Early Roots of Criminological Thought

The study of crime and criminal behavior has evolved over centuries, beginning
with philosophical reflections in ancient times, followed by medieval religious
beliefs, and later shaped by scientific approaches in the 18th and 19th centuries.
This section explores the early roots of criminology, including the contributions
of Homer and Aristotle, medieval stigma, and early biological theories such as
phrenology.

1. Homer and Aristotle: Classical Philosophical Views on Crime

1.1 Homer’s Perspective on Crime and Justice
• Homer, the ancient Greek poet (8th century BCE), explored themes of justice,
vengeance, and punishment in his epics, particularly in The Iliad and The Odyssey.
• He portrayed crime as a violation of divine and social order, where retribution (lex
talionis – "an eye for an eye") was an accepted form of justice.
Example: Vengeance in The Odyssey
• Odysseus avenges the dishonor caused by Penelope’s suitors by killing them,
reflecting early ideas of retributive justice.
Relevance to Modern Law
• Early justice systems in Greece and Rome were rooted in personal vengeance,
similar to early "blood feuds" or honor killings still found in some societies today.

1.2 Aristotle’s Contribution to Criminology

• Aristotle (384–322 BCE) examined human behavior, ethics, and justice.
• He proposed that criminal behavior arises from poor moral development and lack
of rational thought.
• Aristotle’s theory of justice (Nicomachean Ethics) differentiates:
1. Distributive justice – Fair allocation of resources.
2. Corrective justice – Punishment and retribution for wrongdoing.
Influence on Modern Criminology
• Classical Criminology (Beccaria, 1764) was influenced by Aristotle’s idea of free
will—people commit crimes due to rational choices, not supernatural forces.
Indian Context: Ethical Foundations of Law
• Ancient Indian legal systems (Manusmriti, Arthashastra) also focused on moral
reasoning and ethical justice, aligning with Aristotle’s views.
 2. Medieval Views on Crime: The Concept of Stigma and Sin
2.1 Medieval Stigma and Criminalization
• In the Middle Ages (5th-15th century CE), crime was linked to religion and
morality.
• Criminals were believed to be possessed by demons or influenced by sin rather than
rational individuals.
• Public shaming, branding, and physical punishment were used to deter crime.
Example: Trial by Ordeal
• Accused criminals were subjected to ordeals (fire, water, combat) to determine
guilt, based on the belief that God would protect the innocent.
Indian Context: Medieval Punishments in India
• During the Gupta and Mughal periods, criminals were branded, mutilated, or
executed in public as a form of deterrence.

3. Early Biological Theories of Crime

3.1 Phrenology (Franz Joseph Gall, 1796)
• Phrenology suggested that criminal behavior could be identified by studying the
shape of the skull.
• Gall proposed that different brain areas controlled personality traits, including
aggressiveness, deceitfulness, and impulsivity.
• Larger or misshapen skull regions were believed to indicate criminal tendencies.
Criticism:
• No scientific basis—skull shape does not determine behavior.
• Led to dangerous ideas of biological determinism and racial stereotyping.
Indian Context: British Use of Phrenology in Colonial India
• British colonizers used phrenology to justify racial superiority, classifying
certain Indian communities as "criminal tribes" under the Criminal Tribes Act
(1871).

3.2 Cesare Lombroso and the "Born Criminal" Theory (1876)

• Lombroso expanded on phrenology with his theory of atavism, arguing that
criminals were biologically inferior and exhibited primitive traits.
• Atavistic features of criminals included:
 o Large jaws, long arms, high cheekbones.
o Asymmetrical skulls.
o Excessive body hair.
Criticism:
• Ignored social and environmental factors in crime.
• Modern criminology rejects the idea that criminals are "born" rather than
shaped by circumstances.
Indian Context: Lombroso’s Influence on Early British Policing
• British colonial rulers used physical profiling (like phrenology and atavism) to
classify certain Indian communities as criminal (e.g., the "Thuggee" gangs).
• This led to the controversial Criminal Tribes Act (1871), which was repealed only
in 1952.

4. Conclusion
• Early criminological thought evolved from philosophical and religious
explanations to biological determinism.
• While Homer and Aristotle focused on justice and morality, medieval Europe
emphasized sin and supernatural causes of crime.
• Phrenology and atavism laid the foundation for modern biological criminology,
despite being later debunked.
• Indian legal history reflects similar shifts—from religious and ethical justice
(Manusmriti, Arthashastra) to colonial racial profiling and modern
criminological research.
Zemiology: The Study of Social Harm
1. Definition of Zemiology
Zemiology, derived from the Greek word zēmía (meaning "harm"), is the study of
social harm beyond the traditional legal definitions of crime. It challenges the
legalistic view of crime, arguing that many harmful acts are not criminalized but
still cause significant suffering to individuals and society.

2. Key Principles of Zemiology

✔ Crime is a social construct – What is considered "crime" is defined by laws,

which are influenced by political and economic power.
✔ Not all harmful acts are legally recognized as crimes – Many powerful entities
(corporations, governments) engage in activities that harm people but remain legally
 unpunished.
✔ Focus on harm rather than legality – Zemiology studies environmental
destruction, poverty, workplace exploitation, and institutional discrimination, even if
they are not criminalized.

3. Differences Between Zemiology and Criminology

Aspect Criminology Zemiology

Legally defined Harmful acts, regardless

Focus
crimes of legal status

Who Defines Governments and

Social harm researchers
Crime? legal systems

Environmental
Examples of Theft, murder,
destruction, corporate fraud,
Focus assault
poverty, war

Accepts legal Questions the fairness of

View on Law
definitions of crime laws

Punishment and Social justice and harm

Approach
law enforcement reduction

Example: Economic Exploitation

• Criminology: Focuses on financial fraud or tax evasion as defined by law.
• Zemiology: Examines how global corporations underpay workers, exploit child
labor, or manipulate economies, even if they operate within legal frameworks.
Indian Context: Zemiology vs. Legal Crime in Labor Exploitation
• Child labor in India is illegal under the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation)
Act (1986).
• However, many industries exploit child workers through legal loopholes (e.g.,
children working in family-owned businesses), highlighting a zemiological
concern that goes beyond legal definitions.

4. Types of Social Harm Studied in Zemiology

4.1 State Harm and Political Violence
• Governments engage in wars, genocide, mass surveillance, and suppression of
dissent that cause harm but are not considered "crimes" under law.
Indian Context: Police Brutality and State Violence
• Example: Jayaraj and Bennix Custodial Deaths (Tamil Nadu, 2020)
o Two civilians were tortured to death in police custody.
o The legal system initially protected the officers involved, despite the clear
social harm caused.

4.2 Corporate Harm and Economic Crimes

• Corporations engage in environmental destruction, worker exploitation, and
financial fraud without facing criminal consequences.
Indian Context: Industrial Pollution and Environmental Harm
• Example: Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984)
o Union Carbide’s gas leak killed thousands, but corporate executives were
not held criminally accountable.
o Zemiologists argue that environmental disasters should be treated as
crimes rather than mere corporate negligence.

4.3 Gendered and Domestic Harm

• Many forms of gender-based violence (domestic abuse, workplace harassment,
reproductive control) remain underreported or legally overlooked.
Indian Context: Marital Rape in India
• Marital rape is not criminalized under Indian law, but it causes severe
psychological and physical harm.
• Zemiologists argue that law should reflect harm, not just legal tradition.

5. Criticism of Zemiology
1. Too broad in defining "harm" – Almost anything could be classified as harmful.
2. Ignores legal accountability – Without clear laws, how do we punish harmful acts?
3. Difficult to measure harm objectively – Different societies define harm differently.

6. Conclusion
• Zemiology shifts the focus from crime to harm, allowing for a more just and
inclusive approach to justice.
• Indian examples (Bhopal Gas Tragedy, Marital Rape, Labor Exploitation)
highlight how laws often fail to protect people from real harm.
• A zemiological approach can push legal reforms to ensure social justice.

Multi-Level Analysis of Crime: Micro and Macro Perspectives

Crime is a complex social phenomenon influenced by individual, group, and
societal factors. The multi-level analysis of crime helps us understand criminal
behavior from different perspectives, primarily:
• Micro-Level Analysis (Individual and Small Group Factors)
• Macro-Level Analysis (Social, Cultural, and Structural Factors)

1. Micro-Level Analysis of Crime

The micro-level perspective focuses on individual and small-group factors that
contribute to crime. It examines how psychological traits, biological influences,
peer interactions, and family environments shape criminal behavior.
1.1 Psychological and Biological Factors
Criminal behavior may be influenced by personality traits, cognitive distortions,
brain dysfunction, and genetics.
Key Theories:

✔ Eysenck’s Criminal Personality Theory (1977) – High levels of extraversion,

neuroticism, and psychoticism increase criminal tendencies.
✔ Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R, 1991) – Psychopathy is associated with
lack of empathy, manipulativeness, and impulsivity.
✔ MAOA Gene ("Warrior Gene") – Certain genetic mutations may contribute to
impulsive aggression.
Indian Context: Genetic and Psychological Studies on Criminals
• NIMHANS (Bangalore) found high impulsivity and antisocial traits in Indian
juvenile offenders.
• AIIMS research on prisoners suggests links between brain dysfunction and
violent crime.

1.2 Family and Peer Influence

• Criminal behavior is often learned from family and peer groups.
• Children raised in violent or criminal households are more likely to adopt criminal
behavior.
• Peer pressure in adolescence increases the risk of engaging in delinquent acts.
Key Theories:
 ✔ Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) – People learn crime by observing
and imitating others.
✔ Differential Association Theory (Sutherland, 1947) – Criminal behavior is
learned through interactions with deviant peers.
Indian Context: Juvenile Gangs in Mumbai and Delhi
• Many juvenile criminals are influenced by older gang members, reinforcing
criminal subcultures.

1.3 Situational and Routine Activity Factors

Crime can occur due to immediate environmental conditions that provide
opportunities for offenders.
Key Theories:

✔ Routine Activity Theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979) – Crime occurs when:
1. A motivated offender encounters
2. A suitable target,
3. Without a capable guardian (e.g., lack of CCTV, police presence).
Indian Context: Cybercrime and ATM Fraud
• Lack of cybersecurity (absence of a capable guardian) makes individuals
vulnerable to phishing scams and fraud.

2. Macro-Level Analysis of Crime

The macro-level approach examines societal, cultural, and structural factors
that contribute to crime. It focuses on economic conditions, social inequalities, law
enforcement policies, and political instability.
2.1 Economic and Social Inequality
Crime rates are often higher in societies with economic disparities. Poverty,
unemployment, and lack of education create conditions where crime becomes a
survival strategy.
Key Theories:

✔ Strain Theory (Merton, 1938) – Crime results from the gap between societal
goals (wealth, success) and the means available to achieve them.
✔ Social Disorganization Theory (Shaw & McKay, 1942) – Crime is more
common in areas with weak community institutions (schools, family, police).
Indian Context: Crime and Urban Slums (Dharavi, Mumbai)
• Lack of job opportunities and high population density lead to higher crime rates
in urban slums.

2.2 Cultural and Political Factors

• Societies with high corruption, weak legal enforcement, and political instability
experience higher crime rates.
• Some cultures normalize honor-based violence, gender discrimination, or
corporate fraud.
Key Theories:

✔ Labeling Theory (Becker, 1963) – Being labeled as a criminal reinforces

criminal identity.
✔ Broken Windows Theory (Wilson & Kelling, 1982) – Visible signs of disorder
(graffiti, vandalism) encourage further crime.
Indian Context: Honor Killings and Mob Lynchings
• Certain regions of India still justify honor-based violence (e.g., killings for inter-
caste marriages).
• Mob violence due to political and religious conflicts (Delhi Riots 2020, cow
vigilante killings).

2.3 State Crime and Institutional Failure

• Governments and powerful institutions also commit crimes, including police
brutality, corruption, and corporate exploitation.
Key Theories:

✔ Zemiology (Study of Social Harm) – Harmful acts (e.g., environmental

destruction, economic exploitation) should be considered crimes, even if they are not
legally defined as such.
Indian Context: Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984)
• Union Carbide’s negligence led to the deaths of thousands, yet corporate
executives escaped criminal prosecution.

3. Differences Between Micro and Macro Perspectives on Crime

Aspect Micro-Level Analysis Macro-Level Analysis

Individual and small Structural, social, and

Focus
group factors economic factors
 Aspect Micro-Level Analysis Macro-Level Analysis

Personality traits, Poverty, inequality,

Causes of
mental illness, family, weak law enforcement,
Crime
peer influence cultural values

Social Learning, Strain Theory, Social

Key
Routine Activity, Disorganization,
Theories
Biological Theories Zemiology

A serial killer’s
Crime in urban slums,
psychopathy, a teenager
Examples corporate fraud, political
shoplifting due to peer
corruption
pressure

Therapy, cognitive Economic reforms,

Crime
behavioral intervention, stronger law enforcement,
Prevention
parental guidance social awareness

4. Conclusion
• Micro-level analysis focuses on individual and situational factors that lead to
crime, including personality, peer influence, and mental health issues.
• Macro-level analysis examines crime as a structural issue influenced by economic
conditions, social inequalities, and political policies.
• A comprehensive understanding of crime requires integrating both perspectives
to design effective crime prevention strategies.
Importance of Understanding the Causes of Crime
Understanding the causes of crime is essential for crime prevention, legal
policymaking, criminal rehabilitation, and social justice. Crime does not occur in
isolation—it is influenced by biological, psychological, sociological, and situational
factors. By identifying and addressing these causes, societies can develop effective
strategies to reduce crime rates, rehabilitate offenders, and create a safer
environment.

1. Why Is It Important to Study the Causes of Crime?

1.1 Crime Prevention and Reduction
• Identifying the root causes of crime helps in designing targeted prevention
programs.
• Example: If poverty is a major cause, then economic reforms and job creation can
help reduce crime.
 Indian Context: Reducing Cybercrime through Awareness
• Cyber fraud is rising in India due to lack of digital literacy.
• Initiatives like “Cyber Surakshit Bharat” promote digital safety to prevent
online scams.

1.2 Effective Criminal Justice Policies

• Understanding why people commit crimes helps in making fair and evidence-based
laws.
• Overly harsh punishments may not address the actual reasons behind crime and
can increase recidivism.
Indian Context: Juvenile Justice Act (2015)
• Recognizes that juveniles commit crimes due to lack of guidance, not pure
criminal intent.
• Focuses on rehabilitation rather than punishment for young offenders.

1.3 Criminal Rehabilitation and Reduction of Recidivism

• Understanding crime causes helps in designing rehabilitation programs to reform
offenders.
• If a person committed a crime due to substance abuse, rehabilitation should
focus on addiction treatment rather than just imprisonment.
Indian Context: Tihar Jail Rehabilitation Programs
• Vocational training, education, and psychological counseling reduce repeat
offenses among inmates.

1.4 Social Justice and Human Rights Protection

• Crime is often linked to social inequalities and discrimination.
• Addressing structural causes (poverty, caste discrimination, gender inequality)
promotes a fairer society.
Indian Context: Criminalization of Dowry (Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961)
• Understanding gender-based crimes led to legal reforms protecting women.

1.5 Resource Allocation for Law Enforcement

• Knowing crime causes allows police and law enforcement to allocate resources
efficiently.
• Example: If crime is higher in urban slums, then policing should focus on high-risk
areas.
Indian Context: Use of Predictive Policing in Delhi and Mumbai
• Crime mapping and AI-based analysis help predict crime hotspots, allowing
better police deployment.

1.6 Informing Public Awareness Campaigns

• Educating people about the causes of crime helps in reducing stigma against
offenders and promoting constructive crime prevention strategies.
Indian Context: Anti-Domestic Violence Campaigns
• "Bell Bajao" campaign raised awareness about domestic violence, encouraging
bystanders to intervene.

2. Theoretical Approaches to Crime Causation and Their Importance

Example
Theory Key Idea Importance (Indian
Context)

Crime may AIIMS

be influenced Helps in research on
Biological by genetics, medical and violent
Theories brain psychological criminals
structure, or interventions. and brain
hormones. dysfunction.

Personality
traits, mental Juvenile
Supports
Psychological illness, or delinquency
therapy-based
Theories cognitive studies by
rehabilitation.
distortions NIMHANS.
cause crime.

Strain
Crime
Theory
results from Guides
explains
Sociological poverty, social policies
gang
Theories inequality, or to reduce
violence in
weak inequality.
urban
institutions.
slums.
 Example
Theory Key Idea Importance (Indian
Context)

Crime Helps in CCTV

occurs due to crime surveillance
Situational
immediate prevention reduced
Theories
environmental through urban street crime
opportunities. planning. in Delhi.

3. Conclusion
Understanding the causes of crime is essential for creating fair laws, preventing
crime, rehabilitating offenders, and promoting social justice. By addressing the
biological, psychological, social, and situational factors contributing to crime,
societies can develop more effective crime prevention strategies and improve
public safety.
Crime: Causes and Levels of Analysis of Crime
Crime is a multifaceted social phenomenon with various underlying causes,
including biological, psychological, sociological, and environmental factors.
Understanding crime requires an interdisciplinary approach involving criminology,
psychology, sociology, and forensic science. The study of crime is essential for law
enforcement, policy formulation, and crime prevention strategies.

1. Causes of Crime
1.1 Biological Causes of Crime
The biological approach suggests that genetic and neurological factors influence
criminal behavior. It implies that some individuals may have a biological
predisposition toward criminal acts due to inherited traits or brain abnormalities.
1.1.1 Genetic Factors and Crime
• The Warrior Gene (MAOA-L):
o The MAOA gene affects the breakdown of neurotransmitters such as
serotonin and dopamine, which regulate impulse control and aggression.
o Brunner et al. (1993): Found that men with a low-activity MAOA gene were
more likely to exhibit violent behavior.
o Twin Studies (Hutchings & Mednick, 1975): Found that identical twins
(who share 100% of their genes) had a higher criminal concordance rate
than fraternal twins.
Indian Context:
• Although no direct genetic studies on Indian criminals exist, research on tribal
aggression and genetic predisposition suggests a heritable component in violent
behaviors.

1.1.2 Neurobiological Factors and Crime

• Brain Abnormalities and Criminal Behavior:
o Prefrontal Cortex Dysfunction (Raine, 1997): Reduced activity in the
prefrontal cortex (responsible for impulse control) is linked to violent crime.
o Amygdala Dysfunction: The amygdala, responsible for processing emotions,
is often smaller or less active in criminals, especially psychopaths.
Case Example: Charles Whitman (Texas Tower Sniper, 1966)
• A tumor pressing against his amygdala was believed to contribute to his
uncontrollable aggression.
Indian Context:
• Studies on head injuries and their link to violent crimes have been conducted in
AIIMS, New Delhi, showing a correlation between frontal lobe injuries and
impulsive criminal behavior.

1.1.3 Hormonal and Neurochemical Influences

• Testosterone and Aggression: Higher levels of testosterone correlate with increased
aggression.
• Low Serotonin Levels: Linked to impulsivity and violent behavior.
• Dopamine Dysregulation: Associated with reward-seeking behavior in criminal
activities like drug abuse and fraud.
Indian Context:
• Hormonal Imbalance and Aggression in Indian Juveniles:
o Research conducted by the National Institute of Mental Health and
Neurosciences (NIMHANS) found a correlation between hormonal
imbalance and aggressive juvenile offenders.

1.2 Psychological Causes of Crime

The psychological approach explains crime through cognitive distortions,
personality disorders, and mental health conditions.
1.2.1 Personality Disorders and Crime
• Eysenck’s Theory of Criminal Personality (1977):
 o Criminals are likely to score high on extraversion (impulsivity), neuroticism
(emotional instability), and psychoticism (aggression).
• Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R, 1991):
o Psychopathy is a strong predictor of violent crime, manipulation, and lack
of remorse.
Case Example: Ted Bundy (USA)
• A high-functioning psychopath who lacked empathy and displayed manipulative
behavior.
Indian Context:
• Charles Sobhraj (Serial Killer)
o Displayed psychopathy traits, including manipulation, lack of remorse,
and charm.
o Operated across India, Thailand, and Nepal.

1.2.2 Cognitive Distortions in Criminals

Criminals often justify their actions through faulty reasoning.
• Examples of Cognitive Distortions:
o "I hurt others because they deserved it."
o "If I don’t rob someone, someone else will."
Indian Context:
• Jyoti Singh (2012 Delhi Gang Rape Case):
o The rapists justified their actions, reflecting cognitive distortions such as
victim-blaming and dehumanization.

1.2.3 Mental Illness and Crime

• Schizophrenia & Crime: Some violent crimes are committed by individuals with
paranoid schizophrenia (delusions, hallucinations).
• Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD): Linked to lack of remorse, aggression,
and deceitfulness.
Indian Context:
• Studies in Tihar Jail, Delhi, found a high prevalence of mental illness among
inmates, with many suffering from personality disorders and schizophrenia.
 1.3 Sociological Causes of Crime
Social factors like poverty, lack of education, unemployment, and cultural
values play a major role in crime causation.
1.3.1 Strain Theory (Merton, 1938)
• Crime results from the gap between societal goals (wealth, success) and available
means to achieve them.
Indian Context:
• Scams and White-Collar Crime:
o Harshad Mehta Stock Market Scam (1992) – A result of economic
ambition without legal means.

1.3.2 Social Disorganization Theory (Shaw & McKay, 1942)

• Crime is higher in neighborhoods with weak social institutions.
Indian Context:
• Dharavi (Mumbai Slums) and Crime:
o Lack of education and job opportunities leads to organized crime, drug
trade, and theft.

1.3.3 Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)

• Criminal behavior is learned through observation and reinforcement.
Indian Context:
• Juvenile Gangs in India (Delhi & Mumbai):
o Youth criminals imitate older gang members and learn criminal behaviors.

1.4 Situational and Environmental Causes of Crime

1.4.1 Routine Activity Theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979)
• Crime occurs when a motivated offender finds a suitable target in the absence of a
capable guardian.
Indian Context:
• ATM Frauds and Cybercrime in India:
o Lack of cybersecurity measures makes India a hotspot for financial frauds.
 2. Levels of Analysis of Crime
Criminal behavior can be analyzed at different levels:
2.1 Individual Level (Micro-Level)
• Psychological and biological predispositions.
• Example: Ripper Jayanandan (India) – Serial Killer with high impulsivity.

2.2 Group Level (Meso-Level)

• Influence of peers, gangs, and families.
• Example: Mumbai Underworld (Dawood Ibrahim’s D-Company).

2.3 Societal Level (Macro-Level)

• Influence of economic conditions, law enforcement, and cultural norms.
• Example: Communal Riots and Hate Crimes in India.

Conclusion
Crime is influenced by biological, psychological, sociological, and
environmental factors. In India, crime causation is deeply tied to socioeconomic
inequalities, urbanization, and cultural norms. Understanding crime at multiple
levels helps in formulating policies for crime prevention and rehabilitation.
Approaches to Understanding Criminal Behavior: Evolutionary Perspective
1. Introduction to Evolutionary Criminology
The evolutionary perspective in criminology suggests that criminal behavior is a
product of human evolutionary adaptations that were once advantageous for
survival and reproduction. It applies principles from Darwinian evolution, natural
selection, and evolutionary psychology to explain why certain behaviors—such as
aggression, deception, and dominance—persist in human societies.
Key Principles of Evolutionary Criminology
• Survival and Reproductive Success: Certain behaviors that increase an individual's
survival or reproductive success may have been naturally selected over generations.
• Innate Aggression: Aggression may have evolved as a means of securing
resources, mates, and social dominance.
• Sexual Selection and Crime: Some crimes, especially violent and sexual offenses,
may be linked to male competition for mates.
• Parental Investment Theory: Males, having lower parental investment than females,
engage in riskier behaviors, including crime, to enhance reproductive opportunities.

2. Evolutionary Explanations of Criminal Behavior

2.1 Aggression and Homicide as Evolutionary Strategies
Wilson & Daly (1985): The "Young Male Syndrome"
• Young males engage in risky, aggressive, and violent behavior to establish
dominance and increase mating opportunities.
• Homicide rates are highest among young males, as they are more likely to be
involved in status-related conflicts.
• Example: Gang-related violence often stems from male competition for dominance
and reputation.
Indian Context: Gang Violence in India
• Mumbai Underworld (Dawood Ibrahim’s D-Company)
o Many organized crime syndicates in India involve young males competing
for power, wealth, and dominance.

2.2 Sexual Violence and Rape: Evolutionary Perspective

Thornhill & Palmer (2000): Rape as a Byproduct of Sexual Selection
• Some researchers argue that rape is an evolutionary strategy used by males to
increase reproductive success when conventional mating is unavailable.
• Controversial argument: This perspective is widely criticized for potentially
justifying criminal behavior.
Indian Context: The Nirbhaya (2012 Delhi Gang Rape) Case
• The brutality and gang behavior in this case highlight how male dominance and
power dynamics contribute to sexual violence.
• Social evolution and law enforcement: Laws such as the Criminal Law
(Amendment) Act, 2013, were introduced to counter sexual violence.

2.3 Deception and Fraud as Evolutionary Traits

Evolutionary Cheating Theory (Cosmides & Tooby, 1992)
• Some criminals deceive others to gain resources without reciprocating.
• Examples: Fraud, corruption, and white-collar crime can be understood through
this perspective.
 Indian Context: Economic Offenses
• Harshad Mehta Stock Market Scam (1992): Used manipulation and deception to
exploit the stock market.

2.4 Parental Investment and Child Abuse

Daly & Wilson (1988): Step-parenting and Child Homicide
• Stepchildren face higher rates of abuse and neglect compared to biological
children.
• From an evolutionary standpoint, non-biological caregivers have less genetic
investment in the child’s survival.
Indian Context: Cases of Child Abuse in Step-Families
• Reports indicate that stepchildren in India are more likely to experience neglect,
abuse, or homicide.
• Laws like the Protection of Children from Sexual Offenses (POCSO) Act, 2012
address these issues.

3. Criticism of the Evolutionary Approach

While the evolutionary perspective provides valuable insights, it has several
criticisms:
1. Ignores Social and Cultural Factors: Crime rates vary across cultures, which
evolutionary theories fail to explain.
2. Ethical Concerns: Some theories risk justifying violent behavior as "natural".
3. Focuses Only on Male Criminality: While many crimes are committed by males,
women also engage in crime, which evolutionary theories often overlook.

4. Conclusion
The evolutionary approach explains crime as a product of biological instincts
for survival, reproduction, and dominance. However, social, cultural, and
psychological factors also shape criminal behavior.
Social-Structural and Cultural Approaches to Understanding Criminal
Behavior
The social-structural and cultural approaches to crime emphasize that criminal
behavior is shaped by social, economic, and cultural conditions rather than innate
biological or psychological traits. These theories explore how poverty, inequality,
cultural values, and institutional breakdown contribute to crime.
 1. Social-Structural Approach to Crime
The social-structural perspective argues that crime results from socioeconomic
inequalities, lack of opportunities, and weak institutions. It is influenced by
sociological theories of deviance and crime, including strain theory, social
disorganization theory, and routine activity theory.
1.1 Strain Theory (Robert Merton, 1938)
• Crime occurs when individuals cannot achieve socially approved goals (e.g.,
wealth, success) through legitimate means.
• Society promotes material success, but not everyone has equal access to education,
employment, or financial resources.
• People facing such strain may resort to illegitimate means (crime) to achieve
success.
Merton’s Five Modes of Adaptation to Strain

Mode Definition Example

A hardworking
Accepts societal goals
Conformity individual striving for
and means.
financial success legally.

A person engaging in
Accepts societal goals
Innovation fraud or robbery to become
but uses illegal means.
rich.

A bureaucrat who
Rejects societal goals
Ritualism follows procedures but has
but follows rules strictly.
no ambition for wealth.

Rejects both goals and Drug addicts, homeless

Retreatism means, withdraws from individuals disengaged
society. from society.

Rejects societal goals Political extremists or

Rebellion and replaces them with terrorists challenging
alternative ones. existing norms.

Indian Context: The Rise of Economic Offenses

• Scams like the Vijay Mallya and Nirav Modi Bank Fraud Cases
o These individuals engaged in financial fraud because legal methods could
not guarantee rapid wealth accumulation.
o Represents "Innovation" in Merton’s theory.
 1.2 Social Disorganization Theory (Shaw & McKay, 1942)
• Crime is higher in areas with weak community institutions (schools, family,
police).
• Poor urban neighborhoods with high population density, poverty, and weak law
enforcement foster crime.
Indian Context: Urban Slums and Crime
• Dharavi, Mumbai (one of Asia’s largest slums) experiences high rates of:
o Petty theft, gang activity, and organized crime due to poverty and lack of
education.
o Weak community supervision allows illegal drug trade, gambling, and
violence.

1.3 Routine Activity Theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979)

• Crime occurs when:
1. A motivated offender (a person willing to commit crime).
2. A suitable target (a vulnerable victim or object).
3. An absence of a capable guardian (no police, security, or bystanders to
intervene).
Indian Context: Increase in Cybercrime
• Online fraud, phishing scams, and UPI payment frauds occur when:
o Motivated offender: Cybercriminals seeking financial gain.
o Suitable target: Internet users unfamiliar with digital security.
o Lack of guardianship: Weak cybersecurity measures, lack of legal
enforcement.

2. Cultural Approach to Crime

The cultural approach argues that crime is shaped by cultural norms, values,
and traditions that justify or encourage certain illegal activities.
2.1 Subcultural Theory (Cohen, 1955)
• Crime arises from subcultures that have values and norms different from
mainstream society.
• Deviant groups (gangs, criminal networks) form their own value systems where
crime is acceptable or even rewarded.
 Indian Context: The D-Company and Mumbai Underworld
• Dawood Ibrahim’s gang culture in Mumbai fostered a subculture where:
o Criminal activities (extortion, smuggling, drug trade) were normalized.
o Loyalty and violence were valued within the gang subculture.

2.2 Differential Association Theory (Sutherland, 1947)

• Criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others.
• People exposed to pro-criminal attitudes and justifications are more likely to
engage in crime.
Indian Context: Juvenile Gangs in Delhi and Mumbai
• Teenagers involved in crime often grow up around criminals and learn:
o Justifications for theft, violence, and gang loyalty.
o Techniques for committing crimes from experienced offenders.

2.3 Culture of Violence Theory (Wolfgang & Ferracuti, 1967)

• Some societies develop a "culture of violence" where:
o Violence is seen as an acceptable way to resolve conflicts.
o Honor-based killings, political violence, and communal riots become justified
within specific groups.
Indian Context: Honor Killings in North India
• In states like Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh, young couples are killed for
marrying outside their caste or religion.
• These crimes are often justified as "protecting family honor."

2.4 Masculinity and Crime (Messerschmidt, 1993)

• Crime is a way for men to assert dominance and masculinity in societies where
power and aggression are valued.
Indian Context: Gender-Based Violence
• Acid Attacks and Domestic Violence Cases:
o Perpetrators often seek to control or "punish" women who reject them.

3. Criticism of Social-Structural and Cultural Theories

• Ignores Biological and Psychological Factors: Assumes crime is purely a result of
environment, ignoring individual traits.
• Does Not Explain "Criminals in Rich Areas": Why do white-collar criminals
commit crimes despite having financial stability?
• Generalizes Crime Patterns: Not all people in poor neighborhoods engage in crime.

4. Conclusion
• The social-structural and cultural approaches provide valuable insights into how
poverty, inequality, cultural norms, and social networks shape criminal
behavior.
• These perspectives highlight the need for strong institutions, law enforcement, and
cultural reforms to reduce crime rates in India and globally.
Developmental Approach to Understanding Criminal Behavior
The developmental perspective explains criminal behavior as an outcome of
early life experiences, personality development, and environmental influences. It
focuses on how childhood trauma, parental influence, peer relationships, and
cognitive development shape a person's likelihood of engaging in criminal activity.
This approach is particularly useful for understanding why some individuals
engage in lifelong criminal behavior (chronic offenders) while others commit
crimes only during adolescence (temporary offenders).

1. Key Principles of the Developmental Approach

1. Criminal behavior develops over time, influenced by early-life experiences.
2. Risk factors (e.g., abuse, neglect, poverty, lack of education) increase the
likelihood of crime.
3. Protective factors (e.g., strong parental support, positive peer influence) decrease
criminal tendencies.
4. There are different pathways to criminal behavior, with some individuals engaging
in crime persistently and others temporarily.

2. Major Developmental Theories of Crime

2.1 Moffitt’s Developmental Taxonomy (1993)
Terrie Moffitt proposed that offenders can be classified into two groups:
1. Life-Course Persistent (LCP) Offenders
 o Begin showing antisocial behavior early in childhood and continue into
adulthood.
o Often linked to neurological deficits, poor parenting, and environmental
risks.
o Exhibit traits like impulsivity, aggression, and poor academic performance.
o Examples: Serial killers, career criminals.
2. Adolescent-Limited (AL) Offenders
o Engage in crime only during adolescence and desist as they mature.
o Influenced by peer pressure, rebellion, or need for social recognition.
o Most grow out of crime as they enter stable jobs and relationships.
o Examples: Teenage shoplifting, underage drinking.
Indian Context: Juvenile Delinquency in India
• A study by NCRB (National Crime Records Bureau, 2021) showed that most
juvenile offenders are first-time offenders, supporting Moffitt’s claim about
adolescent-limited crime.
• Example: Delhi Juvenile (2012 Nirbhaya Case)
o The most violent offender in the 2012 Delhi Gang Rape was a juvenile.
o Demonstrates how lack of proper socialization, economic hardship, and
peer influence contribute to serious crimes.

2.2 Patterson’s Coercion Theory (1982)

• Early family dynamics shape criminal behavior.
• Children learn aggression from their parents (e.g., harsh discipline, inconsistent
parenting).
• If parents fail to discipline properly, children become hostile and manipulative,
leading to criminal tendencies.
Indian Context: Child Abuse and Crime
• Tihar Jail (Delhi) study: Many prisoners experienced physical abuse in childhood,
indicating a link between early aggression and future crime.

2.3 Sampson & Laub’s Age-Graded Theory of Crime (1993)

• Criminal behavior is influenced by "turning points" in life, such as:
o Getting a stable job.
 o Entering a healthy relationship.
o Military service or rehabilitation.
• Even career criminals can reform if they experience positive life changes.
Indian Context: Rehabilitation of Criminals
• Example: "Dr. Bomb" Case
o Former Mumbai underworld bomb maker turned into a social worker after
prison rehabilitation.
o Shows that turning points like education and mentorship can change
criminal behavior.

2.4 Farrington’s Cambridge Study on Delinquent Development (2003)

• Longitudinal study tracking boys from childhood to adulthood.
• Found strong links between childhood antisocial behavior and adult crime.
• Risk factors for criminal behavior:
o Poor academic performance.
o Aggression in childhood.
o Parental criminality (children of criminals more likely to offend).
Indian Context: Generational Crime in Mafia Families
• Many organized crime families in India show criminality passed down through
generations.
• Example: Dawood Ibrahim’s family had links to crime even before he became a
gangster.

3. Developmental Risk Factors for Crime

Example (Indian
Risk Factor Explanation
Context)

High rate of juvenile

Childhood Early trauma
offenders from abusive
Neglect & Abuse increases aggression
homes

Low education Many slum-dwelling

Poor Academic
reduces job criminals have dropped
Performance
opportunities out of school
 Example (Indian
Risk Factor Explanation
Context)

Criminal peer
Peer Influence Mumbai and Delhi
groups normalize
& Gangs gang culture
crime

Poverty & Lack of legal Cyber fraud in Tier-2

Unemployment income leads to crime cities due to job scarcity

Substance Drugs lower Drug-related crimes

Abuse impulse control in Punjab

4. Protective Factors Against Crime

Not all at-risk children become criminals. Some develop resilience due to:
• Strong parental support.
• Education and employment opportunities.
• Positive peer influence.
• Government intervention (rehabilitation programs, youth mentorship).
Indian Context: Government Initiatives
• Skill India Mission: Provides job training to reduce unemployment-related crime.
• Juvenile Justice Act, 2015: Focuses on rehabilitation rather than punishment.

5. Criticism of the Developmental Approach

1. Does not explain sudden, impulsive crimes (e.g., crimes of passion).
2. Overemphasizes childhood factors—some criminals develop antisocial traits in
adulthood.
3. Ignores social and cultural influences that may shape behavior.

6. Conclusion
• The developmental approach explains how early-life experiences, socialization, and
life transitions shape criminal behavior.
• Long-term interventions (education, family support, rehabilitation) can reduce
criminal tendencies.
• Indian examples highlight how childhood risk factors and life circumstances
influence crime in India.
 Psychological Approach to Understanding Criminal Behavior
The psychological perspective explains criminal behavior in terms of personality
traits, cognitive distortions, mental disorders, and learning experiences. This
approach is rooted in clinical psychology, cognitive psychology, and behavioral
psychology to understand why individuals engage in deviant or criminal acts.

1. Key Principles of the Psychological Approach

1. Criminal behavior is influenced by personality traits (e.g., impulsivity, aggression,
lack of empathy).
2. Cognitive distortions (irrational thinking patterns) justify criminal actions.
3. Mental disorders (psychopathy, antisocial personality disorder, schizophrenia,
etc.) increase the risk of crime.
4. Criminal behavior can be learned through reinforcement, imitation, and
environmental influences.
5. Childhood experiences (neglect, trauma, abuse) shape future criminal tendencies.

2. Major Psychological Theories of Crime

2.1 Eysenck’s Theory of Criminal Personality (1977)
• Hans Eysenck proposed that criminals have distinct personality traits that make them
more likely to commit crimes.
• Three Dimensions of Personality:
1. Extraversion (E): High-energy, thrill-seeking individuals may engage in
crime for excitement.
2. Neuroticism (N): Emotionally unstable individuals may commit crimes
impulsively.
3. Psychoticism (P): Aggressive, unemotional individuals are prone to violent
crime.
Indian Context: Serial Killer Auto Shankar (Tamil Nadu, 1980s)
• Displayed high extraversion and psychoticism, enjoying thrill-seeking behavior
and lack of remorse for his murders.

2.2 Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R, 1991)

• Developed by Robert Hare, this checklist measures psychopathy, a personality
disorder linked to criminal behavior.
• Traits of Psychopathy:
 o Lack of empathy and guilt.
o Manipulativeness and deceitfulness.
o Superficial charm and grandiosity.
o Impulsivity and poor behavioral control.
Indian Context: Charles Sobhraj ("The Bikini Killer")
• Exhibited high psychopathy with manipulation, lack of remorse, and deceitful
charm.
• Used psychological control over his victims, making them trust him before
murdering them.

2.3 Cognitive Theories: Criminal Thinking Patterns

• Cognitive distortions (irrational thought patterns) enable criminals to justify their
behavior.
• Yochelson & Samenow’s Criminal Thinking Patterns (1976):
1. Blaming others – "I had no choice but to commit the crime."
2. Entitlement – "I deserve this, so I took it."
3. Minimization – "It wasn’t a big deal."
Indian Context: Vijay Mallya Bank Fraud Case
• Justified his financial crimes by blaming the banking system and economy rather
than accepting responsibility.

2.4 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (1977)

• Criminal behavior is learned through observation, imitation, and reinforcement.
• Individuals learn to commit crimes from family, peers, and media exposure.
• Aggression is reinforced if rewarded.
Indian Context: Juvenile Gangs in Delhi & Mumbai
• Many juvenile offenders learn aggressive behavior from criminal mentors,
normalizing violence and theft.

2.5 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (1915)

• Sigmund Freud proposed that criminal behavior stems from unresolved
unconscious conflicts and poor moral development.
• Three Personality Structures:
o Id (Instincts): Primitive, pleasure-seeking part of the mind.
o Ego (Reality): Rational decision-making part.
o Superego (Morality): Conscience that controls impulses.
• Criminals may have a weak superego, leading to impulsivity and lack of guilt.
Indian Context: Nithari Serial Murders (2006, Noida)
• Moninder Singh Pandher and Surinder Koli’s brutal crimes may be linked to
poor moral development and suppressed deviant urges.

2.6 Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) and Crime

• DSM-5 Definition of ASPD:
o Persistent disregard for others' rights.
o Deception, impulsivity, aggressiveness.
o Lack of remorse after harming others.
• Individuals with ASPD have a high risk of violent and manipulative crime.
Indian Context: Psycho Killer Renuka Shinde & Seema Gavit
• Kidnapped and killed children without remorse, displaying antisocial traits.

3. Psychological Risk Factors for Crime

Example (Indian
Risk Factor Explanation
Context)

Many Indian serial

Childhood Abuse and neglect lead
killers had abusive
Trauma to aggression
childhoods

Impulsivity & Leads to violent crime Road rage

Low Self-Control and reckless behavior incidents in India

Cognitive Economic fraud

Justifies criminal acts
Distortions justifications

Learning crime from Juvenile gang

Peer Influence
others violence
 Example (Indian
Risk Factor Explanation
Context)

Schizophrenia,
Criminals with
Mental Illness psychopathy, ASPD
undiagnosed disorders
linked to crime

4. Psychological Protective Factors Against Crime

• Stable family environment and positive role models.
• Early childhood intervention programs (education, therapy).
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for high-risk individuals.
• Rehabilitation programs for juvenile offenders.
Indian Context: Crime Prevention Programs
• Juvenile Justice Board (JJB): Focuses on rehabilitation of young offenders.
• Skill Development Programs (Prison Reforms): Help criminals reintegrate into
society.

5. Criticism of the Psychological Approach

1. Ignores Social and Economic Causes of Crime: Does not account for poverty and
systemic inequalities.
2. Focuses Too Much on the Individual: Crime is often a group or societal
phenomenon.
3. Mental Illness is Not Always Linked to Crime: Many individuals with mental
disorders never engage in criminal activity.

6. Conclusion
• The psychological approach explains crime in terms of personality traits, cognitive
distortions, and mental disorders.
• Indian case studies highlight how psychopathy, antisocial traits, and learned
behaviors contribute to criminal behavior.
• Interventions like therapy, early education, and rehabilitation are key to
preventing crime.
Biological Approach to Understanding Criminal Behavior
The biological approach explains criminal behavior as a result of genetic,
neurobiological, hormonal, and evolutionary influences. It suggests that certain
 individuals may be predisposed to criminality due to biological factors such as
brain abnormalities, genetic mutations, hormonal imbalances, and
neurochemical deficiencies.
This perspective has evolved from early biological determinism (e.g.,
Lombroso’s theory of born criminals) to modern neurocriminology, which
integrates genetics, neuroscience, and forensic psychology.

1. Key Principles of the Biological Approach

1. Genetic factors (inherited traits) may influence criminal behavior.
2. Brain structure and dysfunctions affect impulse control, aggression, and
decision-making.
3. Hormonal imbalances (e.g., testosterone, cortisol) contribute to violent
tendencies.
4. Neurotransmitter deficiencies (e.g., serotonin, dopamine) impact aggression and
self-control.
5. Evolutionary factors explain why certain crimes (e.g., aggression, deception) may
have survival value.

2. Major Biological Theories of Crime

2.1 Lombroso’s Atavistic Theory (1876) - Early Biological Determinism
• Cesare Lombroso, an Italian criminologist, proposed that criminals are "born
criminals" with biological inferiority.
• He argued that criminals exhibit atavistic (primitive) physical traits, such as:
o Large jaw, high cheekbones.
o Asymmetrical skull.
o Long arms, excessive hair.
Criticism:
• Modern research rejects physical appearance as a predictor of criminal behavior.
• Crime is influenced by environment, learning, and social structures rather than
physical traits alone.
Indian Context: Outdated Caste-Based Criminalization (British India)
• During British rule, the Criminal Tribes Act (1871) falsely labeled certain tribes as
"criminal castes" based on Lombroso’s ideas.
• The act was abolished in 1952, recognizing crime as a social and legal issue, not a
biological one.
 2.2 Genetic Theories of Crime
Twin and Adoption Studies (Hutchings & Mednick, 1975)
• Higher criminal concordance in identical twins than in fraternal twins suggests a
genetic component.
• Adoption studies show that children of criminal biological parents have a higher
likelihood of committing crimes, even if raised in different environments.
MAOA Gene ("Warrior Gene") and Aggression
• The MAOA-L (low activity) variant affects serotonin regulation, leading to higher
impulsivity and aggression.
• Brunner et al. (1993) found that Dutch males with a defective MAOA gene
exhibited extreme aggression and violent tendencies.
Indian Context: Potential Genetic Links to Aggressive Criminals
• Though no major Indian studies have been conducted, genetic research on
aggression is gaining interest in AIIMS and NIMHANS research institutes.
• Behavioral genetics research in Indian prison populations may provide insights
into genetic predispositions to violent crime.

2.3 Neurobiological Theories: Brain Abnormalities and Crime

Raine’s Neuroimaging Studies (1997) - Prefrontal Dysfunction in Criminals
• Adrian Raine conducted PET scans on violent criminals and found:
o Reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex (responsible for impulse control
and moral reasoning).
o Overactivity in the limbic system (amygdala), leading to increased
aggression and emotional reactivity.
Case Study: Charles Whitman (Texas Tower Sniper, 1966)
• Autopsy revealed a tumor pressing against his amygdala, which may have
influenced his violent outburst and mass shooting.
Indian Context: Brain Injuries and Crime in India
• AIIMS, Delhi, has conducted research showing frontal lobe injuries in violent
offenders.
• Example: Sudhir Kumar (Delhi, 2018) – A factory worker who committed multiple
murders after suffering a traumatic brain injury.
 2.4 Hormonal Theories: Testosterone, Cortisol, and Criminal Behavior
Testosterone and Aggression
• High levels of testosterone (male sex hormone) are linked to:
o Increased aggression.
o Dominance-seeking behavior.
o Risk-taking and impulsivity.
Indian Context: Aggression in Indian Juvenile Offenders
• NIMHANS (Bangalore) research on juvenile delinquents found higher
testosterone levels in violent youth offenders than in non-offenders.
Cortisol and Stress-Related Crime
• Low cortisol levels reduce the stress response, leading to fearlessness and risk-
taking.
• Criminals with low cortisol levels show reduced emotional response to
punishment.
Indian Context: Stress and Violent Crime
• Studies in Tihar Jail, Delhi, found that hardened criminals exhibited low cortisol
levels, making them resistant to fear and punishment.

2.5 Neurotransmitters and Crime: Serotonin, Dopamine, and Aggression

Low Serotonin and Impulsivity
• Serotonin regulates mood and impulse control.
• Low serotonin levels are associated with:
o Impulsive aggression.
o Inability to delay gratification.
o Increased risk of violent crime.
Dopamine and Reward-Seeking Crime
• Dopamine is linked to pleasure and reinforcement.
• High dopamine levels encourage thrill-seeking behaviors, leading to:
o White-collar crimes (fraud, embezzlement).
o Addiction-related crimes (drug trafficking, theft).
Indian Context: Cybercrime and Dopamine Addiction
• Studies on cybercriminals in Bengaluru reveal that online fraudsters experience a
dopamine rush, similar to gambling addiction.

3. Biological Risk Factors for Crime

Example (Indian
Risk Factor Explanation
Context)

Higher Not yet studied in

Genetics (MAOA
aggression and India, but genetic
Gene)
impulsivity research is growing

Brain Damage Poor impulse AIIMS research

(Frontal Lobe Injuries) control, aggression on violent prisoners

Increased
Hormonal Imbalance Juvenile crime
aggression and
(Testosterone, Cortisol) studies in India
reduced fear

Neurotransmitter Impulsivity, lack Cybercrime

Imbalance (Serotonin, of emotional addiction in
Dopamine) regulation Bengaluru

4. Biological Protective Factors Against Crime

• Healthy brain development (proper nutrition, no head injuries).
• Balanced hormones and neurotransmitters.
• Early detection of impulsivity and aggression in children.
• Genetic counseling for families with a history of aggression.
Indian Context: Crime Prevention and Brain Health Initiatives
• NIMHANS and AIIMS research on childhood aggression to develop early
intervention programs.

5. Criticism of the Biological Approach

1. Ignores Social and Environmental Factors: Biology alone does not cause crime;
environment plays a crucial role.
2. Overemphasizes Genetics: Not all criminals have biological abnormalities.
3. Ethical Concerns: Could lead to genetic discrimination or profiling of individuals
based on biology.
 6. Conclusion
• The biological approach provides strong scientific evidence that genetic,
neurobiological, and hormonal factors influence crime.
• However, crime is multi-causal, requiring social, psychological, and cultural
explanations as well.
Neuropsychological Approach to Understanding Criminal Behavior
The neuropsychological perspective explores how brain function, cognitive
deficits, and neurological abnormalities contribute to criminal behavior. This
approach integrates insights from neuroscience, forensic psychology, and cognitive
neuropsychology to explain why certain individuals engage in violent or antisocial
acts.
Neuropsychological deficits can arise from:
• Brain injuries (trauma, tumors, strokes).
• Neurodevelopmental disorders (ADHD, autism spectrum disorders).
• Neurological diseases (epilepsy, dementia, Parkinson’s disease).
• Prenatal and early childhood brain damage (toxins, malnutrition).

1. Key Principles of the Neuropsychological Approach

1. Brain dysfunction affects impulse control, decision-making, and aggression.
2. Damage to the prefrontal cortex impairs moral reasoning and self-regulation.
3. Hyperactivity in the limbic system (amygdala) increases aggression and
emotional reactivity.
4. Neurodevelopmental disorders increase the risk of antisocial behavior.
5. Criminal behavior can be linked to cognitive deficits affecting memory,
attention, and executive function.

2. Major Neuropsychological Theories of Crime

2.1 Prefrontal Cortex Dysfunction and Crime
• The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is responsible for:
o Impulse control
o Moral decision-making
o Planning and foresight
o Regulating aggressive impulses
 Raine et al. (1997) - Neuroimaging Study on Violent Offenders
• Findings:
o Murderers showed significantly lower activity in the prefrontal cortex.
o Lack of prefrontal control over the amygdala (emotion processing) led to
higher aggression.
Indian Context: Brain Dysfunction in Indian Prisoners
• AIIMS research on Tihar Jail inmates found that violent offenders had abnormal
prefrontal activity, suggesting poor impulse control.
Case Study: Phineas Gage (1848) - Prefrontal Cortex Damage and Aggression
• A rod pierced his frontal lobe, drastically changing his personality.
• He became aggressive, impulsive, and antisocial, showing the role of PFC in
emotional regulation.

2.2 Amygdala Dysfunction and Aggression

• The amygdala processes fear, aggression, and emotional responses.
• Criminals with overactive amygdalae are more prone to anger, aggression, and
impulsivity.
Case Study: Charles Whitman (Texas Tower Sniper, 1966)
• Autopsy revealed a tumor pressing against his amygdala, which may have
contributed to his violent shooting spree.
Indian Context: Extreme Rage Crimes in India
• Honor killings and mob lynching cases in India may be linked to amygdala
hyperactivity, causing impulsive aggression and lack of rational control.

2.3 Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Criminal Behavior

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Crime
• ADHD symptoms (impulsivity, hyperactivity, inattention) increase the risk of
delinquency and substance abuse.
• Studies show that 50% of prison inmates have undiagnosed ADHD.
Indian Context: Juvenile Delinquency and ADHD
• NIMHANS studies found a high prevalence of ADHD in Indian juvenile
offenders, leading to impulsive crime and poor decision-making.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Crime
• Some individuals with ASD show rigid thinking, lack of empathy, and social
difficulties that may contribute to misinterpreted criminal behaviors (e.g., stalking,
cybercrime).

2.4 The Role of Executive Dysfunction in Criminal Behavior

• Executive functions include problem-solving, working memory, cognitive
flexibility, and self-control.
• Criminals with executive dysfunction struggle with:
o Delayed gratification (leading to impulsive theft or drug abuse).
o Understanding long-term consequences of their actions.
o Regulating violent impulses (increasing likelihood of violent crimes).
Indian Context: Cognitive Deficits in Convicted Criminals
• A study at AIIMS Delhi found that Indian convicts performed poorly on
executive function tests, showing impulsivity and impaired decision-making.

2.5 Neurotoxic Exposure and Criminal Behavior

• Lead poisoning, mercury exposure, and malnutrition in early childhood affect
brain development and increase the risk of criminality.
Lead-Crime Hypothesis (Needleman, 1996)
• Children exposed to high lead levels show increased aggression and antisocial
behavior.
• Studies found a decline in crime rates in the USA after lead removal from
gasoline.
Indian Context: Environmental Neurotoxins and Crime
• High lead exposure in industrial areas (e.g., Delhi, Mumbai) may contribute to
higher rates of juvenile delinquency.

3. Neuropsychological Risk Factors for Crime

Example
Risk Factor Explanation
(Indian Context)

Violent
Prefrontal Cortex Poor impulse control,
offenders in Indian
Damage lack of moral judgment
prisons
 Example
Risk Factor Explanation
(Indian Context)

Amygdala Increased aggression Honor killings,

Dysfunction and emotional outbursts mob violence

ADHD and
Poor decision-making, Juvenile
Executive
impulsive crime offenders in India
Dysfunction

Neurotoxic Brain damage leading Lead poisoning

Exposure to antisocial behavior in industrial areas

4. Neuropsychological Protective Factors Against Crime

• Early diagnosis and treatment of ADHD and impulse disorders.
• Brain injury prevention (helmets, safety regulations).
• Cognitive training and therapy for high-risk individuals.
• Proper nutrition and reducing neurotoxic exposure.
Indian Context: Neuroscience-Based Rehabilitation in India
• NIMHANS and AIIMS offer neuropsychological interventions for individuals
with brain-based aggression issues.

5. Criticism of the Neuropsychological Approach

1. Ignores Social and Cultural Influences – Crime is not purely neurological;
environmental factors play a role.
2. Not All Brain-Damaged Individuals Become Criminals – Many people with brain
injuries never engage in crime.
3. Overemphasis on Biological Determinism – Crime is also a moral, legal, and
social construct, not just a neurological issue.

6. Conclusion
• The neuropsychological approach provides strong evidence that brain dysfunction,
cognitive deficits, and neurological disorders contribute to crime.
• However, crime prevention must integrate social, psychological, and
environmental interventions.
• Indian case studies highlight the growing role of neuropsychology in forensic
analysis and rehabilitation.
 Situational Approach to Understanding Criminal Behavior
The situational approach explains criminal behavior as a response to specific
circumstances, environmental conditions, and immediate situational factors
rather than deep-seated personality traits or biological predispositions.
This approach argues that:
✔ Criminal behavior is influenced by the environment and opportunities present
at the moment.
✔ Situations can override personal morality and self-control, leading to impulsive
criminal acts.
✔ Crime prevention should focus on altering the environment rather than solely
punishing individuals.

1. Key Principles of the Situational Approach

1. Crime is opportunistic – Offenders commit crimes when circumstances favor them.
2. Environmental factors (e.g., poor lighting, lack of surveillance) facilitate crime.
3. Social context influences behavior – Even "good" people can commit crimes under
the right conditions.
4. Situational interventions (e.g., security measures, crowd control) can prevent
crime.

2. Major Theories of the Situational Approach

2.1 Routine Activity Theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979)
• Crime occurs when three elements converge in time and space:
1. A motivated offender – Someone willing to commit a crime.
2. A suitable target – A vulnerable person or valuable property.
3. The absence of a capable guardian – No police, security, or bystanders to
intervene.
Indian Context: Rise in Cybercrime & ATM Fraud
• Cybercriminals target individuals who are unaware of online security risks.
• Lack of cybersecurity measures (absence of a capable guardian) facilitates fraud.

2.2 Situational Crime Prevention (Clarke, 1980)

• Crime can be prevented by altering the environment to make crime less attractive.
• Five key techniques:
 1. Increase the effort required to commit crime (e.g., stronger locks).
2. Increase the risks of being caught (e.g., CCTV cameras).
3. Reduce rewards of crime (e.g., ink tags on store items).
4. Reduce provocations (e.g., preventing overcrowding in bars to avoid fights).
5. Remove excuses for crime (e.g., clear legal warnings and signage).
Indian Context: Success of CCTV Surveillance in Crime Reduction
• Delhi Police installed thousands of CCTV cameras in high-crime areas, leading to
a significant drop in street crimes.

2.3 Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) - The Power of Situations

• Ordinary people can commit extreme acts of cruelty under situational pressures.
• Findings:
o Participants assigned as "guards" became abusive and aggressive.
o Situational factors (power imbalance, anonymity, lack of accountability)
encouraged criminal-like behavior.
Indian Context: Custodial Torture & Police Brutality
• Jayaraj and Bennix Case (Tamil Nadu, 2020)
o Two civilians were tortured and killed in police custody due to unchecked
situational power dynamics.
o Shows how situations (power, lack of oversight) can lead to abuse and
criminal behavior even by law enforcement officials.

2.4 Deindividuation Theory (Festinger, 1952) - Anonymity and Mob Violence

• When individuals are part of a crowd or group, they feel anonymous and are more
likely to commit crimes.
• People lose their sense of individual responsibility, leading to:
o Riots
o Lynching
o Gang violence
Indian Context: Mob Lynching and Vigilante Violence
• Cow-related lynchings in India – In some cases, crowds turn violent due to rumors,
leading to public killings of alleged offenders.
• Communal riots in India (e.g., Delhi Riots 2020, Gujarat Riots 2002) – Situational
factors like group identity, political manipulation, and anonymity lead to mass
violence.

2.5 Broken Windows Theory (Wilson & Kelling, 1982) - How Disorder
Encourages Crime
• Signs of disorder (graffiti, vandalism, littering) signal a breakdown of social
control, encouraging further crime.
• Maintaining clean and orderly environments discourages criminal behavior.
Indian Context: Crime Reduction Through Urban Clean-Up
• Indore, Madhya Pradesh was once known for high crime rates and urban
disorder.
• After launching the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission) and improving
public spaces, crime rates in certain areas declined.

2.6 Bystander Effect (Latané & Darley, 1968) - Why People Don’t Intervene
in Crimes
• The more people witness a crime, the less likely they are to intervene.
• Diffusion of responsibility: Everyone assumes someone else will act.
Indian Context: Hit-and-Run Cases in India
• Example: 2016 Delhi Hit-and-Run Case – A man was hit by a car and left bleeding
on the road for an hour while bystanders did nothing.
• Good Samaritan Law (2016) was passed to protect people who help accident
victims.

3. Situational Risk Factors for Crime

Example
Situational Factor Explanation
(Indian Context)

Lack of Crime flourishes in Street theft in

Surveillance low-policing areas poorly lit areas

Overcrowding & Increases violence Road rage in

Frustration due to stress traffic jams

Reduces individual Mob lynchings,

Group Anonymity
accountability communal riots
 Example
Situational Factor Explanation
(Indian Context)

Easy Access to Increases risk of Gun violence in

Weapons impulsive violence political rallies

Domestic
Provocative High emotional
violence after
Situations situations lead to crime
conflicts

4. Situational Crime Prevention Strategies

Implementation in
Strategy Example
India

CCTV Increased cameras in Drop in street

Surveillance Delhi, Mumbai crime

Stronger Law
More patrolling in Reduced violent
Enforcement
crime hotspots crime
Presence

Better Street Reduces nighttime Improved safety

Lighting crimes for women

Anti-human
Public Awareness Encourage reporting of
trafficking
Campaigns crime
programs

Bystander
Educating people to Good Samaritan
Intervention
act Law, 2016
Training

5. Criticism of the Situational Approach

1. Ignores Individual Differences – Some people are more prone to crime due to
personality, mental health, or upbringing.
2. Does Not Explain Chronic Criminals – Career criminals engage in crime
regardless of the situation.
3. Not All Poorly Lit or Crowded Areas Have Crime – Some low-surveillance areas
remain crime-free due to strong social norms.

6. Conclusion
• The situational approach highlights how environmental conditions, social
contexts, and immediate opportunities influence criminal behavior.
• Crime prevention should focus on reducing opportunities for crime through
environmental design, law enforcement, and social awareness.
• Indian case studies illustrate how mob violence, cybercrime, and police brutality
arise from situational factors.