gnine| Qed beaming & Cognitive Psychology 1 €ducation Social Cognitive Theory Social Cognitive Theory This module will examine the views of social cognitive theorists on how environment and cognitive factors influence human behavior and learning. Social cognitive theory focuses on learning through observation and modeling. It reflects on the fact that much of human learning involves watching and interacting with other people. Phenomenon of modeling, self- efficacy, and self-regulation will be discussed. Objectives should be enumerated (if necessary and if available): 1 Evaluate the characteristics of modeling and its effects on human learning, Compare and contrast self-efficacy and self-regulation as a factor in completion of tasks successfully. Identify implications of social cognitive theory for educational practice. Principles of Social Cognitive Theory Course Module Social cognitive theory is learning by observation and it focuses on what and how people learn from one another, encompassing such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. General principles of social cognitive theory 1. People can learn by observing the behaviors of others, as well as by observing the outcomes of those behaviors. 2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Social cognitive theorists argue that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning will not necessarily be reflected in their actions. The consequences of behavior play a role in learning. Cognition also plays a role in learning. It incorporates such cognitive processes as attention and retention (memory) into their explanations of how learning occurs. 5. People can have considerable control over their actions and environments. People can take active steps to create or modify their environments - perhaps by making changes themselves, or perhaps by convincing others to offer assistance and support - and they often do so consciously and intentionally. aeHow the environment reinforces and punishes modeling + The model reinforces the observer - People often reinforce others who copy what they do. Example, a group of girls is more willing to welcome a new gir if they perceive her to dress the way they do. «© The observer is reinforced by a third person - In some instances a learner is reinforced by a third person. Example, a mother who exclaims, "Well done for tying your shoes like your big brother”. * The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Behaviors learned by observing others produces satisfying results. For example, closely following the steps seen in cooking will more likely result to the same taste. © Consequences of the model's behavior affect the observer's behavior vicariously. By observing the model make a particular response, observers may also see the consequence of the response. Vicarious reinforcement - when people observe a model making a particular response, they may also observe the consequences of the response. Ifa model is reinforced for a response, then the observer may show an increase in that response BANDURA’S BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT. Children watched a film of a model hitting and kicking an inflated punching doll. One group of children saw the model reinforced for such aggressive behavior, a second group saw the model punished, and a third group saw the model receive no consequences for the aggression. When the children were then placed in a room with the doll, those who had seen the model being reinforced for aggression displayed the most aggressive behavior toward the doll: They'd been vicariously reinforced for aggression. Conversely, those children who had seen the model punished for aggression were the least aggressive of the three groups: They'd been vicariously punished for such behavior (Bandura, 1965) Cognitive Factors in Social Learning oo Fast Fact Central ideas of cognitive factors * Learning is, first and foremost, a mental (rather than behavioral) acquisition Reciprocal causation is the interplay of environment, person, and behavior (Bandura, 1989). + Environment (B): General conditions and immediate stimuli (including reinforcement and punishment) in the outside world + Person (P): An individual’s particular physical characteristics (c.g., age, gender, physical attractiveness), cognitive processes (¢.g., attention, expectations), and socially and culturally conferred rolesONLINE |Qeg beaming & Cognitive Psychology Social Cognitive Theory €ducation => What to remembere Course Module MODELING - term used to describe what a model does and reputations (e.g., king, student, “popular kid,” “geek”) + Behavior (B): An individual's observable actions and reactions Insight learning is a form of problem solving in which the organism develops sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution. Insight learning appears to entail both gradual and sudden processes, and understanding how these lead to problem solving continues to fascinate psychologists. Insight learning requires thinking "outside the box," setting aside previous expectations and assumptions. One way that insight learning can be enhanced in human beings is through multicultural experiences, .. demonstrate a behavior) and at other times to describe what the observer does (i.e. mimic that behavior). According to Bandura (1977, 1986), many of the behaviors people exhibit have been acquired through observing and modeling what others do. Effects of Modeling Modeling teaches new behaviors. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors Facilitation effect - people are more likely to exhibit behaviors they have previously learned when they see others being reinforced for such behaviors Inhibition effect - people are less likely to perform behaviors for which they have seen others being punished. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors In studies by Walters and his colleagues (Walters&Thomas, 1963), adults viewed either a film depicting aggression and violence (Rebel without a Cause) or a neutral film (Picture Making by Teenagers) and then were asked to administer “shocks” to other individuals. (These other individuals were confederates of the experimenter who did not really receive any shocks but behaved as if they did). People who had watched the violent, aggressive film administered more frequent and more intense “shocks” to the confederates. The film had apparently disinhibited previously learned aggressive behavior Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviorsCharacteristics of Effective Models The model is competent — people demonstrating a particular behavior are more likely to be imitated by others if they are viewed as being competent, capable individuals The model has prestige and power — individuals who have high status, respect, and power, either within a small group or within society as a whole, are more likely to serve as models for others ‘The model behaves in stereotypical "gender-appropriate” ways, - males are more likely to model behavior that is consistent with male stereotypes; similarly, females are more likely to model behaviors that follow traditional female patterns The model's behavior is relevant to the observer's situation - individuals are more likely to model the behaviors of people they view as similar to themselves in some important way. Bandura’s 3 general type of models 1. Live model- an actual person demonstrating a particular behavior 2. Symbolic model- a person or character portrayed in a book, film, television, show, videogame, or other medium 3. Verbal instructions - descriptions of how to behave - without another human being, either live or symbolic, being present at all Cognitive modeling - students learn academic skills more effectively when models demonstrate not only how to do something but also how to think about something AGGRESSION - numerous research studies indicate that children become more aggressive when they observe aggressive or violent models Children can also learn aggression from observing it in films, television shows, or video games, In another study by Bandura and his colleagues, preschool children who had seen a film of either an adult or a cartoon character being aggressive exhibited just as much aggression toward an inflatable doll as did children who had seen a live adult model; all of these children were significantly more aggressive than children who had not observed a model at all.gnine| Qed beaming & Cognitive Psychology €ducation Self-Efficacy Course Module Social Cognitive Theory MORALITY Models in the media can have an impact as well, Pro-social behaviors - those aimed at helping others rather than at enhancing one’s own well-being Ina study by Friedrich and Stein (1973), a group of preschool children watched Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood ~ a television show that stresses such prosocial behaviors as cooperation, sympathy, and sharing - for 30 minutes each day over a 4-week period. These children displayed more socially appropriate behavior and less aggression than children who instead watched shows with aggressive content (e.g. Batman and Superman) during the same period. According to Bandura, when children hear a model say one thing and do something else, they are more likely to imitate what the model does than what the model says. In other words, to be effective, models must practice what they preach Conditions necessary for effective modeling 1. Attention - to imitate a behavior accurately, a person must first pay attention to the model and especially to the significant aspects of the modeled behavior 2. Retention - after paying attention, the learner must also remember the behavior that has been observed. One simple way to remember what one has seen, at least for the short run, is rehearsal - repeating whatever needs to be remembered over and over again 3. Motor reproduction - actual replication of the behavior that a model has demonstrated. Not only must learners have the ability to perform an observed behavior, but ideally they should have an opportunity to perform it at the same time to observe it 4. Motivation - learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Although parents and teachers are often models for children, children do not model all of the behaviors they observe their parents and teachers performing, Children model behaviors only when they are motivated to do so. SELF-EFFICACY - people are more likely to engage in certain behaviors when they believe they are capable of executing the behaviors successfully. It refers to the learner's beliefs about their competence in a specific activity or domainWhat to member E How self-efficacy affects behavior Choice of activities, People tend to choose tasks and activities at which they believe they can succeed; they tend to avoid those at which they think they will fail Goals, People set higher goals for themselves when they have high self- efficacy in a particular domain. Effort and persistence. People with a high sense of self-efficacy are more likely to exert effort when they work at a task, and they are more likely to persist when they encounter obstacles. Learning and achievement. People with high self-efficacy tend to learn and achieve more than those with low self-efficacy, even when actual ability levels are the same. In other words, when several individuals have equal ability, those who believe they can do a task are more likely to accomplish it than those who do not believe they are capable of success Learners are at a disadvantage when they underestimate their abilities. In such circumstances, they set unnecessarily low goals for themselves and give up easily in the face of small obstacles. But it’s also possible to have too much of a good thing. When learners are too overconfident, they may set themselves up for failure by forming unrealistically high expectations or exerting insufficient effort to succeed. And they will hardly be inclined to address weaknesses that they don’t realize they have. Self-Regulated Behavior Self regulation of behavior — developing own ideas about appropriate and inappropriate behavior, and they choose their actions accordingly Techniques for promoting self-regulated behavior 1. Self-instructions - repeating instructions to themselves 2. Self-monitoring - another method that can help people control their own behavior is simply to have them observe and assess their own responses 3. Self-reinforcement - people are often able to change their behavior by giving themselves a treat or special privilege when they behave ina desired fashion and withholding reinforcement when they do not Educational implications of social cognitive theory ‘© Students often learn a great deal simply by observing others * Describing the consequences of behaviors can effectively increase appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate onesgnine| Qed beaming & Cognitive Psychology 7 €ducation Social Cognitive Theory ‘* Teachers, parents, and other adults must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they don't model inappropriate ones ‘+ Exposure to a variety of other models further enhances students’ learning Students must believe they are capable of accomplishing school tasks Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their accomplishments © Self-regulation techniques provide effective methods for improving student behavior Activities and Exercises Glossary References Course Module Essay: 1. Discuss the general principles of Social Cognitive Theory. 2. Analyze how teachers can effectively use modeling to cultivate students’ learning, * social cognitive theory - Bandura's theory that social and cognitive factors, as well as behavior, play important roles in learning. + self-efficacy - The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. ‘+ observational learning - Learning that involves acquiring skills, strategies, and beliefs by observing others. ‘* self-regulatory learning - The self-generation and self-monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to reach a goal. Ormrod, J. (2012). Human Learning (6t* ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Gilhooly, K. Lyddy, F. (2009). Cognitive Psychology (1*' ed.). McGraw Hill Higher Education.