Article

Psychosocial Predictors of Job Satisfaction in Nursing: Insights

from a Spanish Hospital Setting
Alejandra Trillo 1 , Alberto Ortega-Maldonado 2 , Beatriz Lopez-Pena 3 and Francisco D. Bretones 1, *

1 Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Labour Relations and Human Resources,

Universidad de Granada, 18012 Granada, Spain; atrillo@ugr.es
2 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Business and Communication, Universidad Internacional de La Rioja,
26006 Logroño, Spain; alberto.ortega@unir.net
3 Research Group Sustainable Talent Development, Faculty Business, Finance & Marketing,
The Hague University of Applied Sciences, 2521 EN Den Haag, The Netherlands; b.lopezpena@hhs.nl
* Correspondence: fdiazb@ugr.es

Abstract: Nurses play a key role in healthcare systems, yet their job satisfaction is often
challenged by factors such as emotional exhaustion and organisational dynamics. This
study examines the relationship between psychological empowerment, affective commit-
ment, and emotional exhaustion as predictors of job satisfaction in a sample of 150 Spanish
nurses. Data were collected using validated questionnaires measuring these constructs,
and mediation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS macro. Results indicated
that psychological empowerment positively influenced job satisfaction both directly and
indirectly through affective commitment. However, emotional exhaustion did not sig-
nificantly mediate this relationship, suggesting that contextual factors such as workload
may override its effects. This research contributes to the understanding of job satisfac-
tion among healthcare professionals and highlights the importance of empowerment and
affective engagement. Practical implications for hospital management include fostering
psychological empowerment through organisational strategies that promote autonomy,
competence, and meaningful involvement, which could improve nurses’ well-being and
organisational performance.

Keywords: job satisfaction; psychological empowerment; affective commitment; emotional

exhaustion; nursing
Academic Editor: Lauren A. Fowler

Received: 20 December 2024

Revised: 7 February 2025
Accepted: 24 February 2025 1. Introduction
Published: 26 February 2025
Job satisfaction, understood as the balance between job expectations and the rewards
Citation: Trillo, A., Ortega-Maldonado,
offered by the organisation, directly influences service quality, customer satisfaction, organ-
A., Lopez-Pena, B., & Bretones, F. D.
(2025). Psychosocial Predictors of Job
isational development, and has a significant impact on subjective well-being and mental
Satisfaction in Nursing: Insights from health (Penconek et al., 2021; Ray, 2021). Understanding the factors that contribute to
a Spanish Hospital Setting. Behavioral nurses’ satisfaction is particularly relevant as the public health crisis resulting from the
Sciences, 15(3), 274. https://doi.org/ COVID-19 pandemic intensified the emotional and organisational demands on nurses and
10.3390/bs15030274
had a significant impact on their well-being and commitment (Chen et al., 2021). Thus, the
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. public health emergency highlighted the need to re-examine traditional theoretical models
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. to adapt them to the new challenges faced by nurses in a post-pandemic context.
This article is an open access article
Over the years, numerous studies have analysed the relationship between different
distributed under the terms and
psychosocial factors and job satisfaction in nursing (Niskala et al., 2020). Among these,
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
psychological empowerment has been identified as a key predictor, as it gives workers
(https://creativecommons.org/ greater autonomy and control over their functions, improves their perception of self-
licenses/by/4.0/). efficacy, and reduces job dissatisfaction (Labrague et al., 2019; Safari et al., 2020). However,

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 274 https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15030274

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 274 2 of 12

recent studies have raised questions about the direct relationship between psychological
empowerment and emotional exhaustion, as some findings suggest that organisational
factors, such as workload, may moderate the impact of psychological empowerment on
reducing emotional exhaustion (Dall’Ora et al., 2020).
This is particularly relevant in nursing, a profession characterised by high emotional
demands and chronic work stress. In fact, nurses have a 54% prevalence of burnout
worldwide (Y. Zhang et al., 2018), which highlights the importance of investigating how
psychosocial variables may influence their job satisfaction and well-being.
Therefore, this study aims to complement and update the current literature, as well
as to extend and update knowledge on job satisfaction in nursing, by jointly analysing
psychological empowerment, affective commitment, and emotional exhaustion in a context
where working conditions have changed significantly in recent years due to the global
health crisis. This approach will not only allow us to contrast previous findings in a specific
socio-cultural reality but will also help to clarify discrepancies in the literature on the role
of emotional exhaustion as a mediator.

2. Theoretical Background and Hypothesis Development

The study of psychological empowerment has gained relevance, especially after the
turning point that the COVID-19 health emergency brought about for health organisations
(Llorente-Alonso et al., 2021).
Psychological empowerment can be defined as the set of internal perceptions and
beliefs that enable employees to influence their work environment and work outcomes
(Fragkos et al., 2020). This concept includes dimensions such as job meaning (the fit between
job requirements and beliefs or the value of a job goal compared to an individual’s own
ideals or standards), competence (an individual’s confidence or belief in his or her ability to
perform activities competently), autonomy (the sense of choice or control over one’s work),
and impact (the sense of being able to influence important work outcomes) (Spreitzer, 1995).
For nurses, psychological empowerment implies a strong sense of autonomy and efficacy in
caring for patients, enabling them to take initiative and respond creatively to the challenges
they face in their daily work (Saleh et al., 2022).
Psychological empowerment is closely related to job satisfaction, which is understood
as an individual’s attitude towards their work (Rafique & Mahmood, 2018). Specifically,
some authors (S. L. Choi et al., 2016) argue that when nurses perceive that they have control
over their tasks and the ability to influence decisions related to their work, they tend to
experience higher levels of job satisfaction. Thus, psychological empowerment acts as
an internal motivator that fosters positive beliefs in nurses about their ability to make a
meaningful contribution to the work environment. These positive beliefs, in turn, increase
job satisfaction (Li et al., 2018).
Based on several studies that have found a significant correlation between the two
variables in nurses (Yasin et al., 2020; Ouyang et al., 2015), we hypothesise the following:

H1. Psychological empowerment (PE) predicts job satisfaction (JS).

2.1. The Mediating Effect of Affective Commitment on the Relationship Between PE and JS
Another variable that has been linked to job satisfaction is organisational commitment
or the worker’s psychological attachment to his/her organisation (Allen & Meyer, 1990).
Affective commitment, which is considered stronger and more consistently linked to desir-
able organisational outcomes (González-Cánovas et al., 2024), is defined as the emotional
bond between the employee and the company and is considered the most consistent form
of commitment within the broader framework of organisational behaviour. Affective
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 274 3 of 12

commitment can be expected to yield stronger, more positive organisational outcomes

because employees who are effectively committed to an organisation choose to remain
its employees, rather than feeling obliged to (normative commitment) or staying because
leaving would be costly (continuance commitment). The COVID-19 pandemic significantly
influenced affective commitment in the nursing profession by changing the perceptions of
organisational support, job security, and professional identity (Duran et al., 2021).
However, previous research has highlighted the role of psychological empowerment
in promoting affective commitment. In particular, some authors (Ho et al., 2012) have
shown that active participation at work, facilitated by empowering practices, can signifi-
cantly contribute to the development of affective commitment. Thus, when organisations
empower their employees, allowing them to demonstrate their competence and visualise
themselves achieving high levels of performance, employees tend to show higher levels of
commitment and greater motivation to perform (Qing et al., 2020; Chang et al., 2010).
Similarly, numerous studies have established a link between affective commitment
and employee satisfaction. For example, some studies (Saha & Kumar, 2018) found that
employees with strong affective commitment, who perceive their relationship with the
organisation as equitable and satisfying, tend to reciprocate by developing positive work
attitudes, such as job satisfaction. Similarly, others (Alshaibani et al., 2024) argue that
highly affectively committed employees are more willing to put extra effort into their tasks,
which increases their overall satisfaction. Thus, employees with strong affective ties to
their organisations experience higher satisfaction, as their emotional attachment fosters
positive perceptions of their work environment. Based on this evidence, we formulate the
following hypothesis:

H2. Affective commitment mediates the relationship between psychological empowerment and
job satisfaction.

2.2. The Mediating Effect of Emotional Exhaustion on the Relationship Between PE and JS
However, the relationship between PE and JS may be influenced by other variables,
such as emotional exhaustion. As mentioned above, healthcare professionals are par-
ticularly prone to developing emotional exhaustion, which is one of the dimensions of
burnout (B. S. Choi et al., 2018; S. Zhang et al., 2024), especially in the aftermath of the
pandemic (Sexton et al., 2022). Authors (Maslach et al., 2001) define burnout as a prolonged
response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job. Among the different
signs of this syndrome, emotional tiredness or exhaustion represents the basic dimension
(Poku et al., 2020; Trillo et al., 2024), which refers to the feeling of lacking emotional and
physical resources to face the perceived stressors (Hewitt et al., 2020).
Thus, nurses largely view their work environment as stressful, which can lead to
emotional exhaustion and decreased job satisfaction (Alharbi & Alshehry, 2019). However,
it has been found that psychological empowerment can be used as an organisational
initiative that can reduce feelings of powerlessness (Şenol Çelik et al., 2024) and therefore
also reduce levels of job dissatisfaction. This is because nurses have to make very quick
decisions to respond to patients’ needs, so if they are included in the decision-making
process, they will decrease stress related to formal barriers and therefore receive more job
satisfaction (Kim et al., 2019).
Therefore, based on previous studies (Dodanwala & Shrestha, 2021; Ding & Wu, 2023),
which demonstrated the mediating role of emotional exhaustion in the relationship between
job satisfaction and psychological empowerment, we hypothesise the following:

H3. Emotional exhaustion (EE) mediates the relationship between psychological empowerment
(PE) and job satisfaction (JS).
 Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 274 H3. Emotional exhaustion (EE) mediates the relationship between psychological4 of
empowerment
12
(PE) and job satisfaction (JS).

Referring to the relationship

Referring between thebetween
to the relationship variables,
thewe propose
variables, wethe following
propose model, model,
the following
as shown in Figure 1. in Figure 1.
as shown

Figure 1. Hypothesised serial multiple mediation model. Source(s): author’s own work.
Figure 1. Hypothesised serial multiple mediation model. Source(s): author’s own work.
3. Research Methods
3. Data
3.1. Sample and Research Methods
Collection
3.1.
Given the Sample and Data
impossibility Collectiondetermining the total size of the target population,
of precisely
the minimum sample Given thewas
size impossibility
calculatedof precisely
using determining
the formula the total
proposed size of the target
by Tabachnick et al. popula-
(2013): n = 50tion,
+8× themminimum
(where ‘m’ sample
is thesize was calculated
number using the
of independent formulaincluded
variables proposedin bythe
Tabachnick
et al. (2013): n = 50 + 8 × m (where ‘m’ is the number of independent
study); the minimum required sample size was 74. To prepare the sample, the questionnaire variables included in
the to
was distributed study); the minimum
all nursing staff at required sample Hospital
one University size was 74. To prepare
located the sample,
in southern Spain.the ques-
The inclusion criteria were currently working as a nurse and to have at least 1 year of in south-
tionnaire was distributed to all nursing staff at one University Hospital located
ern Spain. The
professional experience inclusion
at the time ofcriteria
answeringwere the
currently
survey.working
A totalasofa280
nurse and to have at least 1
questionnaires
year of professional experience at the time of answering the survey. A total of 280 ques-
were sent out, with 150 valid responses (53.57%). Therefore, this study had a larger sample
tionnaires were sent out, with 150 valid responses (53.57%). Therefore, this study had a
size than the minimum suggested by the established parameters.
larger sample size than the minimum suggested by the established parameters.
Their ages ranged from 24 to 62 (mean age of 46), and they had been working at the
Their ages ranged from 24 to 62 (mean age of 46), and they had been working at the
hospital for an average of 17 years. The sample was 78.8% female and 21.2% male. Finally,
hospital for an average of 17 years. The sample was 78.8% female and 21.2% male. Finally,
61.4% of the sample was regular staff with permanent contracts; 29.5% were temporary
61.4% of the sample was regular staff with permanent contracts; 29.5% were temporary
employees, and 9.1% had another administrative status. Participation in the study was
employees, and 9.1% had another administrative status. Participation in the study was
voluntary. Throughout
voluntary.all the research
Throughout allphases (data collection,
the research phases (dataanalysis, and analysis,
collection, interpretation),
and interpreta-
the subjects remained anonymous, and their personal data were protected.
tion), the subjects remained anonymous, and their personal data were protected.

3.2. Measures 3.2. Measures

As for the measuring instruments,
As for the measuring we used the following
instruments, we used standardised
the followingquestionnaires.
standardised question-
naires.
3.2.1. Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction was
3.2.1. Job measured using the short version of the Spanish 20-item Minnesota
Satisfaction
Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)
Job satisfaction was(Weiss et al.,using
measured 1967),themeasured on aof1–7
short version the scale,
Spanishwhere 1 Minne-
20-item
means ‘very sota
dissatisfied’ and 7 means ‘very satisfied’. Item responses are summed
Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) (Weiss et al., 1967), measured on a 1–7 scale, where or
averaged to create
1 means a total
‘veryscore; the lower
dissatisfied’ andthe score, the
7 means lower
‘very the level
satisfied’. Itemofresponses
job satisfaction.
are summed or
The MSQ survey has been extensively utilised in several studies with reliability
averaged to create a total score; the lower the score, the lower the level coefficient
of job satisfaction.
ratings that ranged
The MSQ from 0.78 has
survey to 0.93
been(Feather, 2015).
extensively The in
utilised Cronbach alpha reliability
several studies index
with reliability coefficient
in our study was 0.89. An example item from the MSQ includes ‘The opportunity this job
gives me to be “somebody” in society’.
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 274 5 of 12

3.2.2. Affective Commitment (AC)

Affective commitment was assessed using the Spanish adaptation (Arciniega &
González, 2006) of the Affective Commitment Scale (ACS) (Meyer & Allen, 1997). This
version has six items; an example includes “I am proud to tell others I work at my organi-
zation”. The responses are Likert-type answers of 7 points from ‘Completely disagree’ (1)
to ‘Strongly agree’ (7). This scale has been used in previous studies and has shown good
psychometric properties (González-Cánovas et al., 2024). In the present study, the internal
consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was 0.72.

3.2.3. Psychological Empowerment

Psychological empowerment was evaluated with the Spanish adaptation of the Psy-
chological Empowerment Inventory (PEI) (Spreitzer, 1995) form with 11 items (Bretones &
Jáimez, 2022), with one being “I have confidence in my ability to do my job”. The responses
were obtained on a Likert-type scale, where 1 means ‘little’ and 7 ‘much’. The higher the
score, the more nurses perceived themselves as being empowered by their organisation.
For this study, the Cronbach alpha of the total scale was 0.87.

3.2.4. Emotional Exhaustion

Lastly, the variable of emotional exhaustion was assessed using the Maslach Burnout
Inventory (MBI) (Maslach et al., 1997) in its Spanish version (Gil-Monte & Peiró, 1999). This
five-item scale measures how often one feels emotionally overextended and exhausted by
one’s work. A sample item being “I feel emotionally drained in my job”. The inventory uses
a 7-point scale from 0 (never) to 6 (always). In the present study, the internal consistency
(Cronbach’s alpha) was 0.82. This questionnaire is one of the most widely used in studies
of this syndrome (Navarro Prados et al., 2022).

4. Data Analysis
To test each hypothesis, we conducted various statistical analyses with SPSS 25.0 and
PROCESS v3.4. Initially, common method bias was assessed using an exploratory factor
analysis, followed by determining the mean and standard deviation of each variable and
performing a Pearson correlation analysis. Finally, we adopted the approach of Preacher
and Hayes (2008) using PROCESS macromodel 6 in order to request 5000 bootstrap resam-
ples of the obtained data. We also derived 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals (CI).
This software, which is widely used in the behavioural sciences, was chosen for its ability to
assess multiple mediating pathways simultaneously and to conduct mediation and moder-
ation analyses with bootstrap-based estimates, which increases the precision of confidence
intervals and reduces the likelihood of Type I error (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Furthermore,
compared to structural equation models (SEMs), PROCESS is better at focusing on spe-
cific mediating factors rather than general latent construct relationships (Hao et al., 2025).
Finally, model 6 was selected for its ability to test for sequential mediation effects, with
affective commitment and emotional exhaustion creating an indirect causal chain in relation
to psychological empowerment and job satisfaction among healthcare workers.

5. Results
5.1. Common Method Bias Test
An exploratory factor analysis was performed to assess the presence of a possible
common method bias (Tehseen et al., 2017). The results indicated that 12 factors had
eigenroot values greater than one. In addition, the first common factor explained only
20.81% of the cumulative variance, below the commonly accepted threshold of 40.00%.
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 274 6 of 12

These results indicate that the data comprising this study are not affected by common
method bias.

5.2. Examining Descriptive Statistics

Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine the relationships between psycho-
logical empowerment, job satisfaction, affective commitment, and emotional exhaustion. A
detailed summary of the descriptive statistics for each variable, including the mean (M),
the standard deviation (SD), and correlation coefficients, is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Means, standard deviations, and correlations of variables in the model.

M SD PE JS AC EE JSE GE
Psychological
4.99 1.165
Empowerment (PE)
Job Satisfaction (JS) 4.86 0.787 0.365 **
Affective Commitment (AC) 4.30 0.677 0.281 ** 0.549 **
Emotional Exhaustion (EE) 3.84 0.949 −0.720 −0.329 ** −0.355 **
Job Seniority (JSE) 16.07 10.16 0.031 −0.011 0.018 0.064
Gender (GE) 0.79 0.406 0.068 0.098 0.000 −0.132 0.120
Age (AG) 44.57 9.45 −0.029 −0.063 0.063 0.137 0.697 ** 0.087
Note: ** p < 0.01.

The analysis revealed that psychological empowerment (PE) was significantly posi-
tively correlated with job satisfaction (JS) (r = 0.365, p < 0.01) and affective commitment
(AC) (r = 0.281, p < 0.01), suggesting that higher levels of psychological empowerment
are associated with higher levels of job satisfaction and affective commitment. In contrast,
psychological empowerment showed a negative association with emotional exhaustion
(EE), although the correlation did not reach statistical significance (r = −0.720).
Furthermore, job satisfaction (JS) showed a significant positive correlation with af-
fective commitment (AC) (r = 0.549, p < 0.01), indicating that employees with higher job
satisfaction tend to show stronger affective commitment to their organisation. Furthermore,
job satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated with emotional exhaustion (AL)
(r = −0.329, p < 0.01), highlighting that lower levels of emotional exhaustion are linked to
higher satisfaction.
Finally, affective commitment (AC) was significantly negatively correlated with emo-
tional exhaustion (r = −0.355, p < 0.01), suggesting that higher affective commitment is
associated with lower emotional exhaustion.
Regarding the other variables in Table 1, there was no significant correlation with
the sociodemographic (gender and age) or organisational (job seniority) variables. A
comparative analysis of mean values with Student’s t-test reflected a significant association
between burnout and gender, since male subjects had higher levels of burnout than female
subjects (t(130) = 2.27; p < 0.05).

5.3. Testing the Serial Multiple Mediation Model

After verifying the reliability and validity of the instruments, as well as the intercorre-
lation between each variable, a structural model analysis was carried out. We have proved
this hypothesis using bootstrapped mediation tests recommended by Preacher and Hayes
(2008). This test has been recommended as one of the most accurate tests of mediation,
especially when sample sizes are small (Cheung et al., 2023). In addition, this test does not
perform an ordinal sampling distribution of indirect effects (Hayes, 2017) and displays the
path coefficient (β) to determine the contribution of each predictor variable to the endoge-
 mediation, especially when sample sizes are small (Cheung et al., 2023). In addition,
test does not perform an ordinal sampling distribution of indirect effects (Hayes, 2
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 274 7 of 12
and displays the path coefficient (β) to determine the contribution of each predictor v
able to the endogenous variable. In addition, R-squared values were used to assess
explanatory power of the model. The results of the hypothesis tests are presented in T
nous variable. In addition, R-squared values were used to assess the explanatory power of
2 and Figure 2.
the model. The results of the hypothesis tests are presented in Table 2 and Figure 2.
Regarding the direct effect, Table 2 shows that the variable psychological empow
ment (PE) presents a strong and statistically significant direct effect on job satisfaction
Table 2. Validation of the research hypothesis.
which supports our first hypothesis.
Hypothesis β CI p T Statistics Sig
Table 2. Validation of the research hypothesis.
Direct effects
H1: PE-> JS Hypothesis
0.186 β 0.2938)
(0.778; CI
0.000 p
3.400 T Statistics
Yes Si
Direct effects
Indirect effects H1: PE-> JS 0.186 (0.778; 0.2938) 0.000 3.400 Ye
H2: PE->AC->JSIndirect effects 0.095 (0.036; 0.168) Yes
PE->AC H2: PE->AC->JS 0.268 (0.119;
0.095 0.417) (0.036;0.001
0.168) 3.551 Yes Ye
AC->JS PE->AC 0.356 (0.235;
0.268 0.476) (0.119;0.000
0.417) 5.812
0.001 Yes
3.551 Ye
H3: PE->EE ->JS AC->JS −0.004 (−0.356
0.028; 0.021) (0.235; 0.476) 0.000 No
5.812 Ye
PE->EE H3: PE->EE 0.043
->JS (−−0.004
0.190; 0.277)(−0.028;0.7146
0.021) 0.367 No N
EE->JS −0.085
PE->EE (−0.160;
0.043 −0.009) 0.028
(−0.190; 0.277) −0.7146
2.223 Yes
0.367 N
EE->JS JS = job satisfaction;
Note: PE = psychological empowerment; −0.085 AC = affective
(−0.160; −0.009) EE =0.028
commitment; −2.223
emotional exhaustion. Ye
Note: PE = psychological empowerment; JS = job satisfaction; AC = affective commitment; EE = e
Regardingtional exhaustion.
the direct effect, Table 2 shows that the variable psychological empower-
ment (PE) presents a strong and statistically significant direct effect on job satisfaction (JS),
which supports our Additionally, hypotheses 2 and 3 suggested that affective commitment and e
first hypothesis.
Additionally, hypotheses 2 and 3measure
tional exhaustion will thethat
suggested relation between
affective psychological
commitment empowerment and
and emotional
satisfaction. As shown in Figure 2, the mediation tests following the Preacher and H
exhaustion will measure the relation between psychological empowerment and job satis-
standards (2008) provide partial support. The 95% bootstrap CIs do not contain zero,
faction. As shown in Figure 2, the mediation tests following the Preacher and Hayes (2008)
firming the presence of statistically significant indirect effects of affective commitment
standards provide partial support. The 95% bootstrap CIs do not contain zero, confirming
not those of emotional exhaustion.
the presence of statistically significant indirect effects of affective commitment but not those
of emotional exhaustion.

Figure 2. Multiple mediation model. Source(s): author’s own work.

Figure 2. Multiple mediation model. Source(s): author’s own work.
In order to test the significance of the mediating effect of AC, the Sobel test was
In order to test the significance of the mediating effect of AC, the Sobel test was
performed. The test result (z = 3.19, p = 0.001) shows the AC effect as a mediating variable
formed. The test result (z = 3.19, p = 0.001) shows the AC effect as a mediating variabl
by significantly reducing the indirect effect of PE on JS (a = 0.268 and b = 0.408).
significantly reducing the indirect effect of PE on JS (a = 0.268 and b = 0.408).
6. Discussion
Our study allowed us to gain a more comprehensive view of the importance of
psychological empowerment for job satisfaction and how this relationship is influenced by
affective commitment and emotional exhaustion in a sample of Spanish nurses.
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 274 8 of 12

First, the results of our study provide evidence to support hypothesis one, which
postulates that psychological empowerment (PE) predicts job satisfaction (JS). Consistent
with previous research (S. L. Choi et al., 2016; Li et al., 2018; Yasin et al., 2020), it has
been observed that when workers perceive greater autonomy and control over their work,
their job satisfaction tends to increase. However, this finding is particularly relevant
in the post-pandemic context, as changes in hospital management have affected health
professionals’ perceptions of control (Simonetti et al., 2021). One possible explanation
for the strength of this relationship is that psychological empowerment may partially
counteract the negative effects of work-related stress by allowing nurses to cope with the
challenges of their environment. However, the organisational context still plays a key role,
as a highly demanding work environment, such as during and after COVID-19 (Millán &
Bretones, 2020), may reduce the benefits of psychological empowerment.
Another conclusion that can be derived from this study is that affective commitment
plays a significant role as a mediator between psychological empowerment and job satisfac-
tion. This is important because it highlights the effect on job satisfaction, so companies that
want to implement empowerment policies with their employees should also consider the
affective aspects of healthcare workers to ensure a greater impact on their job satisfaction.
It was also found that affective commitment preceded job satisfaction and was thus a good
predictor of it, which confirms the results of other studies (Saha & Kumar, 2018) that used
different sample populations.
However, one of the most surprising findings of our study was the lack of association
between psychological empowerment and emotional exhaustion. This finding contrasts
with previous studies that have found an inverse relationship between these two variables
in nurses (Y. Zhang et al., 2018; Ding & Wu, 2023).
This lack of mediation of emotional exhaustion could be explained by the conservation
of resources theory (Hobfoll, 1989), which suggests that prolonged job stress may reduce the
ability of employees to benefit from internal resources such as psychological empowerment.
Thus, in a post-pandemic context where nurses’ workloads have increased significantly
without a parallel increase in organisational resources, psychological empowerment may
not have been sufficient to reduce emotional exhaustion. This finding suggests that hospitals
should not only promote psychological empowerment but also provide adequate working
conditions for its effects to be sustained.

7. Conclusions
Our findings reinforce the importance of psychological empowerment as a predictor
of job satisfaction but suggest that its effect is highly dependent on affective commitment.
However, the mediation of emotional exhaustion was not significant, suggesting that
its impact on job satisfaction could be conditioned by other contextual factors, such as
workload or the availability of organisational resources.
From a theoretical point of view, this study provides additional evidence on the rela-
tionship between psychological empowerment and job satisfaction in a specific cultural
and organisational context, which allows us to contrast results obtained in other countries
and enrich our knowledge on the psychosocial mechanisms that influence the well-being
at work of healthcare professionals. Furthermore, the research extends the literature by
analysing the simultaneous interaction of psychological empowerment, affective engage-
ment, and emotional exhaustion in a mediational model, which has not been sufficiently
explored in previous studies.
In practical terms, the results suggest that healthcare institutions can improve the
job satisfaction of their nurses through strategies that foster psychological empowerment
and affective engagement. This implies the implementation of programmes that promote
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 274 9 of 12

autonomy, such as participation in decision-making and the recognition of individual effort.

It is also recommended to design specific interventions to strengthen affective commitment,
such as improving working conditions and creating organisational environments that
favour identification with the institution. Since emotional exhaustion was not found to be
a significant mediator, future organisational strategies should focus on identifying other
factors that could moderate its impact, such as social support, workload, or flexibility in
the working day.

8. Limitations and Future Recommendations

While the findings of our study are highly valuable and promising, we acknowledge
certain limitations that should be considered in future research.
One of the main limitations lies in the cross-sectional nature of the data collected,
which prevents us from establishing definitive causal relationships between the variables
analysed. Therefore, future research should address this limitation by designing longitudi-
nal studies, which would allow for a more precise exploration of the temporal and dynamic
relationships between these variables.
Another important limitation concerns the sample size and its representativeness. The
data were collected exclusively from nurses working in a single hospital, which limits the
generalisability of the results to other populations and contexts, and future studies should
extend the sample to different hospitals, regions, and sectors of the healthcare system in
order to validate and contrast the findings in a wider range of work settings.
In addition, traditional research approaches often examine factors in isolation or using
linear mediation models (e.g., PE → AC → JS). However, relationships among PE, AC, EE,
and JS are likely nonlinear. Future research could benefit from studying the variables as a
holistic system, using a system dynamics approach. Analysing the relationships between
the variables would allow for a deeper exploration of how they dynamically interact over
time and how their interdependencies influence overall job satisfaction.
It would also be advisable for future research to consider the inclusion of other contex-
tual or personal variables that may play a mediating or moderating role in the observed
relationships. For example, factors such as social support, organisational culture, or individ-
ual characteristics such as resilience or self-efficacy could enrich our understanding of the
mechanisms underlying the relationships between empowerment, engagement, burnout,
and job satisfaction. Furthermore, it would be particularly interesting to analyse whether
contractual conditions, such as instability and job insecurity, influence these relationships,
especially since almost 40% of our sample is made up of staff with unstable employment.
Finally, given the specific focus on the hospital setting, it would also be relevant to
investigate whether these findings are replicated in other occupational settings, with a
particular focus on those that share characteristics of high emotional demand, such as
education or emergency services. This approach would broaden the applicability of the
findings and strengthen the practical implications for the design of interventions aimed at
improving workers’ well-being.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.T. and F.D.B.; Methodology, B.L.-P. and A.O.-M.; Valida-
tion, F.D.B., A.O.-M. and A.T.; Formal Analysis, A.T.; Investigation, B.L.-P.; Resources, B.L.-P.; Data
Curation, A.T.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, A.T.; Writing—Review and Editing, A.O.-M.
and B.L.-P.; Supervision, F.D.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.

Funding: This study was conducted in part within the framework R&D grant of the research project
Trabajo, Territorio y Competitividad (UCE-PP2023-08) funded by the University of Granada.
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 274 10 of 12

Institutional Review Board Statement: This research study was performed in accordance with the
Helsinki Declaration and the Guide to Good Research Practice. The protocol was approved by the
Ethics Committee of the Virgen de las Nieves University Hospital. The information in the study was
given to the participants in both oral and written form. The confidentiality of the personal data and
anonymity of the subjects were protected as stipulated in Organic Law 3/2018 of 5 December on the
Protection of Personal Data the Guarantee of Digital Rights. For this purpose, all data were coded,
and only the researchers could access them.

Informed Consent Statement: The author informed the participants about the purpose of the research
and explained how the data would be used. Therefore, a previous informed consent was requested
from all participants before their participation in the study.

Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current
study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Acknowledgments: The authors wish to extend their deepest gratitude to the nurses who have
selflessly participated in this study.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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