Apart Irom 'religious women (nuns, temple women, ctc.

), there were qucens, women be-

longing to the family of chictans, and wives of landowners, merchants, and Brahmanas.
The donations were, lor the most parn, not so much channelhzcd towards monasteries
or mathas as lowards suppoting worshp in shries. They were for the constrc tion of
Ieples, makimg mages, provision of lamps, flowers, and food lor the deity, and provid-
ing for those associaled with temple services. Or emphasizes that instcad of looking lor
female counterparts of priests, ascetics, and monks (the very roles from which they tend
cd to be exeluded), it is necessary to recognize the importance of gilt giving as a religious
civty f this is donc, the abundance of evidence of women donors in varIOus religious
ITaduons gives a picture of active participation, rather than total marginalization.

The Architecture and Sculpture of Early Medieval India

THE NAGARA, DRAvIDA, AND VESARA STYLES OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Ihe carly medieval period was marked by remarkable developments in the spheres of art
and architecture. Distinct regional architectural and sculptural styles emerged in diller-
ent areas. including Kashmir, Rajasthan, and Orissa. In peninsular India, majoredihces
were built through the patronage of the Rashtrakutas, early Western Chalukyas, Pallavas,
Hoysalas, and Cholas. In contrast to previous centuries, when a great proportion ot the
major architectural remains were Buddhist, in this period, the remains are dominated by

Hindu temples.
A number of architectural texts known as the Shilpashastras were written in early
medieval times. (For an interesting discussion of the relationship between shastra [text|
and prayoga Ipractice| with special relerence to three types of entryways-the pratoli,
medieval structures, Pandya Dhar |2006].)
Sopura, and torana-in ancient and early see
These reler to three major styles of temple architecture-Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara.
The Nagara style is associated with the land between the Himalayas and Vindhyas, the
Dravida style with the land between the Krishna and Kaveri rivers, while the Vesara
and the Krishna river.
style is sometimes associated with the area between the Vindhyas
Temple styles are actually best studied on the basis of extant temple remairns. Hardy
should be understood as architectural
(1995: 7-9) points out that Nagara and Dravida
languages, in the sense that they provide a vocabulary, a range ot elements, and a family

(LE
 of foms which can be put
also suggests that the together n dillerent w.ays
He
tem
betier term than Vesar.a lor
the
Kan.ata-Dravida is a
the Decean Chalukya temples ol
The baslc plan ot the
with a number ot Nagara temple is square.
projections
ide. gIvng it a crcilorm in the
middle of each
Iton 1s nmarked by
shape. The temple's cleva-
a
conical or
1emple tower, consisting ot several shikhara or convex

Ourses, usualy crowned layers of carved

ing stone). These two
by an amalaka
(notched
nd curvilinear leatures-the crucilornm plan
shikhara-are vis1ble in
emples trom the 6th century CE (the 'late northem
iod). for example Gupta' pe-
the
arh and the brick
Dashavatara temple at Decog-
n

temple at Bhuargaon (both in UP).

The beginnings ot the typical
he seen in the Mahadeva
Nagara shikhara can
temple
7th century) and the bnck
at Nachna Kuhara

Lakshmana temple at
Sipur (both in MP). The fully developed Nagara siyle is evident by tlhe 8th century
Ihe most stiking teature of the Dravida temple is its pyTamidal sh1khara, which
onsists o1
progressively smaller and smaller storevs. culminating in a slender pinnacle
urmounted by a small dome (stupika). In a later stage, South Indian temples came to
be marked by' huge gateways known as gopurams and by pillared halls and corridors
he earliest traces of such teatures go back to the Gupta period and are not restricted
o the tar south-e g. they occur in northem and central India and the Deccan They
can be seen in the Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara and the Lad Khan. Kont Gudi.
and Meguti temples at Aihole. In temples built in the Dravida style. the square inner
sanctum is set within a large covered enclosure. The external walls are divided into
niches by pilasters.
The Vesara style is a hybrid style (vesara literally means 'mule) that borrowed Irom
the northern and southern styles. It is difficult to define. as the mixure of northern and
southern elements may vary. Temples buil in the Deccan under the laer Chaluky as of
Kalyani and Hoysalas are considered examples of this style. However, looking at the

temple architecture of the Deccan simply as a combination ot northern and southern

elements means missing out on its distinctiveness and variations.
Due to constrainis ol space, il is not possible to give a comprehensive account of the KHAJURAHO TEMPLE(TOP); TREFOILED
ARCHES OF THE MARTANDA TEMPLE, KASHMIR
architectural and sculptural traditions and remains of all the parts of the subconunent
(MIDDLE) KatLASHANATHA TEMPLE, ELLORA
Huntington, see 198): Chapters T1-22). Therelore, the (BOTTOM)
fora comprehensive discussion,
briel sampling. consisting
lollowing s e c t i o n s offer a architecture in the
of an o v e r v i e w of Indian temple
Deccan and the far south,
and the metal sculpture of
the Chola period.

ANd THE DECCAN

WESTERN INDIa

Ellora (7th-8th
centuries) represen
The caves at
in
cave architecture
Buddhist
the last phase of 1985: 268-81). Their
Western India (Huntington,
some continu-
shows
architecture and sculpture
with Ajanta, Bagh,
tles with earlier centuries (e.g,
there are also some changes.
and Kanheri), but ol the side
increase in the s1ze
Ihese include an
benches (in
double row of stone
shrines and a
are the larg-
distinctive leatures
Cave 5). Other
of sculpture, rellected
er and the richness
scale
 or nstance, in 12, known as Tin
Cave
Thal. This consists ol three storeys, and
TCpresCnts the clmax and the end ol the cave excavations at Ellora. The
sculptural
programme ot the Buddhist caves at Ellora includes arrays ol Buddhas and bodhisat-
(Vds
OUp ol cight bodhisatlvas are sometimes arranged togcther in a mandala
ormation (lo U1stance, n Cave T2).
rt lrOm ls agniicent Buddhist and Jaina caves, Ellora is also known tor the
Spectacular Kailashanatha temple. This Shiva temple was excavated out of the rocky
hillside in the late 8th century under the
patronage of the Rashtrakutas. he temple is
ctually acomplex, conmprising a main shrine consisting ol a lower and an upper storey, a
Nandi pavilion, subsidiary shrines, wall,
gateway, and cloisters. The superstructure ot the
temple coresponds to the Dravida style. Practically all the surlaces of the temple com-
plex are richly Ornamented with bold, dramatic, and exceptionally 1ne sculptures. Most
of them are shaiva, but there also representations of Vishnu. In lact, the sculptures to
are
the lelt ot the enurance are
mostly Shaiva, while those to the right are mostly Vaishnava.
A similar logic of
sculpural arrangement is found along the back wall of the gallery
rounding the temple. The sculpures include representations of Shiva,. Shiva and Parvati,
sur
Ravana shaking Mount Kailasha, Durga, the Sapta-Matrikas, Ganesha, and the
goddesses
Ganga. Yamuna, and Sarasvati. The Kailashanatha temple marks the highest point ot
rock-cul temple architecture in the subcontinent.
In the Deccan, major examples of early medieval rock-cut shrines and structural
shrines are lound at several places in Karnataka. The early architectural phase (óth-early
8th centuries) is represented at Badami and Aihole. This was followed by the later and
grander 8th century temples located at Pattadakal. Badami represents the site of Vatapi,
capital of the carly Western Chalukyas. The temple architecture of the Deccan shows an
amalgam of northern and southern features, but attained a distinctive identity of its own
during these centuries.
There are two notable cave shrines al Aihole, one Shaiva and the other Jaina, both
with heavily ornamented interiors. The Shaiva cave, known as the Ravanaphadi cave,
consists of a central hall, two side shrine sections, and a garbhagriha with a linga at the
back. There are sculpures on the walls and on part of the ceiling as well. These include
representations ol Shiva as Nataraja and of the Sapta-Marikas. Compared to the figures
KET at Ellora and Badami, the figures are more slender and have tall crowns. Outside the
CnttanCC OUthe CVC, tUhcre are carvings ol dwarls anddOorkcepers wearng 1an
BADAMI:c

h e tock-Cul caves a t Badami arc carved into the red sandstone hillside overlooking

Othe three
1.k major caves, the largest is Vaishnava, while the others are Shava
onc
11t j.ina in aliiation. The caves have a simple plan, consisting of a verandah and a pil
,tfed nall lcading into a small square sanctum in the back wall. The walls and ceilings

TC iecorated with carvings. Cave 3 has huge, impressive relief sculptures oli the various

ishnu incarnations, including Varaha (lboar), Narasimha (lion), and Vamana (awart). it
m.ay be noted that the boar was also the symbol of the Western Chalukyas. The braCket
ures in Cave 3, mostly consisting of mithuna figures (amorous couples), are excep-
onal in their varicty and fincsse.
The structural temples ol the period were for the mosl part built out of large blocks

stone, without the ol mortar. The inner walls and ceilings have sculptural orna-
use
ntation. Many of the major temples are located at Aihole. Mention was made earlier of
lamous inscription of Pulakeshin II. Most of the Aihole
Meguti temple, which has the
mples are Hindu shrines and show considerable variation in plan. These include the
sidal Durga temple', mentioned earlier. The
Lad Khan temple, on the other hand, has
wWith pillars arranged in two concentric squares, at the
pillared porch, a large square hall
At Mahakula, not lar Irom Badami, there are some
nd of which is a small shrine area.
Western Chalukya period, almost all of them with
20 temples belonging to the early
curvilinear shikharas.
rthern style
Patladakal is situated some
16 km Irom Badami. The temples at this place reflect a

traditions temple architecture and sculpture. Men-

ol
frtherdevelopment of the Deccan
ol this chapler to the Virupaksha temple, the laroest and
tionwas made at the beginning Palladakal. 1 nis was dedicated to Shiva and huilt
shrine at the at

most profusely sculpted

ot tne Chalukya king Vikramaditva ll lar to
nstance
Lokamahadev1, chicl qucen
of
il CoisIls Oa copex ot Snrines, including a Nand
emnlec made in the Dravida style,
enclosure. The main temple consiste
of pillared hall
rectangular walled
a
shrine, within a
antecnamber, and sanctum with an e n c o
extensions,
an
with three porch as the sdndndrd style). Ihe shikhara is in the D
ation (this is known
have ine, deep carVings, mostly of shiva. The tcmples
the ouler walls
style. Niches excCplonal car
in
sculptures. The
fscd with sculplures. Ihe CXCeplional carving of Durga in one of
ornamelcd
wilh
interior is also n earleT SCCtion The doc
ied inin lan
menuOned carlier Section.
doOrway leading intO the
the niche shrines
has becn SE
Claboralely carved with
dv
wilh dvurifalis and other
sanctum which enshrines a lnga Is
tigures. D
INDIA

A
ater, major phase ol
temple archilccture in the Deccan is assoCialed Ilh the
Toysala dynasty which ruled over southern Karnataka Irom its capital at Dorasamudra
mocdern Halebid). Remains of
temples ofl this period are found at Halebid, Belur, and
Somnathpur. These are noted for their extremely fine, delicatc, and detailed carvings
CXCCuled on smooth chlorite schist on walls and ceilings. The most imposing shrine at
Halcbid is the 12th century Hoysaleshvara temple. This consists of two separate shrines
Wilh a crucilorm
plan, resting on crucilorm-shaped plinths. The two shrines are almost
dentical o cach other and are joined together with a covered passage. Both ol them are
preceded by a Nandi pavilion, containing profusely ornamented but sympathetically and
realistically carved sculptures of Nandi bulls. The shikharas of the two temples are miss-
1ng. The Keshava temple at Belur consists of a
The main shrine was built in
complex of shrines in a large courtyard.
the early 12th century. The
pillared mandapa is crucilorm
n
plan and rests on a plinth of the same shape. The shikhara of the shrine is no
Cxlant. Ihe intricate
longer
carvings on the outer and inner walls, pillars, screens, and bracket
igures are remarkable lor their finesse.
The 13th century Keshava
temple at Somnathpur represents the high point ol temple
architecture and sculpture of the
that of earlier ones. lt is a
Hoysala period. The temples plan is more complex than
triple shrine, with the threc shrines consisting ol stat-shaped
projections on three sides, thc shape of the plinth following the intricate outline of the
shrine. The shikhara is of moderate
height, and stands stylistically midway between the
Nagara and Dravida temple towers. The walls and ceil1ngs of the temple are richly carved
in the manner ofother Hoysala temples, including, however, a number ol erotic
themes.
The three images houscd in the ihree shines are
Keshava (the man image), Krishna as
Venugopala (playing the flue), and Janardhana Vislhnt
 THE PALLAVA KINGDOM
auchitecture in Soulh fndia be-
Apart tOm a leW Carlicr specimcns, the history ol stone

gins in the 7th century and can be connected with the inrcasing popularity ot tthc bhakli
ults. The P'allava kings, cspecially Mahendravarman I (600-625 1), Narasimhavarman

I(625-670),and N.arasimhavaman II Rajasimha (700-728 (1), were Hreat palrons o1

the arts. The rem.ins of the architecture of the Pallava period are mostly lound at Mamal-

Dhaky, 1983: 23-80). They comprise

cave
purn and Kanchipuram (see Meister and
has a distinctive
emples, monolitlhic temples, and structural temples. Pallava sculpture
styie that is dillerent from the Gupta period sculptures of north India. The laces of the
human igures are oval with high cheekbones, and the bodies slender with tapering

limbs.
than those at Ajanta and
Pallava cave shrines are smaller and less complex in plan
Elora. The relativcly plain caves are represented by the Lakshitayatana temple at Mand-
those at Mamallapuram (also
gappailu, Lalitankuras cave al Tiruchirapalli, and some of
at the bottom and
known Mahabalipuram). The massive pillars in these caves are square
as
The cave façade is generally plain,
top, and chamlered into an octagonal shape in between.
have columns inside as well,
dvarapalas usually marking the two ends. The larger caves
The sanctum contains a
leading into a sanctum guarded by dvarapalas and dvarapalikas.
of these and other deities are
linga or images of Shiva, Vishnu, or Brahma. Representations the scene of
instance
also carved the walls of the hall. Some of the relief carving, for
on
is exceptionally hne.
Shiva receiving Ganga on his head in the Tiuchirapalli cave,
at the port city of Mamal-
indersingh The more elaborate Pallava period caves are located
known as Mahamalla (great
LLAPURAM lapuram, named alter the Pallava king Narasimha I, also
multi-tac-
hero). The columns in these caves are comparatively slender. Their shaii is

scaled lions at the

eted, sometimes tluted or round, with cushion-shaped capitais and
a i a n k . The rock-
base. Some ol the caves, such as the Adi-Varaha cave, are 12recrde!
cut caves at Manmallapuram contain many caved in reliet.
stiking myiioingescees
VisBhnu taking ihree s u r e s Gajai- Lakshmi and
These include Vishnu rescuing the earth,
in the Diur a n d Krishna lift-
Durga (in the Adi-Varaha cave), Mahishasuramardini the Pallava
the Pancha-Pandava cave) The re!ic! carving of
ing Govardhana mountain (in thal in the Dcccan. The main figures are slender,
cave generally shallower than
shrines is
and little
headdresses and c r o w n s are quite piain, they wear
delicate, and elegant. Their
or no jewellery.
Ar dramatic of all the reliels ot this period is
the gigantic open-
However, the most
air reliel at Mamallapuram carved across twoo
boulders, about 15 m high and 30 m long
On the rock face are a prolusion of hgures-
in
people, animals including elephants-all
near lite-size dimensions. On special occa
tlowed from a cistern
sions, water probably
on the summit into the natural clelt between
ana
the two rocks, in which are carved a naga
a The scene represented in this
nagini igure.
relief has been interpreted in two difterent
or as Ar-
ways-as the descent of the Ganga
part ol a story
junas penance. The penance is
theme ot
in the Mahabharata and lorms the
the Kiralarjuniya. In this story, Arjuna pet
A
lorms a penance to obiain Shivas weapons.
boar is sent by s o m e a s u r a s to
kill him. Shiva
as a
intervenes protect Arjuna, disguised
to
the
to have shot
kirata (hunter). Both claum
and
Shiva wins
boar, and a conllict erupts.
reveals his true self to Arjuna.
 The other group of architectural remains at Mamallapuram are nine rock-cut tem-
HARMARAJA
GHT): ARJUNA ples, of which five are clustered together. The name of the great Pallava builder king Ma-
T); NaxuLA malla in later times misunderstood the five Pandava heroes, and the
was as referring to
fhvetemples Mamallapuram came to be known after the legendary Pandavas and their
at
wife Draupadi. The shrines are often referred to as the five rathas. Ratha means a chariot
and the temples as rathas may have been based on the idea ihat they were
reterenceto
representations of the celestial chariots that the deities were supposert io nove around
in. The rathas are known as the
Dharmaraja, Bhima, Draupadi, Arjuna, and Sahadeva
rathas. It is interesting to note that although located in close
prox111ity io each other,
these shrines display very different architectural features.
The Dharmaraja ratha is square in plan. It has open
porches and a terraced pyramidal
tower. Its pillar shafts are supported by seated lions. The Bhima ratha is
longitudinal in
shape with a barrel-vaulted root. The Draupadi ratha is a very small square structure with
a curvilinear roof shaped like the thatched root of a hut. The
Arjuna ratha is incomplete:
it may have been abandoned due to the rock not
being able to withstand the pressure of
carving. The Sahadeva ratha too is incomplete. Ihe outer walls of the
Mamallapuram temn-
ples are decorated with scenes from Hindu mythology. The south face of the
Dharmaraja
ratha has a portrait which an inscription identihes as king Narasimhavarman
Mamalla I.
 Emergi

Dunng te eign ol Narasinmhav.arman

Iemple buiking Was Teplaed
of Raiasimha, the 1ok cut ec

mallapuram is
by structural iemples. The Shore
assigned to the reign ol tcnpie " bcen
made in later mcs. This
has three
Rajasimlha, but adclitions may Itav
somaskandla (Shiva wilh Uma shrine arcas containing a stone Shiva
and Skanda, a g
od), nd Vishnu TCsting on the popular theme in the P'allava pe
and slender. The reliel serpent Ananta. The two shikharas are
sculptures
of the temple are teri
of the sea brecze and sand. very eroded due to the
eliect
The
Rajasimheshvara Kailashanatha temple al
or
signed to the reign ol Narasimhavarman Kanchipuram is
Il Rajasimha. Within
aso
as
lar enclosure large
is a
complex consisting of a main shrine and
a

50
rectangu
shrines. Ihe main
temple consists of a square sanctum over subsidliary
an enclosed
circumambulatory passage. enshrining a linga, win
It is surrounded by nine small shrines.
The shikhara is in the
typical southern
style. The
pillared hall and verandah pre-
ceding theshine may have been
added later. The enclosure walls of the
have gopuras. The Kailashanatha compiex
temple is more heavily ornamented with
ures than other structures of
the Pallava period. sculp
are very irequent, and lions are a
Representations of Somaskanda
temple marks recurring motif on the enclosure wall. Ihis
an
important stage in the evolution of the South Indian
temple
THE CHOLA TEMPLES
While Pallava temples are
are concentrated further
mostly located in and around
Kanchipuram, Chola ler
south, around Tanjore (Huntington, 1985: 509-39, Meiste
Dhaky, 1983: 223-64, 289-330). Theydo not show a simple or
tion trom the earlier Pallava
temples and
straightlorward e-
in fact reflect certain new leatures.
indicate that many brick Inscrip-
temples of Pallava times were rebuilt in stone during this pe
The temple architecture of the Chola
the basis ol dtastic markers-the
period can be divided into at least two phase
early phase (mid-9th to the carly 1lth centuries
the late phas early Tlth to the
13th centunes). Some art historians suggest a div
into three
piiises-carly (850-985), middle (985-1070), and late (1070-1270)-
divide thes io
lurther sub-phases.
The phase is represented by the Shiva
ea:.icst
temple at Nartuamalai, built b
Chola king yalaya or by a Muttarayar chiel in the mid-9th century. lt consists oE
mana (this tet relers to the sanctum and its
supersiructure) joined to an ardhama
(the hall preceding the sanctum), which has twO
rOWs ol three pillars. The main s
is surrounded by six
subsidiary shrines (there may originally have been eigh) knou
parivaralayas. The sanctum is circular and contains a linga and yoni. The outer walls
relatively little sculptural ornamentation, but lwo dvarapalas llank the western enr
The walls have pilasters, but there are no niches containing images ol deities, as is
mon in later Chola temples.
The next phase is represented by temples buil during the reigns of Aditya I (
907 cE) and Parantaka I (907-55 cE), lor instance the Brahmapureshvara temple :
lamangai, the Nageshvarasvami temple al Kumbakonam, and the Koranganatha te
at Srinivasanallur. The Brahmapureshvara temple consisis of an ardhamandapa join
the vimana. A mukhamandapa (porch) was added subsequently The temple was bu
a shallow stone-lined pit that was once probably filled with water. This ties in wit
fact that inverted lotuses are carved alongthe lower part of the outer walls. The lne
lions along the base of the temple is a lypical leature ot Chola temples. Pilasters
the outer walls into niches known as devakosnlhas, which contan images of variou
lies including Ganesha, Durga Mahishasuramardini, and Brahma The figures are n
and slender, with high headdresses. Represenlalions ot deities and mytholooical .
on ihe o l e r walls
ncluding those from the Runmayana, appear
The original structure of the Nagesnvaasvln tempie consiIsts of a joined
mandapa and vimana. Deeply carved represenlalons ot delles appear in the pila-
 Emerging Regional Configuration

niches. The
Koranganatha temple
ot an antarala (vesubule
is similar in basic structure,
or
antechamber) between except lor the addition
Iricze along the outer base the vimana and
of inverted lotuses, andardhamandapa.
consists of rows
The BRIHADISHVARA TEM
ot lions and there are also rows OF TEMPLE (TOP); s
elephants. The sculpted hgures are more (BOTTOM)
temples ot this penod heavily ornamented than in other
The third
phase of Chola
temple architecture is associated with
Mahadevi, a queen who was a Shembiyan
major patron ot temple
husband Gandaraditya (949-57 cE), building during the reigns of her
her son Uttama I (969-85 cE), and n the
of
Rajaraja ls reign. A large number ot older brick temples were rebuilt early part
this period. A major change is noticeable in
in
the nature ol
stone dung
rather stiff and hfeless. An sculpted hgures, which appear
example ot a
temple built al the instance of
hadevi is the Agastyeshvara temple a Shembiyan Ma
Anangapur.
The culmination of Chola temple architecture is
represented
by the Bnhadishvara (also known as the Rajarajeshvara) temple au
anjavur. With an approximately 60 m tall vimana and a owering,
pyramidal shikhara, this Shiva temple was one ot the largest and
most grand structures of its age, displaying certain new archiuectural
leatures compared to earlier temples. The main shrine consists of
a pillared porch, a pillared mukhamandupa and ardhamandapa, an
antarala, and the sanctum. The ornamentation of the outer walls
Is much more profuse than in earlier shrines. The niches are deep
and projecting, and the hgures they Irame are carved in the round
Ihe lower niches mostly contain representations of Shiva in his vari
Ous manifestations, including Nataraja. One ol the upper levels has
S0 representations of Shiva as Tripurantaka, destroyer of three cu-
les. Three huge Shiva sculpures and many paintings are located n
he circumambulatory passage around the sanctum. In tront of the

almost 6 m long Nandi bull carved out of a single stone,

lemple is an
 ater encloscd in a pavilion.
the cast are two imposing The temple stands within a huge rectangular
sione, the upper storeys oftemple gateways (gopuras), the lower of
enclosure On
which
rnamented than in earlier brick. The figures carved on the part are more
1s made

temples. gopuras ncay d

Rajendra l (Rajaraja's son) built a
temple called Brihadishvara
angaikondacholapuram.
urvives to
show
It was not
completed and lies in
in his new
capitai
the uneven a ruinous state, but enougn
compare well with its quality of its workmanship and the fact that
namesake in
Tanjore. The
it did not

inwards, and Gangaikondacholapuram

ower vimana, its
shikhara is curved temple has a
with sculptures. its walls are more
heavily embellished
The last
phase Chola
of
Dunng this period, the gopuratemple
became
architecture belongs to the 12th-13th
centuries.
more dominant than
in the Shiva the vimana. This is evident
temple at Chidambaram, which was
tunga I (1070-1122 CE) and his mostly built during the reigns ot Kulot-
successors. Wheels and horses
walls of the temple, to were added to the outer
give it the appearance of a chariot.
CHOLA METAL SCULPTURE
The Chola period is well known for the aesthetic and technical
ture. finesse of its metal sculp
Tanjavur was a major centre of the production ot such
north India tend to be hollow, while those of images. The metal images of
South India were solid. Both
made through the lost wax method. were, however,
be made out of an
Traditionally, the northern
images are
supposed to
alloy of eight metals (gold, Silver, tin, lead, iron,
mercury,
copper) while the southern ones are supposed to be made ot an alloy of five zinc, and
per, silver, gold, tin, and lead). The analysis ol actual
metals (cop-
lae
images indicates that these formu
always followed. The iconography and style ot metal images were
were not
those of their stone counterparts. The images were clothed and similar to
ornamented and formed
part of temple rituals and ceremonials. Many oI the southern images were carried
about
in
processions. The images of Shiva as Nataraja, 1.e., Lord ot the Dance, appear
fre-
quently among Chola metal sculpture. (See Sivaramamuru |1974|, 1994) for a detailed
discussion of Nataraja in Indian art and hterature.) Other themes include Krishna
the Alvar and Nayanmar saints. There are a lew Buddhist images as well and
Many Shiva temples of South India have a separate natana-sabha, where the
image
of Nataraja is placed. This can be seen, lor instance, in the temple at Chidambaranm T
dancing Shiva was of two types-angry and pacilie. shivas cosnmic dance symbolizest
cyclical creation and destruction of the universe, and its elements have hod he

in various
ways. In his 'dance of bliss (ananda tandava), Shiva usually has
four arms. He
wears a snake as an ornament. His tront let arm is in a pose referred to as dar
 .all and) or sgaja hasta (elephanthand). In his rear left hand, he holds a flame, in his
right hand a drum, his Iront right hand is in the release -granting abhaya pose The
lrum symbolizes creation, the fire symbolizes destruction. The hand of the gaja-hasta
nls to his litted toot, which is the refuge of the world. Shiva's lelt leg 1s tnrust o ut
TOSs his body. He usually clances on a dwarf, Muyalaka, who signifies ignorance or
ev
gods locks of hair, which cradle the
he
goddess Ganga, radiate out into the surrounai
n of flames. The auributes of the Natarajas of South India are different from the equaly
npressive images ot the dancing Shiva found in other parts of the subcontinent suc as
Elora or Badami. There are differences in the expression, ornamentation, the number
arms, and in the atendant figures.

CONCLUSIO NS

he political history of the early medieval period was marked by a proliferation and ex
nansion of states in various parts of the subcontinent. Land grants to Brahmanas played
n important role in the legitimation of political power and had a significant impact on
agrarian relations. There was agrarian expansion in various parts of the subcontinernt
and rural societies became increasingly stratified. This was not a period ot urban decay.
This is most evident from South India, where urban crafts, cities, trade, and trade guilds
flourished. Trade links between the subcontinent, China, and Southeast Asia expanded
significantly. Devotional worship was a marked feature of religious thought and practice.
Temples functioned not only as sacred spaces, but also as the core of urban centres and
as political symbols. The patronage they attracted made them points of convergence of
the activities and aspirations of diverse social groups. Significant developments in the
cultural sphere included the production of a wide range of texts in Sanskrit and ver-
nacular languages. There was an eflorescence and refinement in temple architecture and
sculpure, and distinct
regional styles became apparent. c. 600-1200 CE, the de-
During
velopments at the political, social, economic, and cultural levels crystallized into distinct
regional formations and patterns.