GENDER STUDIES

UNIT I
CONCEPTS
Human society identifies people through various identity markers like sex, gender, caste,
race, nationality, region, religion, and so on. A man who describes himself as young, Tamil,
Brahmin, Indian, postgraduate is giving us various markers of identity that he carries as part of
his being. Gender, in that sense, is one of these classifying principles as it helps to put people
in different categories based on their sex at birth. Let us understand this with the help of the
conversation given below:
Radha: I will stop coming to school next month.
Seema: Why? Why do you want to stop coming to school?
Radha: My father cannot earn enough to give education to all of us, and my brother needs the
education to get a job. My mother also goes to work and needs my help doing housework
with her and caring for my younger siblings.
Seema: But, through education, you can also get a good job and help your family.
Radha: Yes, but my parents have decided to marry me off in 3-4 years and I will not be able
to help them after marriage.
This conversation between two young girls explains how different roles are assigned according
to our gender. For example, Radha’s education is neglected as the parents think about the
boys as the future bread earner for the family. But household work is taken as the responsibility
of female members of the household, like Radha and her mother. These different perceptions
about males and females constitute the sex-gender system. For example, males are considered
as physically stronger than females. Later in this module, we will question this simple
understanding of sex as biological and gender as social.
Society has assigned different roles for boys and girls. There are certain things which boys
perceive as boys’ activities, but girls are not expected to do them. Dress codes are different
for boys and girls. Their treatment in the family and society is also different. This lesson is
going to provide you the scope to understand role of women's movement in emergence of
Gender Studies as a discipline. The lesson will also help you to comprehend the relationship of
Gender studies with other discipline.

After studying this lesson, learner:

● explains the role of women’s movements in the emergence of gender Studies
● describes Gender Studies as a discipline
● describes the need and rationale for the study of Gender Studies
● explains the interdisciplinary approach to Gender Studies as a body of knowledge

WOMEN’S MOVEMENT AND GENDER STUDIES

The historyof Gender Studies as a discipline is contexualised in the various women’s movements
that emerged in European countries and the United States of America (USA) during the 19th
and 20th centuries. These movements helped in raising awareness about women’s views and
concerns. In the USA, the women’s movement in modern times started with the Seneca Falls
Convention in 1848, focusing on social, civil and religious conditions and the women’s rights.

Wyoming was the first territory or state in America to grant women suffrage in the 1869.
Louisa Ann Swain was the first woman in the United States to vote in a general election on
September 6, 1870, in Laramie, Wyoming. After a few decades, Finland granted voting rights
to women in 1906, Norway in 1912, Great Britain in 1928, Spain in 1931 and France in
1945.

The second phase of the women’s movement in western countries started in 1960s with
struggles around equality in education, employment opportunities, and reproductive rights.
Finally, the third wave began in the 1990s with a focus on issues of violence against women,
autonomy and equal opportunities.
Women’s movement in India: The early years

The women’s movement in India took off in the 1920s, building on the 19th century social
reform movements. The major achievements of the social reform movement were:

● Abolition of Sati in 1829

● Enabling widow remarriage in 1856.
●Fight against gender-based discrimination by women like Rassundari Devi, Pandita
Ramabai.
Social Reform Movement in India In the 19th century, one sees the emergence of a number of
reform movements. Some of these were
● Abolition of Sati
● Prohibition of Child Marriage
● Widow Remarriage
● Education of Women

Can you identify the social reformers associated with these movements?
Pandita Ramabai, Anandibai Joshi, Tarabai Shinde, Haimavati Sen and Saraladevi.
Some of the important women’s associations involved included the Women’s IndianAssociation
(1917), the National Council of Indian Women (1925) and theAll-India Women’s Conference
(1927). This phase lost momentum with Independence in 1947 as the Constitution of India
guaranteed formal equality to women. This was the time when the spirit of nationalism was
very high and there was a belief that the ideals of democracy and equality would automatically
address gender inequality.

Women’s movement in post-independent India in the 20th century

A report by a Committee on the Status of Women in 1974 highlighted the inequality and
discrimination faced by women in India. The feminists in the 1970s thus once again mobilised
the feminist movement in India. There were protests by women against rising prices, violence,
gender discrimination, liquor prohibition, and environmental issues. These women came from
different castes, classes, communities, and rural and urban backgrounds. It put women’s
issues back onto the centre stage of national politics. The 1980s saw huge mobilisation against
rape cases and dowry deaths. These struggles resulted in some legal reforms like the Dowry
Prohibition Act 1961 and further amendments in dowry prohibition rules in the form of The
Dowry Prohibition (Maintenance of Lists of Presents to the Bride and Bridegroom) Rules in
1985., amendments in the Indian Penal Code to modify provisions related to rape in 1983
and 2013.

Some Tribal Women Leaders

Tribal history has seen many brave women from indigenous communities. Even though there is
a great diversity in tribal communities across India and their feminist movements are diverse
nevertheless they are similar in their ideology. These women have made a mark in society and
have influenced countless women. Some of these are as follows:
● Rani Durgavati Wasa ruler of the Gondwana kingdom and fought against the Mughals.
● Rani Gaidinliu from Nagaland fought against the British.
● Rani Chennamma from Kittur again fought against colonial rule.
●Other tribal women leaders include Sayani Barla, Kuni Sikala, Jamuan Tudu, Neidonuo
Angami and Soni Sori.
● We are all familiar with sportswomen like Dutee Chand, Mary Kom and Dangmei Grace.
●Tulasi Munda from Odisha was awarded a Padmashri for her work on education for tribal
children.
●Padmashri Tadisaru Bai is a poetess from Odisha and has over 50,000 devotional songs in
Odia, Kui and Sanskrit.

The contemporary movement in women’s struggle for equality is connected with the larger
political and economic contexts at both national and international levels. Communalism, caste-
based politics, and the impact of globalisation, have thrown up new challenges. The challenges
are from women from minority communities, Dalit women and women from the North-East
and other women whose voices could not be represented within and by the earlier women’s
movement. They challenged the upper class and caste bias of the women’s movement. This
led to movements like the Dalit women’s movement- Dalit Mahila Samiti in Uttar Pradesh.

GENDER STUDIES AS A DISCIPLINE

The women’s movement discussed briefly in the above section was directed at questioning
women’s continued subordination, exploitation and oppression in a male-dominated world and
fighting to establish a more equal and just society. The struggle for equality also reached
universities and other educational institutions, where feminist scholars started questioning the
existing patriarchal frameworks through various subject areas or disciplines in the universities.
When we look at the history ofvarious disciplines like Sociology, Economics, Political Science,
History, it is not difficult to conclude that the key thinkers of these disciplines are men, and
they brought a gender-neutral or gender-blind perspective to the study of their disciplines
which did not include women. Women were neither there as the creators of the disciplinary
knowledge nor as the subjects of these disciplines.

Can you identify some women scholars of the 17th and 18th centuries?
These movements had a huge impact on the academic world and resulted in the emergence of
Women’s Studies as an area of research and teaching in the US in the 1960s. Feminist scholars
started addressing the absence of women in their respective disciplines.

Gradually, many critical thinkers pointed out that disciplines will have to change their
perspectives and acknowledge that leaving out women or any other marginalised social group
will not only result in our knowledge being biased and incomplete but would also keep women
in a marginalised position till this gap is addressed. These criticisms not only questioned the
frameworks in place but also provided a new and inclusive framework, thus contributing to the
growth of the disciplines by including women and their issues.

For example, feminist historians started questioning why History was more about men. It was
through stories of wars, conquest, trade relations, or managing the empire, among others.
Women were mostly absent in these stories or were mentioned occasionally and/or briefly.
Feminist scholars first made attempts to make women visible by highlighting their lives and
conditions as subjects of human history.
1.2.2 Gender Studies in India

In India, Women’s Studies as an area of study took root during the 1970s with the establishment
of the first Research Centre for Women’s Studies (RCWS) in 1974 at the SNDT University,
Mumbai. The Centre was to undertake research, teaching, documentation, publication and
community outreach activities aimed at gender equity. The RCWS soon became the model
adopted by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi to develop Women’s Studies
Centres in Indian universities.

Starting with struggles by feminist scholars within disciplinary frameworks, these interventions
helped to strengthen the relatively new area of Women Studies where the focus was on the
evaluation of the existing position of women in the social, economic, political and religious
context.

The studies made under the area of women’s studies not only developed critiques of gender
blindness of various disciplines but also proved complementary by opening up areas of research
which were till then not taken up for study.

Another important feature of the Women’s Studies centres and courses was that strong links to
women’s movements, activism, feminist ideas and practices were maintained. It was the
coming together of theory and practice to change the world in a positive way.

Gradually, it was realised that studying merely about women and their concerns and issues
would also be incomplete and biased if their relations with men are not taken up as part of the
framework. Women’s Studies framework thus appeared to be inadequate in addressing new
issues and research questions that were being raised. Thus, a new area, known as Gender
Studies, started taking shape. The term ‘Gender Studies’ is more inclusive, accommodating
men, masculinity and other sexual minorities. However, defining it as a discipline such as
History, Economics, or Political Science is difficult. As a result, some people see it only as an
area of study rather than an autonomous discipline.
1.2.3 How Gender Studies is a discipline

Gender Studies is a significant area of inquiry today, which is interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary

and transdisciplinary at the same time. It is not limited to any one discipline or subject in
particular. It yet establishes a connection with and between all disciplines, as this area of
Gender Studies is about life itself.

The initialattempts byfeminists at theorising women’s subordination included making a distinction

between sex and gender because biological differences between men and women have been
cited to justify the subordination of women. These differences were explained as natural, and
hence it was not possible to change them. Feminist theorists tried to prove that while sex is
natural, gender and the roles associated with each gender are assigned by a particular society
in a given time period. Hence, these can be changed over a period of time.

Many anthropological studies support that masculine and feminine behaviours differ in different
societies at different periods. In India, Veena Poonacha has studied Coorgi women in Karnataka
and how actively they cultivated land and even hunted in pre-modern times. Gender roles can
thus be learned as well as unlearned. Cooking at home in Indian society is still seen as a
woman’s job but men can do it equally well, we just have to learn it. Similarly, girls can play
with guns and cars and boys can play with dolls and kitchen sets to unlearn rigid gender roles
learned through socialisation. Feminists like Alisan Jaggar have now questioned the difference
between sex and gender, as even biology gets affected bysocial norms. Ifwomen are encouraged
to have slender bodies, according to prevalent beauty norms, it is also because dietary
prescriptions are different for each gender. Male and female bodies are thus also a product of
culture.

Gender Studies, as a discipline, helps understand the workings of gender in various settings.
This field includes Studies (Focussing on women, feminism, gender, and politics), Studies, and
Studies. It draws on knowledge from the humanities, social sciences, medicine, and natural
sciences.

We have gendered the whole world around us. In Indian society, even in contemporary times,
behavioural traits like bravery, aggression, competitiveness, rationality, and physical strength

are related to masculinity. On the other hand, patience, sentimentality, and nurturing are seen as
feminine qualities. These understandings of masculine and feminine influence not just our ideas
but also the material products we use in everyday life ranging from clothes and computer
designs to the images of gods, goddesses and mythology. Over time these distinctions become
so much a part of ourselves that we start calling these understandings ‘natural’ and hence
unchangeable. It is this ‘naturalness’ that Gender Studies attempts to question.
The idea of bringing Gender Studies to school curriculum has been discussed and worked
upon for quite some time, and the National Education Policy of 1986 saw education as “an
agent of basic change in the status of women”. It thus argued for an interventionist role by the
National Education System in the empowerment of women. The increased cases of sexual
violence in the recent past have made it imperative to introduce Gender Studies as part of the
school curriculum. The course is trying to reach out to young people through education in
order to work towards a more gender-just society. The education system, in close interaction
with other stakeholders, is facing the challenge of keeping itself updated with the concerns of
young people so that they are better informed and accordingly make informed choices in their
lives. Gender, one of the primary classifying principles in society, assumes significance in this
endeavour of the state and other agencies. As the twin forces of modernisation and globalisation
have brought in development and social change, girls and women are becoming more visible in
the public sphere, be it educational institutions, public transport, offices, or other public
spaces. The nature of these places has changed. This change has brought into light new
concerns like how to make these spaces safe for all. It is not just about women but also for
men and transgender, transsexuals, sexual minorities and people from other marginalised social
groups.

Since this course will focus on gender inequalities and related issues, you will learn about the
workings of gender on a social, cultural and psychological level and help you learn to use the
gender perspective in studying other disciplines. Learning about some key concepts and debates
of Gender Studies will open up areas of discussion which can help you develop greater
gender awareness and sensitisation. It will also help you understand and appreciate the diversity
of gendered experiences and perspectives among human beings. As a learner, you will also

He idea of bringing Gender Studies to school curriculum has been discussed and worked
upon for quite some time, and the National Education Policy of 1986 saw education as “an
agent of basic change in the status of women”. It thus argued for an interventionist role by the
National Education System in the empowerment of women. The increased cases of sexual
violence in the recent past have made it imperative to introduce Gender Studies as part of the
school curriculum. The course is trying to reach out to young people through education in
order to work towards a more gender-just society. The education system, in close interaction
with other stakeholders, is facing the challenge of keeping itself updated with the concerns of
young people so that they are better informed and accordingly make informed choices in their
lives. Gender, one of the primary classifying principles in society, assumes significance in this
endeavour of the state and other agencies. As the twin forces of modernisation and globalization
have brought in development and social change, girls and women are becoming more visible in
the public sphere, be it educational institutions, public transport, offices, or other public
spaces. The nature of these places has changed. This change has brought into light new
concerns like how to make these spaces safe for all. It is not just about women but also for
men and transgender, transsexuals, sexual minorities and people from other marginalised social
groups.

Since this course will focus on gender inequalities and related issues, you will learn about the
workings of gender on a social, cultural and psychological level and help you learn to use the
gender perspective in studying other disciplines. Learning about some key concepts and debates
of Gender Studies will open up areas of discussion which can help you develop greater
gender awareness and sensitisation. It will also help you understand and appreciate the diversity
of gendered experiences and perspectives among human beings. As a learner, you will also
realise that gender roles are not fixed and are different in a given society at different times and
different across cultures and affect every facet of society. You would be learning about key
terms and concepts such as sex, gender, sexuality, embodiment, masculinity, other genders,
feminism(s), patriarchy (ies), sexism, and systems of oppression. It will give learners the
opportunity to be self-reflective. Introducing Gender Studies will develop analytical and critical
thinking skills, and help teachers and learners in creating an equitable classroom environment. It
can train learners to recognise and challenge harassment in the classroom and workplace. A
better understanding of the classroom’s diversity will help learners treat others with respect.

Gender role stereotypes are continuously being reproduced by various sites and agencies like
family, law, media, educational system, medicine and popular culture among others. It will
require interventions at far greater levels to challenge, minimise and/or eliminate stereotypical
perceptions and actions towards the ‘other’ gender(s). By questioning these stereotypes, the
learners will learn to accept and support the career and life choices made by peers, even if
they may challenge gender role stereotypes like a boy will not be laughed at for declaring that
he wanted to become a chef and neither will a girl be laughed at for expressing her desire to be
a fighter plane pilot! You would also learn to stand up for somebody who challenges gender
stereotypes. You will be able to develop independent thinking regarding culturally standardised
gender roles.
Gender Studies teaches learners to critically reflect on how knowledge is produced, to ask
new questions, to open up new areas of study and research, and not restrict their role to
learning theory. The learners also put their questions and knowledge into practice by bringing
their gendered life experiences to the classroom. Then, they take this critical but valuable
perspective to other disciplines. For example, a student of History can ask why women are
missing from the History texts; a student of literature can ask why women writers were few in
earlier times and could get their work published if they wrote under a pen-name of a man only;
and so on. Different disciplines have started integrating gender perspectives but sometimes
differ in their approaches to how and why they study gender.

Gender Studies, as an interdisciplinary field, focuses on the multiple interactions of gender with
other identitymarkers such as race, ethnicity, sexuality, nation, and religion. The interdisciplinary
study emerged in response to the incomplete answers to social problems provided by the
disciplines. It was realised that rather than working in water-tight compartments in the name of
disciplinary boundaries, reaching out to other disciplines to make learning more meaningful for
social transformation will be better. This borrowing between and among disciplines was
vertical and horizontal and essential for developing a critical field like Gender Studies. The
following sections briefly discuss the relationship between different disciplines and Gender
Studies.
Education and Gender Studies

There is a close relationship between Gender Studies and Education. Gender Studies help
learners to critically reflect on knowledge formation, ask new questions and open up new
areas of learning and skill development. The learners also put their questions and knowledge
into practice by bringing their life experiences to the classroom. Achild’s experiences within
the school and the classroom create a deep image of ‘gendered identities’. They understand
the implications of social expectations based on the roles assigned to each ‘sex’. This is
because school acts as the primary socialising agency for the child. Many Studies have pointed
out that certain textbooks portraying negative images of girls or women, or writing about them
in only stereotypical ways, normalises gender discrimination that they experience in their
everyday interaction and has a lasting impact on their young minds. Hence, education and
Gender Studies are closely interwoven, and conscious changes in curriculum and pedagogy
can help introduce learners to the values of gender equality. The learners can then take this
critical but valuable perspective to other disciplines.

Economics and Gender Studies

Similarly, Gender Studies and Economics also have a close relationship. Gender role stereotypes
usually define the responsibilities that ‘men’ and ‘women’ have. For example, domestic work,
including child rearing, was considered women’s work while men were seen as bread earners
of the family. When feminist scholars started questioning the conventional understanding of
Economics, attention was diverted to the nature and value of housework and women were
seen as producers and not just consumers of the family. Women paid and unpaid work was
gradually recognized, changing our understanding of the concept of work itself. It also helped in
bringing women into the policy framework of governments and employers.

Political Science and Gender Studies

Another discipline that has benefitted from Gender Studies is Political Science. It had been a
male-dominated discipline with key thinkers being men, and their theories have also been
male-centric. Feminist thinkers like Carole Pateman have questioned the basic premises of the
social contract theory of the origin of a state as it did not theorise how women came to be a
part of civil society. Political theory needs to focus on including women in its imagination of
concepts like citizenship, nation, politics and development. Political parties worldwide are
becoming conscious of women and trying to include gender issues in their manifestoes. In
India, the 73rd and 74th Amendments, which gave 1/3rd representation to women in rural and
urban local self-government, has been a huge step in ensuring women’s political participation
and empowerment. Appointment of Shrimati Draupadi Murmu as 15th President of India, the
world's largest democracy is a part of Saga of women's empowerment. She is the first tribal
person and second woman to serve as President of India. The Women’s Reservation Bill for
ensuring greater participation at the parliamentary level is still pending and may be enacted
soon. Despite having a woman Prime Minister in Indira Gandhi and many women as Chief
ministers in various states, we still have a long way to go to ensure gender parity in political
participation.

GENDER AND EVERYDAY LIFE

The Interdisciplinary nature of the study is evident as it opens new paths of inquiry and offers
fresh approaches to many key issues. The important role played by the difference between
sex and gender, biological determinism or sexism to establish and question women’s
subordination has alreadybeen discussed. The questioning ofgender inequality through various
disciplines has helped in drawing attention to crucial issues froma gender-sensitive perspective.
The social construction of masculinity and femininity has helped in understanding the power
dynamics at work in gender relations. The struggles for sexual and reproductive rights have
helped in raising awareness around questions of choice, consent, violence, abortion rights, and
discrimination inherent in social arrangements and institutions like marriage, caste and
religion, among others. Gender Studies has helped in questioning the notions of an ideal body.
For example, advertisements that promote fairness creams, sell appliances to help women
become better homemakers, encourage men to provide all facilities to their families by making
good financial decisions and buying the right insurance policy and so on. These stereotypes
are continuously being challenged by ordinary men and women in contemporary times and the
division of work between the genders is getting blurred due to various factors like better
education and employment opportunities for women, growing number of nuclear families,
exposure to more egalitarian cultures through globalised media and improved and accessible
means of transport, supportive policies by government and employers. These changes in our
everyday lives indicate social change, and we need a conscious move towards a gender-just
society. Integration of a gender-sensitive perspective in curricula, content and pedagogy is
thus important to make education and educational spaces more gender inclusive. This is what
this course aims to do.

Glossary:

Biological determinism – The belief that human behaviour is governed by biology and social
environment has no role to play in it. It is used to justify the differential treatment of males and
females.

Feminism – The belief in social, economic and political equality of the sexes; it opposes any
discrimination based on sex or gender.

Patriarchy – Asocial and political system based on male domination over women and younger
or marginalised men where inheritance is through the male line. Men hold political power and
define social, political, economic and religious norms, formally and informally.

Sexism – Biases, prejudices, discrimination and stereotyping on the basis of sex or gender,
usually directed at women and girls.

Sexual division of labour – Work is assigned on the basis of one’s gender like women are
better at cooking and men are better at driving.
In human society, people are identified by different indicators like sex, caste, religion, build,
race and nationality. Sex is one of the most important indicators. Sex and Gender are different.
Sex is biological whereas gender is a specific set of meaning assigned to a particular sex
society. Sex cannot be changed, but gender can be changed.

Various women’s movements raised awareness about the discrimination between men and
women. As a result, countries like USAand UK granted the right to vote to women. In India,
women have the right to vote. Moreover, the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments ensured
33% reserved seats for women’s political participation in local governance.

This course on Gender Studies is interdisciplinaryand linked with history, political science and
economics. Its study as a discipline established the need for society based on equality.

1. Wyoming was the first territory or state in America to grant women suffrage in
1869. Louisa Ann Swain was the first woman in the United States to vote in a general
election on September 6, 1870, in Laramie, Wyoming. After a few decades, Finland granted
voting rights to women in 1906, Norway in 1912, Great Britain in 1928, Spain in 1931 and
France in 1945.

2. The women’s movement in India took off in the 1920s, building on the 19th century
social reform movements (See Box 1.1). The major achievements of the social reform
movement were:

● Abolition of Sati in 1829

● Enabling widow remarriage in 1856.
3. A report by a Committee on the Status of Women in 1974 highlighted the inequality
and discrimination faced by women in India. The feminists in the 1970s thus once again
mobilised the feminist movement in India.

They are used to give different identities to people, and accordingly, their status in society gets
defined. Men and women have different roles in society

Gender Studies focuses on the working on gender relations in various settings.

No gender roles are socially constructed.
The main objective is to work towards establishing a gender-just society

Sexism is the term used to describe differential treatment based on one’s sex.
Interdisciplinary Gender Studies emerged in response to the incomplete answers to social
problems provided by the disciplines. Gender Studies helps a learner develop a critical
perspective that can be applied to other disciplines. For example, a student of History can ask
why women are missing from the History texts; a student of literature can ask why women
writers were few in earlier times and they could get their work published if they wrote under
pen-name of a man only; and so on.

Gender Studies and Economics also have a close relationship. When feminist scholars started
questioning the conventional understanding of Economics, attention was diverted to the nature
and value of housework. Women were seen as producers and not just consumers of the family.
Women’s paid and unpaid work was gradually recognized, changing our understanding of the
concept of work itself. It also helped in bringing women into the policy framework of
governments and employers.
Gender Studies teaches learners to critically reflect on how knowledge is produced, to ask new
questions, to open up new areas of study and research, and not restrict their role to learning
theory. The learners also put questions and their knowledge into practice by bringing their
gendered

realise that gender roles are not fixed and are different in a given society at different times and
different across cultures and affect every facet of society. You would be learning about key
terms and concepts such as sex, gender, sexuality, embodiment, masculinity, other genders,
feminism(s), patriarchy (ies), sexism, and systems of oppression. It will give learners the
opportunity to be self-reflective. Introducing Gender Studies will develop analytical and critical
thinking skills, and help teachers and learners in creating an equitable classroom environment. It
can train learners to recognise and challenge harassment in the classroom and workplace. A
better understanding of the classroom’s diversity will help learners treat others with respect.

Gender role stereotypes are continuously being reproduced by various sites and agencies like
family, law, media, educational system, medicine and popular culture among others. It will
require interventions at far greater levels to challenge, minimise and/or eliminate stereotypical
perceptions and actions towards the ‘other’ gender(s). By questioning these stereotypes, the
learners will learn to accept and support the career and life choices made by peers, even if
they may challenge gender role stereotypes like a boy will not be laughed at for declaring that
he wanted to become a chef and neither will a girl be laughed at for expressing her desire to be
a fighter plane pilot! You would also learn to stand up for somebody who challenges gender
stereotypes. You will be able to develop independent thinking regarding culturally standardised
gender roles.
How Gender Studies is a discipline

Gender Studies is a significant area of inquiry today, which is interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary

and transdisciplinary at the same time. It is not limited to any one discipline or subject in
particular. It yet establishes a connection with and between all disciplines, as this area of
Gender Studies is about life itself.

The initialattempts byfeminists at theorising women’s subordination included making a distinction

between sex and gender because biological differences between men and women have been
cited to justify the subordination of women. These differences were explained as natural, and
hence it was not possible to change them. Feminist theorists tried to prove that while sex is
natural, gender and the roles associated with each gender are assigned by a particular society
in a given time period. Hence, these can be changed over a period of time.

Many anthropological studies support that masculine and feminine behaviours differ in different
societies at different periods. In India, Veena Poonacha has studied Coorgi women in Karnataka
and how actively they cultivated land and even hunted in pre-modern times. Gender roles can
thus be learned as well as unlearned. Cooking at home in Indian society is still seen as a
woman’s job but men can do it equally well, we just have to learn it. Similarly, girls can play
with guns and cars and boys can play with dolls and kitchen sets to unlearn rigid gender roles
learned through socialisation. Feminists like Alisan Jaggar have now questioned the difference
between sex and gender, as even biology gets affected bysocial norms. Ifwomen are encouraged
to have slender bodies, according to prevalent beauty norms, it is also because dietary
prescriptions are different for each gender. Male and female bodies are thus also a product of
culture.

Gender Studies, as a discipline, helps understand the workings of gender in various settings.
This field includes Studies (Focussing on women, feminism, gender, and politics), Studies, and
Studies. It draws on knowledge from the humanities, social sciences, medicine, and natural
sciences.

We have gendered the whole world around us. In Indian society, even in contemporary times,
behavioural traits like bravery, aggression, competitiveness, rationality, and physical strength

MASCULINITY

Masculinity generally refers to a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles traditionally associated
with men and boys in a given culture. These can include qualities like strength, assertiveness, and
leadership. However, the concept of masculinity is complex and varies across different societies
and historical periods.

In contemporary discussions, masculinity is often examined from various angles:

1. Traditional Masculinity: This includes conventional traits such as stoicism, independence, and
physical strength. Traditionally, these have been associated with the role of men as providers and
protectors.

2. Toxic Masculinity: This term refers to harmful norms and expectations associated with
traditional masculinity. It can include behaviors such as aggression, dominance, and emotional
suppression, which can negatively impact both individuals and society.

3. Positive Masculinity: This focuses on expressing masculine traits in healthy and constructive
ways. It includes traits like empathy, integrity, and resilience, and supports breaking away from
outdated stereotypes.

4. Masculinity in Flux: As societal norms evolve, so does the understanding of masculinity.

Modern discussions often explore how masculinity intersects with other identities, such as race,
sexuality, and class, and how these intersections impact individual experiences.

Overall, masculinity is not a fixed concept but a dynamic and multifaceted one that can adapt
and change over time.

FEMINITY

Femininity refers to the qualities, behaviors, and attributes that a given culture or society
typically associates with women and girls. These can include traits such as sensitivity, nurturing,
empathy, and gentleness. The concept of femininity is often contrasted with masculinity, which
is associated with traits like assertiveness, strength, and independence.

It’s important to note that ideas about femininity can vary widely across different cultures and
historical periods, and contemporary discussions often emphasize that femininity, like
masculinity, is a social construct that can be expressed in diverse ways. In modern contexts, there
is also increasing recognition of the fluidity of gender roles and the idea that traits associated
with femininity and masculinity are not inherently tied to one's gender.

SOCIALISATION

Socialization is the process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs,
norms, and behaviors of their society or social group. This lifelong process helps people develop
the necessary skills and habits to function effectively in their social environments.

Socialization occurs through various agents, such as family, peers, schools, media, and
institutions, and it influences both personal identity and social behavior. It encompasses learning
language, cultural practices, social roles, and expectations, and it plays a crucial role in shaping
an individual's personality and social competence.

TYPES OF SOCIALISATION

Socialization is the process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs,
norms, and behaviors that are appropriate in their society or group. There are several types of
socialization, each playing a crucial role in the development of individuals. Here are some key
types:

1. Primary Socialization: This occurs in early childhood and involves the family or primary
caregivers. It is where individuals first learn the basic norms and values of their culture,
language, and social roles. For example, children learn how to communicate, behave, and
interact through their family environment.

2. Secondary Socialization: This takes place outside the home and involves other institutions like
schools, peer groups, and media. It builds on the foundation of primary socialization and helps
individuals adapt to new roles and environments. For instance, a child learns to interact with
peers and follow school rules in the educational setting.
3. Anticipatory Socialization: This involves preparing for future roles or statuses. For example,
adolescents might start adopting behaviors or learning skills that they believe will be important
for their future careers or adult roles.

4. Resocialization: This occurs when an individual undergoes a significant change in their social
environment, leading to a need to learn new norms and values. Examples include transitioning
into a new culture, undergoing a major life change like joining the military, or adjusting after
incarceration.

5. Reverse Socialization: This is when younger generations influence the older generations. For
example, children teaching their parents how to use new technology or adapting to new societal
trends.

6. Adult Socialization: This involves learning new roles and norms as an adult. It might include
adjusting to new jobs, entering into relationships, or other significant life changes. This type of
socialization is ongoing throughout an individual's life.

Each type of socialization helps individuals navigate different stages and aspects of life,
contributing to their overall social development and integration into society.

PATRIARCHY

Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power and dominance over political,
economic, and familial structures. It often manifests in various ways, including:

1.Leadership and Authority: Men typically occupy the highest positions of power and decision-
making roles in government, business, and other institutions.

2.Cultural Norms:Societal values and traditions often favor men, reinforcing gender roles that
prioritize male authority and diminish women's roles and contributions.

3.Economic Disparities:Men usually have greater access to resources, wealth, and economic
opportunities, leading to wage gaps and less economic independence for women.

4. Legal and Institutional Bias:Laws and policies may historically have been designed to benefit
men, and legal systems may sometimes be less protective of women's rights.

5. Socialization:Gender roles are taught from a young age, reinforcing the idea that men are
inherently more capable or suited for leadership and decision-making roles than women.
Patriarchy can vary in intensity and form depending on cultural, historical, and geographical
contexts, but it generally leads to unequal power dynamics between men and women. Efforts to
address and dismantle patriarchal structures often involve advocating for gender equality,
challenging traditional gender roles, and promoting inclusive policies and practices.

PRIVATE PATRIARCHY

Private patriarchy often refers to the ways in which patriarchal structures manifest within
private or domestic spheres, such as families or personal relationships. It involves
traditional gender roles and power dynamics where men hold authority and control in these
settings.

PUBLIC PATRIARCHY

Public patriarchy refers to gender-based power structures and inequalities in public spheres,
such as workplaces, politics, and media. It involves institutional and societal norms that
favor men and perpetuate gender disparities in these areas.

BINARYISM

Binaryism generally refers to the concept of dividing something into two distinct, often
opposing, categories. This idea is used in various fields and contexts, and its meaning can
vary depending on where it's applied:

1.Philosophy and Logic: In philosophy and logic, binaryism involves categorizing

phenomena or ideas into two mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive categories,
such as true/false or yes/no.

2. Cultural and Social Contexts: In cultural and social contexts, binaryism often refers to the
division of complex social constructs into binary oppositions, such as male/female or
good/evil. This can sometimes oversimplify and overlook the nuances and diversity within
these categories.

3. Mathematics and Computing:In mathematics and computing, binaryism refers to the

binary number system, which uses only two digits, 0 and 1. This system is foundational to
digital computing and information theory.

4. Gender Studies: In gender studies, binaryism is often critiqued for its rigid classification
of gender into strictly male and female categories, which can marginalize non-binary,
genderqueer, and other gender identities that don't fit neatly into this binary framework.

Overall, binaryism can be useful for simplifying complex information but can also be
limiting or reductive, depending on the context.

POWER

Power can be understood in several contexts, so its meaning can vary depending on the
situation:

1.Physical Power: In physics, power refers to the rate at which work is done or energy is
transferred. It’s measured in watts (W) and can be calculated as \( \text{Power} = \frac{\
text{Work}}{\text{Time}} \).

2. Mechanical Power: In engineering and mechanics, it's the rate at which mechanical
energy is converted or utilized. For example, the power of an engine is a measure of how
quickly it can perform work.

3. Electrical Power: In electricity, power is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred
by an electric circuit. It’s also measured in watts and calculated as \( \text{Power} = \
text{Voltage} \times \text{Current} \).

4. Political Power: In a social or political context, power often refers to the ability to
influence or control the behavior of people or the course of events. This can be derived
from authority, leadership, or influence.

5. Personal Power: On an individual level, personal power might refer to one’s ability to
make decisions, influence others, or achieve goals. It’s often linked to confidence, skill, and
resources.

6. Mathematical Power: In mathematics, power refers to the exponent in expressions like \

( a^b \), where \( a \) is the base and \( b \) is the exponent. It indicates how many times the
base is multiplied by itself.

Each of these definitions reflects different aspects of what power can mean in various
domains of life and science.
MEN POWER

The "power of men" can be interpreted in several ways, depending on the context:

1. Physical Strength: This refers to the physical abilities or strength of men, which can vary
widely based on individual factors like genetics, training, and health. It often encompasses
aspects like muscle strength, endurance, and athletic capability.

2. Social and Political Power: In many societies, men have historically held positions of
authority and influence in politics, business, and other areas of public life. This power can
be institutionalized through societal norms, laws, and structures that have favored men in
various spheres.

3. Cultural and Symbolic Power: This refers to the roles and expectations assigned to men
by cultural norms. It includes ideas about masculinity, leadership, and societal expectations.
In some contexts, this might also encompass the way men are represented in media and
culture, and how these representations impact perceptions of power.

4. Psychological and Emotional Power: This could relate to how men perceive their own
abilities and roles in society, including aspects of self-confidence, ambition, and personal
influence. It also involves how they navigate and express their emotions, which can be
influenced by societal expectations about masculinity.

5. Economic Power: Men, on average, have historically had greater access to economic
resources and opportunities in many societies. This includes aspects like income, wealth,
and employment opportunities, which contribute to their economic power and influence.

The power of men, like any form of power, can be complex and multifaceted, shaped by
historical, social, and individual factors. It’s also important to recognize that power
dynamics are evolving, and there is ongoing dialogue about equity and inclusion across
different genders.

WOMEN POWER

"Women power" refers to the strength, influence, and capabilities of women in various
spheres of life. It encompasses several dimensions:

1.Social and Political Influence:Women power can manifest through women’s participation
and leadership in politics, policy-making, and social movements. It involves advocating for
gender equality, women's rights, and addressing issues such as discrimination and violence
against women.

2.Economic Empowerment:This includes women's ability to achieve economic

independence through education, employment, entrepreneurship, and equal pay. Economic
empowerment is crucial for reducing gender disparities and enhancing women's overall
well-being.

3.Cultural and Intellectual Contributions:Women power is also evident in the impact

women have on cultural, intellectual, and artistic domains. This includes women’s roles in
literature, science, arts, and media, where they contribute to shaping ideas and cultural
narratives.

4. **Personal and Community Empowerment:** On an individual level, women power

reflects personal strength and resilience. It also includes women's roles in nurturing and
supporting communities, whether through family, volunteer work, or activism.

The concept underscores the importance of recognizing and promoting the rights, potential,
and contributions of women across all areas of life, and striving for equality and justice.

HEGEMONY

Hegemony refers to the dominance or leadership of one group over others, particularly in
political, social, or cultural contexts. It can describe the influence or control that a dominant
group has over others, shaping norms, values, and practices.

In a political sense, it often refers to the dominance of a country or political entity over
others. In a cultural context, it can describe how a particular culture or ideology becomes
the standard or norm, influencing the beliefs and practices of other groups.
The concept is often discussed in fields like political science, sociology, and cultural
studies, and it helps to analyze power dynamics and the ways in which control and
influence are exerted in various domains.

HIERARCHY

Hierarchy refers to a system of organization where elements are ranked according to levels
of importance or authority. In a hierarchical structure, each level or tier is subordinate to the
one above it and superior to the one below it.

This concept is used in various contexts:

1.Organizations: In businesses or institutions, hierarchy determines the chain of command,

with top executives at the highest level and employees at the lower levels. For example, a
typical corporate hierarchy might have a CEO at the top, followed by senior executives,
middle managers, and then general staff.

2.Biology: Hierarchical classification is used to organize living organisms into categories

such as kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species, reflecting their
evolutionary relationships.

3. Computer Science: In computing, hierarchical data structures, like trees and file systems,
organize data in a way that resembles a tree structure, where data is arranged in a parent-
child relationship.

4. Sociology: Hierarchy can describe social structures where individuals or groups are
ranked based on factors like power, status, or socio-economic class.

Overall, hierarchy helps to structure and simplify complex systems by establishing clear
levels of authority or categories.

STEREOTYPE

A stereotype is a widely held but oversimplified and generalized belief about a particular
group of people or things. It involves attributing specific characteristics, behaviors, or
attributes to all members of that group, often based on limited information or assumptions.
Stereotypes can be about any aspect of identity, such as race, gender, age, occupation, or
nationality.

For example, assuming that all elderly people are bad with technology is a stereotype.
While some older individuals might struggle with tech, this belief unfairly generalizes the
abilities of an entire group based on a few observations.

Stereotypes can be harmful because they perpetuate misunderstandings and biases, leading
to unfair treatment and discrimination. It's important to approach individuals as unique
rather than making assumptions based on stereotypes.

TYPES OF STEREOTYPE

Stereotypes can be categorized in various ways based on their content and the groups they
target. Here are some common types:

1. Racial and Ethnic Stereotypes: These involve generalized beliefs about people based on
their race or ethnicity. For example, assuming that all people from a certain country are
good at a particular sport.

2. Gender Stereotypes: These stereotypes involve assumptions about behavior, preferences,

and roles based on a person's gender. For example, assuming that women are naturally
better at caregiving roles or that men are inherently more aggressive.

3. Age Stereotypes: These involve beliefs about individuals based on their age group. For
example, believing that all teenagers are rebellious or that older adults are resistant to
change.

4. Occupational Stereotypes: These involve generalizations about people based on their

profession. For example, assuming that all lawyers are aggressive or that all artists are
impractical.

5. Cultural Stereotypes: These involve assumptions based on cultural background or

practices. For example, believing that everyone from a particular country follows the same
customs or traditions.

6. Socioeconomic Stereotypes: These involve beliefs about people based on their

socioeconomic status. For example, assuming that wealthy people are out of touch with
reality or that people from lower-income backgrounds are less educated.

7. Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Stereotypes: These involve assumptions about
individuals based on their sexual orientation or gender identity. For example, assuming that
LGBTQ+ individuals have certain behaviors or interests.

8. Religious Stereotypes: These involve generalizations about individuals based on their

religious beliefs. For example, assuming that all Muslims are conservative or that all
Christians are intolerant.

Each type of stereotype can lead to misunderstandings and reinforce biases, affecting how
people interact with and perceive each other. It’s important to recognize and challenge these
stereotypes to promote a more inclusive and respectful society.

GENDER ROLES

Gender roles refer to the expectations, behaviors, and responsibilities that a society
considers appropriate for individuals based on their perceived gender. These roles are often
influenced by cultural, social, and historical factors and can shape how people are expected
to act, dress, and interact in various contexts.

For example, traditional gender roles might dictate that men are expected to be providers
and protectors, while women are expected to be caregivers and homemakers. These roles
can vary widely across different cultures and can evolve over time as societal views on
gender change.

In contemporary discussions, there's increasing recognition of non-binary and fluid gender

identities, challenging the traditional binary framework of gender roles and advocating for
more inclusive and flexible understandings of gender.

IMPORTANCE OF GENDER ROLES

Gender roles are socially constructed norms and expectations that dictate how individuals
should behave based on their gender. These roles can have significant impacts on both
personal lives and societal structures. Here’s a breakdown of their importance:

1. Cultural Identity and Tradition: Gender roles often reflect cultural and historical
traditions. They can provide a sense of identity and continuity within communities,
preserving cultural heritage and practices.

2. Social Organization: Historically, gender roles have helped organize societies by defining
responsibilities and expectations for different genders. This can lead to stability and
predictability in social interactions and institutions.

3. Economic Impact: Gender roles influence economic participation and opportunities. For
example, traditional roles may limit access to certain jobs or professions, affecting income
levels and career progression for different genders.

4. Family Dynamics: Gender roles shape family structures and dynamics. They influence
who takes on caregiving responsibilities, manages household duties, and makes decisions
within the family unit.

5. Psychological Impact: Adherence to or deviation from gender roles can affect individual
self-esteem and mental health. Conforming to expected roles can sometimes lead to
personal satisfaction, while non-conformity might lead to conflict or stress.

6. Social Change and Equity: Challenging traditional gender roles can be crucial for
promoting gender equality and social justice. It can lead to more equitable opportunities,
reduce discrimination, and support individuals in expressing their true selves.

7. Educational and Professional Development: Gender roles can impact educational and
career choices. Encouraging a more fluid understanding of these roles can help individuals
pursue their interests and talents without restriction.

8. Intersectionality: Gender roles intersect with other social categories like race, class, and
sexuality, influencing how different groups experience inequality or privilege.
Understanding this intersectionality is important for addressing systemic issues.

While gender roles have historically played a role in organizing societies, evolving
perspectives emphasize the need for more flexible and inclusive approaches that respect
individual differences and promote equality.

GENDER RELATION
Gender relations refer to the ways in which people of different genders interact with one
another, and how these interactions are shaped by societal norms, roles, and power
dynamics. This concept encompasses a wide range of topics including:

1. Power Dynamics: How power is distributed and exercised among different genders. This
often involves examining issues like gender inequality, discrimination, and the impact of
patriarchy or matriarchy.

2. Social Roles: The expectations and norms associated with different genders. For instance,
traditional roles might dictate specific behaviors, responsibilities, and opportunities based
on one's gender.

3. Interpersonal Relationships: The nature of relationships between individuals of different

genders, including family dynamics, friendships, and romantic partnerships.

4. Economic and Political Factors: How gender impacts one's access to resources,
opportunities, and decision-making power in various sectors, including the workplace and
government.

5. Cultural Norms: The ways in which cultural beliefs and practices influence gender
relations and contribute to shaping gender identities and expectations.

Understanding gender relations involves examining how these factors influence individual
experiences and societal structures, and how they can be addressed to promote gender
equality and respect.

DECONSTRUCTION

Deconstruction is a philosophical approach that examines and challenges the assumptions

and binaries in texts or concepts. It aims to reveal how meaning is constructed and to show
that meanings are not fixed but rather fluid and context-dependent.

RESISTANCE

Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electric current in a conductor, or more broadly,
it can refer to the act of resisting or withstanding force, change, or pressure. In physics, it’s
measured in ohms.

SEXUAL DIVISION OF LABOUR

The sexual division of labor refers to the allocation of different tasks and roles to
individuals based on their sex or gender. This concept is commonly observed in various
societies and can manifest in several ways:

1. Historical Context: Historically, many societies have organized labor based on gender
roles. For instance, men might have been assigned tasks like hunting or heavy manual labor,
while women were often responsible for domestic tasks like cooking and child-rearing.

2. Cultural Variation: The specific tasks assigned to each gender can vary widely between
cultures. Some societies have very rigid divisions, while others have more flexible or equal
distributions of labor.

3. Modern Perspectives: In contemporary contexts, the sexual division of labor is often

scrutinized for perpetuating inequality. Many argue that these traditional roles limit
opportunities and reinforce stereotypes. Efforts toward gender equality seek to address and
redress imbalances in labor division, advocating for equal participation in all types of work
regardless of gender.

4. Economic Impact: The division of labor can impact economic dynamics. For instance, in
many economies, gendered expectations can influence job opportunities, wages, and career
advancement.

5.Social Implications: The sexual division of labor can shape social norms and expectations.
It often influences how individuals view themselves and others within their societal roles,
potentially reinforcing gender stereotypes.

Understanding the sexual division of labor is essential for addressing broader issues of
gender equality and striving for a more equitable distribution of opportunities and
responsibilities.