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Understanding Deception Detection

Detecting whether someone is lying or telling the truth is a challenge in many real-
life situations: criminal investigations, psychological assessments, job interviews, and
even during parole or probation checks. Over time, various methods have been
developed to identify deception, some traditional and others modern and scientific.

The Polygraph Technique

What is a Polygraph?
A polygraph (commonly called a "lie detector") is a machine that records
physiological responses — things your body does automatically, like changes in:
• Heart rate
• Breathing
• Sweating (skin conductance)
It works on the idea that lying causes stress and anxiety, which in turn causes
measurable bodily changes.

Interesting Fact: Ancient Chinese methods involved chewing dry rice powder
— if it remained dry after spitting it out, the person was thought to be lying due to
anxiety-induced dry mouth!

History
The modern polygraph was developed in 1917 by William Marston, a Harvard
psychologist (and creator of Wonder Woman!). However, courts initially rejected the
method (e.g., Frye v. United States, 1923) because it lacked broad scientific
acceptance.

Uses of the Polygraph

In Criminal Justice:
• Used by police in investigations to encourage confessions.
• Sometimes used on alleged victims to verify claims.
• Insurance companies may use it to check the truthfulness of claims.

In Offender Management:
• Sexual offenders on probation may be tested to detect undisclosed past offenses or
check for risky behavior.
• Helps in monitoring compliance with conditions like avoiding certain behaviors or
environments.
Example: In a study, only 5% of sex offenders admitted to abusing a child before a
polygraph test — but 53% confessed during the test!

In Employment:
• Previously used to test employees for theft or drug use.
• Now restricted under the Employee Polygraph Protection Act (1988) in the U.S.
• Still used for government screening, e.g., police or intelligence agencies like CSIS
in Canada.

Types of Polygraph Tests

1. Comparison Question Test (CQT) – Most Common
The CQT includes three types of questions:
• Neutral (baseline, unrelated to the crime): e.g., “Is your name John?”
• Relevant (crime-related): e.g., “Did you stab the victim on March 10?”
• Comparison (general dishonesty in the past): e.g., “Before age 30, did you ever lie to
someone in authority?”

Procedure:
1. Pre-test interview to gather info and create personalized comparison questions.
2. Acquaintance test (e.g., lie about a number you picked) to build credibility in the
test.
3. Testing phase with repeated questions in random order.
4. Scoring phase – physiological responses to relevant vs. comparison questions are
analyzed.
5. Post-test interview – outcomes discussed and, if deception is detected, a confession
may be encouraged.

How It’s Interpreted:

• Guilty person: reacts more to relevant questions.
• Innocent person: reacts more to comparison questions (since they know they're
truthful about the crime, but may feel nervous about their past honesty).
 But this assumption is debated: What if an innocent person is just more
anxious because of the seriousness of the accusation?
2. Polygraph Disclosure Test
• Used in therapeutic or legal settings (e.g., with sexual offenders) to gather info about
past behaviors that haven’t been officially reported.

Criticism & Limitations

• Not foolproof: Anxiety, fear, or anger can also cause similar physiological reactions
to lying.
• Legal limitations: Results are not always admissible in court.
• Psychological critique: Assumptions about physiological responses don’t apply to
everyone the same way.

Conclusion
While the polygraph is a popular tool in detecting deception, especially in law
enforcement and offender monitoring, it does not directly detect lies. Instead, it
measures bodily responses that are associated with lying. However, these responses
can also occur due to other emotions, leading to false positives or negatives. This
makes the polygraph controversial and its results often inadmissible or only
supplementary in many legal contexts.
Sure! Here's a more elaborative, student-friendly version of the topic "Validity
of Polygraph Techniques" that is useful for both understanding and exam answer
writing.

Validity of Polygraph Techniques

Learning Objective 2: Describe the Research and Scientific Opinion About
the Polygraph

1. How is Polygraph Accuracy Assessed?

The accuracy of polygraph tests is assessed by examining how well they can
detect true deception or truth-telling under controlled or real-world conditions.
Accuracy is typically evaluated by:
• Presenting known true or false information to individuals.
• Measuring physiological responses (e.g., heart rate, respiration, skin conductivity).
• Comparing responses to see if the test can accurately identify guilt or innocence.
 2. Types of Polygraph Studies
Polygraph validity research is categorized into two main types: Laboratory
Studies and Field Studies.

A. Laboratory Studies
• Use mock crimes with volunteer participants, usually students.
• Participants are randomly assigned to either commit or not commit a mock crime.
• Advantages:
o The "ground truth" is known (i.e., researchers know who is truly guilty or
innocent).
o Variables like time since the crime, or type of polygraph test can be
controlled.
• Limitations:
o Low emotional involvement—participants don’t have real consequences.
o Ethical limits mean guilty participants can’t be motivated strongly to beat
the test.
o Lacks realism compared to actual criminal cases.

B. Field Studies
• Conducted in real-life settings with actual criminal suspects.
• Involve real polygraph examinations used in investigations.
• Accuracy is often judged by comparing results from:
o Original examiners (who conduct the test and know case details).
o Blind evaluators (who review charts without knowing case details).
• Limitations:
o Ground truth is hard to establish:
▪ Judicial outcomes may be flawed (e.g., wrongful convictions).
▪ Confessions may be false or influenced by the polygraph itself.
▪ Cases where suspects pass the polygraph but are guilty often go
unreported.
o This can lead to overestimation of accuracy.
 3. Types of Polygraph Tests and Their Validity
A. Control Question Test (CQT)
• Compares responses to relevant questions (about the crime) vs. control questions
(unrelated but stressful).
• Findings from Field Studies:
o Correctly identifies 84% to 92% of guilty suspects.
o Accuracy for innocent suspects is lower: 55% to 78%.
o False positives: 9% to 24% of innocent suspects are wrongly classified as
guilty.
o Indicates the CQT may not be equally valid for all individuals.
o Criticism: Based on flawed logic—some innocent people may react strongly
to relevant questions due to anxiety.
B. Concealed Information Test (CIT)
• Checks if the suspect recognizes crime-related details that only the guilty would
know.
• Used more in Israel and Japan than in North America.
• Findings from Mock-Crime Studies:
o Correctly identifies up to 95% of innocent participants.
o Correctly identifies 76% to 85% of guilty participants.
• Findings from Field Studies (Israel):
o Elaad (1990): 98% accuracy for innocent, only 42% for guilty.
o Elaad et al. (1992): 94% accuracy for innocent, 76% for guilty.
• Conclusion:
o CIT is highly accurate for detecting innocence, but may miss some guilty
suspects (false negatives).
o In contrast, CQT is more prone to false positives (falsely accusing the
innocent).

4. Can People Beat the Polygraph?

• Countermeasures are techniques used to trick the polygraph.
• Honts et al. (1994): With just 30 minutes of training, participants learned to use:
 o Physical countermeasures (e.g., biting tongue, pressing toes).
o Mental countermeasures (e.g., counting backward).
• Result: 50% of guilty participants beat the polygraph.
• Examiners couldn’t detect the use of countermeasures.

5. Do Drugs Help Beat the Test?

• Iacono et al. (1992) tested whether anti-anxiety drugs (like diazepam, propranolol)
help guilty suspects appear innocent.
• Result: Drugs did not affect the test’s accuracy.
• Examiners could still correctly identify 90% of participants.

6. Scientific vs. Public Opinion

• Most scientists are skeptical of the CQT, its assumptions, and accuracy.
• Many polygraph results are influenced by examiner bias and flawed logic.
• However, public belief in polygraph reliability remains high due to media portrayal
and lack of awareness.

7. Emerging Techniques: Thermal Imaging

• Researchers are exploring non-invasive technologies, such as high-definition
thermal imaging.
• Pavlidis et al. (2002):
o Detected deception by measuring facial warmth, especially around the eyes.
o Accuracy: 75% for guilty, 92% for innocent.
• Warmelink et al. (2011):
o Found that interviewers were more accurate than thermal imaging (77% vs.
69%).
o Concluded that thermal imaging is not yet reliable for real-world use (e.g.,
at airports).

Summary Table: CQT vs. CIT

 Concealed
Control Question Test
Feature Information Test
(CQT)
(CIT)

Detect deception via Detect recognition

Goal
emotional arousal of crime-related info

Accuracy
84–92% 76–85%
(Guilty)

Accuracy
55–78% Up to 95%
(Innocent)

False Positives High Low

False
Low Moderate
Negatives

Limited use, but

Vulnerability Countermeasures
less vulnerable

Conclusion
• The polygraph is not a foolproof lie detector.
• While it can provide useful information, its validity is debated—especially in legal
and investigative settings.
• The CQT is vulnerable to false positives and countermeasures, while the CIT is
better at identifying innocent suspects but may miss some guilty ones.
• Ongoing research continues to seek more objective, reliable methods of detecting
deception.

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Here’s a more elaborated version of the topic Brain-Based Deception Research
with headings, clear definitions, and structured content for easy learning and answer
writing in exams:

Brain-Based Deception Research

Introduction
In recent years, advancements in neuroscience have led to the development of
brain-based methods for detecting deception. These are considered alternatives to
 traditional methods like the polygraph, which mainly rely on measuring physiological
arousal. The two main techniques discussed in brain-based deception research are:
• Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)
• Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

1. Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)

Definition
ERPs are measurable brain responses that are the result of a specific sensory,
cognitive, or motor event. They are recorded using electrodes placed on the scalp,
capturing electrical activity in the cerebral cortex.
Key Term: P300 Wave
A specific ERP that appears when an individual recognizes significant, meaningful
stimuli (e.g., crime-relevant details). It occurs approximately 300 milliseconds after
stimulus presentation.

Application in Deception Detection

• Concealed Information Test (CIT): If a suspect recognizes crime-relevant
information, a large P300 response is triggered.
• Guilty suspects → larger P300 to crime-relevant items.
• Innocent suspects → no difference in response between crime-related and unrelated
stimuli.

Research Evidence
• Farwell & Donchin (1991): Pioneers of the technique; correctly classified 18 of 20
guilty and 17 of 20 innocent participants in espionage simulations.
• Limitations:
o Artificial setting
o Participants reviewed crime details just before testing
o No real-life consequences
o Small sample size

Improved Model: P300-MERMER

• Introduced by Farwell (2012)
• Claims to be more accurate than standard P300 for complex tasks (e.g., real criminal
cases)
 2. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Definition
fMRI measures changes in cerebral blood flow, which reflect brain activity. It
identifies which areas of the brain are more active during specific tasks.

Application in Deception Detection

• Instead of measuring arousal, it targets cognitive processes involved in lying.
• Areas typically activated during deception:
o Prefrontal cortex
o Anterior cingulate cortex

Findings from Research

• Lies produce greater activation in the above regions than truth-telling.
• fMRI studies have detected deception with ~90% accuracy in controlled lab settings.

Types of Deception Studied

• Forced-choice lies (e.g., saying "yes" when answer is "no")
• Spontaneous lies (e.g., saying a different city)
• Rehearsed lies
• Faking memory loss
• Concealed knowledge (e.g., hiding stolen items)

Countermeasures and Limitations

• Ganis et al. (2011): A covert movement like wiggling a toe reduced fMRI accuracy
from 100% to 33%.
• Concerns:
o Group-level averaging (not individual-specific)
o Conducted on healthy volunteers
o No real-life pressure or consequences

3. Influence on Legal Systems and Juror Decision-Making

Example: McCabe et al. (2011)

• Participants read a court transcript with different types of expert deception evidence:
1. Polygraph
 2. Thermal imaging
3. fMRI
• fMRI evidence led to the highest rate of guilty verdicts
• However, the effect was reduced when counter-testimony questioned the reliability
of fMRI

Concern
• Visual images of brain scans can bias jurors into thinking the evidence is more
scientific and valid, even when it may not be.

4. Real-Life Application: Brain Fingerprinting

Case: Harrington v. State (2003)

• Terry Harrington was wrongly convicted of murder.
• After 25 years in prison, he underwent P300-based brain fingerprinting by Dr.
Farwell.
• Results showed:
o No P300 response to crime scene details
o Strong P300 response to alibi-related details
• Helped gain attention and re-open the case, although the conviction was overturned
based on witnesses recanting their testimony.

Conclusion
Brain-based deception research represents a promising but still developing field.
While ERPs and fMRI show potential for detecting deception:
• More real-life testing is needed
• Results must be interpreted cautiously
• Ethical and legal concerns must be addressed

Tips for Answer Writing

• Define key terms clearly (e.g., P300, fMRI, ERPs)
• Use headings and bullet points for structure
• Mention strengths and limitations of each method
• Support with key studies (Farwell & Donchin, Ganis et al., McCabe et al.)
• End with a balanced conclusion
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Chapter 4: Deception, organized by key themes and with deeper explanation and
examples:

Common Myths About Lying – Debunked

Myth 4: Liars fidget more.
• Reality: Contrary to popular belief, fidgeting is not related to deception.
• Evidence: Mann, Vrij, & Bull (2004) found that police officers who relied on
detecting fidgeting were actually less accurate in identifying liars.
• Why this matters: People often misjudge nervous behaviors like fidgeting as lying,
but it can simply be due to anxiety or discomfort—not dishonesty.
Myth 5: Women are better lie detectors than men.
• Partially True:
o Women and strangers: No difference in lie detection ability between men
and women.
o Women and close relationships: Women tend to be better at detecting lies
told by romantic partners and close friends.
o Studies:
▪ McCornack & Parks (1990): Women were better at catching lies from
partners.
▪ Anderson et al. (1999): Female friends could detect lies better after 6
months; male friends did not improve.

Nonverbal and Verbal Cues to Deception

Facial Expressions and Microexpressions
• Microexpressions: Tiny, fleeting facial expressions may reveal concealed emotions.
• Matsumoto et al. (2011): Recommended watching both verbal statements and
facial expressions during interrogations to catch deception.
The Role of Stress in Lying
• Strömwall et al. (2006): Created a high-stakes, realistic lying scenario:
o Participants were paid to lie or tell the truth.
 o Liars felt more anxious and stressed, but showed no noticeable nonverbal
differences from truth-tellers.
o Verbal strategy differences:
▪ Truth-tellers: “Keep it real”
▪ Liars: “Keep it simple” — a tactic to reduce contradictions

Most Reliable Verbal Cues of Lying

DePaulo et al. (2003) analyzed 158 cues from 120 adult samples. Findings:

Reliable Cues:
• Less detail: Liars often give vague or underdeveloped stories.
• Low plausibility: Their accounts are less logical and coherent.
• Less emotional expressiveness: Liars appear more nervous, tense, and less
cooperative.
• Fewer spontaneous corrections: Truth-tellers may say, “Wait, I think I forgot…”
Liars rarely do.
• Admitting memory gaps: Truth-tellers are more comfortable admitting they forget
something; liars try to appear too confident.

Cognitive Load & Speech:

• Harder lies (fabricating stories) = more speech disturbances (e.g., “uh,” “um,” longer
pauses).
• Simpler lies (concealing truth) = fewer verbal fillers but still detectable through
inconsistencies.

Deception in Emergency Calls – 911 Call Study

Adams & Harpster (2008):
• Analyzed 100 calls (50 innocent, 50 guilty).
• Innocent Callers:
o Ask for help.
o Show urgency and emotion.
o Are more cooperative and even demanding.
• Guilty Callers:
o Provide irrelevant details, act calm and polite, may even blame the victim.
 o Less emotional tone.

Deception in Online Dating

Study by Toma, Hancock & Ellison (2008):
• Participants from dating sites came to a lab to have their profiles fact-checked.
• Key issues:
o Many online users believe others lie or exaggerate in profiles.
o Motivations:
▪ Impress potential matches.
▪ Appear more attractive or interesting.
o Men vs. Women:
▪ Men more likely to inflate jobs or income.
▪ Women more likely to alter age or physical traits.
o Despite the possibility for dishonesty, many still strive to be authentic to find a
compatible partner.

Are Some People Naturally Good Lie Detectors?

In General:
• People are not good at detecting lies.
• Meta-analysis by Aamodt & Custer (2006):
o Professional lie detectors (e.g., police, judges) had only 55.5% accuracy.
o Non-professionals had 54.2%—almost the same as random guessing.
Why Are We So Bad at It?
1. Relying on wrong cues: Eye contact and fidgeting are not reliable indicators (yet
many believe they are).
2. Truth-bias: We are wired to believe people are telling the truth, especially in daily
interactions.
3. Small behavioral differences: Liars and truth-tellers often behave very similarly.
Exception – “Lie Detection Wizards”:
• O’Sullivan & Ekman (2004):
o Screened 12,000 professionals and identified 29 people with exceptional lie-
detecting skills.
 o Accuracy: 90% in some tasks.
o These individuals were highly observant and intuitive—likely outliers.

Table 4.3: Summary of Verbal & Nonverbal Cues

Verbal Indicators Nonverbal Indicators

Speech fillers ("um", "ah") Gaze aversion

Speech errors/slips Smiling/laughing frequency

Voice pitch (usually higher) Blinking frequency

Slower rate of speech Fidgeting (scratching, fiddling)

Pauses before answering Shrugs, head nods/shakes

Fewer details Shifting body position

Less plausible story Unnatural gestures or fewer illustrators

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under clear subheadings for easier understanding and revision:

Deception-Detection Ability: What Really Matters?

Experience and Confidence Aren’t Reliable Indicators
• DePaulo & Pfeifer (1986) conducted a study comparing university students, new
police recruits, and experienced police officers on their ability to detect lies.
o Finding: All groups performed similarly—no one was especially better at
detecting deception.
o Interesting point: Experienced police officers were more confident in their
judgments despite not being more accurate.
• Follow-up research (Ekman & O’Sullivan, 1991; Porter et al., 2000; Leach et al.,
2004) confirms this: neither job experience nor confidence reliably predicts
accuracy in detecting lies.
Why Confidence Doesn’t Equal Accuracy
• DePaulo et al. (1997) conducted a meta-analysis and found a very low correlation (r
= .04) between confidence and accuracy in lie detection.
• People tend to feel confident when they see certain nonverbal cues they believe are
related to deception—but these cues are often invalid, leading to poor accuracy.

Case Study: High-Stakes Lies and Susan Smith

• Real-life example: Susan Smith lied about a carjacking and the kidnapping of her
children. She later confessed to murdering them.
• Despite her emotional public appeals, people (including professionals) failed to
detect her deception.
• This case highlights how complicated high-stakes lies can be and how difficult it is
to distinguish genuine from deceptive grief.

Can Professionals Detect High-Stakes Lies?

Vrij & Mann (2001):
• Showed police officers videos of people pleading for help to find missing relatives
(who were later found guilty of killing those relatives).
• Result: Officers’ ability to detect lies was no better than chance.
• Factors like age, years of experience, interviewing expertise, or confidence did not
influence accuracy.
ten Brinke & Porter (2012):
• Studied covert facial expressions of emotion in deceptive vs. genuine pleaders.
• Deceptive pleaders:
o Used fewer and more tentative words (e.g., “maybe”, “I guess”).
o Displayed less facial expression of grief compared to genuine pleaders.

Who’s Better at Lying or Judging?

• Bond & DePaulo (2008): No specific personality traits reliably predict someone’s
ability to detect deception.
• Their major conclusion: “Deception judgments depend more on the liar than the
judge.”
o Some people are just better liars—they control cues more convincingly.

Can Deception Detection Be Taught?

Yes—but only to some extent.
 Effective Training Programs:
• Porter et al. (2000): A 2-day workshop improved parole officers' accuracy from 40%
to 76.7%.
• Porter et al. (2010): A 3-hour session raised healthcare workers' accuracy to 60.7%.
• Masip et al. (2008): Suggested training should include both deceptive and truthful
cues to avoid bias.

Key Canadian Researcher: Dr. Leanne ten Brinke

• Started in forensic psychology after volunteering in Dr. Stephen Porter’s lab.
• Her PhD research focused on high-stakes deception (e.g., people pleading for return
of murdered loved ones).
• Found that deceptive pleaders often showed inappropriate emotions (like smiling)
and lacked genuine sadness.
• Later studied:
o Physiological reactions to deception.
o Psychopathic traits in politicians and leaders.
o How body awareness (e.g., noticing gut reactions) can improve lie detection.

Disorders of Deception (DSM-5)

Intentiona Motivatio
Disorder Key Features
l? n

Neurological
Internal symptoms (e.g.,
Conversio
(psychologic paralysis) with
n Disorder
al) no medical
cause; not faked.

Deliberate
faking of
symptoms
Factitious
Internal without external
Disorder
gain (e.g.,
attention-
seeking).

Munchaus Caregiver
en Syndrome Internal induces illness in
by Proxy someone else
 Intentiona Motivatio
Disorder Key Features
l? n

(Factitious (e.g., child) for

Disorder sympathy/attenti
Imposed on on.
Another)

Key Takeaways
• Confidence ≠ Competence: People are often overconfident in their ability to detect
lies.
• Training helps: Especially when focused on both truth and deception cues.
• Deceptive cues are subtle: Especially in high-stakes scenarios like pleading for
missing children.
• Facial expressions and emotional leakage may offer insight—but they’re not
foolproof.
• No “lie-detection personality” exists—being a good judge depends more on the liar
than the observer.

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Here’s a concise, organized breakdown to help you study malingering, with a
focus on Learning Objective 6 (LO6): Differentiating between types of studies
used to examine malingering and summarizing research on malingered
psychosis.

Types of Research Designs in Malingering Studies

1. Case Studies
• Definition: In-depth descriptions of individual cases.
• Strengths:
o Useful for rare or unusual conditions (e.g., Munchausen by Proxy).
o Generates hypotheses for further study.
• Limitations:
o Lacks experimental control.
o Not generalizable to wider population.
 2. Simulation Design (Most commonly used)
• Definition: Participants are asked to pretend they have a specific disorder.
• Group Types (see Figure 4.6):
o Nonclinical-Control: No disorder, no malingering.
o Nonclinical-Experimental: No disorder, but told to malinger.
o Clinical-Control: Has disorder, no malingering.
o Clinical-Experimental: Has disorder, but told to malinger.
• Strengths:
o High experimental control.
o Can compare malingering vs genuine symptoms.
• Limitations:
o Poor generalizability to real-world malingering.
o Participants may lack motivation or preparation.
• Enhancements:
o Specific instructions (e.g., simulate memory problems after a car crash).
o Incentives: Positive (cash rewards), Negative (loss of money).
• Coaching Studies:
o Detection strategies help people fake better.
o Info about the disorder doesn’t help as much.
• Ethical concern: Are we teaching people how to malinger better?

3. Known-Groups Design
• Definition: Compares real malingerers with genuine patients.
• Steps:
1. Establish criterion groups (known malingerers vs genuine).
2. Compare their test performances.
• Strengths:
o High real-world applicability.
• Limitations:
 o Difficult to classify people accurately.
o Risk of mislabeling real patients as malingerers (or vice versa).
• Rarely used due to classification issues.

Research on Malingered Psychosis

Key Findings:
• Pope et al. (1982): Found 9 cases of factitious psychosis in 219 forensic hospital
admissions; all had personality disorders (borderline or histrionic).
• Cornell & Hawk (1989): 8% of 314 psychiatric admissions were feigning psychotic
symptoms.
• Instrumental Psychosis: Term for individuals with genuine psychiatric history who
feign symptoms for external gain (e.g., avoid prison, get benefits).

Indicators of Malingered Psychosis (Resnick, 1997)

• Overacting, bizarre symptoms.
• Symptoms inconsistent with known psychotic disorders.
• Eagerness to discuss symptoms.
• Absence of subtle symptoms typical in genuine psychosis.
• Non-cooperation with assessment/treatment.

Classic Study Example

Rosenhan (1973) – “Being Sane in Insane Places”
• 8 fake patients feigned auditory hallucinations to get admitted.
• Diagnosed with schizophrenia despite no actual illness.
• Once admitted, behaved normally but were still treated as mentally ill.
• Main finding: Psychiatric labels can lead to confirmation bias, misinterpreting
normal behavior as pathological.

Summary Points for LO6

 Design Used For Strength Weakness

Rare
Case conditions, Detailed Low
Study hypothesis insight generalizability
building

High
Detecting Low
control,
Simulation malingering ecological
common in
experimentally validity
research

Real-world Difficult to
Known- Realistic
malingering classify
Groups applicability
comparisons participants

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Here's a simplified and structured summary of the content you provided, ideal for
note-making or quick revision on the topic of Eyewitness Testimony from forensic
psychology:

Eyewitness Testimony – Chapter Summary

Why It Matters
• Eyewitness testimony is compelling and frequently used in court.
• Mistakes in memory can lead to wrongful convictions.
• Memory is not like a videotape—it's reconstructive and error-prone.

LO1: Components of Eyewitness Memory

Memory Process:
1. Perception/Attention – Observing details (e.g., bushy eyebrows).
2. Encoding – Storing those details (short-term memory).
3. Storage – Transfer to long-term memory.
4. Retrieval – Recalling information when needed.

⚠ Not all perceived info is stored, and stored info may degrade or be altered over
time.
Influencing Factors:
• Attention (distraction or inattention).
• Unexpectedness of the event.
• Duration of exposure to the event.
• Post-event information (e.g., hearing other witnesses).
• Question phrasing during interviews.
• Time lapse before retrieval.
• Lineup procedure used.
• Confidence does not always equal accuracy.

Common Myths vs. Realities (Box 5.1)

Myth Reality

Memory is like a Memory is malleable and influenced by

videotape events/questions

Question wording
It does affect accuracy (Loftus & Zanni, 1975)
doesn’t matter

Stress improves High stress reduces memory accuracy

memory (Deffenbacher et al., 2004)

Race doesn’t affect Cross-race effect: better recognition of same-

identification race individuals (Meissner & Brigham, 2001)

Weapons don’t Weapon focus effect reduces recall of other

affect memory details (Saunders, 2009)

Types of Memory in Eyewitness Testimony

• Recall Memory: Describing the event or person (free response).
• Recognition Memory: Identifying someone or something previously seen (e.g., in a
lineup).

LO2: How Eyewitness Issues Are Studied

Research Methods:
• Archival data (e.g., police reports).
• Naturalistic observation at crime scenes.
• Laboratory simulations (most common): participants unknowingly witness a staged
event, then are questioned.

Types of Variables

Type Definition Example

Lighting, witness age,

Estimator Cannot be controlled;
stress, presence of
Variables present during the crime
weapon

System Can be controlled by Lineup procedures,

Variables the justice system interview techniques

Dependent Variables (in research)

1. Recall of the event
2. Recall of the perpetrator
3. Recognition of the perpetrator
Recall Formats:
• Open-ended recall (Free narrative): Witness describes all they remember without
interruption.
• Direct questioning: Structured Q&A about the crime/perpetrator.

Additional Note:
• Canada’s Witness Protection Program (Box 5.2): Offers protection for at-risk
witnesses, includes identity change, extended emergency protection, and applies to
national defence/CSIS informants.

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Recall Memory in an Eyewitness Context
In the context of eyewitness testimony, recall memory refers to the ability of an
eyewitness to retrieve and report details about an event they have witnessed. The
primary goal of law enforcement officers interviewing eyewitnesses is to obtain a
complete and accurate account of the event. This information is critical for solving
crimes and identifying perpetrators. However, insufficient or inaccurate recall can
hinder investigations, potentially leading to wrongful convictions or the perpetrator
remaining free.
 Interviewing Eyewitnesses
Research by Fisher, Geiselman, and Raymond (1987) analyzed police interview
techniques and found several limitations in how interviews were conducted. Police
officers typically used an open-ended format initially but often interrupted
eyewitnesses, which hindered their ability to recall details. In addition, officers would
ask specific, short questions that resulted in minimal information, missing potential
crucial details, like distinguishing features of the perpetrator. Furthermore, officers
often asked questions in an illogical or inconsistent order, which decreased the
accuracy of the recall. Mixing different sensory questions (e.g., visual and auditory)
also decreased the reliability of the response by about 19%.
Leading Questions and the Misinformation Effect
A significant problem in eyewitness interviews is the use of leading questions.
These are questions that suggest a particular answer or influence the witness’s
memory. Elizabeth Loftus’ research on leading questions demonstrated how wording
could alter eyewitness recall. For example, Loftus and Palmer (1974) found that
participants watching a car accident recalled different speeds depending on whether
the question used the word "smashed," "collided," "bumped," or "contacted." The
term "smashed" led participants to report faster speeds. Furthermore, when
participants were asked a week later if they saw broken glass (even though there was
none), those questioned with the word "smashed" were more likely to report seeing
broken glass, demonstrating how wording can lead to false memories. This
phenomenon is known as the misinformation effect or post-event information
effect, where inaccurate information introduced after an event alters a witness’s
recall. Loftus’ studies have shown that even subtle misinformation can be
incorporated into eyewitness memory and distort the accuracy of their report.
Memory Conformity
Another issue in eyewitness memory is memory conformity, which occurs when
multiple witnesses discuss the event and influence each other’s recollections. If one
witness shares a detail that they didn’t actually observe, it may lead others to recall
the same detail, thus contaminating the accuracy of each witness’s report. This shared
influence can reduce the independence of each eyewitness account and create
inconsistencies in the overall testimony.

This structured format covers key ideas related to recall memory in eyewitness
contexts, incorporating research findings to explain the various factors that can impact
the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
This text outlines research on the misinformation effect and eyewitness
testimony, which explores how external information influences memory recall,
especially in the context of crime and legal investigations. Here are key points:
Misinformation Effect:
• Experiment: University students watched a film about a class being interrupted by
demonstrators. They were asked whether the leader of the demonstrators was male,
with different groups given varying numbers (4 vs. 12). When asked later how many
demonstrators they saw, those who were influenced by the "12 demonstrators"
question reported seeing an average of 8.85, while those in the "4 demonstrators"
group reported 6.40.
• Key Concepts:
o Misinformation Effect: When external information (like misleading
questions) alters a witness's memory.
o Misinformation Acceptance Hypothesis: Suggests that a witness may simply
guess or try to please the experimenter, leading to the misinformation effect.
o Source Misattribution Hypothesis: Indicates that witnesses may recall both
the accurate and inaccurate details but are unable to attribute them correctly.
o Memory Impairment Hypothesis: Proposes that new, incorrect information
can replace the original memory.
Real-life Implications:
• Influence of Questions: If police ask biased or leading questions, such as “Did you
see the gun?” rather than “Did you see a gun?” it can alter a witness's recall.
• Social Influence: If multiple witnesses discuss an event, they may influence each
other, leading to altered memories.
Eyewitness Interview Procedures:
1. Hypnosis: Used in some cases to help witnesses recall details. However, this
technique may also lead to the recall of both accurate and inaccurate details.
o Limitations: Difficulty distinguishing between true and false memories.
2. Cognitive Interview: An interview technique designed to improve memory recall
without increasing errors.
o Four key techniques:
1. Reinstating the context: Recreating the environment or circumstances
during the event.
2. Reporting everything: Encouraging the witness to share every detail,
even if they think it’s irrelevant.
3. Reversing the order: Asking the witness to recall the event in reverse
order to reduce cognitive bias.
4. Changing perspective: Asking the witness to recall the event from
different viewpoints.
o Enhanced Cognitive Interview: Adds components like rapport building,
supportive behavior, and focused retrieval.
 o Effectiveness: It increases the accuracy of details without increasing errors,
especially compared to standard interviews.
Perpetrator Descriptions:
• Descriptions provided by witnesses are often vague and general. While some basic
details like gender are usually accurate, other details such as age, weight, and
footwear are less reliable.
• For example, in a study of armed robbery witnesses, descriptions often included
general attributes like gender, build, and height, but specific details like clothing and
age were less accurate.
Takeaways:
• The misinformation effect is a real and well-documented phenomenon, where
external sources of information alter memories.
• Psychological techniques like the cognitive interview have been shown to enhance
the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies.
• Descriptions of perpetrators are often vague, highlighting the need for improved
techniques to gather more detailed and accurate descriptions.
This summary highlights the various ways in which memory can be influenced, the
methodologies designed to help improve memory retrieval, and the challenges faced
by law enforcement in gathering accurate eyewitness information.
The excerpt from Chapter 5 on Eyewitness Testimony outlines several key
concepts related to recognition memory and lineup procedures used in identifying
suspects. Here's a summary of the main points, along with the implications of lineup
biases and procedures:
Key Concepts:
1. Recognition Memory: This refers to a witness's ability to identify a previously seen
item or person. Common methods of testing recognition memory include:
o Live lineups or photo arrays
o Video surveillance records
o Voice identification
2. Lineup Identification: In a typical lineup identification, a witness views a group of
individuals and must determine whether one is the perpetrator. Lineups help reduce
uncertainty about the identity of the criminal.
3. Suspect vs. Perpetrator: A suspect is a person believed to have committed the
crime, but they could be either guilty or innocent. A perpetrator is the actual guilty
person.
4. Lineup Distractors: These are individuals who are included in the lineup but are
known to be innocent. There are two strategies for selecting distractors:
 o Similarity-to-suspect strategy: Match lineup members to the suspect’s
physical characteristics.
o Match-to-description strategy: Only match features mentioned by the
witness in their description.
5. Fair Lineups: A fair lineup is one in which the suspect does not stand out from the
others. It's essential to match characteristics like sex, race, or other features, even if
they aren't mentioned in the witness's description, to avoid bias.
6. Identification Accuracy: Research distinguishes between target-present lineups
(where the perpetrator is included) and target-absent lineups (where the perpetrator
is absent). The accuracy of identification can be measured by:
o Correct identification (target-present lineup)
o False rejection (target-present lineup, no identification)
o Correct rejection (target-absent lineup)
o False identification (target-absent lineup, incorrect selection)
7. Live Lineups vs. Photo Arrays: Photo arrays are often preferred over live lineups
because they are less time-consuming, portable, and less likely to influence the
witness due to the suspect’s behavior. However, live lineups have the advantage of
allowing the defendant the right to counsel.
8. Sequential vs. Simultaneous Lineup:
o Simultaneous Lineup: All lineup members are presented to the witness at
once, prompting a relative judgment, where the witness compares individuals
and selects the one who looks most like the perpetrator.
o Sequential Lineup: Lineup members are presented one at a time, and the
witness must decide whether each individual is the perpetrator before moving
to the next. This procedure encourages absolute judgment, where each
individual is compared to the witness’s memory of the perpetrator.
9. Effectiveness of Sequential vs. Simultaneous Lineups:
o Simultaneous lineups generally lead to a higher rate of correct identifications
but lower correct rejection rates compared to sequential lineups.
o Sequential lineups tend to result in higher rates of correct rejections
(indicating that the perpetrator is not present when they are absent from the
lineup), though the identification accuracy may be slightly lower for
sequential lineups.
Implications of Lineup Biases:
• Biased lineups occur when the suspect stands out from the distractors, which can
influence the witness’s judgment. For example, if the witness describes the
perpetrator as having brown hair but the suspect has blond hair, a biased lineup could
still occur if the distractors do not match the suspect’s hair color.
• False identifications are a serious issue because they can lead to wrongful
convictions, where an innocent person is convicted while the actual criminal remains
free.
• False rejections are also problematic, as they may result in the real perpetrator going
unpunished.
By using careful procedures, such as ensuring a fair lineup and considering the
sequential lineup method, police can reduce errors in eyewitness testimony and
improve the accuracy of identification.
Let me know if you'd like me to break down any part further or help with the
application of these concepts!
The section you shared explores various identification procedures used in
eyewitness testimony, including showups, walk-bys, and lineups, as well as the
challenges and biases associated with them. Here's a breakdown of key points:
Showups
• A showup is when a witness is shown only one individual (the suspect) to determine
if they are the perpetrator.
• This procedure is often criticized because it can lead to suggestive identification due
to the witness knowing who the police suspect.
• However, research has had mixed results: some studies (like Gonzalez et al., 1993)
suggest that showups might result in fewer false identifications compared to lineups,
as witnesses may be more cautious and inclined to reject the suspect. Others (like
Steblay et al., 2003) find that false identifications are more common in showups.
• The showup procedure is more likely to occur when the suspect is apprehended
immediately or when a deathbed identification is required.
• In real-world cases, showups have shown a higher likelihood of identification than
lineups, although this is still debated.
Walk-By
• Walk-by identification occurs in a natural setting, where the witness is taken to a
public place where the suspect is present. This can be a less controlled method and
might have its own set of biases.
Lineup Biases
• Constructing a fair lineup is crucial, as biases can influence the accuracy of
eyewitness identification.
o Foil bias: When the suspect is the only one matching the description of the
perpetrator.
o Clothing bias: When the suspect wears clothing similar to the one described
for the perpetrator.
 o Instruction bias: When witnesses are not told that the perpetrator might not
be in the lineup, leading them to believe the suspect is present.
Voice Identification
• Voice identification (also known as "ear-witness" identification) is an area with
limited research but a notable history, such as the case of Charles Lindbergh's son's
kidnapping in 1937.
• Studies suggest that voice identification accuracy can be affected by factors like the
length of the voice sample, whether the speaker whispers, and distinctiveness of the
voice.
• Changes in voice (e.g., whispering, muffling, or emotional tone) or differences in
accent can decrease the likelihood of correct identification.
Factors Affecting Voice Identification
• Voice distortion through whispering or emotional changes can make it harder for
witnesses to accurately identify someone.
• Research on accents shows that familiarity with the speaker's accent can increase
identification accuracy.
These procedures and biases are crucial to understanding how eyewitness
testimony can be flawed and how certain conditions can lead to misidentifications.
Key Findings on Eyewitness Testimony and Confidence
1. Multiple Independent Identifications:
o Study Findings: Research by Pryke et al. (2004) shows that when multiple
lineups (e.g., face, voice, body, clothing) are used, it improves the reliability
of eyewitness identification.
o Implication: The likelihood of a suspect’s guilt increases when multiple
independent lineups point to the same person. This suggests that multiple
aspects of a person’s appearance (such as face and clothing) should be used to
improve the accuracy of the identification.
o Future Research: Further studies could explore whether some types of
lineups are more effective in identifying guilt than others.
2. Confidence and Accuracy:
o Historical Context: The 1972 Supreme Court ruling in Neil v. Biggers
suggested that confidence is a reliable indicator of accuracy. However,
research has not fully supported this idea.
o Key Studies: Research by Cutler & Penrod (1989a, 1989b) and Penrod &
Cutler (1995) shows a small correlation between confidence and accuracy.
o Factors Influencing the Confidence-Accuracy Relationship:
 ▪ Immediate Confidence: A strong correlation between confidence and
accuracy when confidence is expressed immediately after the
identification decision.
▪ Post-Lineup Feedback: Studies by Bradfield, Wells, and others
(2002) have shown that feedback can inflate confidence, thereby
weakening the relationship between confidence and actual accuracy.
▪ Recommendation: Confidence ratings should be taken immediately
after an identification decision, before any feedback, to ensure they
accurately reflect the witness's true belief in their identification.
3. Impact of Age on Identification:
o Findings on Older Adults: Research suggests that older adults (over 60) are
less likely to accurately identify suspects from lineups. They also have a
higher likelihood of making incorrect rejections compared to younger adults
(Wells & Olson, 2003).
o Developmental Trajectory: Studies indicate that the ability to correctly
identify a perpetrator improves with age until middle adulthood but declines in
older age (Fitzgerald & Price, 2015; Havard & Memon, 2009).
4. The Cross-Race Effect:
o Cross-Race Effect: Witnesses tend to remember faces of their own race with
greater accuracy than faces of other races. This phenomenon has been widely
observed in various studies (Meissner & Brigham, 2001; Jackiw et al., 2008).
o Factors Contributing to the Cross-Race Effect:
▪ Physiognomic Homogeneity: The idea that faces from certain races
may look more similar, though this hypothesis lacks strong empirical
support.
▪ Interracial Contact: Studies suggest that greater exposure to people
of other races improves the ability to distinguish their faces. For
instance, experts in basketball (who regularly see Black athletes) are
better at recognizing Black faces than novices (Li, Dunning, &
Malpass, as cited in Meissner & Brigham, 2001).
o Implications for Eyewitness Testimony: This effect implies that cross-race
identifications may be less accurate, leading to a higher risk of mistaken
identifications, particularly in racially diverse communities.
Summary:
• Multiple Identifications: Using different lineups that highlight various features of a
suspect (e.g., face, voice, body) improves the accuracy of eyewitness identifications.
• Confidence and Accuracy: Confidence is not always a reliable indicator of accuracy,
especially when influenced by post-identification feedback. Immediate confidence
ratings, without feedback, are more closely related to actual accuracy.
• Age and Race Factors: Older adults tend to perform worse in lineup identifications,
and the cross-race effect suggests that witnesses are more accurate at identifying faces
of their own race. Interracial contact can improve cross-race identification accuracy.
This research highlights the complexities of eyewitness testimony and the
importance of considering various factors—such as the use of multiple lineups,
confidence ratings, and demographic variables—when assessing the reliability of
eyewitness identifications.
Key Points from the Text on Weapon Focus, Eyewitness Testimony, and
Expert Testimony:
1. Weapon Focus:
• Definition: Weapon focus refers to a phenomenon where witnesses focus their
attention on a weapon during a crime, often resulting in poorer recall of the
perpetrator's appearance or other details.
• Two Main Explanations:
o Arousal Hypothesis (Easterbrook, 1959): Emotional arousal from the
presence of a weapon narrows a witness’s attentional focus, making it harder
to remember peripheral details.
o Unusualness Hypothesis: Weapons are unusual objects in everyday
situations, which makes them stand out and capture more of the witness's
attention.
• Research Findings:
o Studies (e.g., Pickel, 1999) have found that unusual objects (such as a gun at a
baseball game) can attract more attention, resulting in the weapon focus effect.
However, in some cases, the effect can be reversed depending on other factors
(e.g., a distinctive feature on the perpetrator’s face may reduce the weapon
focus effect).
o Fawcett et al. (2013) found that the weapon focus effect is present both in lab
studies and real-world cases, and is influenced by factors such as the retention
interval and threat level.
• Training: Participants can be trained to reduce the weapon focus effect, which
suggests that the effect may not be inevitable.
2. Expert Testimony on Eyewitness Issues:
• Eyewitness testimony is often used in court, but experts disagree on the reliability of
the data from eyewitness studies.
• Reliable Issues for Expert Testimony:
o Lineup procedures
o Interview procedures
 o Confidence-accuracy relationship
• Criticisms: Some experts argue that eyewitness research is overconfident in its
conclusions and lacks generalizability to real-world situations. They also point out
that lab studies often use university students and have limitations in comparison to
actual witnesses.
• Defending Eyewitness Research: Some experts argue that lab studies are valid
because participants believe they are witnessing real crimes, which mimics real-world
situations.
• Public Misunderstanding: Many people, including jurors, may lack sufficient
knowledge about eyewitness issues, leading to misinterpretation of the testimony.
Research suggests that expert testimony on eyewitness issues can help jurors better
understand the limitations of such testimony.
3. Public Policy and Eyewitness Identification Guidelines:
• In the 1990s, U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno commissioned guidelines for the
collection and preservation of eyewitness evidence, prompted by the large number of
DNA exoneration cases involving mistaken eyewitness identification.
• Key Guidelines (Wells et al., 1998):
o The person conducting the lineup should not know who the suspect is.
o Eyewitnesses should be told that the perpetrator may not be present in the
lineup.
o The suspect should not stand out in the lineup.
o The eyewitness's confidence should be recorded before any feedback.
o The entire lineup procedure should be recorded on video.
• Similar guidelines were developed in Canada in the 1980s, but they have not always
been followed. The case of R. v. Sophonow (1986) illustrates the consequences of
poor police procedures in eyewitness identification. In this case, a man was
wrongfully convicted of a crime based on faulty eyewitness identification and spent
years in prison before being exonerated through DNA evidence.
Conclusion:
Eyewitness testimony plays a crucial role in criminal cases but is fraught with
issues that can lead to inaccuracies. Weapon focus, expert testimony on eyewitness
reliability, and public policy guidelines aim to address these challenges. However, the
debate continues on the best ways to handle and interpret eyewitness evidence in
court.
 STUDY MATERIAL: EW MEMORY (Pages 1–25)
Introduction to Memory in Psychology
Memory is a fundamental construct in cognitive psychology, central to
understanding how humans acquire, retain, and use information. It encompasses a
variety of mental processes through which information is encoded, stored, and
retrieved. Memory allows individuals to learn from past experiences, make decisions,
and interact meaningfully with the environment. It is typically classified into different
types based on duration and function, such as sensory memory, short-term memory
(STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Memory studies are crucial for understanding
both normal cognitive function and disorders related to memory impairments.
Stages of Memory
Memory operates through a sequence of three primary stages: encoding, storage,
and retrieval. Encoding involves transforming incoming information into a format that
can be stored in the brain. This can occur through visual (images), acoustic (sounds),
or semantic (meaning-based) encoding. Storage is the process by which encoded
information is maintained over time. This varies with the type of memory—sensory
memory stores information for milliseconds, STM holds it for seconds, and LTM
retains it indefinitely. Retrieval refers to accessing stored information and bringing it
into conscious awareness. Failures in any of these processes can lead to forgetting,
which may occur due to distraction during encoding, insufficient storage, or lack of
retrieval cues.
Models of Memory
Several cognitive models have been proposed to explain how memory works. The
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) multi-store model posits three distinct memory stores:
sensory memory, STM, and LTM. Sensory memory briefly retains incoming sensory
information. If attended to, this information enters STM, which has a limited capacity
(7±2 items) and short duration (approximately 20 seconds). Rehearsal can facilitate
the transfer of information from STM to LTM, which has a theoretically unlimited
capacity and duration.
The Working Memory Model by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) expanded on the
concept of STM, proposing that it is not a single store but a multi-component system.
It includes the central executive (which directs attention and coordinates tasks), the
phonological loop (which deals with verbal and auditory information), the
visuospatial sketchpad (handling visual and spatial data), and later the episodic
buffer (integrating information across modalities and linking it to LTM). This model
highlights the dynamic and active nature of short-term memory processing.
Types of Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory (LTM) is subdivided into explicit (declarative) and implicit
(non-declarative) memory. Explicit memory requires conscious thought and is
further divided into episodic memory (personal experiences and specific events) and
semantic memory (general knowledge and facts). Implicit memory functions
unconsciously and includes procedural memory (skills and tasks like typing or
riding a bike), classical conditioning, and priming (where exposure to one stimulus
influences response to another). The hippocampus is essential for consolidating
episodic and semantic memories, while the cerebellum and basal ganglia are crucial
for procedural memory.
Forgetting and Theories of Forgetting
Forgetting refers to the inability to recall previously stored information. Several
theories attempt to explain this phenomenon. The decay theory suggests that memory
traces fade over time due to disuse. The interference theory includes two types:
proactive interference, where older information disrupts the recall of new
information, and retroactive interference, where new learning affects the recall of
older information. Another explanation is retrieval failure, which occurs when the
memory is intact but inaccessible due to the absence of effective retrieval cues.
Freud’s theory of motivated forgetting posits that individuals may repress
unpleasant or traumatic memories as a psychological defense mechanism.
Eyewitness Memory and Its Reliability
Eyewitness memory refers to a person's recollection of events they observed,
which plays a critical role in legal settings. However, research indicates that this type
of memory is prone to distortion due to various factors. These include high levels of
stress or anxiety during the event, the presence of a weapon (which draws attention
away from other details), and post-event misinformation. The famous Loftus and
Palmer (1974) study demonstrated that the wording of questions could influence
memory recall—for instance, using the word "smashed" led participants to estimate
higher speeds in a car crash scenario. Such findings support the idea that memory is
not a perfect record but is reconstructive in nature.
False Memories
False memories are memories of events that never occurred or that are significantly
distorted from the truth. These can develop due to suggestive questioning,
imagination inflation (frequent imagining of an event leading to belief it occurred),
and source monitoring errors (confusing the source of the memory). Elizabeth
Loftus’s pioneering work in this area demonstrated how easily false memories could
be implanted, especially in suggestible individuals. The implications are particularly
important in forensic psychology, where the reliability of witness testimony and
recovered memories in therapeutic settings can be controversial and problematic.
Memory and Emotion
Emotions significantly influence the encoding and retrieval of memories. Events
associated with strong emotional arousal are often remembered more vividly, though
not necessarily more accurately. The concept of flashbulb memories refers to
detailed, long-lasting memories of emotionally significant events (e.g., the 9/11
attacks). While people report high confidence in these memories, studies show that
they can be susceptible to distortion over time. The amygdala plays a crucial role in
the processing of emotional memories, especially fear-related experiences, and works
closely with the hippocampus during memory consolidation.
 Reconstructive Nature of Memory
Memory retrieval is not a passive playback but a reconstructive process, often
influenced by an individual’s schemas, beliefs, and external information. Frederic
Bartlett’s (1932) study on storytelling showed that participants often altered
unfamiliar information to make it more congruent with their existing knowledge and
cultural norms. This tendency to reconstruct memories explains why eyewitnesses can
have differing accounts of the same event and why false memories can develop.
Reconstructive memory is adaptive, allowing people to generalize and make sense of
the world, but it also introduces the risk of inaccuracy.
Improving Memory
There are several evidence-based strategies for improving memory retention and
recall. These include mnemonic devices (such as acronyms and visualization
techniques), elaborative rehearsal (linking new information to existing knowledge),
and chunking (grouping information into meaningful units). The method of loci, a
spatial memory technique, can also be effective. Additionally, the spacing effect
(distributing learning over time) and testing effect (practicing retrieval) are proven to
enhance long-term memory. In forensic settings, the Cognitive Interview technique
helps eyewitnesses recall more accurate information by using open-ended questions
and context reinstatement.
Here is an expanded and more detailed version of the study material based on
pages 25 to 51 of EW MEMORY.pdf. All relevant material has been included to
ensure thorough preparation for exam-style questions, with conceptual clarity and rich
theoretical depth.

STUDY MATERIAL: EW MEMORY (Pages 25–51)

The Role of Attention in Memory Formation
Attention acts as a gatekeeper for information entering the memory system. It is
essential for encoding, as it determines which sensory inputs are processed further and
potentially stored in memory. The human cognitive system has a limited capacity, and
attention helps filter relevant information from the vast array of environmental
stimuli. Selective attention allows individuals to focus on specific aspects of their
environment while ignoring others, thereby enhancing encoding efficiency.
Conversely, divided attention, such as when multitasking, leads to poorer encoding
and reduced recall accuracy. Neuroscientific research supports the notion that areas
like the prefrontal cortex and parietal lobes are involved in attention regulation.
Experimental studies, including those involving dual-task paradigms, have shown that
encoding performance drops significantly when attentional resources are split
between tasks.
The Impact of Context and State-Dependent Memory
Both environmental and internal conditions play a key role in successful memory
retrieval. Context-dependent memory refers to improved recall when the external
environment at the time of retrieval matches the setting during encoding. For
example, individuals who study in the same room where they will be tested tend to
perform better. This effect is supported by research such as Godden and Baddeley’s
scuba diving experiment, where participants recalled words better in the same
environment in which they learned them.
State-dependent memory extends this concept to internal conditions such as
mood, physiological states, or intoxication. Information encoded during a specific
mood (e.g., happiness, sadness) is more likely to be recalled when the person is in a
similar emotional state. These phenomena are grounded in the encoding specificity
principle, which emphasizes that retrieval is most effective when cues present at
encoding are available at recall. Thus, matching internal and external contexts
facilitates access to stored information.
Schema Theory and Memory Distortion
Schemas are cognitive frameworks or mental structures that help individuals
organize and interpret information based on past experiences. They guide perception,
influence attention, and help fill in gaps in incomplete information. However, their
influence can also lead to memory distortion. When new information is inconsistent
with existing schemas, it may be altered to fit pre-existing expectations.
The most famous demonstration of schema-based memory distortion comes from
Frederic Bartlett’s (1932) study using the story "The War of the Ghosts," where
participants omitted unfamiliar details and reconstructed the narrative according to
their cultural schemas. This shows that memory is constructive rather than
reproductive. The implications are significant for eyewitness testimony, where
individuals may unknowingly alter or misremember details to fit personal or societal
beliefs.
Memory Consolidation and the Brain
Memory consolidation refers to the process by which newly encoded information
becomes stable and integrated into long-term memory. It is divided into synaptic
consolidation, which occurs within the first few hours after learning and involves
structural changes in neurons, and systems consolidation, which may take days to
years and involves reorganization of memory across brain regions.
The hippocampus plays a pivotal role in early consolidation by linking
information across different areas of the brain. Over time, memories are transferred to
the neocortex for long-term storage. Sleep, especially slow-wave sleep (SWS), is
critical for consolidation. Experimental evidence shows that sleep deprivation impairs
memory retention, underscoring the biological necessity of rest for optimal cognitive
functioning. Disruptions in this process, such as in cases of traumatic brain injury or
degenerative diseases, often result in significant memory deficits.
The Effects of Stress and Trauma on Memory
Stress and trauma influence memory in multifaceted ways. Acute stress can
facilitate memory encoding by increasing levels of norepinephrine and cortisol,
which enhance attention and arousal. This explains why emotionally significant or
life-threatening events are often vividly remembered.
However, chronic stress and trauma can impair the hippocampus, reducing the
ability to consolidate new memories. PTSD provides a clinical example, where
individuals may suffer from intrusive memories (flashbacks), heightened emotional
responses, and fragmented recollections. The amygdala becomes hyperactive in such
individuals, intensifying emotional memories, while hippocampal atrophy results in
impaired contextual processing. These neural alterations underline the interaction
between emotion and memory systems.
Autobiographical Memory
Autobiographical memory is a complex form of long-term memory that
encompasses personal life events. It integrates episodic memory (specific events with
time and place) and semantic memory (general facts about one’s life). This type of
memory contributes to self-concept, personal identity, and social communication.
Autobiographical memories are shaped by emotional intensity, cultural context,
and individual goals. The reminiscence bump refers to the phenomenon where
people recall a higher number of memories from adolescence and early adulthood,
possibly due to identity formation during this period. Childhood amnesia, the
scarcity of memories before age 3 or 4, is attributed to neurodevelopmental factors,
such as immature language and memory systems. Research using narrative interviews
and life-story tasks highlights how autobiographical memory supports continuity and
coherence across the lifespan.
Developmental Aspects of Memory
Memory development is a lifelong process influenced by biological, cognitive, and
environmental factors. In early childhood, improvements in working memory,
attention, and strategy use contribute to better memory performance. Children begin
to employ rehearsal, organization, and elaboration as they age.
In older adults, while episodic memory often declines due to reduced processing
speed and sensory deficits, semantic memory remains stable or even improves. Older
individuals may rely more on accumulated knowledge and compensatory strategies.
Studies on cognitive aging have shown that interventions like physical exercise,
cognitive training, and social engagement can slow memory decline. Neuroimaging
reveals both age-related brain shrinkage and evidence of neuroplasticity, supporting
continued memory adaptability.
Memory in Clinical Populations
Memory impairments are a hallmark of several psychological and neurological
conditions. Amnesia can be classified as anterograde (inability to form new
memories) or retrograde (loss of past memories). Korsakoff’s syndrome, often due
to chronic alcohol abuse, involves both types and is associated with damage to the
mammillary bodies and thalamus.
 In Alzheimer’s disease, early symptoms include forgetfulness and disorientation,
progressing to severe memory loss and cognitive decline. Brain imaging reveals
amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, especially in the hippocampus. Other
conditions like schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder
also affect memory through deficits in attention, executive functioning, and emotional
regulation. Understanding memory deficits in these populations is crucial for
diagnosis, treatment planning, and improving quality of life.
The Cognitive Interview Technique
The Cognitive Interview (CI) is a forensic interviewing method developed to
enhance the quantity and accuracy of information obtained from eyewitnesses. It is
grounded in cognitive psychology and memory research. The four key components
are:
1. Context Reinstatement: Mentally reconstructing the environment and emotional
state at the time of the incident.
2. Report Everything: Encouraging witnesses to share all details, even seemingly
irrelevant ones.
3. Recall from Different Perspectives: Viewing the event from the perspective of other
witnesses or participants.
4. Recall in Different Temporal Orders: Recalling events in reverse or varied
sequences to disrupt false schema-based reconstructions.
Studies show that CI yields more accurate and comprehensive testimony than
traditional interviews. It is widely used in police investigations globally, especially in
sensitive cases involving vulnerable witnesses.
Legal and Ethical Implications of Memory Research
Memory research has profound implications in the legal and clinical arenas. The
fallibility of memory, especially in eyewitness accounts, can lead to wrongful
convictions. Courts must consider the misinformation effect, false memory
implantation, and the influence of suggestive questioning. Expert testimony from
psychologists often helps juries understand the limitations of human memory.
In therapeutic settings, techniques aimed at recovering repressed memories,
particularly of childhood abuse, have sparked ethical debates. While some support the
validity of recovered memories, others argue they may be false constructions. This
controversy emphasizes the need for scientific rigor, informed consent, and clinical
sensitivity. Ethical guidelines by professional bodies stress caution in memory
retrieval methods and advocate for the psychological safety of clients.