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Indian Knowledge System

Contents
Module 1: Introduction to Indian Knowledge System 2-7

Definition and Importance of Indian Knowledge Systems

Relevance of Vedas, Vedangas, Kalpa, Jyotisa, Puranas, and Itihasas
Fundamentals of Panini’s Grammar and the Ashtadhyayi
Word generation, sentence formation, verbs, prefixes, and suffixation
Application in various Indian languages
Classification of Indian Knowledge
Framework for Valid Knowledge and Its Modern-Day Applications
Module 2: Ancient Indian Political and Economic System 8 - 12

Concept of Kingship: Duties and Responsibilities

The Three-Tier Political Structure: Dharma Dand, Raj Dand, Nyay Dand
Legal System: Law, Crime Suppression, Defense, and Foreign Policy
Economic Theories: Ownership of Wealth and the Kautilya Saptang
Financial Structure: Sources of Income, Taxation, Savings, and Expenditure
Module 3: Indian Art, Architecture & Macroeconomic Thought 13 - 17

Origins and Concepts of Ancient Indian Art and Architecture

Temple Architecture: Principles and Styles
Cave and Monolithic Architecture
Architectural Models: Chalukya, Pallava, Chola, Hoysala, Maurya, Vijayanagara
Buddhist and Jain Artistic Traditions
Module 4: Ancient Indian Mathematics, Astronomy & Health 18 - 24

Key Features and Contributions in Mathematics

Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Binary Mathematics
Overview of Ancient Indian Astronomy
Celestial Coordinates, Indian Calendar System, Astronomical Instruments (Yantras)
Ancient Indian Physics & Chemistry Applications
Ayurvedic Approach to Health
Food Practices, Disease Management, Botany, and Medical Science
Module 1: Introduction to Indian Knowledge System
1. Definition

Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) refer to the traditional knowledge developed in India over thousands of
years. It includes science, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, art, architecture, agriculture, education,
and spirituality — all rooted in Indian culture and practices.

IKS is based on experience, observation, and wisdom passed down through generations.

2. Importance of Indian Knowledge Systems

IKS is important because it helps us understand:

●​ Our cultural roots and heritage

●​ Ancient scientific and practical knowledge
●​ Sustainable and eco-friendly practices

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●​ The holistic approach to life and learning

MAIN FEATURES OF INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

1. HOLISTIC APPROACH IKS looks at life as a whole — combining body, mind, and spirit.​
Example: Ayurveda treats the whole person, not just the disease.
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2. EXPERIENCE-BASED LEARNING Knowledge was gained through real-life experience, not just theory.​
Example: Farmers learned about seasons and crops by observing nature.

3. INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE Different subjects were connected — like science with spirituality or math
with art. Example: Temple architecture used geometry and astronomy.

4. SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES IKS promoted eco-friendly and sustainable living.​

Example: Rainwater harvesting and organic farming.

5. LOCAL AND CONTEXTUAL Knowledge was based on local needs and conditions.​
Example: Different regions had different farming methods.

6. ETHICAL VALUES IKS focused on morals, ethics, and social responsibility.​

Example: Education included values like truth and non-violence.
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7. ORAL TRADITION Much of the knowledge was passed through oral teaching — from teacher to student.​
Example: Vedas were memorized and recited.

8. LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT IKS was written in Sanskrit, Pali, Tamil, and other Indian languages.​
Example: Ancient texts like the Bhagavad Gita and Arthashastra.

9. INNOVATION AND SCIENCE IKS included scientific discoveries in math, astronomy, and medicine.​
Example: Concept of zero and surgery techniques in ancient India.

10. EDUCATION SYSTEM India had advanced education systems like Gurukuls and Nalanda University.​
Example: Students lived with teachers and learned through discussion.

11. ART AND CULTURE IKS includes rich traditions in music, dance, painting, and literature.​
Example: Classical dances like Bharatanatyam express stories and emotions.

12. SPIRITUAL KNOWLEDGE IKS includes deep knowledge of yoga, meditation, and self-realization.​
Example: Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras guide mental and physical discipline.

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RELEVANCE OF VEDAS, VEDANGAS, KALPA, JYOTISA, PURANAS, AND
ITIHASAS
These texts are the core of Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS). They guide spiritual, educational, social,
and scientific life in ancient and modern India.

1. VEDAS Contain spiritual hymns, rituals, and philosophical ideas that form the base of Indian culture.​
Example: Rigveda praises natural forces like Agni (fire) and Vayu (wind).

2. VEDANGAS Six supporting subjects that help in understanding, preserving, and practicing Vedic
knowledge.​
Example: Vedangas help priests chant and perform rituals correctly.

3. SHIKSHA (Phonetics) Teaches correct pronunciation and sound patterns for Vedic recitation.​
Example: Chanting “Om” with proper tone improves its spiritual effect.

4. VYAKARANA (Grammar) Explains language rules to maintain the meaning and clarity of Vedic texts.​
Example: Panini’s grammar helps decode Sanskrit verses accurately.

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5. NIRUKTA (Etymology) Helps in understanding difficult words and their meanings in ancient texts.​
Example: The word “Agni” means fire and also symbolizes energy.

6. CHANDAS (Meter) Deals with verse structure and rhythm in Vedic poetry and hymns.​
Example: Gayatri Mantra follows a specific 24-syllable meter.

7. KALPA (Rituals) Provides rules and procedures for religious ceremonies and social duties.​
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Example: Grhya Sutras guide rituals like marriage and naming ceremonies.

8. JYOTISA (Astronomy) Helps in calculating time, seasons, and festival dates using planetary
movements.​
Example: Diwali date is fixed using lunar and solar positions.

9. PURANAS Share myths, legends, and moral stories that teach values and history.​
Example: Vishnu Purana tells stories of Lord Vishnu’s ten avatars.

10. ITIHASAS Include Ramayana and Mahabharata, which teach ethics, leadership, and dharma.​
Example: Ramayana shows the importance of truth, loyalty, and sacrifice.

RELEVANCE OF VEDAS, VEDANGAS, KALPA, JYOTISA, PURANAS, AND

ITIHASAS
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These texts are the core of Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS). They guide spiritual, educational, social,
and scientific life in ancient and modern India.

1. VEDAS Contain spiritual hymns, rituals, and philosophical ideas that form the base of Indian culture.​
Example: Rigveda praises natural forces like Agni (fire) and Vayu (wind).

2. VEDANGAS Six supporting subjects that help in understanding, preserving, and practicing Vedic
knowledge.​
Example: Vedangas help priests chant and perform rituals correctly.

3. SHIKSHA (Phonetics) Teaches correct pronunciation and sound patterns for Vedic recitation.​
Example: Chanting “Om” with proper tone improves its spiritual effect.

4. VYAKARANA (Grammar) Explains language rules to maintain the meaning and clarity of Vedic texts.​
Example: Panini’s grammar helps decode Sanskrit verses accurately.

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5. NIRUKTA (Etymology) Helps in understanding difficult words and their meanings in ancient texts.​
Example: The word “Agni” means fire and also symbolizes energy.

6. CHANDAS (Meter) Deals with verse structure and rhythm in Vedic poetry and hymns.​
Example: Gayatri Mantra follows a specific 24-syllable meter.

7. KALPA (Rituals) Provides rules and procedures for religious ceremonies and social duties.​
Example: Grhya Sutras guide rituals like marriage and naming ceremonies.

8. JYOTISA (Astronomy) Helps in calculating time, seasons, and festival dates using planetary
movements.​
Example: Diwali date is fixed using lunar and solar positions.

9. PURANAS Share myths, legends, and moral stories that teach values and history.​
Example: Vishnu Purana tells stories of Lord Vishnu’s ten avatars.

10. ITIHASAS Include Ramayana and Mahabharata, which teach ethics, leadership, and dharma.​
Example: Ramayana shows the importance of truth, loyalty, and sacrifice.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF PANINI’S GRAMMAR AND THE ASHTADHYAYI
Panini was an ancient Indian scholar who created a complete system of Sanskrit grammar. His work, the
Ashtadhyayi, is one of the most scientific and structured grammar texts in the world.

1. PANINI – THE GRAMMARIAN Panini was a Sanskrit scholar from around 500 BCE who systematized the
language using rules.​
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Example: He defined how words are formed and used in sentences.

2. ASHTADHYAYI – THE TEXT Ashtadhyayi means “Eight Chapters”, and it contains around 4,000
grammar rules.​
Example: It explains how to form nouns, verbs, and compound words.

3. SUTRA STYLE The rules are written in short, formula-like statements called Sutras.​
Example: Sutras are brief but carry deep meaning, like mathematical formulas.

4. SYSTEMATIC STRUCTURE The text is arranged in a logical and layered format, starting from basic to
complex rules.​
Example: It begins with sound rules and moves to sentence formation.

5. TECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY Panini used technical terms and symbols to make the grammar precise
and compact.​
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Example: He used special markers to show word endings and changes.

6. METALANGUAGE Panini created a language to describe language, which is called metalanguage.​

Example: He used terms like “Pratyaya” (suffix) and “Dhatu” (root).

7. MORPHOLOGY FOCUS The Ashtadhyayi mainly deals with word formation and structure (morphology).​
Example: It shows how “Rama” becomes “Ramah” in a sentence.

8. PHONETIC RULES It includes rules for sound changes and pronunciation.​

Example: Sandhi rules explain how sounds merge between words.

9. DERIVATION PROCESS Words are formed by adding prefixes and suffixes to root words using fixed
rules.​
Example: “Path” (to read) + “aka” = “Pathaka” (reader).

10. UNIVERSAL APPLICATION Panini’s grammar can be used to analyze any Sanskrit sentence.​
Example: Scholars still use it to study ancient texts like the Vedas.

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11. INFLUENCE ON MODERN LINGUISTICS Panini’s methods inspired modern grammar and computer
language design.​
Example: His rule-based system is similar to programming logic.

WORD GENERATION, SENTENCE FORMATION, VERBS, PREFIXES, AND

SUFFIXATION
These are key concepts in Panini’s Grammar and help in understanding how Sanskrit words and
sentences are formed using fixed rules.

1. WORD GENERATION Words are formed by adding prefixes and suffixes to root words (called Dhatu).​
Example: “Path” (to read) + “aka” = “Pathaka” (reader).

2. ROOT WORD (DHATU) Every word starts from a root verb that carries the basic meaning.​
Example: “Gam” means “to go” — base for words like “Gamyati” (he goes).

3. PREFIXES (UPASARGA) Prefixes are added before the root to change or refine the meaning.​
Example: “Pra” + “Gam” = “Pragamyati” (he proceeds).

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4. SUFFIXES (PRATYAYA) Suffixes are added after the root to form nouns, verbs, or adjectives.​
Example: “Kri” (to do) + “ta” = “Krita” (done).

5. VERBS (KRIYA) Verbs show action, time (tense), and person in a sentence.​
Example: “Pathati” means “he reads” — present tense, third person.

6. TENSE FORMATION Verbs change form to show past, present, or future actions.​
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Example: “Pathati” (reads), “Apathat” (read), “Pathishyati” (will read).

7. PERSON AND NUMBER Verbs also show who is doing the action and how many are doing it.​
Example: “Pathami” (I read), “Pathavah” (we two read), “Pathanti” (they read).

8. SENTENCE FORMATION (VAKYA) A sentence is formed by joining subject, verb, and object in proper
order.​
Example: “Ramah pustakam pathati” = “Rama reads a book.”

9. AGREEMENT RULES Words in a sentence must agree in gender, number, and case.​
Example: “Sita sundari asti” — both words are feminine and singular.

10. COMPOUND WORDS (SAMASA) Two or more words are joined to form compound words with new
meaning.​
Example: “Raja + Putra” = “Rajaputra” (king’s son).
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11. SANDHI (SOUND JOINING) Sounds change when words are joined, following phonetic rules.​
Example: “Rama + Isha” = “Ramesha” (due to vowel merging).

APPLICATION OF PANINI’S GRAMMAR IN VARIOUS INDIAN LANGUAGES

Panini’s grammar mainly applies to Sanskrit, but its rules and structure have influenced many modern Indian
languages in terms of word formation, sentence structure, and grammar systems.

1. SANSKRIT Panini’s grammar is the foundation of classical Sanskrit, used in religious and scholarly texts.​
Example: Vedic hymns and epics follow Panini’s rules.

2. HINDI Hindi uses many Sanskrit-based words and grammar patterns influenced by Panini.​
Example: Words like “Karma,” “Vidya,” and “Shiksha” come from Sanskrit roots.

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3. MARATHI Marathi grammar and vocabulary are deeply rooted in Sanskrit, following similar word
formation.​
Example: “Shikshak” (teacher) in Marathi comes from Sanskrit “Shiksha.”

4. BENGALI Bengali uses Sanskrit-derived words and sentence structures, though pronunciation differs.​
Example: “Vidyalaya” (school) is used in both Sanskrit and Bengali.

5. GUJARATI Gujarati has many Sanskrit loan words and follows similar grammar rules for verbs and
nouns.​
Example: “Kriya” (action) and “Karma” (deed) are common in Gujarati.

6. ORIYA (ODIA) Odia language includes Sanskrit vocabulary and grammatical influence, especially in
formal writing.​
Example: “Patha” (reading) and “Guru” (teacher) are used in Odia.

7. KANNADA Kannada grammar includes Sanskrit-based word formation and compound structures.​
Example: “Rama + Putra” = “Ramaputra” (son of Rama).

8. TELUGU Telugu uses Sanskrit roots and suffixes in many words and follows similar sentence patterns.​

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Example: “Vidya” (knowledge) and “Pathashala” (school) are used in Telugu.

9. TAMIL Tamil is more independent but classical Tamil grammar was influenced by Sanskrit in religious
texts.​
Example: Sanskrit words like “Dharma” and “Yoga” are used in Tamil literature.

10. MALAYALAM Malayalam has strong Sanskrit influence in vocabulary and grammar, especially in formal
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language.​
Example: “Samskara” (ritual) and “Jnana” (knowledge) are common in Malayalam.

11. ASSAMESE Assamese includes Sanskrit-derived words and grammar rules, especially in written form.​
Example: “Shiksha” (education) and “Karma” (action) are used in Assamese.

CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN KNOWLEDGE

Indian Knowledge is traditionally classified into different branches based on purpose, content, and method
of learning. It includes both spiritual and practical knowledge, covering all aspects of life.

1. PARA VIDYA (Spiritual Knowledge) Deals with self-realization, soul, and ultimate truth — helps in
liberation (moksha).​
Example: Upanishads teach about Atman (soul) and Brahman (universal spirit).
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2. AAPARA VIDYA (Material Knowledge) Covers worldly subjects like language, science, arts, and rituals
— useful for daily life.​
Example: Grammar, astronomy, and medicine are part of Apara Vidya.

3. SHASTRA (Scientific and Technical Knowledge) Includes texts that explain rules and systems in
various fields.​
Example: Arthashastra explains economics and politics.

4. VEDA (Spiritual and Ritual Knowledge) Contains hymns, rituals, and philosophical ideas — foundation
of Indian tradition.​
Example: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda.

5. VEDANGA (Tools for Understanding Vedas) Six subjects that help in reading and applying Vedic texts.​
Example: Jyotisa helps in fixing dates for rituals.

6. DARSHANA (Philosophical Systems) Includes six schools of Indian philosophy that explain reality and
knowledge.​
Example: Nyaya (logic), Yoga (discipline), and Vedanta (spiritual truth).
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7. SMRITI (Remembered Knowledge) Texts based on human memory and tradition, passed down over
time.​
Example: Manusmriti gives rules for social conduct.

8. ITIHASA (Historical Epics) Includes Ramayana and Mahabharata, which teach ethics and values through
stories.​
Example: Mahabharata explains dharma through the story of the Pandavas.

9. PURANA (Mythological and Cultural Knowledge) Contains legends, traditions, and moral lessons in
story form.​
Example: Shiva Purana tells stories of Lord Shiva’s life and powers.

10. KAVYA (Literary Knowledge) Includes poetry, drama, and literature that express emotions and culture.​
Example: Kalidasa’s “Meghaduta” is a famous Sanskrit poem.

11. LOK VIDYA (Folk and Practical Knowledge) Based on local traditions, customs, and daily practices
of people.​
Example: Farming techniques and herbal medicine used by villagers.

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FRAMEWORK FOR VALID KNOWLEDGE AND ITS MODERN-DAY APPLICATIONS
In Indian philosophy, valid knowledge is called Prama, and the methods to gain it are called Pramanas.
These help in understanding truth, making decisions, and solving problems — both in ancient times and today.
1. PRAMA (Valid Knowledge) Prama means true and reliable knowledge that matches reality and helps in
right action.​
Example: Knowing fire burns is valid knowledge used for safety.
2. PRAMANA (Means of Valid Knowledge) Pramana refers to the tools or methods used to gain valid
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knowledge.​
Example: Seeing smoke and knowing there is fire is a method of inference.
SIX MAIN PRAMANAS IN INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
3. PRATYAKSHA (Perception) Knowledge gained through direct senses like seeing, hearing, or touching.​
Example: Seeing a tree gives direct knowledge of its presence.
4. ANUMANA (Inference) Knowledge gained by logical reasoning based on observation.​
Example: Seeing smoke and inferring fire on a hill.
5. UPAMANA (Comparison) Knowledge gained by comparing something new with something known.​
Example: Learning what a buffalo is by comparing it to a cow.
6. SHABDA (Verbal Testimony) Knowledge gained from trustworthy sources like scriptures or experts.​
Example: Learning about planets from a science teacher.
7. ARTHAPATTI (Assumption) Knowledge gained by necessary assumption when facts don’t match.​
Example: If a man is never seen eating but is gaining weight, we assume he eats secretly.
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8. ANUPALABDHI (Non-perception) Knowledge gained by absence or non-observation.​
Example: Not seeing a book on the table means it is not there.
MODERN-DAY APPLICATIONS OF VALID KNOWLEDGE FRAMEWORK
9. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Uses perception, inference, and assumption to test and prove theories.​
Example: Doctors infer disease from symptoms and lab reports.
10. LEGAL SYSTEM Uses verbal testimony, inference, and comparison to judge cases.​
Example: Witness statements and evidence help in decision-making.
11. EDUCATION AND TEACHING Teachers use verbal testimony and comparison to explain new
concepts.​
Example: Explaining electricity by comparing it to water flow.
12. BUSINESS DECISIONS Managers use inference and assumption to predict market trends.​
Example: If sales drop, they assume customer needs have changed.
13. TECHNOLOGY AND AI AI systems use perception and inference to process data and make decisions.​
Example: Face recognition software identifies people using image data.

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Module 2: Ancient Indian Political and Economic System
CONCEPT OF KINGSHIP: DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
In ancient Indian texts, a king was seen as the protector, ruler, and moral guide of the people. Kingship was
not just about power — it was about duty (dharma), justice, and welfare.

1. DHARMIC RULE A king must rule according to dharma (righteousness) and protect moral order.​
Example: King Rama followed dharma even in difficult situations.

2. PROTECTION OF PEOPLE The king’s main duty is to protect citizens from enemies, injustice, and
disasters.​
Example: Kings built forts and trained armies for defense.

3. LAW AND JUSTICE The king must ensure fair laws and punish wrongdoers without bias.​
Example: King Yudhishthira was known for his fair judgments.

4. COLLECTION OF TAXES The king collects reasonable taxes to run the administration and serve the

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people.​
Example: Taxes were used to build roads, schools, and temples.

5. WELFARE OF SUBJECTS The king must work for public welfare, including food, water, health, and
education.​
Example: Ancient kings dug wells and supported Ayurveda.
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6. MILITARY RESPONSIBILITY The king must maintain a strong army to defend the kingdom and maintain
peace.​
Example: King Ashoka had a large army before turning to peace.

7. RELIGIOUS DUTIES The king supports religious activities and respects all faiths.​
Example: King Harsha built temples and supported Buddhist monks.

8. APPOINTMENT OF MINISTERS The king must choose wise and honest ministers to help in governance.​
Example: Chanakya was a trusted advisor to King Chandragupta.

9. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT The king promotes trade, agriculture, and crafts to grow the economy.​
Example: Kings built trade routes and supported farmers.

10. EDUCATION AND CULTURE The king encourages learning, arts, and literature to enrich society.​
Example: King Bhoja supported scholars and poets.
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11. PERSONAL CONDUCT The king must be honest, disciplined, and humble, setting an example for
others.​
Example: King Janaka lived simply despite being wealthy.

THE THREE-TIER POLITICAL STRUCTURE: DHARMA DAND, RAJ DAND, NYAY

DAND
In ancient Indian governance, Dand means authority or punishment. The political system was based on
three levels of control to maintain order, justice, and moral conduct.

1. DHARMA DAND (Moral Authority) Refers to the power of moral and ethical rules that guide personal
and social behavior.​
Example: Truthfulness, non-violence, and respect for elders were promoted by Dharma Dand.

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2. RAJ DAND (Political Authority) Refers to the king’s power to govern and enforce laws for public order
and security.​
Example: The king punished criminals and maintained discipline through Raj Dand.

3. NYAY DAND (Judicial Authority) Refers to the power of judges or legal systems to deliver fair justice
based on law.​
Example: Disputes between citizens were resolved by courts using Nyay Dand.

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF EACH TIER

1. DHARMA DAND – Moral Authority Guides people to follow ethical values and duties without fear or
force.​
Example: A person speaks the truth because it is morally right, not out of fear.

2. Promotes Righteous Living Encourages self-discipline, honesty, and compassion in daily life.​
Example: Helping the poor is seen as a moral duty.

3. Builds Inner Responsibility Makes people responsible for their actions through moral awareness.​

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Example: A merchant avoids cheating due to personal ethics.

4. Supports Social Harmony Creates a peaceful society by promoting mutual respect and values.​
Example: Respecting elders and teachers maintains social order.

5. RAJ DAND – Political Authority Used by rulers to enforce laws, maintain order, and protect the state.​
Example: A king punishes thieves to ensure public safety.
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6. Maintains Discipline and Security Controls crime, rebellion, and misuse of power through strict rules.​
Example: Soldiers follow orders to protect borders.

7. Implements Administrative Policies Helps in governance, tax collection, and public welfare.​
Example: Taxes are collected to build roads and schools.

8. Protects Citizens and Territory Ensures safety from enemies and internal threats.​
Example: Forts and armies are maintained for defense.

9. NYAY DAND – Judicial Authority Ensures fair justice by resolving disputes and punishing wrongdoers.​
Example: A judge settles a land dispute between two farmers.

10. Protects Individual Rights Safeguards freedom, property, and dignity of every citizen.​
Example: Legal action is taken against unlawful eviction.
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11. Delivers Impartial Judgments Uses laws and evidence to give unbiased decisions.​
Example: Both parties are heard before giving a verdict.

12. Strengthens Rule of Law Builds trust in the legal system and prevents misuse of power.​
Example: Even a king must follow court decisions.

INTERRELATION BETWEEN THE THREE

The three tiers of authority — Dharma Dand (moral), Raj Dand (political), and Nyay Dand (judicial) — work
together to create a balanced and just society.

1. COMMON GOAL: SOCIAL ORDER All three aim to maintain peace, justice, and discipline in society.​
Example: Dharma teaches values, Raj enforces laws, Nyay delivers justice.

2. DHARMA GUIDES RAJ AND NYAY Dharma Dand sets the moral foundation for political and judicial
actions.​
Example: A king must punish only when it aligns with ethical principles.

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3. RAJ DAND ENFORCES DHARMA Raj Dand uses power to implement moral rules and protect society.​
Example: Laws against theft reflect moral values of honesty.

4. NYAY DAND INTERPRETS BOTH Nyay Dand applies legal and moral reasoning to resolve disputes
fairly.​
Example: Judges use dharma and law to decide cases.

5. BALANCE OF POWER Each tier checks and supports the other to prevent misuse of authority.​
Example: A king cannot act against dharma or ignore justice.

6. ETHICAL GOVERNANCE When all three work together, governance becomes fair and responsible.​
Example: A ruler who follows dharma and respects law earns public trust.

7. PUBLIC TRUST AND STABILITY People feel secure when morality, law, and justice are properly
balanced.​
Example: Citizens obey rules when they are fair and morally sound.

8. HOLISTIC SYSTEM The structure reflects a complete system of ruling with power, ethics, and fairness.​
Example: Ancient Indian kings were expected to be just, moral, and lawful.

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9. MODERN PARALLEL Today’s system mirrors this with ethics (Dharma), government (Raj), and judiciary
(Nyay).​
Example: Constitution guides laws, government enforces them, courts interpret them.

10. FAILURE OF ONE AFFECTS ALL If one tier fails, the entire system becomes weak and unjust.​
Example: Law without ethics leads to misuse; ethics without law lacks enforcement.
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LEGAL SYSTEM: LAW, CRIME SUPPRESSION, DEFENSE, AND FOREIGN
POLICY
In ancient Indian governance, the legal system was designed to maintain justice, security, and peace
through proper laws, punishment, protection, and diplomacy.

1. LAW (DHARMA SHASTRA) Laws were based on dharma (righteousness), customs, and royal orders.​
Example: Manusmriti laid down rules for social conduct and justice.

2. PURPOSE OF LAW To ensure fair behavior, protect rights, and maintain social order.​
Example: Laws punished theft and protected property.

3. CRIME SUPPRESSION The king used Raj Dand (political authority) to punish criminals and prevent
wrongdoing.​
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Example: Thieves were fined or imprisoned to maintain safety.

4. INVESTIGATION SYSTEM Officials were appointed to investigate crimes and collect evidence.​
Example: Village headmen reported crimes to higher authorities.

5. JUDICIAL PROCESS Courts followed Nyay Dand (judicial authority) to deliver fair judgments.​
Example: Disputes over land or marriage were settled by judges.

6. DEFENSE SYSTEM Kings maintained armies, forts, and weapons to protect the kingdom from enemies.​
Example: Soldiers guarded borders and responded to attacks.

7. MILITARY TRAINING Soldiers were trained in archery, sword fighting, and strategy.​
Example: Kshatriyas were taught warfare from a young age.

8. INTELLIGENCE NETWORK Spies were used to gather information and prevent rebellions or
invasions.​
Example: Chanakya used spies to protect the Mauryan empire.

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9. FOREIGN POLICY (RAJNEETI) Kings followed diplomatic strategies to manage relations with other
states.​
Example: Alliances were formed through marriage or treaties.

10. PEACE AND WAR STRATEGY Decisions on war or peace were made based on benefit, threat, and
dharma.​
Example: King Ashoka chose peace after the Kalinga war.

11. TRADE AND DIPLOMACY Foreign policy included promoting trade and cultural exchange with other
regions.​
Example: Indian goods were exported to Southeast Asia and Rome.

ECONOMIC THEORIES: OWNERSHIP OF WEALTH AND THE KAUTILYA

SAPTANG
Ancient Indian economic thought focused on wealth creation, ethical use, and state management.
Kautilya’s theory in the Arthashastra explains how a kingdom should manage its economy through the
Saptang (Seven Elements of State).

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OWNERSHIP OF WEALTH
1. DHARMIC OWNERSHIP Wealth must be earned and used according to dharma (ethical rules).​
Example: Traders were expected to avoid cheating and hoarding.

2. STATE OWNERSHIP The king had control over land, mines, forests, and trade routes for public welfare.​
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Example: Revenue from land was used for defense and development.

3. PRIVATE OWNERSHIP Individuals could own property, business, and income, but had to pay taxes.​
Example: Farmers owned land but paid a share to the king.

4. COMMUNITY OWNERSHIP Villages and guilds shared resources like water tanks, grazing lands, and
temples.​
Example: Village councils managed common wells and roads.

5. ETHICAL USE OF WEALTH Wealth was meant for charity, development, and social good, not just
luxury.​
Example: Rich people donated to schools and hospitals.

KAUTILYA’S SAPTANG THEORY (SEVEN ELEMENTS OF STATE)

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Kautilya explained that a strong state depends on seven interconnected elements.

6. SWAMI (King) The ruler must be wise, disciplined, and focused on public welfare.​
Example: King Chandragupta followed Kautilya’s advice for good governance.

7. AMATYA (Ministers) Skilled and honest ministers help in administration, finance, and law.​
Example: Chanakya was a key advisor and strategist.

8. JANAPADA (Territory and People) A prosperous land with healthy, loyal, and productive citizens is
essential.​
Example: Fertile land and happy people make a strong kingdom.

9. DURGA (Fort) Forts provide security and defense against enemies and natural disasters.​
Example: Forts were built with strong walls and secret passages.

10. KOSHA (Treasury) A rich treasury ensures economic stability and supports war, welfare, and trade.​
Example: Taxes and trade profits filled the royal treasury.

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11. DANDA (Army and Law) A trained army and strict law help in maintaining order and protecting the
state.​
Example: Soldiers and police enforced rules and defended borders.

12. MITRA (Allies) Friendly relations with neighboring states help in peace and trade.​
Example: Marriage alliances and treaties built strong partnerships.

FINANCIAL STRUCTURE: SOURCES OF INCOME, TAXATION, SAVINGS, AND

EXPENDITURE
Ancient Indian states followed a well-organized financial system to manage revenue, spending, and
savings for public welfare and administration.
SOURCES OF INCOME
1. LAND REVENUE Income collected from agricultural land was the main source of state revenue.​
Example: Farmers paid a portion of their produce as tax.
2. TRADE AND COMMERCE Taxes and duties were collected from local and foreign trade.​
Example: Merchants paid tolls for using trade routes.
3. MINES AND FORESTS Income came from natural resources like gold, iron, timber, and herbs.​

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Example: Kings controlled mines and sold minerals.
4. CUSTOMS DUTIES Charges were applied on imported and exported goods.​
Example: Foreign traders paid customs at ports.
5. FINES AND PENALTIES Money collected from legal punishments and violations added to revenue.​
Example: Fines for theft or breaking rules were paid to the treasury.
TAXATION
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6. REGULAR TAXES (KARA) Citizens paid fixed taxes based on income, land, or profession.​
Example: Farmers, artisans, and traders paid different rates.
7. OCCASIONAL TAXES Extra taxes were collected during wars, disasters, or special events.​
Example: Emergency tax was used to fund military campaigns.
8. FAIR TAX POLICY Taxes were reasonable and based on ability to pay, not forceful.​
Example: Poor people were given relief during droughts.
SAVINGS
9. TREASURY (KOSHA) The king maintained a central treasury for savings and future needs.​
Example: Gold, silver, and grain were stored for emergencies.
10. RESERVE FUNDS Extra income was saved for war, famine, or public projects.​
Example: Funds were used to build roads and irrigation systems.
EXPENDITURE
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11. PUBLIC WELFARE Money was spent on education, health, roads, and temples.​
Example: Schools and hospitals were funded by the state.
12. MILITARY AND DEFENSE A large part of income was used for army, weapons, and forts.​
Example: Soldiers were paid from the treasury.
13. ADMINISTRATION COSTS Salaries for ministers, officials, and workers were part of regular expenses.​
Example: Village officers received monthly payments.
14. RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL SUPPORT Funds were given for festivals, rituals, and cultural activities.​
Example: Temples and scholars received royal grants.

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Module 3: Indian Art, Architecture & Macroeconomic Thought
ORIGINS AND CONCEPTS OF ANCIENT INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Ancient Indian art and architecture developed from religious beliefs, cultural values, and social needs. It
reflects the spiritual, aesthetic, and practical life of Indian society.

ORIGINS
●​ RELIGIOUS ROOTS – Art and architecture began with temples, stupas, and sculptures related to
religion. Example: Buddhist stupas were built to preserve relics of Buddha.
●​ INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION – One of the earliest examples of urban planning, drainage, and brick
buildings. Example: Mohenjo-Daro had well-planned streets and public baths.
●​ VEDIC PERIOD INFLUENCE – Early structures were made of wood and clay, inspired by rituals and
nature worship. Example: Fire altars (Yajna Vedika) were central to Vedic rituals.
●​ MAURYAN PERIOD – Introduced stone pillars, caves, and palaces with royal and religious themes.

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Example: Ashoka’s pillars with inscriptions spread moral teachings.
●​ GUPTA PERIOD – Known as the Golden Age of Indian art, with temples, paintings, and sculptures.
Example: Ajanta cave paintings show scenes from Buddha’s life.

CONCEPTS
●​ SYMMETRY AND BALANCE – Structures were designed using geometric precision and proportion to
create harmony. Example: Temple layouts followed square and circular patterns to reflect cosmic order.
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and moksha through symbols. Example: The lotus symbol was used to represent purity and divine
birth.
●​ USE OF LOCAL MATERIALS – Builders used easily available materials like stone, clay, wood, and
metal based on region. Example: Granite was used in South Indian temples; sandstone was common
in the North.
●​ ICONOGRAPHY – Statues and carvings followed detailed rules for gestures, posture, and meaning.
Example: Shiva as Nataraja shows cosmic dance and the cycle of creation.
●​ FUNCTIONAL DESIGN – Structures served religious, cultural, and educational purposes, not just
decoration. Example: Temples acted as centers for worship, learning, and social gatherings.
●​ CAVE ARCHITECTURE – Hills and rocks were carved to create living and prayer spaces for monks.
Example: Ajanta and Ellora caves have halls, shrines, and detailed murals.
●​ TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE – Temples had towers (Shikhara), entrance halls (Mandapa), and sanctum
areas (Garbhagriha). Example: Khajuraho temples are known for their intricate carvings and spiritual
symbolism.
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●​ SECULAR ART – Art also portrayed everyday life, festivals, and royal activities beyond religious
themes. Example: Palace paintings showed hunting scenes and celebrations.
●​ REGIONAL STYLES – Different areas developed unique architecture based on local culture, climate,
and materials. Example: Dravidian style in South India with tall Gopurams; Nagara style in North India
with curved towers.

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE: PRINCIPLES AND STYLES

Ancient Indian temples were built using spiritual, artistic, and scientific principles. They reflect religious
beliefs, regional culture, and architectural skill.

PRINCIPLES OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

●​ GARBHAGRIHA (Sanctum) – The innermost chamber of a temple where the main deity is placed; it
represents divine presence and spiritual focus. Example: Shiva Lingam is placed in the garbhagriha.

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 ●​ SHIKHARA / VIMANA (Tower) – The tower built above the sanctum symbolizes cosmic energy and
spiritual elevation. Example: Nagara temples have curved shikharas; Dravidian temples have
pyramid-shaped vimanas.
●​ MANDAPA (Hall) – A pillared hall in front of the sanctum used for prayers, rituals, and public
gatherings. Example: Devotees sit and chant in the mandapa before entering the sanctum.
●​ AXIAL ALIGNMENT – Temples are aligned on the east-west axis, allowing the rising sun to enter the
inner sanctum. Example: Morning sunlight touches the deity through the temple entrance.
●​ SYMMETRY AND GEOMETRY – Temples follow symmetrical layouts and geometric patterns to create
visual balance and cosmic harmony. Example: Square and circular designs are commonly used in
temple plans.
●​ ICONOGRAPHY RULES – Religious sculptures follow strict rules for body posture, hand gestures, and
divine symbols. Example: Vishnu is shown holding chakra and conch in specific hands.
●​ USE OF LOCAL MATERIALS – Construction used locally available materials like stone, wood, and
clay suited to the region’s climate. Example: Granite was used in South Indian temples; sandstone in
North Indian temples.
●​ ENTRANCE GATEWAY (GOPURAM) – A tall, ornate tower at the temple entrance that marks the entry
to the sacred space. Example: Meenakshi Temple has richly decorated gopurams.
●​ PRADAKSHINA PATHA (Circumambulation Path) – A walkway around the sanctum for devotees to

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walk clockwise as a form of worship. Example: Devotees walk around the garbhagriha in temples as a
ritual.
●​ CAVE ARCHITECTURE – Caves were carved into hillsides to provide meditation spaces and shrines
for monks. Example: Ajanta and Ellora caves contain sculptures and paintings of deities.
●​ WATER TANK (KUND or PUSHKARNI) – A sacred tank or pond within temple premises used for ritual
purification. Example: Temples in South India often include a tank where devotees wash before
worship.
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STYLES OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
●​ NAGARA STYLE – A temple style from North India with curved towers (shikharas) and open layouts
without boundary walls. Example: Kandariya Mahadev Temple in Khajuraho has tall shikharas and
detailed sculptures. Additional Point: Temples are often built on high platforms with multiple smaller
shrines around the main sanctum.
●​ DRAVIDIAN STYLE – A South Indian temple style with pyramid-shaped towers (vimanas) and massive
entrance gateways (gopurams). Example: Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur has a tall vimana and
grand gopuram. Additional Point: Temples are enclosed by compound walls and often have separate
halls for rituals.
●​ VESARA STYLE – A hybrid temple style found in Karnataka that blends features of Nagara and
Dravidian styles. Example: Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu has star-shaped platforms and mixed
tower styles. Additional Point: The style focuses on sculptural detail and combines northern curves with
southern pyramids.
●​ ROCK-CUT TEMPLES – Temples carved directly into natural rocks or mountain faces, including
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shrines and prayer halls. Example: Kailasa Temple at Ellora is monolithic and carved out of a single
rock. Additional Point: These temples often show mastery in engineering and stone carving techniques.
●​ CAVE TEMPLES – Sacred spaces built within natural caves used for meditation, worship, and art.
Example: Ajanta caves have Buddhist shrines and beautiful wall paintings. Additional Point: Caves
feature chaityas (prayer halls) and viharas (monasteries) for monks.
●​ JAIN AND BUDDHIST TEMPLES – Jain temples are known for rich decoration; Buddhist temples
include stupas and chaityas for worship. Example: Dilwara Jain Temples in Mount Abu have marble
carvings and ornate ceilings. Additional Point: Buddhist stupas like Sanchi preserve relics and follow
symbolic architecture.
●​ REGIONAL VARIATIONS – Different regions designed temples based on local materials, culture, and
environment. Example: Odisha temples have vertical towers and detailed carvings. Additional Point:
Bengal used terracotta due to clay-rich soil; Himalayan regions used wood suited for cold climate.

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CAVE AND MONOLITHIC ARCHITECTURE
Cave architecture involves carving temples and halls into natural rock.​
Monolithic architecture means creating entire structures from a single rock or stone block.​
Both styles reflect spiritual devotion, artistic skill, and engineering excellence.

CAVE ARCHITECTURE
1. ROCK-CUT TEMPLES Temples carved into hillsides or cliffs, used for worship and meditation.​
Example: Ajanta caves were carved into a mountain wall.

2. CHAITYA (Prayer Hall) A large hall with a stupa at one end, used for group worship.​
Example: Karla Chaitya has a vaulted roof and pillars.

3. VIHARA (Monastery) A residential cave for monks with cells, halls, and courtyards.​
Example: Buddhist monks lived and studied in Ellora Viharas.

4. BUDDHIST INFLUENCE Early cave architecture was mainly Buddhist, focused on simplicity and

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meditation.​
Example: Ajanta caves have paintings of Buddha’s life.

5. HINDU AND JAIN CAVES Later caves were built for Hindu and Jain deities, with detailed carvings.​
Example: Elephanta caves have sculptures of Lord Shiva.

6. PAINTINGS AND SCULPTURES Walls and ceilings were decorated with murals, carvings, and statues.​
Example: Ajanta murals show scenes from Jataka tales.
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MONOLITHIC ARCHITECTURE
7. SINGLE-STONE STRUCTURES Entire temples or statues carved from one large rock, without joining
parts.​
Example: Kailasa Temple at Ellora is carved from one rock.

8. ENGINEERING SKILL Requires precise planning and advanced tools to carve without errors.​
Example: Builders started from the top and carved downward.

9. RELIGIOUS PURPOSE Built to show devotion and permanence, often dedicated to gods.​
Example: Monolithic Nandi statue in Lepakshi is carved from one stone.

10. ARTISTIC EXCELLENCE Includes detailed carvings, pillars, and sculptures in one piece.​
Example: Kailasa Temple has elephants, gods, and towers carved into the rock.
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11. TIME AND LABOR INTENSIVE Took years of work by skilled artisans to complete.​
Example: Kailasa Temple took decades to finish.

12. CULTURAL SYMBOLISM Represents strength, unity, and divine connection through solid stone.​
Example: Monolithic temples were seen as eternal homes of gods.

ARCHITECTURAL MODELS: CHALUKYA, PALLAVA, CHOLA, HOYSALA,

MAURYA, VIJAYANAGARA
Each dynasty developed a distinct architectural style based on its culture, religion, and materials. These
models reflect the rich diversity of Indian temple and palace design.

1. MAURYA ARCHITECTURE Known for stone pillars, palaces, and cave architecture with simple design
and moral inscriptions.​
Example: Ashoka Pillars with lion capitals and edicts.

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2. PALLAVA ARCHITECTURE Introduced rock-cut and structural temples with early Dravidian features.​
Example: Shore Temple and Rathas at Mahabalipuram.

3. CHALUKYA ARCHITECTURE Combined Nagara and Dravidian styles, known for detailed carvings and
stepped towers.​
Example: Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal.

4. CHOLA ARCHITECTURE Built massive stone temples with tall vimanas and bronze sculptures.​
Example: Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur.

5. HOYSALA ARCHITECTURE Famous for star-shaped platforms, intricate carvings, and soapstone
use.​
Example: Chennakesava Temple at Belur.

6. VIJAYANAGARA ARCHITECTURE Known for large gopurams, pillared halls, and royal complexes.​
Example: Vittala Temple in Hampi with musical pillars.

COMMON FEATURES ACROSS MODELS

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7. RELIGIOUS PURPOSE All styles focused on temple building for worship and rituals.​
Example: Each dynasty built temples dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, or other deities.

8. USE OF LOCAL MATERIALS Structures were built using granite, sandstone, or soapstone depending on
region.​
Example: Hoysala temples used soft soapstone for fine detailing.
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9. SCULPTURAL DETAILING Temples included carvings of gods, dancers, animals, and mythological
scenes.​
Example: Chola temples have bronze Nataraja statues.

10. CULTURAL SYMBOLISM Architecture reflected royal power, religious devotion, and artistic
excellence.​
Example: Mauryan pillars symbolized moral leadership.

11. EVOLUTION OVER TIME Styles evolved from simple rock-cut caves to complex stone temples.​
Example: Pallava rock-cut temples led to Chola structural temples.

BUDDHIST AND JAIN ARTISTIC TRADITIONS

Both Buddhism and Jainism contributed richly to Indian art through sculpture, painting, and architecture.
Their styles reflect spiritual values, non-violence, and devotion.
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BUDDHIST ARTISTIC TRADITIONS
1. STUPAS (Relic Mounds) Dome-shaped structures built to preserve Buddha’s relics and teachings.​
Example: Sanchi Stupa has gateways with carvings of Buddha’s life.

2. CHAITYAS (Prayer Halls) Rock-cut halls with arched roofs and stupas inside for group worship.​
Example: Karla Chaitya has pillars and a central stupa.

3. VIHARAS (Monasteries) Residential caves for monks to live, study, and meditate.​
Example: Ajanta caves include living quarters and study halls.

4. MURALS AND PAINTINGS Wall paintings show Jataka tales, Buddha’s life, and moral stories.​
Example: Ajanta murals depict scenes of compassion and sacrifice.

5. ICONLESS PHASE (Early Period) Buddha was shown through symbols like lotus, wheel, and footprints.​
Example: A wheel represents Buddha’s teachings (Dharma Chakra).
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6. ICONIC PHASE (Later Period) Buddha was shown in human form with specific hand gestures (mudras).​
Example: Seated Buddha with meditation pose in Sarnath.

JAIN ARTISTIC TRADITIONS

7. JAIN TEMPLES Built with white marble, detailed carvings, and symmetrical design.​
Example: Dilwara Temples in Mount Abu are known for fine marble work.

8. TIRTHANKARA STATUES Jain art focuses on images of 24 Tirthankaras in meditative poses.​

Example: Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola stands 57 feet tall.

9. NON-VIOLENT THEMES Art reflects peace, purity, and renunciation, avoiding violent scenes.​
Example: Tirthankaras are shown calm and detached from worldly life.

10. MANUSCRIPT ILLUSTRATIONS Jain texts were decorated with miniature paintings and symbols.​
Example: Kalpasutra manuscripts have colorful images of Jain stories.

11. CAVE TEMPLES Jain caves were carved with pillars, shrines, and sculptures.​

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Example: Ellora Jain caves show detailed carvings of Tirthankaras.

12. SYMBOLIC ELEMENTS Jain art uses symbols like swastika, hand, and lotus to express spiritual ideas.​
Example: The hand symbol represents non-violence (Ahimsa).
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Module 4: Ancient Indian Mathematics, Astronomy & Health
KEY FEATURES AND CONTRIBUTIONS IN MATHEMATICS
Ancient Indian mathematicians made important discoveries in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and
astronomy. Their work laid the foundation for modern mathematics.

KEY FEATURES
1. CONCEPT OF ZERO India was the first to use zero as a number and placeholder in calculations.​
Example: Aryabhata used zero in place value system.

2. DECIMAL SYSTEM Developed the base-10 system with digits from 0 to 9 for easy calculation.​
Example: Numbers like 205 use place values (hundreds, tens, units).

3. PLACE VALUE NOTATION Numbers were written using position-based values, making large calculations

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easier.​
Example: In 432, 4 means hundreds, 3 means tens, 2 means units.

4. ALGEBRAIC METHODS Used letters and symbols to represent unknown values and solve equations.​
Example: Solving x² + 5x + 6 = 0 was known in ancient texts.

5. GEOMETRIC PRINCIPLES Applied geometry in construction, astronomy, and rituals.​

Example: Sulbasutras explain how to build fire altars using geometric shapes.
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6. TRIGONOMETRY Defined sine and cosine functions for measuring angles and distances.​
Example: Aryabhata calculated sine tables for astronomy.

7. INFINITY CONCEPT Discussed infinite numbers and endless series in philosophical and mathematical
texts.​
Example: Jain texts explored infinite divisions of time and space.

8. FRACTIONS AND RATIOS Used fractions, ratios, and proportions in trade and land measurement.​
Example: ½, ⅓, and ¾ were used in tax and grain distribution.

MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS
9. ARYABHATA Wrote Aryabhatiya, covering algebra, trigonometry, and astronomy.​
Example: He calculated the value of π (pi) as 3.1416.
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10. BRAHMAGUPTA Defined rules for zero, negative numbers, and algebraic operations.​
Example: He explained how to solve quadratic equations.

11. BHASKARACHARYA (Bhaskara II) Wrote Lilavati, a book on arithmetic and geometry with practical
problems.​
Example: Lilavati includes puzzles on time, speed, and area.

12. SULBASUTRAS Ancient texts that explain geometry used in Vedic rituals and altar construction.​
Example: Pythagorean theorem was known and applied in these texts.

13. JAIN MATHEMATICS Explored combinations, permutations, and infinity in logic and cosmology.​
Example: Jain scholars calculated large numbers and infinite sets.

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ALGEBRA, GEOMETRY, TRIGONOMETRY, BINARY MATHEMATICS
Ancient Indian mathematicians made early and advanced contributions in these fields, using logical
methods, symbols, and practical applications.

ALGEBRA
1. USE OF SYMBOLS AND VARIABLES Algebra used letters and symbols to represent unknown values in
equations.​
Example: Solving x² + 5x + 6 = 0 was known in Aryabhata’s work.

2. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS Indian scholars developed methods to solve quadratic equations.​

Example: Brahmagupta gave rules for solving ax² + bx + c = 0.

3. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS Algebra included rules for handling positive and negative
values.​
Example: Brahmagupta explained how to subtract a larger number from a smaller one.

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4. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS Algebra covered addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of
expressions.​
Example: Bhaskara II simplified complex expressions in Lilavati.

GEOMETRY
5. SHAPE AND SPACE STUDY Geometry focused on lines, angles, shapes, and area calculation.​
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Example: Sulbasutras explained how to construct square and circular altars.

6. PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM Indian texts used the right-angle triangle rule before Pythagoras.​
Example: In Sulbasutras, a² + b² = c² was applied to altar design.

7. AREA AND VOLUME FORMULAS Ancient scholars gave formulas for area of squares, rectangles, and
circles.​
Example: Bhaskara calculated the area of a triangle using base and height.

8. PRACTICAL USES Geometry was used in architecture, land measurement, and astronomy.​
Example: Temples were built using geometric alignment.

TRIGONOMETRY
9. SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS Indian mathematicians defined trigonometric ratios for angles.​
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Example: Aryabhata created sine tables for astronomical calculations.

10. ANGLE MEASUREMENT Trigonometry helped in measuring angles and distances in the sky.​
Example: Used to track planetary positions and eclipses.

11. CIRCULAR MOTION STUDY Trigonometry explained circular paths and periodic motion.​
Example: Calculating moon’s orbit using trigonometric formulas.

BINARY MATHEMATICS
12. LOGIC-BASED NUMBER SYSTEM Binary uses only two digits: 0 and 1, useful in logic and computing.​
Example: 5 in binary is written as 101.

13. PINGSALA’S CHANDA SASTRA Ancient Indian scholar Pingala used binary-like patterns in poetry
meter.​
Example: Long and short syllables were coded as 1 and 0.

14. FOUNDATION FOR COMPUTING Binary concepts laid the early base for modern computer science.​
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Example: Binary logic is used in digital circuits and programming.

OVERVIEW OF ANCIENT INDIAN ASTRONOMY

Ancient Indian astronomy was a scientific study of celestial bodies, used for timekeeping, rituals,
agriculture, and navigation. It combined observation, mathematics, and spiritual beliefs.

1. OBSERVATION-BASED SCIENCE Astronomy was developed through careful observation of stars,

planets, and the moon.​
Example: Ancient scholars tracked lunar phases to fix festival dates.

2. JYOTISA (VEDANGA) Jyotisa is one of the six Vedangas, focused on astronomy and astrology.​
Example: Jyotisa helped determine the right time (muhurat) for rituals.

3. SOLAR AND LUNAR CALENDARS Time was measured using sun and moon movements, creating
accurate calendars.​
Example: Hindu calendar uses lunar months and solar years.

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4. NAKSHATRAS (CONSTELLATIONS) Sky was divided into 27 star groups called Nakshatras for tracking
time and events.​
Example: Birth charts are made based on Nakshatra positions.

5. PLANETARY MOTIONS Scholars studied planet movements and their effects on Earth.​
Example: Retrograde motion of Mars was explained by Aryabhata.

6. ECLIPSE PREDICTION Indian astronomers could predict solar and lunar eclipses using geometry.​
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Example: Aryabhata gave scientific reasons for eclipses, not myths.

7. ARYABHATA’S CONTRIBUTIONS Aryabhata wrote Aryabhatiya, explaining earth’s rotation, planetary

paths, and trigonometry.​
Example: He said Earth rotates on its axis, causing day and night.

8. BRAHMAGUPTA’S WORK Brahmagupta studied planetary positions and gravity-like concepts.​

Example: He calculated the motion of heavenly bodies using algebra.

9. USE IN AGRICULTURE Astronomy helped farmers plan sowing and harvesting based on seasons.​
Example: Monsoon prediction was linked to star positions.

10. NAVIGATION AND TRAVEL Stars and planetary positions were used for sea travel and direction
finding.​
Example: Mariners used Polaris (Dhruva Tara) to navigate north.
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11. ASTROLOGY CONNECTION Astronomy was linked with astrology (Jyotish) to study human life and
destiny.​
Example: Horoscopes were made using planetary charts.

12. INSTRUMENTS USED Tools like gnomon (shanku), water clocks, and armillary spheres were used for
measurement.​
Example: Shanku measured shadow length to find time and angle.

CELESTIAL COORDINATES, INDIAN CALENDAR SYSTEM, ASTRONOMICAL

INSTRUMENTS (YANTRAS)
Ancient Indian astronomy used mathematical models and instruments to study the sky, measure time, and
track celestial movements. These systems were highly advanced and practical.

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CELESTIAL COORDINATES
1. DEFINITION Celestial coordinates are used to locate stars and planets in the sky, like a map.​
Example: Similar to latitude and longitude on Earth, but for space.

2. EQUATORIAL SYSTEM Uses celestial equator and poles to measure positions of heavenly bodies.​
Example: Declination and right ascension are used like Earth’s coordinates.

3. ECLIPTIC SYSTEM Based on the sun’s path across the sky, divided into 12 zodiac signs.​
Example: Used in astrology to track planetary positions.

4. NAKSHATRA SYSTEM Sky divided into 27 star clusters (Nakshatras) for timekeeping and astrology.​
Example: Moon’s position in a Nakshatra determines daily calendar.

INDIAN CALENDAR SYSTEM

5. LUNAR CALENDAR Months are based on moon phases, with each month starting from new moon or full
moon.​

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Example: Hindu festivals like Diwali follow lunar dates.

6. SOLAR CALENDAR Based on sun’s movement through zodiac signs, used for agricultural planning.​
Example: Tamil New Year is based on solar transition.

7. PANCHANG (FIVE ELEMENTS) Indian calendar includes Tithi (date), Vara (weekday), Nakshatra, Yoga,
and Karana.​
Example: Panchang is used to find auspicious timings (muhurat).
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8. INTERCALARY MONTH (ADHIK MASA) Extra month added every few years to balance lunar and solar
cycles.​
Example: Adhik Masa ensures seasonal alignment of festivals.

9. SIDEREAL SYSTEM Time measured using fixed stars, not just sun and moon.​
Example: Used in Vedic astrology for accurate planetary charts.

ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS (YANTRAS)

10. SHANKU (GNOMON) A vertical stick used to measure shadow length and calculate angles.​
Example: Used to find local noon and sun’s altitude.

11. CHAKRA YANTRA A circular instrument used to measure angular distances between celestial bodies.​
Example: Helps track planetary positions in the sky.
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12. DHANUR YANTR Bow-shaped device used to measure elevation of stars and planets.​
Example: Used in ancient observatories for night observations.

13. SAMRAT YANTRA A giant sundial used to measure time accurately using sun’s shadow.​
Example: Found at Jantar Mantar in Delhi and Jaipur.

14. YANTRA RAJ A portable instrument used for astrological calculations and predictions.​
Example: Used by astrologers to prepare horoscopes.

ANCIENT INDIAN PHYSICS & CHEMISTRY APPLICATIONS

Ancient Indian scholars applied scientific principles in daily life, medicine, metallurgy, and rituals. Their work
in physics and chemistry was practical, philosophical, and deeply connected to nature.

PHYSICS APPLICATIONS

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1. CONCEPT OF MOTION (GATI) Motion was studied as linear, circular, and vibrational, linked to cosmic
forces.​
Example: Planetary motion was explained using circular paths.

2. GRAVITY-LIKE IDEAS Scholars believed that objects fall due to Earth’s pull, similar to gravity.​
Example: Brahmagupta mentioned Earth’s force attracting objects downward.

3. LIGHT AND VISION Light was seen as energy particles (Tejas) that travel and reflect.​
Example: Kanada’s Vaisheshika theory explained vision through light rays.

4. SOUND WAVES (SHABDA) Sound was studied as a vibrational energy transmitted through air.​
Example: Vedic chanting used sound resonance for healing and focus.

5. TIME AND SPACE Time (Kala) and space (Akasha) were treated as real entities in physics.​
Example: Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools defined time as measurable flow.

CHEMISTRY APPLICATIONS

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6. RASAYANA (Alchemy) Ancient chemistry focused on transformation of substances for health and
longevity.​
Example: Rasayana aimed to purify metals and enhance immunity.

7. METALLURGY Indians mastered metal extraction, alloying, and casting techniques.​

Example: Iron Pillar of Delhi shows rust-resistant technology.

8. PREPARATION OF MEDICINES Herbs and minerals were processed using heating, grinding, and
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mixing.​
Example: Ayurvedic medicines used purified mercury and sulfur.

9. DYEING AND COSMETICS Chemistry was applied in textile dyeing, perfumes, and beauty products.​
Example: Natural dyes from turmeric and indigo were used for fabrics.

10. SOAP AND CLEANSING AGENTS Plant-based materials were used to make cleansing powders and
soaps.​
Example: Reetha (soapnut) was used for washing hair and clothes.

11. DISTILLATION AND FERMENTATION Techniques for extracting oils, alcohol, and aromatic
compounds were known.​
Example: Distilled rose water was used in rituals and medicine.

12. LAB EQUIPMENT Simple tools like crucibles, furnaces, and retorts were used in chemical processes.​
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Example: Rasashala (alchemy lab) had heating chambers and grinders.

AYURVEDIC APPROACH TO HEALTH

Ayurveda is the ancient Indian system of medicine that promotes holistic health through balance of body,
mind, and spirit. It focuses on prevention, natural healing, and lifestyle discipline.

1. TRIDOSHA THEORY Health depends on the balance of three energies: Vata (air), Pitta (fire), and Kapha
(water).​
Example: Excess Pitta causes acidity; balanced doshas ensure good digestion.

2. PANCHAMAHABHUTA CONCEPT The body is made of five elements: earth, water, fire, air, and space.​
Example: Bones represent earth; blood represents water.

3. HOLISTIC HEALING Ayurveda treats the root cause, not just symptoms, using diet, herbs, and lifestyle.​
Example: For joint pain, treatment includes herbal oils, food changes, and yoga.

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4. DINACHARYA (DAILY ROUTINE) Promotes a healthy daily schedule for hygiene, exercise, and mental
clarity.​
Example: Waking early, oil massage, and meditation are part of Dinacharya.

5. RITUCHARYA (SEASONAL REGIMEN) Advises changes in diet and habits based on seasons to prevent
illness.​
Example: Cooling foods in summer; warm spices in winter.

6. AHARA (DIET THERAPY) Food is considered medicine, chosen based on body type and condition.​
Example: Warm, light food for Vata; cooling food for Pitta.

7. DRAVYA GUNA (HERBAL MEDICINE) Uses plants, minerals, and natural substances for healing.​
Example: Neem for skin problems; Ashwagandha for stress relief.

8. PANCHAKARMA (Cleansing Therapy) A set of five detox procedures to remove toxins and restore
balance.​
Example: Vamana (emesis) and Basti (enema) are part of Panchakarma.

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9. RASAYANA (Rejuvenation Therapy) Focuses on longevity, immunity, and vitality through special herbs
and tonics.​
Example: Chyawanprash is a famous Rasayana for boosting health.

10. MENTAL WELLNESS Ayurveda emphasizes mental peace, emotional balance, and spiritual growth.​
Example: Meditation and sattvic diet improve mental clarity.
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11. DISEASE PREVENTION Encourages healthy habits and early correction to avoid illness.​
Example: Regular detox and seasonal adjustments prevent chronic diseases.

12. INDIVIDUALIZED TREATMENT Each person is treated based on unique body constitution (Prakriti).​
Example: Two people with the same illness may get different treatments.

FOOD PRACTICES, DISEASE MANAGEMENT, BOTANY, AND MEDICAL SCIENCE

Ancient Indian science emphasized natural living, preventive care, and plant-based healing. These
practices were deeply rooted in Ayurveda, agriculture, and herbal medicine.

FOOD PRACTICES
1. AHARA AS MEDICINE Food was considered the first line of treatment and key to health.​
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Example: Warm, spiced food for Vata; cooling fruits for Pitta.

2. SATTVIC DIET Promoted pure, balanced, and vegetarian food for mental clarity and physical strength.​
Example: Rice, ghee, fruits, and milk were considered sattvic.

3. SEASONAL AND LOCAL FOODS Diet was adjusted based on climate and region to maintain balance.​
Example: Mangoes in summer; sesame in winter.

4. FOOD COMBINATIONS AND TIMING Ayurveda advised proper food pairing and meal timing for
digestion.​
Example: Avoid mixing milk with sour fruits; eat largest meal at noon.

DISEASE MANAGEMENT
5. TRIDOSHA DIAGNOSIS Diseases were diagnosed based on imbalance in Vata, Pitta, or Kapha.​
Example: Cough is due to excess Kapha; treated with warming herbs.

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6. NATURAL REMEDIES Used herbs, oils, minerals, and lifestyle changes for healing.​
Example: Turmeric for inflammation; Triphala for digestion.

7. PANCHAKARMA THERAPIES Detoxification methods to remove toxins and restore balance.​

Example: Basti (medicated enema) for chronic constipation.

8. PREVENTIVE HEALTHCARE Focused on daily routines, seasonal adjustments, and mental wellness.​
Example: Oil massage and yoga to prevent joint disorders.

BOTANY
9. VRIKSHA AYURVEDA (Plant Science) Ancient texts described plant growth, soil types, and agricultural
techniques.​
Example: Parashara’s texts explained how to grow medicinal herbs.

10. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS Plants were grouped by taste, effect, habitat, and medicinal value.​
Example: Neem is bitter and used for skin diseases.

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11. HERBAL IDENTIFICATION Detailed methods to identify, collect, and preserve herbs.​
Example: Brahmi was collected during specific seasons for potency.

12. USE IN MEDICINE AND FOOD Plants were used for healing, cooking, and rituals.​
Example: Tulsi used in tea, medicine, and worship.

MEDICAL SCIENCE
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13. SHARIRA (Anatomy and Physiology) Ayurveda studied body structure, organs, and functions in
detail.​
Example: Described seven body tissues (Dhatus) like blood and muscle.

14. SURGERY (SHALYA TANTRA) Ancient texts included surgical techniques and tools.​
Example: Sushruta performed cataract surgery and bone setting.

15. PHARMACOLOGY (DRAVYA GUNA SHASTRA) Studied properties, effects, and combinations of
medicinal substances.​
Example: Described how herbs interact with body doshas.

16. HOLISTIC APPROACH Combined physical, mental, and spiritual health for complete healing.​
Example: Meditation and herbal tonics used together for stress relief.
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24
 Common Value Added Course
INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM AND ITS APPLICATION. II Semester
M.C.Q.
Parrot is the vehicle of which God?
a)Brahma, b) Ganesha, c) Kamdev, d) Bishnu,
Ans. c) Kamdev.
What is the basis of traditional religion?
a)Vedas, b) Gita, c) Upanishad, d) Mahabharat.
Ans. a) Vedas.
Whose scriptures are the Vedas?
a) Non-Aryans, b) Aryans, c) The Greeks, d) Jains.
Ans. b) Aryan.
What is the Meaning of Vedas?
a) Knowledge, b) Meditation, c) Yajna, d) Marriage,
Ans. a) Knowledge.
Who is the author of Vedic Chandashastra?
a) Panini, b) Vyasadev, c) Pinglacharya, d) Bhamha
Ans. c) Pinglacharya.
What is the appendix of Vedas known as?
a) Upanishads, b) Brahman, c) Aryanak, d) Samhita,
Ans. b) Brahman.
What is the name of the next part of Brahman?
a) Upanishads, b) Brahman, c) Aryanak, d) Samhita,
Ans. c) Aryanak.
What is the oldest written literature in India?
a) Mahabharat, b) Ramayana, c) Vedas, d) Gita
Ans. d) Gita.
What is the meaning of the word Upanishad?

a). Ethics. b). Magic. c). Brahmavidya. d).Theology.

Ans. c). Brahmavidya.

“Veda Amil Dharmamulaya” whose quote?

a).Vyasdev .b)Acharya manu. c). Rishi Parasar. d). valmiki

Ans. b). Acharya-manu.

Who wrote philosophy of numbers?

a).Maharshi Kapil. b). Maharshi Patanjali. c). Maharishi Gautam. d) maharishi Kanad.

Ans. a). Maharshi Kapil.

Who wrote Yoga Philosophy?

a)Maharshi-Kapil. b) MaharshPatanjali. c)Maharshi-Goutam d) Maharshi-Kanad.

Ans. b) Maharshi-Patanjali.

Who wrote Nyaya Philosophy?

a) Maharshi-Kapil.b) maharshi-Patanjali c) Maharshi-Goutam. d) maharshi-Kanad

Ans. c) Maharshi-Goutam.

Who wrote Vaisaik Philosophy?

a) Maharshi-Kapil b) Maharshi-Patanjali, c) Maharshi-Goutam. d) Maharshi-Kanad

Ans. d) Maharshi-Kanad.

Who is composed Vedanga “Nirukta”

a) Panini. b) Yask muni, c) Pingalacharya.d) the community of Sages

Ans.b) Mahrshi Yask.

Who is composed Vedanga’ chhanda’?

a)Panini. b) Maharishi Yask. c) Pingalacharya.d) The community of Sages.

Ans. c) Pingalacharya.

Which deity is first praised in Rikveda?

a) Brahma. b) Bishnu. c) Agnidev. d) Ganesha

Ans. c) Agnidev.

Who wrote Gayatri Mantra?

a)Vishwamitra- muni. b) Vasista- muni c) Kanba-muni,d)Dronacharya.

Ans. a) Vishwamitra-muni.
Which river is called sacred river in Rikveda?

a) Ganges b) Yamuna. c) Saraswati.d) Godavari.

Ans. c) Saraswati.

Ayurveda treatment is availavle in which Vedas?

a) Rickveda.b) samveda.c) Yajurveda.d) Atharveda.

Ans. a) Rickveda.

What is meaning of Rikveda?

a) Beautiful Sentence.b) Profanity.c) Vulger language.d) Harsh Sentence.

Ans. a) Beautiful Sentence.

Which river is called ‘Naditama’ in Rik-Veda?

a) Ganges. b) Yamuna. c) Saraswati.d) Godavari

Ans. c) Saraswati river.

According to Mahabharat which medicine can become immortal?

a) Bishlya-karani(Annoying) b) Pachan (Digestion) c) Makar-dhwaj (Capricom) d) Chavanprash.

Ans. d) Chavan-prash.

Which called fifth Veda?

a) Brahman. b) Upanishads c) Sanhita. d) Others

Ans. b) Upanishad.

Who is author of Pancha-tantra?

a)Vyashdev. b) Valmiki.c) Vishnu-sharma.d) Panini.

Ans. c) Vishnu-sharma.

What is name of bharat`s wife?

a) Sita. b) Sumitra. c) Mandabi.d) Sarama.

Ans. c) Mandabi.

What is name of Kriya`s Son?

a) Abhimanyu,b)Shamba, c) Rahul, d) Goutama.

Ans. b) Shamba.

How long did the Kurukshetra war last?

a) 8days,b)18days, c) 28days, d) 14days.

Ans.b) 18days.
Who is the wife of Brahma?

a) Swaha,b) Rati, c) Lakhsmi, d) Gayatri.

Ans. d) Gayatri.

What is the name of the priest of Rikveda?

a) Hota/Hotri, b) Udhgata, c) Adhayu, d)Brahma.

Ans. a) Hota/Hotri.

What is the name of the priest of Samveda/

a) Hota/Hotri, b) Udhgata,c) Adhayu, d) Brahma.

Ans. b) Udhgata.

What is the name of the priest of Yajurveda?

a) Hota/Hotri, b) Udhgata, c) Adhayu, d) Brahma.

Ans. c) Adhayu.

What is the name of the priest of Atharveda?

a) Hota/Hotri, b) Udhgata, c) Adhayu, d) Brahma.

Ans. d) Brahma.

What is the nature of Rikveda?

a) Path-dharmi ( Literary) b) Geet-dharmi,c)Abhinay-dharmi (Acting-religious),d) Rasha-dharmi

Ans. a) Pathya-dharmi( Textual)

What is the nature of Samaveda?

a) Path-dharmi, b) Geet-dharmi, c) Abhinoy-dharmi ( Acting-religious) d) Rasha-dharmi.

Ans. b) Geet-dharmi.

What is the nature of Yajurveda?

a) Path-dharmi(Literary),b) Geet-dharmi, c) Abhinoy-dharmi, d). Rasha-dharmi

Ans. c) Abhinoy-dharmi (Acting-religious).

What is the nature of Atharbaveda?

a) Path-dharmi,b) Geet-dharmi, c) Abhinoy-dharmi d) Rasha-dharmi.

Ans. d) Rasha-dharmi.

What was the livelihood of most people in ancient India?

a) Agriculture, b) Trade, c) Forestry hunting, d) Jobs.

Ans. a).Agriculture.
What was the main basis of Aryan Economy?

a) Agriculture, b) Trade, c) Forestry hunting, d) Jobs

Ans. a)-Agriculture.

What was the main livelihood of the Aryans during the Rik-Vedic period?

a) Zaminder, b) Chief, c) Go-mout (Cow/Animal husbandry), d) None of them

Ans. c)- Gomout.(cow/Animal husbandry).

What era did farming began?

a) Throughout the stone era, b) from the period of Rik-vedic , c) In the modern era d) None of them

Ans. b) from the period of Rik-Vedic.

What called the Plow of the Vedic period?

a) Hal, b) Fal, c) Sir, d) None of them

Ans. c)-Sir.

What did water for Irrigation come from during the Rik-Vedic period?

a) From the canal, b) From the River, c) From the Well, d) None of them

Ans. a From the River.

What is the concept of zero found?

a) Philosophy and Spritualty,b) Science and Mathematics) Sanskrit literature) Classical dance

Ans. b)- Science and Mathematics.

What are the forms of Indian classical dance?

a) Odhishi,b) Kuchipuri, c) Katthak, d) All

Ans. d)-All

According to Patanjali, the importance of the eight limbs are-

a) Spiritual practice b) Regulation of ethical conduct, c) Development of human civilization, d) Non-

violence.

Ans. a)-spiritual practice.

The formula for spiritual practice is-

a) Yoga, b) Meditation, c) Tantra-Ritual, d) All

Ans. a)-Yoga.

The Categories of knowledge are-

a) Consipiracy,b) Theology,c) Memory,d) All

Ans. b)- Theology.

The four stages of ashram system are-

a) Bhahmacharya, Grihastha, Banaprastha and Sannyasa, b) Brahmacharya, Grihastha,Artha, and
Banaprastha ,c) Bahmaprastha, Banaprastha,Kama,and Sannyasa, d) Brahmaprastha,Banaprastha,
Dharma and Yoksha.

Ans. a)- Brahmacharya,Grihastha,Banaprastha, and Sannayasa.

One of the six branches of Devanga is-

a) Kalpa,b)Sripture, c) Yoga d) All

Ans. a)-Kalpo.

One of the six branches of Devanga is-

a)Gandharvaveda, b) Ayurveda, c) Settlement, d) Astrology.

Ans. d)- Astrology.

One of the classifications of education is-

a) Salvation, b) Tantra, c) Religion,d) Money

Ans. d)-Money.

Which is not related to the Gurukul System?

a) Vedic studies, b)Mathematics, c) Music d) Spiritual knowledge.

Ans. b)-Mathematics.

What does ‘Triad’ mean?

a) Upanishads ,b) Vedanga, c) Vedas, d) Aranyaka

Ans. c)-Vedas.

Which is not a type of Vedanga?

a) Education, b) Kalpa, c) Grammar, d) Octava,

Ans. d)-Asthav(Octava).

He was the author of the epic Mahabharat

a) Adikabi Valmiki, b) Maharshi- Krishnadvaipayana Vyas ,c) Vishwanath Kaviraj, d) Vishakhadutta

Ans. b)-Maharshi-Krishnadvaipayana Vyas.

The original meaning meaning of the word Purana is-

a) Ancient stories, b) Recent history, c) Fables, d) Future Tence Narrative.

Ans. a)-Ancient stories.

How many in Mahapurana number?

a) 16, b) 17, c) 18, d) 20

Ans.c) – 18.

Author of epic Ramayana-

a) Valmiki,b) Vyasdev, c) Panini, d) Patanjali

Ans. a)-Valmiki.

Not a symptom or characteristics of Purana-

a) Swarg,b) Chapter, c) Prati-swarga(Prefixes) d) Manvantar

Ans.b)-Chapter

Name of the author of the book ‘Arthasastra’-

a) Patanjali,b)Kautilya, c)Bharvi, d) Aswaghosh.

Ans. b)-Kautilya.

How many episodes are in Mahabharat`s epic?

a)12, b)14, c)16, d)18

Ans. d)-18

Synonyms of Vedas-

a)Kalpa, b) Chhandas(Rythms), c) Nirukta, d) Uh

Ans. b) Chhadas(Rythms).

Dhatu+Ting =

a) Verbs, b) Text, c) Prepositions, d) Formula.

Ans. a)-Verbs.

He became “Dakshiputra”

a) Panini, b) Senak, c) Shaktayana ,d) Patanjali.

Ans. a)-Panini.

The name of the author of the book ‘ Astadhayayi’ is

a) Panini, b) Katyayana, c) Patanjali, d) Valmiki.

Ans. a)-Panini.

In Sanskrit grammar the name or word is called

a) Dhatu ( Root of verbs),b) Suffix, c) Prefix,d) Undivided word (Pratipadik).

Ans. d)-Prati-padik (Undivided word)

‘Lot’ lokers are used-

a) In the past tense sense , b) In the future sence,c) In the present tence sence d) In the sence of
permission.

Ans. c)-In the present tense sense.

In ancient Indian states the supreme power was-

a) In the hands of a Minister, b) In the hands of a King, c) In the hand of a Commander, d) in the
hands of a Soldier.

Ans. b)-In the hands of a King.

Fortified cities and Forts were build for-

a) Defense against invasion and rebellion, b) King and Minister lives with their families for fun. c)
Only for the residence of the Solders are for feudal lords,d) Only for important political meeting.

Ans. a)-Defense against invasion and rebellion.

In which dynasty “Chanakya” was royal advisior?

a)Gupta dynasty, b) Chola dynasty, c) Mourya dynasty d) Chouhan dynasty.

Ans. c)-Mourya dynasty.

Koutilya/Chanakya was a-

a) Scientist, b) Writer ,c) Economist, d)Architect.

Ans. c)-Economist.

How many limbs are mentioned in Kautilya`s Economies?

a) Saptanga, ( the seven), b) Astanga (the eight), c) Panchamanga (the five), d) Ditiyanga( the two)

Ans. a)- Saptanga(the seven).

Who is author of ‘Artha-sastra’?

a) Kautilya, b) Megasthenes,c) Banbhatta, d) Kalidas,

Ans. a)- Kautilya.

Who is the author of ‘Indica’?

a) Kautilya, b) Megasthenes, c) Banbhatta, d) Kalidas.

Ans. b)- Megasthenes.

What was land owner of the Gupta`s period called?

a) Zaminder, b)Swami, c) Lord, d) Farmer,

Ans. b)–Swami.

What was considered a King in ancient Indai?

a) Strong-personality, b) Divine-personality) Wealthy-personality, d) Kind-personality.

Ans. b)-Divine-personality.

What is land referred to in Arthasastra?

a) The mother, b) Fertile, c) Sita, d) Land

Ans. c)-Sita.

Manusmriti is divided into how many chapters for king duty?

a) Five, b) seven, c) Three, d) ten.

Ans. b)-Seven.

“ Anarchy prevails in a kingdom without a king” It is mentioned in which Purana?

a) In the Bishnu-purana, b) In the Brahma-purana, c) Shiba-purana, d) None of them.

Ans. a)- In the Bishnu-purana.

“ Artha-sastra” belongs to which tradition?

a) Dharma-sastra, b) Danda-sastra (Penal code) c) Vedanga, d) Upanishad.

Ans. b)-Danda-Sastra, (Penal code).

What is the massage of Arthasastra?

a) To ensure the spiritual welfare of the people, b) The relationship between states is one of co-
operation, c) Neighboring states are neutral enemies, d) States should avoid acquiring neighboring
land.

Ans. b)-The relationship between states is one of co-opration.

What does ‘Duality’ mean?

a) Making alliances when the enemy strong, b) Deploying forces near enemy territory, c) Dual
principle of friendship and enmity, d) Joining hands with those who have the same goal.

Ans. c)- Dual principle of friendship and enmity.

‘Arthasastra’ recommends which of the following?

a) Psychological warfare, b) Use of spies, c) Spying on innocents, d) All of the above

Ans. d)-All of the above.

Who is the most important ‘ Amatya’ according to Arthasastra?

a) One who manages the economy, b) He who commands the army, c) One who conducts espionage,
d) Ambassadors to other States.

Ans. b)- He who commands the army

What was the backbone of ancient Indian economy?

a) Agriculture, b) Industry, c) Mining, d) Painting.

Ans. a) – Agriculture.

The important taxes mentioned in Arthasastra are:-

a) Bali, b) Bhaga, c) Kara, d) All of the above.

Ans. d)- All of the above.

Tax evasion was a punishable offence

a) Penalty on Offender, b) Confiscation of property, c) Taxes on Artisans, d) All of the above

Ans. d)-All of the above.

What was the basis of the tax system?

a) Justification, b) Discipline, c) Tax administration, d) All of the above.

Ans. d)- All of the above.

Kautilya can be said to belong to which genre?

a) Aggressive realism, b) Defensive realism, c) Liberalism, d) Constructivism,

Ans. a) – Aggressive realism.

Which of the following is the oldest stone structure in India and was approved by Muurya king
Ashoka?

a) Sanchi Stupa, b) Amaravati Stupa,c) Stupa of Peshawar, d) Nagarjunakonda Stupa.

Ans.a)-Sanchi Stupa.

Ajanta and Ellora caves are located

a) Mumbai, b) Pune, c) Nasik, d) Aurangabad.

Ans. b)- Pune.

Which rock painting of India?

a) Ellora, b) Nalanda, c) Sanchi, d) Bhimbetka

Ans. a) - Ellora.

Which of the following belongs to the Indus Civilization?

a) Granary, b) Rock shelter, c) Stupa, d) Gopuram.

Ans. b)- Rock Shelter.

A in Mahabalipuram, Chariot Structure

a)Eksheela architecture, b) Gopuram, c) Eksheela Stupa, d) Jain architecture temple.

Ans. a)- Eksheela Architecture.

Which of the following is related to preservation of ancient art and architecture?

a) Archeological Survey of India, b) Geological Survey of India, c) Pollution Control Board of India,
d) Anthropological Survey of India.

Ans. a)-Archeological Survey of India.

Which period is called the ‘Golden Age of Indian Art’?

a) Mauryan Age, b) Gupta Age, c) Chola, d) Pallav.

Ans. b)-Gupta Age.

The Citadel and the Lower Town are characteristic of which civilization?

a) Mayan Civilization, b) Indus Civilization c) Mesopotamian Civilization, d) Chinese Civilization.

Ans. b)- Indus Civilization.

The Sanchi Stupa is in

a) Bhopal, b) Indore, c) Ujjain, d)Located at Jabalpur.

Ans. a)-Bhopal.

Khajuraho temple belongs to which period?

a) Medieval, b) Gupta Age, c) Mauryan Age,d) Pal Yuge.

Ans. a)- Medieval.

Which year observed by the Government of India as the Mathematical Year?

a) 2012, b) 2014, c) 2016, d) 2020.

Ans. a)-2012.

The value of ‘pi’ is

a) 3.24159, b) 3.14159,c) 3.4159,d)3.1798.

Ans. b)-3.14159

The name of the first book written by’ Bhaskar’ is

a) Aryabhatia, b) Mahavaskarya, c) Collection of Mathematics, d) Brahmasputasiddanta

Ans. b)-Mahavaskarya.

The name of the book written by’ Bodhayan’ is

a) Aryabhatia, b) Mahavaskarya, c), Collection of Mathematics, d) Brahmasputasiddanta

Ans. d)- Brahmasputasiddanta.

The name of the book written by’ Mahavir’ is

a) Aryabhatia, b) Mahavaskarya, c), Collection of Mathematics, d) Brahmasputasiddanta.

Ans. c)- Collection of Mathematics.

The name of the book written by ‘Aryabhatta’ is

a) Aryabhatia, b) Mahavaskarya, c), Collection of Mathematics, d) Brahmasputasiddanta.

Ans. a) - Aryabhatia.

The number of verses in ‘Aryabhatta’?

a) 121, b)112, c)117, d) 171.

Ans. a)- 121.

How many sides polygon did the sculptor take?

a)438, b) 348, c) 384, d) 711

Ans. c)-384.

Where did mathematicians discover the decimal system?

Ans. a) Indian, b) Farcian, c) Arabic, d)Percian

Ans. a) - Indian.

Which script is used in Brahmi numerial system?

a) Brahmi script, b) Bengali script, c) Devnagari script, d) None.

Ans. a)- Brahmi script.

In which year was the book Vedic Mathematics written?

a) 1800,b)1956, c)1965, d)1967.

Ans. c)-1965.

The total number of sutras in Vedic mathematics is-

a)13, b)31,c)19,d)16

Ans. d)-16.

The total number of sub- sutras in Vedic mathematics is-

a)13, b)31,c)19,d)16

Ans. a)-13.

He was the inventor of’ Jyaya;

a)Ramanujan, b)Mahabiracharya, c)Aryabhatta,d)Brahmagupta.

Ans. c)-Aryabhatta.

Prime numbers are first used-

a)Ramanujan, b)Mahabiracharya, c)Aryabhatta ,d)Brahmagupta.

Ans. b)-Mahabiracharya.

Who wrote the book ‘Siddant-Siromani’?

a)Ramanujan, b)Mahabiracharya, c)Aryabhatta ,d)Vaskaracharya.

Ans. d) - Vaskaracharya.

The first introduction to astronomy in ancient India is available in which book?

a)Surya decision, b)Siddhanta shiromani,c)Vedas,d)Aryabhatia.

Ans. c) Vedas.

Which of the following instruments can be used to measure the height of a terrestrial object?

a)Jasthi Yantra, b)Clock mechanism, c)Shalaka Yantra, d)Plumbing apparatus.

Ans. a)-Jasthi-Yantra.

What is the smallest unit of time according to’Suryasiddhanta’?

a)Prana,b) Paul, c) Second, d)Binari.

Ans. a) Prana.

In which position the Nomen of sun-dial must keep when determining the time of a place in the
Northern Hemisphere using a sun-dial?

a)Should be placed in south direction ,b)Should be placed in the east direction, c) Should be placed
in north direction, d) Should be placed in the west direction.

Ans. c)- Should be placed in the north direction.

The trajectory of the tip of the stick shadow of the cone instrument at the equinoxes

a) is a straight line)is elliptical)is hyperbolic ,d)is parabolic.

Ans. a)- is a straight line.

The instrument used to tell time at night was

a)Jasthi Yantra,b)Chakra Yantra, c)Frontal apparatus,d)Noman Yantra.

Ans. c) Frontal apparatus..

Which of the following instruments was used by Aryabhatta?

a)Shalaka Yantra, b)Bow instrument, c)Clock mechanism, d) Chakra Yantra.

Ans. d) Chakra Yantra.

When Ayurveda also deals with certain minerals, they are called dhatus. Give an example

a)Shilajit, b) Pebbles,c)Zinc, d)Gold.

Ans. a)-Shilajit.

Name the famous medical system of Ayurveda.

a)Tuk-tak, b)Yoga, c) Massage, d) Panchakarma treatment. Rajan.

Ans. d) Panchakarma treatment.

How many herbs are used in Ayurveda?

a)About 3000, b)About 4000, c) About 5000, d)About 6000.

Ans. b) About 4000.

Who is the author of ‘Charak sanhita’?

a) Dhanvantari, b)Sushruta, c) Charak, d) Aryabhatta.

Ans. c) Charak.

Who invented Ayurveda?

a) Dhanvantari, b)Sushruta, c) Charak, d) Aryabhatta.

Ans. a) Dhanvantari.

What is the name of the book written by Sushruta?

a) Manu-samhita, b)Vedas,c) Sushruta-samhita, d) Charak-samhita.

Ans. c) Sushruta-samhita.

Where did the treatment of Ayurveda was first originated?

a) In India, b)In Britain, c)In France d)In America.

Ans. a) In India.

When did Ayurveda medicine was first originated?

a) 5000 years ago, b)6000 years ago, c)2000 years ago, d)1000 years ago

Ans. a) 5000 years ago.

According to Ayurveda , who provides the main nutrients to the human bodu?

a) Blood, b) Metal, c)Food, d) Air.

Ans. b) Metal.

What does the word ‘Veda’ mean in Ayurvedic medicine?

a)Book, b)Science, c)Scriptures, d) None of them.

Ans. b) Science.

What does the word ‘Ayu’ (Life expectancy) mean in Ayurvedic medicine?

a) Science, b) The life, c) The death, d) None of them.

Ans. b) The life.

Mention the one plant that lowers cholesterol.

a)Onion, b)Ginger, c)Turmeric d) Garlic

Ans. d) Garlic.

What is the plant used to increase of memory?

a) Brahmi, b)Mint, c) Cloves, d) Cardamom,

Ans. a) Brahmi.

Write the name of a well-known house plant used in Ayuvedic today?

a) Neem, b)Bell, c)Basil, d) Amlaki.

Ans. c) Basil.

What is the name of an Indian technique that goes hand to hand with Ayurveda?

a)Exercise, b) Yoga, c)Pranayama, d) Meditation.

Ans. b) Yoga.
What are three faults of the human body?

a) Vata,(ebbs),Pitta(Bile) and Kapha ( phlegm). b) Vata,Pitta,and Byatha( Pain). c) Pitta(bile),

Byatha(Pain), and Kapha(phlegm), d)Vata, Byatha (Pain), and Kapha(phlegm).

Ans. a) Vata,(ebbs),Pitta(Bile) and Kapha ( phlegm).

What does an Ayuvedic doctor say?

a) Kabiraj, b) Medicine, c) Doctor, d) Physician.

Ans. a) Kabiraj.

How many plant species are cultivated for food?

a) 1500,b)2000,c)2500,d) 3000.

Ans.b) 2000.

Which is the most brilliant era in the history of medicine?

a) Nineteenth century,b) Twentieth century, c) Nineteenth and Twentieth d) Twenty-first century.

Ans. c) Nineteenth and Twentieth.