve systems of belief that include those of
traditional organized religions (e.g., Protestant, Roman Catholic, Jewish, Hindu,
Buddhist, Muslim},
These pathways to the sacred also may be described as spiritual strivings,
which included personal goals associated with the ultimate concerns of purpose,
ethics, and recognition of the transcendent (Emmons, Cheung. & Tehrani, 1998).

10.3.1 The Benefits of Spirituality:

Many positive psychologists (e.g:, Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Snyder & Lopez,
2002) have hypothesized that a deep understanding of ourselves and our lives is
enhanced by our search for the sacred. Indeed, as noted previously, spirituality is
associated with mental heahh, managing substance abuse, marital functioning,
parenting, coping, and mortality
(summarized in Pargament & Mahoney, 2002; Thoresen, Harris1 & Oman, 2001).
One examination of spiritual strivings reveals that these pathways to the
sacred may lead to (or at least are associated with) well-being (Emmons et
al,.I998). Another examination of spiritual strivings suggests the search for the
sac.red may lead to what we consider to be the true
benefits of spirituality in our lives: purpose and meaning (Mahoney et al., 2005).
Despite the findings that demonstrate the benefits of searching for the sacred, the
mechanisms by which spirituality leads to positive life outcomes are not clear.
Self instructional material

10.J.2 Application of positive psyt'hology Positive therapy

Many psychologists who affiliate themselves with the positive psychology
movement offer ideas on how t.o conduct 'positive psychology therapy'. The
underlying principles are that therapy shouldn't focus just on diagnosing and
treating disorder, maladjustment, s1.dfering, etc. (Joseph and Linley, 2009;
Rashid, 2009b). In addition, therapy should recogn.ize,
96

UNITl INTRODUCTION TO POSITIVE

PSYCHOLOGY.
Structure
I . l Leaming Objectives
1.2 Introduction
t.3 Positive Psychology 1 - Aims and Scope (Martin Seligman)
1.4 Positive Psychology 2-Aims and Scope (Paul T. Wong)
1.5 The Concept of Well-being
1.6 Historical Perspectives on Positive Psychology
1.6.1 Positive Psychology and Other Soc.ial Sciences
1.6.2 GDP to GNHJ � Towards "Holistic Approach to Homan Development"
1.6.3 Value Crisis
1.7 Positive Psychology and Other Areas of Psychology
l.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Key Words
I.JO Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1.11 Unit End Questions
1.12 References and Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

� Explain the meaning, and scope of positive psychology;
� Differentiate between PP 1 and PP 2 waves of positive psychology;
� Define theconcept of well-being; and
� Describe the relationship of positive psychology with other areas of psychology.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Positive psychology is a new field of i,nquiry within modem psychology that emerged
two decades ago, with an exclusive emphasis on understanding the nature of
happiness and well-being and the conditions which promote them across cultures and
societies. The aim was to help people to lead a good life. Hence, we can say that
the field of positive psychology had an applied orientation.from the very
inception.
Martin E.P.Seligman, Professor of Psychology at theUniversity of Pennsylvania
and a Clinical Psychologist launched this new field of inquiry in the new 13
�or. Kirnn Kumar Salagamc, K., Former Professor of Psychology, Department of
Studies in Psychology,
University of Mysore. Mysuro

Positive Psychology:
An lntroduction
14

millennium. As President of the American Psychological Association in 1998, he

chose Positive Psychology as the presidentiaJ theme for his tenure. He had a strong
feeling that psychology has too long focused on studying negative emotions Like
anger, anxiety and depression and treated mentaJ illness from a 'disease model.' He
recognized that the discipline has not pajd much attention to study what makes
people to experience joy, satisfaction and contentment; to be healthy, resilient
and grow; and to lead a meaningful, successful and worthy life. Therefore, bechose
to usher ina new eraof research in psychology discipli.ne in the new Millenium.
Though Seligman presented his initial ideas on this new field in his presidential
address at APA in 1998, they got crystalized in two meetings, one in January 1999
and another in January 2000 at Akurnal, Mexico. The meetings were attended by a
select group of psychologists who shared b.is vision. They drafted the first
manifesto which has come to be known as ..AkumaJ Manifesto"/ "Positive Psyc!iology
Manifesto."lt was authoredbyKenneth Sheldon, Barbara Fredrickson, Kevin Ratbunde,
Mih lyi Csikszentmihalyi and Jonathan Hardt
(https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/opportunities/conference-archives). The vision and
mission of this new field was formally made public to the academic community in the
special issue of American Psychologist (January 2000) with the focal theme"Positive
Psychology" (Seligman & CsikszentmihaJyi, 2000). That issue included articles on
pleasure and happiness, quality of life, subjective and psychological well-being,
actualization of potentials and optimaJ functioning, creativity, optimism, hope,
aJtruism, forgiveness, gratitude and spirituality.
Another publication, with the title"On happiness and human potentials: a review of
research on hedonic aod eudaimonic well-being" (Ryan and Deci, 200 I) in the Annua]
Review of Psychology catalyzed the interest among psychologists in this new field
of inquiry. For the first time these two important publications brought together
under one broad heading a wide range of previous researches that were conducted
independently and separated in time and space by several investigators for many
decades. Since then, 'Positive Psychology' bas become a rallying point for many
researchers already working on related themes.
Ed Diener's previous work on "subjective well-being" (SWB) (Diener, 1984) and Carol
Ryff's publications on "psychological well-being" (PWB) (Ryff, 1989) became the
primary or central foci of research, debate and discussion in the initial years
because they had already worked for nearly two decades on them. They had aJso
developed tools to measure those constructs (Diener, Emmons, Larsen & Griffin,
1985; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). In addition, Martin Seligman (optimism), Mihalyi
Csikszentmihalyi (flow), Charles Snyder and Shane Lopez (hope), Jeff Clifton
(strengths), Cristopher Peterson (character and virtue), Barbara Frederickson
(positive emotions). Sonja Lyubornirsky (subjective happiness), Todd Kashdan (well-
being) and Michael Steger (meaning andi,urpose) were some of thefirst few
psychologists who published important books and research articles in quick
succession in the initial year on their work and of others. All of them contributed
for the development by providing the initial research inputs todefine this new
field. Their work served as the primary reference to outline its aims, objectives
and scope. In addition, many products and practical techniques that are useful for
practice have also

been developed (see for example, (https://positivepsychology.com/positive�

psychology-interventions/).
As more researchers took interest in this field over the past two decades, the
vision and scope of positive psychology has expanded further. Now positive
psychology bas passed itsteenage agein itsdevelopmental phase,and has entered
adulthood in 2021! 1n these two decades, the field has grown enom1ously with
hundreds of books and thousands of articles published. They include both well
researched scientific publications and also self-help books on how to be happy and
achieve well-being. Thus, it has become hugely popular all over the globe, perhaps
more than any other branch of modem psychology among researchers, mental health
professionals, life coaches, educationists, management experts, and also among lay
people because of its direct relevance to our day-to-day living.
Seligman and his associates in their initial thrust on positive aspects of human
existence appear to have not paid much attention to the value of bumao adversities
and suffering for human growth and defining well-being. This came under criticism
from quite a few psychologists. Most vocal of them is Paul T Wong, a Canadian
Professor of Psychology and also a Clinical Psychologist. He actively promoted his
vision of positive psychology, known as Existential Positive Psychology.
Wongemphasizes on the importance of pain,suffering and sorrow in human existence
and th_eir relevance in defining what is happiness, well-being and meaningful
living (Wong, 2011). It cannot besaid thatSeligman neglected them totally. On the
other hand, Seligman preferred to emphasize more on the positive side of human
experiences. However, Wong, who is an Existential-humanistic psychologist, chose to
highlight the relations between suffering and meaningfulness to well-being. Further
researches resulted in new insights and shifts in the emphasis.
Thus, at present, thereare two visions of positive psychology which arereterred to
as"two waves"- PPl (Positive Psychology 1 - Seligman's version) aodPP2 (Positive
Psychology 2 - Wong's version). Hence, thedefinition, aimand scope of this field
have tobe understood in the context of these two major trends. It should be noted
here that PP 2 is nearer to Indian perspectives on life and well� being. In this
Unit you wiH be introduced to the meaning and scope of positive psychology; the
context or background in which this new field emerged; and its relation to other
social sciences and toother branches of psychology.

Introduction to
Positive Psychology

15
,.--"\
I , I

An Introduction cv.:,1.11l' I!, r.:,I DVLV I .I- a.Ul'l.3 a_i _u,

SCOPE (MARTIN SELIGMAN)
According to Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi (2000) the agenda of Positive Psychology
are asfollows.
� To articulate a vision of good life that is empirically sound while being
understandable and attractive.
� To show what actions can lead to well-being, to positive individuals, and to
thriving communities.
� To helpdocument- (i) what kindsof families result inchildren who flourish,
(ii) what work settings suppon the greatest satisfaction among workers,
(iii) what policies result in the strongest civic engagement. (iv) and how people's
Lives can be most worth Living.
The PP manifesto says (Sheldon, et al., 2000) if one has to meet the objectives and
achieve the aim of positive psychology ''one must consider optimal functioning at
multiple levels, including biological, experiential, personal, relational,
institutional, cultural and global." What does it mean? How can that be done? As
per the manifesto we have to study:
a) "The dynamic relations between processes at these levels."
b) "The human capacity to create order and meaning in response to inevitable
adversity."
c) " The means by which 'the good life,' in its .many .manifestations, may emerge
from these processes."
As perthePositive Psychology Manifesto,"Positive Psychology is thescientific study
of optimal human functioning.'' It aims to "discover and promote the factors that
allow individuals andcommunities to thrive." The manifesto further states that
positive psychology "represents a new commitment on the part of research
psychologists to focus attention upon the sources of psychological health, thereby
going beyond prior emphasis upon disease and disorder." (Sheldon, et al., 2000,
p.1). Another early pioneer of this field, late Christopher Peterson (1950-2012)
says positive psychology is "the scientific study of what goes right in life" and
what makes "life most worth living" (2006, p.4). To achieve these objectives,
Seligman established a Positive Psychology Center in the UniYersity of
Pennsylvania, in the United States. At present the vision and mission statements
related to the definition, aims and scope of positive psychology are on the
websites of the Department of Psychology and of the Positive Psychology Center
(PPC). They are reproduced below because they provide a clear idea of this new
field.
"Positive Psychology is- tbe scientific study of the strengths that enable
individuals and communities to thrive. The field is founded on the belief that
people want to Lead meaningful and .fulfilling lives, to cultivate what .is best
within themselves, and to enhance their experiences of love, work, and play."
(https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/).
16

"Positive Psychology aims to understand and build the emotions, and the strengths
and virtues thatenable individuals and communities tothrive. Positive Psychology
bas three centraJ concerns: positive experiences, positive individual traits, and
positive institutions." � Angela Duckworth, Paul Rozin, and Martin Seligman.
(https://psycbology.sas.upenn.edu/positive-psychology).
According to Duckworth, Rozin, and Seligman, the three central concerns of positive
psychology involve,
� "Understanding positive experiences or positive emotions consists in the study of
'contentment' with the 'past'; 'pleasure' in the 'present'; and 'hope' for the
'future';"
� "Understanding_positive individual traits means the study of strengths and
virtues viz., the capacity to love, valour, altruism, grit, creativity, curiosity,
integrity, moderation, self--control, spirituality and humor," and
� "Understanding positive institutions involves the study of the strong families,
communities, corporations and the virtues that nourish them such as justice,
responsibility, civility, work ethic, leadership, teamwork. purpose and tolerance."
(https://psycbology.sas.upenn.edu/positive-psychology).

1.4 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2 -AJMS AND

SCOPE (PAUL T. WONG)
Dr. Wong is the Founding President of the Meaning-Centered Counselling lnstitute,
Inc. (MCCI) and the originator of 'meaning-centered counsel.ling and therapy'
(MCCT), an 'integrative existential positive psychotherapy.' In Wong's view,
suffering is as much required for flourishing and growth as the
experience of positive emotions. Therefore, he terms his vision as"Existential
Positive Psychology (2.0) ofFlourishing Through Suffering." Healso terms it as
second wave of PP (see http:l/www.drpaulwong.com/recommended-readings� for-the-
existential-positive-psycbology-2-0-of-flourishing-through-suffering/� posted Nov
16, 2020). As he states:
"PP is intrinsically existential because it is concerned with such fundamental
questions about human existence as: What is the good life'? What makes life worth
living? How can onefind happiness? However, these existential questions cannot be
fully addressed through PP research al.one without recognizing people's existential
anxieties. A maturing PP needs to return to its existential� humanistic roots
torediscover the richness of theJived experience and the many pathways to meaning
in life." (Wong, 2016, p. I).
Though Seligman's vision and appmacb to PP bas become very popular, it has been
criticized for the overemphasis on positive emotions and undermining the
significance ofnegative emotions experienced inourlife.Existential-Humanistic
psychologists are of the view that both pleasure and pain contribute to our well-
being. Viktor Frank.I, a German psychiatrist who survived the Holocaust during
Hitler's regime and later developed his therapeutic approach known as 'Logotherapy'
argued that there is a strong relationship between depression, anxiety, and
meaninglessness. Based on bis personal experiences and of his fellow prisoners in
the 'concentration camp' be realized that when a person

Introduction to Posili -e Psycho.logy

loses all hope and a sense of purpose in life, be tends to become depressed 17