UNIT-I

Chapter..1
HERBS AS RAVW MATERIALS
Objectives
To understand the concept of herb, herbal medicine, herbal medicinal product and
herbal drug preparation.
To knowdifferent sources of
herbs.
To study selection, identification and
authentification of hertbs.
To understand processing of herbal raw
material.
1.1 DEFINITION OF HERB
Herb can be defined as, "any plant which has leaves, stem,
flowers, roots and seeds; used
for different purposes like flavoring, food, medicine or
perfume". Botanically, herb is any
seed-bearing plant which does not have a woody stem and dies down to the ground after
flowering or completion of life cycle. Means herbs are seasonal plants. According to Oxford
dictionary, "herb is any plant with leaves, seeds or flowers used for flavouring, food,
medicine or perfume". Plants used as spice, aromatic and food are also considered as herb
in day to day life. Botanically, Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) can be
considered as herb while
Neem (Azadirachata indica) is tree not herb. Other examples of herbs can be
Onion, Ginger,
Asparagus, Turmeric, Bramhietc.
Now-a-days, as herbal wave is spreading worldwide, use of herbal medicines is
increasing. One needs to understand, there are many terms associated with herbal medicine.
Herbal drugs/ Phytomedicine/ Herbal Medicinal Products (HMP) or herbal remedies are
drugs obtained from plants.
Following are few examples of herbal drugs:
Senna (Cassiaangustifolia and other species) leaves and pods are used for
constipation.
Ginseng(Panax species) is used as tonicto improve immunityand strength.
Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) is used for improving brain function and memory.
C
Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) is used for memory and learning.
Hypericum (Hypericum perforatum) is used for treatment of depression.
(1.1)
 1.2
Herbs as Raw
HerbalOnDrug
the Technology Materlals
other hand, isolated compounds from above herbs are not considered as herbal
drugs and regulated as modern licensed medicines. We al| know that, Digitalis is herbal
medicine. But when one isolate digoxin or other glycosides from plant and prescribe in pure
are no more herbal medicines. In this case, it
form, they are isolated
new chemical entity
drugs,
(NCE) as
thye
per modern system of
medicine.
considered as herbal drugs:
becomes
Following isolated compounds are not
species) is used for malaria,
Quinine from Cinchona (Cinchona
treat cancer.
Taxol form Taxus (Taxus brevifolia) is used to
Morphine from Opium (Papaver somniferum) is used as painkiller.
Digoxin from Digitalis leaves (Digitalis purpuria) is used for congestive heart failuro
Natural product is wide term which includes drugs obtained from plants, animals ae ...
as minerals. There is lot of confusion between herbal drugs and Ayurvedic drugs. All herk
drugs can not be considered as Ayurvedic medicines. Every country or regulating autho
has prescribed certain rules to avoid confusion related to herbal drugs. In India, accordin
Drug and Cosmetic Act, 1940, there are 54 authoritative books which are called as classical
books. If drug or formula is mentioned in these books, then and then only it is considered a.
Ayurvedic medicine. For example, Arogya Kalpadruma, Ashtang Hridaya, Bhava Prakosh
Ayurvedic formulary of India, Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia of India etc. These and other books
are considered as authoritative books of Ayuveda. Same thing applies to Siddha
system also. According to Drug and Cosmetic act,these are commonly called as and Unani
(Ayurvedic Siddha Unani). For example, Ashwagandha, Bramhi considered as'ASU druas
drugs because they are mentioned in old classic Ayurvedic
Taxus are not Ayurvedic drugs. India has documented allAyurvedic texts while Digitalis, Ginkgo,
form in TKDL (Traditional Knowledge Digital traditional knowledge in digital
in this TKDL are not considered as Library). The drugs which are not documented
Traditional drugs.
1.2 HERBAL NMEDICINE
Herbal drugs which are derived from plants are
(HMP). called as herbal medicinal produaD
In European Union (EU),
the agency called as
controls the evaluation and European Medicines Agencye
supervision of medicinal products.
known as European Medicines
Herbal Medicinal Products Evaluation Agency (EMEA). EMABefore
has
2004, EMA
formed
wo
Committee on
and other issues. The (HMPC) to give several guidelines about herbal Use, safety
drugs
substances and herbal Directive 2001/83/EC has provided definitions for HMPS. herbal
Herbal Medicinal preparations.
herbal substance, oneProduct
or moreexclusively contain active herbal ingredient, substances
one
Or
more

combination one or more herbal preparation, one or more herbal

with herbal in

preparations.
 Herbs as Raw Materlals
Herbal Drug Technology 1.3

HMPs may also contain vitamins and minerals, provided that the action of the vitamins
or minerals is ancillary to that of the herbal active ingredients. Chemical moieties can be
obtained by extraction and purification from plant material. Such isolated or purified and
chemically defined constituents or mixtures are not considered as HMPs. HMPs are different
from isolated chemicals. Because of this specific separate guidelines have been established,
which cOver particular aspects related to HMPs. Herbal substances and herbal preparations
are complex mixtures of natural constituents which altogether form the "active substance".
This includes those constituents that may arise from natural transformations.
Herbal medicinal products are medicinal products that exclusively contain as active
substances (one or more) herbal substances and/or (one or more) herbal preparations.
Herbal substances and herbal preparations contain (complex) mixtures of primary (e.g.
sugar, cellulose) and secondary (e.g. terpenes, glycosides) constituents. Because these
mixtures of herbal constituents originate from the environment, they are considered as
natural products. Therefore, use of herbal substances and preparations in small amounts in
medicinal products is considered as safe to the environment. The HMPC acknowledges there
may be exceptional cases where further justification to the absence of an environmental risk
and assess this risk.
Some important Definitions according to Article 1 of Directive 2001/83/EC: Questions &
Answers on the EU framework for (traditional) herbal medicinal products, including those
from a 'non-European' tradition Page 2/20.
Extracts: These are preparations of liquid (liquid extracts and tinctures), semi-solid (soft
extracts and oleoresins) or solid (dry extracts) consistency, obtained from herbal drugs (or
animal matter) which is usually in a dry state.
Genuine (Native) herbal preparation: This refers to the preparation without excipients,
even if for technological reasons the genuine herbal preparation is not available. However,
for soft and liquid herbal preparations the genuine herbal preparation may contain variable
amounts of (extraction) solvent.
Herbal medicinal products: These are medicinal products which exclusively contains
one or more herbal substances as active ingredients or one or more herbal preparations, or
one or more such herbal substances in combination with one or more such herbal
preparations.
Herbal substances: These are the substances mainly whole, fragmented or cut plants,
plant parts, algae, fungi, lichen in an unprocessed, usually dried form but sometimes fresh.
Herbal substances also contain certain exudates which are not subjected to any specific
treatment. Herbal substances are precisely defined by the plant part used and the botanical
source including genus, species, variety and author.
Herbal drug preparations: Preparations obtained by subjecting herbal substances to
treatments such as extraction, distillation, expression, fractionation, purification,
concentration or fermentation are called herbal drug preparations. Examples of herbal drug
preparation are powdered herbal substances, tinctures, extracts, essential oils, expressed
juices and processed exudates.
 Herbs as Raw
1.4 Materlals
Herbal Drug Technology
the world which contribute about 7% of
HERBS countriesin rangingfrom
1.3 SOURCES OF biodiversity zones Himalayan to marine
agro-climatic number of medicinal plants. According
Indiais one of 17 megaIndia has 15 17000-18000
has vast
world total biodiversity. ecoSystems.India
and desert to rain
forest Medicinal Plant Board),
out of flowering plants
NMP8 (National medicinal. collected
to database of more than 7000 are sources. Herbs can beCultivation from wild
species in India, through different
green house. of herb
obtained field or consistent good
Herbs can be
cultivated source such as
because it gives quality raw
from world contamination. Propagation of herbs
can
SOurces or
common practice all over from
oecoming generally free
Cultivated herbs are method.
matenal. or asexual
by sexual Sources of Drugs
be carned out Table 1.1:
Various
Example
Significance
Sr. Source
Digitalis, Cinchona, Ephedra,
No. drugs,
Most important source of Opium, Senna, Aloe, Rhubarb.
available, large structural
1. Plant
widely Rauwolfia, Belladonna.
diversity, sustainable, renewable,
cost effective source.
Honey, Bees wax, Spermaceti,
2 Animal Provides many important drugs, Wool, Wool fat, Codliver oil.
enzymes from ancient time. Shark liver oil, Musk, Lakh,
Cantharidine, Cochineal, Lard,
Suet, Catgut, Gelatin,Vaccines,
Sera,Blood.
3. Marine Huge source of many potential Agar, Algae, Toxins, Antibiotics.
drugs, marine algae, plants,
animals, fungi are not yet
exploited or searched.
4. Mineral Naturally occurring minerals, salts. Zink oxide, Calamine, Shilajt.
oxides are used as medicine from Sulphur, Bhasma.
ancient time. They are stable and
effective on various diseases.
5 Micro Now-a-days lot of new drugs are Antibiotics, antimicrobials.
organism discovered from micro-organisms. enzymes, vitamins.
6 Modern Plant tissue culture, Insulin, hormones, secondary
approaches biotechnological approaches. metabolites, antibiotics
produced by fermentation.
 Herbs as Raw Materials
1.5
Herbal Drug Technology
Table 1.2: Important Drugs Isolated from Natural Products
Commnon use
Name of drug Plant name
Belladonna (Atropa belladonna) Anticholinergic
Atropine
Local anaesthetic
Cocaine Cocoa (Theobroma cocoa)
Analgesic, antitussive
Codeine Opium (Papaver somniferum)
Cardiotonic
Digoxin Digitalis species
Antiamebic agent
Emetine Ipecacunha species
Bronchodilator
Ephedrine Ephedra species
Opium (Papaver sonmniferum) Analgesic
Morphine
Smooth muscle
Papaverine Opium (Papaver somniferum)
relaxant

Physostigma venenosum Ophthalmic

Physostigmine
cholinergic

Pilocarpine Jaborandi (Pilocarpus microphyllus) Ophthalmic

cholinergic
Cinchona species Cardiac depressant
Quinidine
Antimalerial
Quinine Cinchona species
Sarpagandha (Rauwolfia serpantina) Antihypertensive
Reserpine
Sennoside AandB Senna (Cassia augustifolia and other Laxative
species of senna)
Skeletal muscle
Tubocurarine Curare (Chondrodendron tomentosum and
relaxant
other species)
Periwinkle (Vincarosea and other species Anticancer
Vinblastine,
Vincristine of vinca)
Table 1.3: Drugs Isolated from Plant Parts
Sr. Part of plant Example
No.
1. Roots Shatavari, Rauwolfia, Ipecacuanha, Aconite, Jalap, Ginseng,
Ashwagandha.
2. Woods Quassia, Sandalwood, Sassafras, Red sanders
3. Barks Cinchona, Kurchi, Cinnamon, Quillaia, Frangula (Rhamnus
frangula), Oak (Quercus petrea).
Contd...
 1.6
Herbs as Raw
Vacha, MotMatetahlna
Herbal DrugTechnology Valerian, Podophyllum, Turmeric.
(Nutgrass). Devils claw(Harpagohytum procumbens), Kava kava
Ginger,
(Rheum
4 Rhizomes
mythysticum), Rhubarb palmatum),
(Piper Echinacea
(Echinacea angustifolia).
(Smilax rageli), Artemisia, Saffron,Dhataki
Pyrethrum,
Sarsaparil a
Colocynth,
Clove, Fennel, Bael, Karela, Amla, Hirada, Black pepper
5 Flowers
6 Fruits
Gokharu.
Eucalyptus, Balm (Melissa
Leaves
Senna, Digitalis,
Nightshade
Vasaka,
of
(Atropa belladonna), Ginkgo (Ginkgo billoba).ficindlis,
Green
Tea (Camellia sinensis), Peppermint (Mentha piperita), Bearberry
(Arctostaphylos uva-ursi).
Nux-vomica, Strophanthus, Isabgol, Castor, Mucuna, Mustard
8 Seeds Ephedra, Ergot, Cantharides, Belladonna, Kalmegh, Neem
Entire drugs annua).
Brahmi, Warmwood (Artemisia
Dried latices
Opium,Gutta-percha, Papain.
10. Guggul.
11 Resins Balsam of Tolu, Myrrh, Asafoetida, Benzoin,
12 Dried Juices Aloes, Kino, Red gum.
13. Gums Acacia, Tragacanth, Ghatti gum, Guar gum.
14. Dried extracts Gelatin,Catechu, Agar, Curare, Aloe.
Table 1.4: Important Unorganized Drugs
Drug Description Example
Gums Pathological product, produced by plant as Gum Acacia, Tragacanth,
response toinjury. Gums are plant Gum Karaya, Gum Ghati
hydrocolloids and may be anionic or non-ionic Guar Gum
polysaccharides. On hydrolysis (acidic
hydrolysis or prolonged boiling with water),
gum yield sugar and uronic acids which form
salts with calcium and magnesium. Soluble or
partiy soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol
and in most of the organic
solvents.
MucilagesPhysiological product
produced by plant as
similar to gums, Isabgol, Squill, Agar,
Mucilage isproduced normal
inside metabolism.
the
Chondrus
plant. Mucilages are esters of cells of the
wherein ester group isa sulphuric acid,
complex. Mucilages form polysaccharide
slimy
water, but do not
dissolve. masses with
Con
 Herbs as Raw Materlals
Herbal Drug Technology 1.7

Extracts Solid or semisolid mass obtained by extraction Agar, Sodium alginate,

of drug either by water or other solvent. Catechu, Gelatin,
Resins, They are solids, liquids and semi-viscous Resins: Podophyllum resin,
oleo materials, clear, translucent yellow or brown Jalap resin, Colophony,
resins, materials insoluble in water and soluble in SandaracG, Guaiacum;
oleo gum most of the organic solvents. Oleo resin: Capsicum,
resins Podophyllum, Ginger;
Balsam: Tolu, Benzoin,
Storax, Peru; Oleo-gum
resins: Myrrh, Asafetida
Latices Product contained in special secretory tissues Rubber, Chicle gum,
of certain plants. It is usually awhite aqueous Opium, Papain,Gutta
suspension, oil globules are suspended. These percha.
naturalsuspensions of milky consistency may
contain alkaloids, proteins, sugars, mineral and
alkaloidal salt in the true solution, whereas
gums,starch and resins in the suspended
form.
Juices Obtained from fleshy leaves, fruit, stems of the Aloe, Kino
trees (Kino) by cutting or crushing.
For herbs collected from natural places need to take certain precautions. First important
step is botanical identification. Correct botanical identification is very important for ensuring
from wild
good quality assurance of herbal formulations. In case of some herbs, collection
sources is not feasible. In such cases, herbs can be propagated in field to ensure best quality
raw material and regular supply.
Table 1.5: Comparison between Sexual Seed and Asexual Vegetative Propagation
Sr. Sexual Propagation Asexual Propagation
No. (Seed propagation) (Vegetative propagation)
1. In this method, seeds are used for In this method, vegetative part of the
propagation; plants are raised by plant such as stem, root, leaf is used to
usingseeds. develope new plant.
2. Comparatively cheaper method of Asexual propagation involves high cost.
propagation.
3. Plants start bearingseed or fruit late. Seed or fruit bearing starts early.
4 Plants are long lived. Generally, plants may or may not be long
lived.
Cond..
 1.8 Herbs as
Raw Material
Herbal Drug Technology
yield Plants are uniformin growth and yield,
growth and
Plants are uniformin but growth is not vigorous.
capacity. Because of vegetative propagation, there
cross-pollination and
Because of isno chance for improvement in the
6 are chances
genetic exchange, there variety.
to improve plant variety. Plants are not always sturdy and big.
7. Generally, plants are sturdier and
bigger.
Because of natural variation, Generally, harvesting is easy.
8.
harvesting is difficult.
Germination time is not longer.
9. Seed propagation sometimes take
longgermination time.
10. Example: Orange, Papaya, Castor, Example: Grapes, Rose, Sugar cane,
Foodgrains. Potato.

1.4SELECTION OF HERBAL MATERIAL

According to World Health Organization data, more than 60% of world population is
directly or indirectly using plant based medicines. On this background, it is very important to
select right plant material for development of herbal drug. Selection of plant can be done by
various approaches like randomized approach, ecological approach, chemo systemic
approach, ethanobotanical (traditional knowledge based) approach.
Randomized selection:

In this, plant material is selected randomly from forest for discovery of new medicine.
Success rate is low but this approach offers wide variety of diversity and plant material is
available readily.
Zoopharmacognosy (Ecological approach):
Zoopharmacognosy is observation of animal behaviour for discovery and development
of new drug. Observation of Chimpanzee in African
forest lead to discovery of antimalarial
properties of Trichilia rubescens leaves. This is also called as ecological
observation includelike production of certain secondary metabolite approach. by
Ecological
repelence. Obviously, these toxic secondary metabolites can be used plant for insect
human ailments. Very few plants can be selected by for treatment of some
as it saves time and high this approach, yet this is good approacn
success rate.
Chemosystemic approach:
Distribution of
chemical constituents is common in certain
approach is also called as phylogenetic or groups of plant.
certain taxa is therapeutically active, then chemotaxonomic
there is
approach. If plants belonging to
taxa can be active. For example, high chance that other plants from sane
Emblica
Amala contains ascorbic acid, gallic acid andofficinalis (Euphorbiaceae) commonly called
species. Species of Euphorbiaceae can also contain tannins. So one can expect other genus and
similar chemical compound and activity.
 Herbs as Raw Materlals
Herbal Drug Technology 1.9

diversity
This approach is not decisive, but definitely gives some idea related to chemical
and possible activity of plant.
Ethanopharmacology:
Ethanopharmacology is branch of science which observes knowledge of people, their
traditions and beliefs for discovery and development of drugs. Ethanopharmacology is also
related with reverse pharmacology approach. In this approach, drug which is already in use
from several years is taken and studied or explored for possible drug development.
Ethanobotany involves study of certain plants with respect to ethnic group of people.
Ethanobotany helps to classify plants systematicaly. Ethanopharmacology combines
knowledge of people and pharmacological techniques. Ethanomedicine involves study of
use of medicines by different ethnic groups including traditional medicines.
This type of selection of plant material increases success rate because plant is already
known for activity and saves time and efforts.
1.5 IDENTIFICATION AND AUTHENTICATION OF HERBAL DRUGS
Correct botanical identification of drug is very important for good quality of finished
product. Substitution or adulteration with morphologically or chemically similar plant is
becoming common in herbal drug industry. Evaluation of drug is of critical importance on
this background.
Table 1.6: Evaluation Methods

Method Characteristic or Parameters

Sr.
No.
1 Taxonomic method Botanical name, vernacular names, site of collection of
plant material, details of collector, habitat, season of
collection,altitude and part collected.
2.
Herbarium voucher Voucher sample in a herbarium or a research institute for
future references.
sample
3. Macroscopic Shape, size, colour, odour, texture, surface characteristics,
method fracture characteristics, taste and such organoleptic
properties.
4. Microscopic method Light microscopy and polarized microscopy, structural,
cellular and internal tissue features.
5. Physicochemical Total ash, water soluble ash, acid insoluble ash and
methods sulphated ashand other parameters.
6 Chromatographic High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Capillary
methods Electrophoresis (CE) and Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC),
GC-MS, LC-MS.
Cont..
 Herbs as Raw Materials
1.10
for
Herbal Drug Technology Electron Spectroscopy Chemical
Spectroscopy, Plasma Mass
7.
Spectroscopic
Infrared
Analysis, Absorption SpectrometX-rrayy
Inductively Coupled Sppectrometry (AAS),
methods (CP-MS), Atomic (XRD), X-ray Fluorescence
Diffraction Analysis Analysis
(XRF). metabolites and
Primary and secondary other
Molecular markers nucleic acids.
macromolecules such as
Length Polymorphism (RFLP), PCR-
Restricted Fragment
techniques; Random amplified polymorphic DNA
Based
Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)
(RAPD), (RT-PCR).
and Real time PCR
Enzyme linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), Poly
Immunoassays (PAGE).
Acrylamide Gel Electrophoresis
botanical
herbal material is combination of art and sCience. Correct
ldentification of good quality finished
of the most important steps for ensuring
identification is first and one
or good quality; then finished product
product. If the starting raw material is not originalherb can be done by different wave
quality cannot be guaranteed. Identification of
method is suitable for all herbs. Most
Aithough there are several methods available, no one
correct identification.
of the time combination of these methods can be employed for
Macroscopy:
Macroscopy involves checking external appearance or sensory characters like colour,
odour, taste, size, shape, fracture etc. Botanical identification of herb is generally done by
trained person like botanist. For correct botanical identification, entire plant along with rot
and flower is needed. Botanical identification is based on morphology which involves
checking various parts of herbs like leaves, flower, root and others. Leaves and flowers are
most important parts which help in identification of plant. Herb can be observed for colour,
size, shape and arrangement of leaves and flower. Arrangement of leaves on stem and
branching is called phylotaxy. Different types of arrangement of leaves like alternate
distichous, opposite, decussate, whorled types of leaves arrangement can be helprul
identify herb correctly. Different types of shapes of leaves like oval, oblong, obovate, rounu
linear, lanceolate, elliptical, spatulate, cordate, hastate are tooltoidentity
one of
plants. Even margins of leaves can be observed to identify herbs. the simplest
dentate, sinuate, ciliate, spinose help in identification of herb.Marains like cases,
In Some entire, different
serte
species of plants can be identified only after
flowering.
Microscopy:
Microscopy plays very crucial role inforidentification of drugof those morphologicalh
similar. Microscope can be employed checking sections leaves,are root and stemto
confirm identity of herb. Microscopy can be also used to check stomata, trichome, calcium
Oxalate crystals, which may be unique to that herb. Certain leaf constants like stomatal index
 Herbs as Raw Materials
Herbal Drug Technology 1.11

vein islet number are important for correct identification of herb. Indian senna
palisade ratio,
using microscopic parameters. Indian senna
and Alexandrian sennacan be differentiated by
Alexandrian senna has 25 to 29.5. Indian senna have
has vain islet number 19.5 to 22.5 while
l1.4 to 13.3. Likewise many other
stomatal index 17 to 20 while Alexandrian senna have identify plant
calcium oxalate is useful to
plants can be identified by microscopy. Shape of
example- rosette shaped crystal is present in Datura stramonium, needle shaped crystal
for
presents in Iris germarnica, raphaides are present in Urginea maritima, monoclinic prism
are
in Atropa belladonna.
shape is present in Hyoscaymus niger, sand shaped present
grains, size and length
Microscopy is especially useful in case of powdered drugs. Starch be studied by using
phloem can
of fibers, staining reactions like lignified xylem and
microscope.
Phytochemistry:
analysis helps to identity plant.
After macro and microscopy, preliminary phytochemical constituents. Also analytical
Preliminary phytochemical analysis helps to reveal chemicalspecific to particular herb. UV,
techniques are used to identify marker compound which isidentification of herbs.
MASS, NMR, HPLC, HPTLC are routinely used in industry for
DNAfingerprinting:
identification of herbs is the upcoming latest
Use of biotechnological tools for correct
uses DNA fingerprinting for
technology. Molecular markers like RAPD, ISSR, RFLP nothing but sequence of
identification of herb at molecular level. Molecular markers are
which is unique to each plant. First, plant DNA is isolated and then amplified with the
DNA
different patterns. Plants also have unique
help of PCR and then screened for similar and
DNAcan be identified in the form of DNA
DNA patterns similar to human. Pattern of this
plant as species or even
barcoding or DNA fingerprinting. DNA barcoding identify flower is available.
molecular level, even when small part of plant without
subspecies level or
recent technology like genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics and metabolomics
More
technique can identify plant at genetic level.
MATERIALS
1.6 PROCESSING OF HERBAL RAW
field into finished product.
Processing is the entire journey for raw herbal material from
involves many steps according to nature of herbs. Each and every herb is
Processing herbs. After correct
individual
different, so different methods of processing are employed for generally collection is
botanical identification of herb, collection can be done. Now-a-days,
special precaution. If fresh
done from cultivated plants. Herb material collected needs some
to prevent deterioration.
herb is not supposed to be used immediately, it should be dried
After drying, it can be
Again method of drying is selected depending upon nature of herb. to make herb more
cleaned for certain impurities. Dressing or garbling is done in order
presentable before sending to market. Storage of herbs also needs special precaution.
this step, herbal
Before storage, herb material should be packed in suitable material. After
material is ready for market. It can undergo extraction procedure as per requirement.
Extraction method can be selected according to nature of herb. Extracts are then
Herbal Drug Technology Herbs as Raw

characterized by means
1.12

techniques. Now, after Materials

Content of one or
Standardized extractmore ingredients,
show
of other
uniformitythese
chromatographic
extracts can be called as
in pharmacological
standardized
action and do not have much
variation. These extracts can be converted into suitable herbal formulation or can undergo
deterextmirnaictnsg
further isolation procedure.
Collection ofCrude Drugs:
Collection of crude drugs is very crucial factor to determine quality. After Correct
of
done. Time, place and method collection
are
botanical identification, collection can be
any plant are subjected to
constituents in
Critical to determine qualityof the druo Chemical maturity, sex, age of
season, geography, stage of
change according to time of collection, when chemical constituents are in
maximur
should collect the plant material
plant. One Convention on
concentration. While collecting the drug one has to consider
conservationof biodiversity and prevent
Biodiversity
effective from 1992. which ensures
(CBD) Which was
government laws, some endangered varieties
Over exploitation of biodiversity. According to guidelines for
plant and animal are banned for collection. European Union has prescribed
of
Agriculture Practice for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in 1998. These guidelines
Good
storage, quality assurance of drugs.
specify propagation, collection, harvesting, processing,
Farmers right protection act. Apart from
In India, there are several laws like Plant variety and
geographical indication act.
this, intellectual property right protection is considered by for further
Immediately after collection, it is advisable to keep reference sample/ herbarium
use.
Table 1.7: Time of Collection for Herbal Drugs
Sr. Plant part Time of collection Example
No.

1. Leaves Before maturity, before flowering Digitalis, Vinca, Tea,

Belladonna, Senna, Tulsi.
2. Flowers Before pollination or maturity, Clove bud, Rose, Chamomile,
preferably in morning before sunrise Arnica, Saffron.
3. Roots When aerial growth of plant stops,
i.e. spring
Withania, Ginseng.
4. Rhizomes When aerial growth of plant stops,
when rhizome has maximum reserve Ginger, Turmeric, Jalap.
food material
5. Stem After maturity
6. Bark
Spring or early summer, after damp
Kalmegh, Ephedra.
weather when it separates readily Ashoka, Arjuna.
from wood

Cond..
 Herbs as Raw Materlals
Herbal Drug Technology 1.13

7. Seed After maturity, washed and freed Nux Vomica, Cocoa.

from pulp
8 Fruit Ripe, half ripe or fully mature Coriander, Dill, Bael.
9. Resin Immediately after oozing from plant, Balsam of Peru, Balsum of
in dry weather Tolu.
10. Gum After oozing, when it dries or Acacia, Tragacanth
hardens, in dry weather
11. Latex After oozing out, after coagulation Papaya, Opium.
12. Heartwood After maturation Sandal wood.
13. Pod After maturation Senna

Harvesting of Crude Drugs:

Harvesting is an operation which is actual collection of crude drugs from field.
Harvesting is an operation which is actual collection of crude drugs from field. Harvesting
also involves processing of drugs like removal of seed coat, cover etc. Now-a-days
harvesting is carried out by machines as compared to conventional methods.
Table 1.8: Types of Harvesting
Sr. Types of harvesting Example Advantages/
No. Disadvantages
1. Manual, skilled Flowers, Leaves like tea Selectivity, sorting by
workers leaves, vinca, senna leaves, hand/Laborious, time
digitalis, belladonna, consuming, costly.
cinchona.

2. Mechanical diggers Roots, rhizomes, tubers e.g. Economic, washing is

potato, ginger, sugarcane. possible.

3. Mechanical shakers Fruits like apple, olive and Free from soil, good
some flowers. quality.
Seeds, barks like cork. Saves time and labour.
4. Seed striper,
separator
Seeds, grains, some fruits Saves time and labour.
5. Machine harvester,
mowers, thrashers,
winnowers

Dressing/Garbling of Crude Drugs:

sand, dirt,
Garbling or dressing means preparation of drug for market by removing of material
extraneous matter, insects, stalks and other impurities. It may involve grading
senna, fennel.,
based on size, shape and weight. Removal of stalk in case of leaf drug like
 Herbs as
Raw
Materiadoneln
1.14
before
packing of drug. This
Herbal Drug Technology done
underaround drugis going to market, drug
should be can be
Sand andclay
With special
incase of and shakers. Before
sieves
size of
involves some
treatment given
special
to different drugs to presemantkeabledruo
Garbling also market: to Some Drugs
aCceptable in Treatment Given
more
Table 1.9:
Special Garbling procedure

Drug
Sr.
liming of ginger for improvement
No.
Removal ofclay and
1. Ginger colour.
for bleaching.
Exposure to sunlight cloves.
2 Bees wax stalks from
Removal of clove
Clove purification and adjusting vitamin
Shark liver oil Filtration, centrifugation,
4
content.
of bark to remove wood part.
Scraping polishing
5. Cinnamon
magnet.
6 Powdered drugs Removal of iron pieces by

Drying of Crude Drugs:

procedure and consists of removal of moisture. Drying of crude de
Drying is simple
ageneral rule leaves, herbs, flowerc s
generally followed immediately after collection. As to 65°C.
can be dried at 30
dried at 20to 40°Cand barks, roots and stem
Advantages of Drying:
Drying increases shelf life and storage of drug.
It helps in size reduction and powdering of crude drugs.
Drying is recommended before transport of drug as it reduces weight and saves spac:
before packing.
Drying retards growth of microorganism and maintains uniform quality of drug.
Table 1.10: Types of Drying
Sr.
Type of Drying Specifications
No. Example
1.
Drying under Low cost but time seeds and
Sun
and possibility of consuming Acacia gum, barks,
few fruits.
contamination with dust,
generally in practice in tropical
countries;,fading of colourdue
to sunlight ispossible.
Cont
Herbal Drug Technology 1.15 Herbs as Raw Materials

2 Drying under Avoid photo degradation of Senna, Digitalis, Clove,

shade/ open air heat/ light sensitive drugs but Cardamom, Cinnamon,
drying takes long time for drying. Colocynth, Chinese Rhubarb,
Fennel, Dill, Caraway and other
volatile oil containing drugs.
3 Tray dryer/ hot Quick method for large scale Cinchona bark, Belladonna.
air oven drying, hot air circulated
through drug.
4. Spray dryer Suitable for heat sensitive Milk, protein, enzyme drugs,
material, liquid or slurry. Papaya latex, tannins, several
extracts are dried by this
method.
5 Vacuum dryer/ Suitable for heat and moisture Digitalis leaves, Tannic acid,
freeze dryer sensitive drugs taxus, biological products.

Application of Drying:
If herbal drug is sensitive to heat then use of oven drying was found to have less
phytochemicals as compared to freeze drying.
Recent study on effect of drying process on the composition of Black Pepper ethanolic
extract by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) have shown higher
impurities in oven dried samples.
Herbal drugs are often freeze-dried (lyophilized) for use and a variety of freeze-dried
drugs are marketed to the consumers. Freeze-drying prevent loss of certain certain
chemicals and preserves the medicinal qualities of plants, and is considered superior to
other preservation methods.
Some botanical samples are freeze dried before their use as food, spices, or in research
studies.
Freeze drying can affect different plants and different constituents in a variety of ways.
Freeze drying is preferred method in case of Dill (Anethum graveolens) extract compared
to hot air drying. Another report indicated that, the thymol contents of the plant
increase after freeze drying. Most researches indicate the reduction or degradation of
the volatiles after freeze drying.
Regarding the other components, in most plants, freeze drying preserves their phenolic
and antioxidant contents. Recent research suggests that freeze drying is better method
in drying of carotenoids. Freeze drying of Echinacea purpurea causes more retention of
cichoric acid, a moisture sensitive acid, than air drying.
There are some limitations of freeze-drying. According to some reports, if medicinal
compounds like volatiles, phenolics and carotenoids which are not preserved properly
may increase the mutation rate in unicellular organisms and may reduce some activities.
 1.16 Herbs as Raw
Herbal Drug Technology Mater
Packaging of Crude Drugs: can be carried out in most of the cases.
grade material is then
After garbling,
packed
grading of crude drugs to requirement and further use. Packaging
according
Proper packing helps in
Dif terer
important for storage
life of crude drug.
andtransport of crude drug.

Packaging Materials
increasing9
shes
Types of
Table1.11: Advantages
part
Plantname and
Sr. Packaging
No. materia

Gunny bags
Roots, seeds (coffee
bean), small branches,
Allow rough handling,sfresh,
keep material| live and
upplycostair to
1.
effective.
barks balsams| Prevent Oxidation and photo
Tin or metal Volatile oil, resins, degradation, increases shelf lite
2.
containers Drugs sensitive to oxidation.
Whole plant packed in airtight containers.
3. Plastic
containers Suitable for hygroscopic materia.
Extracts, powders
4. Polythene can be opened and packed as
bags/zip lock/ required.
self-sealable Delicate, fragile drugs.
Wooden boxes, Fruits
5.
cardboard

Storage of Crude Drugs: aspect to maintain quality of drug and increae

important
Storage of crude drugs isvery properly, loss can be upto approximately 5 to 10 Der
stored
shelf life. If crude drug is not different physical and chemical nature need
separate
because of their
cent. Different drugs
common enemies of crude drug are oxygen, light, moisture
storage conditions. Most fixed oil, cod liver oil, shark liver oil should be
containing
(humidity) and temperature. Drug by inert gas. Proper care should be taken whit
replaced
stored in container in which air is is liable to lose aroma with increase
in
oil containing drugs which
storing volatile glass bottles or stainless steel
containers art
temperature. Generally for oil, amber coloured
most suitable material for storage.
e.g. Pista.
Drugs which contain oil can catch fire if stored at high temperature consumed in i
Tuber and bulb crops are important food vegetables cultivated and
areas of the world.
(pomeabats
Potatoes (Solarium tuberosum L.), yams (Dioscorea spp.), sweet potatoes tuber crops
L), and ginger (Zingiber officinale L.) form the economically important andgark
whereas onions (Allum cepa L. var. cepa), shallots (A.cepa L. var.
ascalonicun),Contentand
(A. sativum L.) constitute the major bulb crops. Because of their high water tuberand
of
the difficulty of storing, processing and transportation, postharvest losses
bulb crops are potentially very high.
 Herbs as Raw Materials
Herbal Drug Technology 1.17

environment for storage. Improper

At the same time seeds and nuts also need special
storage in case of opium may decrease morphine content. Drugs like Ergot, Cascara,
conditions.
Sarsaparilla, Indian Hemp, Taxus, Echinacea are very sensitive to storage
storage like mechanical
One has to consider loss due to physical factors in failure of
on storage
injuries sustained by the drug handling operations have a major influence
quality.
lose
Apart fromthe direct losses caused by mechanical damage, roughly handled drugs
rot-producing microbial
weight more rapidly in storage and are more prone to attack by
pathogens.
physiological factors
Sprouting., rooting, transpiration, and respiration are the majortuber
contributing to both qualitative and quantitative deterioration in and bulb drugs.
Common Precautions in Storage of Crude Drug:
dry
Crude drugs should be stored in optimum storage conditions which include cool and
environment.
Crude drugs should be protected from direct sunlight and excessive temperature
variation.
can be
Properly sealed containers which are impermeable for insects and mites
employed to increase storage life.
Regular cleaning with insecticide like pyrethrin, fumigation with ethylene oxide,
irradiation of storage drug and place will also increase storage life of crude drug.
Summary of Storage Conditions of Crude Drug:
Table 1.12: Storage Conditions of Crude Drugs
Criteria Effect Precaution

Temperature High tenmperature increases Cool temperature, avoid excess

degradation of drug. Most of drugs temperature, shocks should be
like proteins,enzymes, peptides are avoided.
verysensitive to heat, high
temperature also cause loss of
volatile oil from crude drug.
Light Increase photodegradation, Avoid direct sunlight, use of
photolysis, decomposition, bleachingamber coloured bottle, opaque
of drug, loss of vitamin. non-transparent container.
Oxygen Responsible for oxidation of drug, Replace oxygen by inert gas like
rancidity of fixed oil, resinification of nitrogen toprevent oxidation.
volatile oil.
Moisture Responsible for increase in weight of Proper packing, use of
crude drugcargo, facilitates dehydrating agents like silica gel,
hydrolytic degradation of drug. cobalt chloride, calcium sulphate,
encourage growth of fungus, mold calcium chloride or lime can be
and bacteria. provided with crude drugs.
 Herbal Drug Technology 1.18

Role of Moisture in Storage of Crude Drug: increase shelf life.

Naturalu
Materian
drug Asmay contain
general rule, updrug
to 12 per cent
should dried enough to
dried crde
be moisture. Most of the carbohydrates containing drue
powdered drugs are hygroscopic in nature and liable for attack of moisture In general, tha
conditions.
favoured by warm, humid
growth of bacteria and fungi are nuts, Grains, ACacia gum, Starch and Sau
like Cocoa. Coffee, various
C
nygroscopicdrugs
powder should
Some drugs protected
likebeDigitalis. Indian moisture.
fromhemp, Echinacea, Sarsaparilla, Taxus, Gentian and Erg
need special attention.
areMoisture loss duefortodegradation,
very sensitive transpiration, and to a lesser extent to respiration. increases witr
Storage temperature; evaporative losses are generally proportional to the water vapou
the asurrounding air.
pressure tubers inwith
Matured deficit well-formed skin, and properly cured bulbs with a tight, dry Quter
scale lose less water in storage due to transpiration than do immature tubers or bulbs
OCCur in potatoes wk
having exposed fleshy scales. In addition, sugar formation can
starch.
stored at temperatures below 7°C by conversion of
assume very ser
In potatoes, bacterial soft rot caused by Erwinia spp. may
proportion under warm tropical storage conditions, leading to substantial loss.
At lower storage temperatures, rotting of onions is mainly due to Botrytis allii where2c .
higher temperatures the black mold (Aspergillus niger) and bacterial species (Erwinia
caratovora, Pseudomonas spp., Xanthomonas spp.), cause soft rotting are the main
microorganisms respornsible for spoilage.
Use of Chemicals in Storage of Crude Drugs:
Use of chemicals is no more preferred method for storage now-a-days. But in certain
cases, chemicals like methyl bromide can be used for killing pests before storage of
crude
drugs. But growing list of resistant strains has questioned the effective use of chemicals in
the control of postharvest losses of stored products. For
the consumer rejection of chemical pesticides is environmental and health reasons
and other methods are becoming growing. Because of this, use of radiation
popular.
Chemicals can be used in case of insect strains include
Sitophilus oryzae, S. Tribolium castaneum, T. confusum,
Dermestes maculatus, granarius, S. zeamais, O.
Callosobruchus chinensis,
surinamensis, Rhyzopertha dominica,
Plodia interpunctella, E. cautella, and E. Trogoder magranarium, S. ceredlete
Application of certain kuehniella.
such as Chlorpropham,chemicals like maleic hydrazide, chemical inhibitors of cell
potatoes as a postharvestPropham and Tecnazene (tetrachloro divisto
can cause huge loss in
case
application
of
for control of nitrobenzene) are used
sprouting. Metabolic loss, sprouting
Use of Radiation in potato, onion, yam, garlic.
Use of radiation isStorage of Crude Drugs:
to Otto Wist (a also called as 'cold
used for drugs whichGerman)
can have pasteurization',
for the use of
ionizing
In 1930,
French
Some beetles from the problem in heat radiation to preserve foods. Radiationis
patent was issued
to
radiation,while mothsfamily Bruchidaeareof pasteurizatOrder
insects. ion.
(Lepidoptera) the most resistantColeoptera
for
are most
sensitive

radiation.
 Herbs as Raw Materials
Herbal Drug Technology 1.19

Storage of apples, peaches, pears, and nectarines has been studied with regard to the
control of ripening, of certain physiological disorders, andto reduction of decay caused
by fungal pathogens.
Moth species, P. interpuntella, C. cautella, E. kuehniella, Ectomyelois ceratonae, Corcyra
cephalonica, and Amyelois transitella, are the most common insect pests of driedtruits
and nuts. These can be treated with radiation. The beetle species T. castaneum and
Carpophilus hemipterus are also associated with dried fruits and nuts.
Radiation is more useful in case of international trade of dried fruit and nuts. Dried dates
have problem of infestation more than 12 species of insects including the fig moth,
Cadra cautella (E. cautelld), saw toothed grain Beetle and Oryzaephilus surinamensis.
Although dryingof drug is considered good to increase shelf life but radiation isproving
useful in this case. Similarly, dried apricot, dates, figs and raisins, tobacco, coconut,
spices, mushrooms can also irradiated to increase storage life and retain quality.
At temperatures of 5-15°C, the dormancy of onions, shallots, and garlic is shortened and
can result in amore vigorous sprout growth. Irradiation decreases sprouting thereby
increasing shelf life.
Different Methods for Storage of Crude Drugs:
Table 1.13
Method Mechanism Specification Example
involved
Heating Killing Quick and reliable method but Pasteurization (milk),
Micro External appearance, properties Sterilization (canned
organism of drug may change foods, drugs)
Radiation Inhibition Properties of drug (look, taste, Fish, spices
(shelf-life smell) remains same as that of
extension) non-irradiated drug. Drug can
be contaminated after radiation
treatment (if exposed to pest
again)
Radiation Killing Properties of drug (look, taste, Shelf-stable prepared
(serilization) Micro smell) remains same as that of meals

organism non-irradiated. Drug can be

contaminated after radiation
exposure (if exposed to pest
again)
High pressure Killing of External appearance, properties Fruit juices, sauces
pasteurization microbes of drug may change
Low Inhibition Good for storage Dairy products
temperature
refrigeration
Contd.
 Herbs as Raw
Herbal Drug Technology
Good for
1.20

temperature sensitive Fish Maaterials

Freezing for Inhibition vitamins and taste
drugs, keeps
longer term suitable for all
intact but not
storage drug candidates
method for Dates
Inhibition Most suitable
Atmosphere life
modification, packing, increase shelf
vacuum

packaging and Seeds, nuts,

tubers,
Modified Inhibition Can keep seeds, tubers live
fresh pork
atmosphere
packaging Fruits, vegetables
Controlled Inhibition Most suitable method for
atmosphere packing
Acidification Inhibition Limited applications, can not be Dairy products, pickles
fermentation suitable for all drugs
Reduced water Inhibition Decrease weight, good for Dehydrated vegetables,
transport and packing leaves, fruits
activity Dried
foods
Increased Inhibition Simple method but can change Jams, gellies
osmolality, original taste of drug, also
Sugar increase in calories
Conseves

Cured and Inhibition Low cost, long lasting method Fish

salted foods but can alter original taste of
drug
Use of Inhibition Control of pest throughout life Bakery products
preservatives time of product, Chemicals are (propionate in bakery
not acceptable by consumer as products, benzoate in
wellas regulatory agencies, has fruit products, nitrite
certain limitations like pH, taste (cured meats), sulfite
(meats,wine), antibiotic
(nisin),
Compartmentalization
Water-in-oil Inhibition Gives stability to drug but Butter
emulsions suitable only for liquid drugs
Recent Advancement in Storage of Drugs:
Use of Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP):
This consists of modification of atmosphere by either lowering the level of oxyger
raising the level of carbon dioxide, or by an altered level of the inert gases. Modme
atmosphere have been used to control insects in grains, dried fruits and nuts.
 Herbs as Raw Materials
Herbal Drug Technology 1.21

This can include different techniques, such as vacUum packaging, controlled-atmosphere

packaging, and modified atmosphere or gas packaging. Mainly fruits and vegetables can
have benefits of a modified atmosphere as a result of natural respiration. Storage and
quality of food is increased by inhibiting chemical, enzymatic, and microbial spoilage.
Different gases can be used in most MAP applications like oxygen (0z), nitrogen (N2).
and carbon dioxide (CO). Nitrogen is most preferred as an inert gas for storage of crude
drugs. But in some rare cases oxygen can be used as it will generally stimulate the
growth of aerobic bacteria and to prevent the growth of strictly anaerobic bacteria. Use
of nitrogen can prevent oxidative rancidity and also inhibit the growth of aerobic
microorganisms. C0, is both water- and lipid-soluble, and its role is primarily to inhibit
the growth and metabolism of microorganisms. Carbon dioxide inhibits the growth rate
of aerobic Gram-negative bacteria such as Pseudomonas spp.,
Sometimes combination of one or more technique can be used like fish oil such as Cod
(Gadus morhua), Haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus), Halibut (Hippoglossus
hippoglossus), California (Paralichthys californicus), Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger
vacuum
kanagurta), Sole (English, gray, lemon, Petrale) use of irradiation with MAP or
packaging is very effective. Issue of rancidity in fatty fish after irradiation can be
overcome by excluding O,during irradiation and storage.
Modification of pH is another way to increase storage life. If food/ drug have high water
content but a pH below 4.5, it is not necessary to heat severely. Reason is, spores of
Clostridium botulinum cannot grow out at pH values below 4.5, so there is no need to
heat-inactivate them. Combination methods like use of mild heating and refrigerated
storage or removal of oxygen and reduced temperature and increased acidity is
excellent method for storage.
Reduction of water, pH and addition of nitrite followed by refrigeration is also used as
combination method. Few drugs can be stored by heating and then addition of sodium
chloride or nitrite to increase shelf life.
Acombination of irradiation and exposure to nitrogen, accelerate the mortality of flour
beetle Tribolium spp. In case of cocoa beans and dates, iradiation in combination with
heating by infrared radiation or microwaves can be acommercially viable technology.
For berries fruits, grapes, gamma irradiation can often be combined with other physical
treatments (e.g., hot-water dip, controlled atmosphere) or chemical agents to control
postharvest diseases. The resulting 'combination treatments' may involve synergistic or
additive effects leading to decreased treatment requirement for one or more of the
combined agents. This is also useful for control of fungal diseases in fruit like papaya,
banana, figs and mangoes.
Combination of heat, chemical and radiation is necessary to control deteriorating in
cherries, citrus fruits, mangoes, cauliflower, asparagus, dill, coriander and broccoli. Root
drugs like carrots, beet roots, and turnips may benefit from radiation processing by
inhibiting sprouting and the consequent shrinkage and loss of quality.
Commonly Found Organisms in Stored Crude Drugs:
Crude drugs may be obtained from marine or other water sources. Potential human
concern are mainly gram-positive organisms like Bacillus cereus, Clostridium botulinum,
Clostridium perfringens, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and gram-negative
Herbal Drug Technology
1.22
Herbs as Raw M

Salmonella, Material,
Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli,
bacteria Aeromonas hydrophila,
Vibrio, Yersiniaenterocolitica.
Table 1.14: Types of Micro-organims found in Crude Drugs Shigel a
Organism Example
Peanut, Corn,Contamination
Mould Rhizopus spp., Mucor spp.,
grains, Cereals, Wheat,
Oils
Rice, other
Penicillium spp., Eurotium spp., seeds,
Thamnidium spp.
Most of crude
Acorus
Salmonella spp., Ecoli drug
Bacteria
includin g
Acacia, Agar, Starch, Sterculia
Digitalis, Tragacanth, Galatin.
underground drugs.
Mite Acarus siro (flour mite) Commonin cereal, grains.
(Arachinida)
Moth Ephestiakuehniella (flour moth), Almond, Ground nut, Cocoa.
(Lepidoptera) E. Cautella (fig moth), E. elutella Ginger, Capsicum, Tobacco.
(Cocoa moth), P. interpunctella
(Indian meal moth )
Beetles Sap feeding (Carpophilus spp.), Dried fruits, Grains, Tobacco,
Merchant grain (Oryzaephilus spp.), Flour, Ginger, Almond, Nutmeg.
Furniture (Steqobium and Anobium
spp.), Spider (Ptinus spp.), Flour Rhubarband other vegetable
(Tribolium spp.) drugs.

1. What is herb? Give any five QUESTIONS

2. What do you mean by herbalexamples.
3. Which are differnt sources of medicine?
4. Which are different criteria for herbal drugs?
5.
6.
Explain different approaches forselection of herbal material?
7.
Write in detail identification and
Write a note onprocessing ofof herbal raw material.authentification of herbai aruy
8. Write note on collectionof herbal drugs.
9. What is harvesting
garbling
10. Write note of crude crude
drugs.
drug?
11. Which are on drying of curde drug.
12. Which are different types of
13. Write a recent trends in drying methods and its
note on storage of
14. Which are packaging
crude
of crude
drug. drugs. application.
15. Which are different points need to
16. Which are different factors
different recent affecting consider for
storage of crude drugs.
storage of crude
advancement in storage of drugs.
crude