Ch 1 French Revolution

Introduction
Read it carefully. Fact based 1 mark questions.

French Society During the Late

Eighteenth Century
What are the reasons for empty treasury?
 Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France.
 Added to this was the cost of maintaining an extravagant court at the
immense palace of Versailles.
 Under Louis XVI, France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain
their independence from the common enemy, Britain. The war added
more than a billion livres to a debt that had already risen to more than
billion livres. Lenders who gave the state credit, now began to charge 10
per cent interest on loans
 So the French government was obliged to spend an increasing
percentage of its budget on interest payments alone.

How the French Society was divided?

 Peasants made up about 90 per cent of the population. However, only a
small number of them owned the land they cultivated.
 About 60 per cent of the land was owned by nobles, the Church and
other richer members of the third estate.
 The members of the first two estates, that is, the clergy and the nobility,
enjoyed certain privileges by birth.
 The most important of these was exemption from paying taxes to the
state. The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges. These included
feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants.
 Peasants were obliged to render services to the lord - to work in his
house and fields -to serve in the army or to participate in building roads.
 The Church too extracted its share of taxes called tithes from the
peasants,
  All members of the third estate had to pay taxes to the state. These
included a direct tax called taille, and a number of indirect taxes which
were levied on articles of everyday consumption like salt or tobacco.

Define Old Regime?

The term Old Regime is usually used to describe the society and institutions of
France before 1789.
The Struggle to Survive
 The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28
million in 1789.
 This led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains.
 Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand. So the
price of bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly.
 Most workers were employed as labourers in workshops whose
owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in
prices. So the gap between the poor and the rich widened.
  Drought or hail reduced the harvest. This led to subsistence crisis,
something that occurred frequently in France during the Old Regime.
What is Subsistence Crisis?
An extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered.
A Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges
Who are Middle Class?
 In the past, peasants and workers had participated in revolts against
increasing taxes and food scarcity. But they lacked the means and
programmes to carry out full-scale measures that would bring about a
change in the social and economic order.
 This was left to those groups within the third estate who had become
prosperous and had access to education and new ideas.
How they became Middle Class?
 The eighteenth century witnessed the emergence of social groups,
termed the middle class,) who earned their wealth through an
expanding overseas trade and from the manufacture of goods such as
woolen and silk textiles that were either exported or bought by the
richer members of society.
 In addition to merchants and manufacturers, the third estate included
professions such as lawyers or administrative officials.
What was the role of philosophers?
 All of these were educated and believed that no group in society should
be privileged by birth. Rather, a person’s social position must depend on
his merit
 These ideas envisaging a society based on freedom and equal laws and
opportunities for all, were put forward by philosophers such as John
Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau.
 In his Two Treatises of Government, Locke sought to refute the doctrine
of the divine and absolute right of the monarch. Rousseau carried the
idea forward, proposing a form of government based on a social
contract between people and their representatives.
  In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu proposed a division of power
within the government between the legislative, the executive and the
judiciary.
 This model of government was put into force in the USA, after the
thirteen colonies declared their independence from Britain.
 The American constitution and its guarantee of individual rights was an
important example for political thinkers in France.
Explain how the ideas of Enlightenment philosophers spread among
the people in France?
 The ideas of these philosophers were discussed intensively in salons
and coffee-houses and spread among people through books and
newspapers.
 These were frequently read aloud in groups for the benefit of those who
could not read and write.
 The news that Louis XVI planned to impose further taxes to be able to
meet the expenses of the state generated anger and protest against the
system of privileges.
How did Louis XVI raise taxes in France under the Old Regime?
 In France of the Old Regime the monarch did not have the power to
impose taxes according to his will alone. Rather he had to call a
meeting of the Estates General which would then pass his proposals
for new taxes.
 The Estates General was a political body to which the three estates
sent their representatives. However, the monarch alone could decide
when to call a meeting of this body. The last time it was done was in
1614.
Describe the scenario of Estate General meeting?
 On 5 May 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of the Estates
General to pass proposals for new taxes.
 A resplendent hall in Versailles was prepared to host the delegates.
 The first and second estates sent 300 representatives each, who were
seated in rows facing each other on two sides, while the 600 members
of the third estate had to stand at the back.
  The third estate was represented by its more prosperous and educated
members. Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the
assembly.
 However, their grievances and demands were listed in some 40,000
letters which the representatives had brought with them.
What disagreement over voting in the Estates General led to a protest by
the Third Estate?
 Voting in the Estates General in the past had been conducted according
to the principle that each estate had one vote.
 This time too Louis XVI was determined to continue the same practice.
 But members of the third estate demanded that voting now be
conducted by the assembly as a whole, where each member would have
one vote.
 This was one of the democratic principles put forward by philosophers
like Rousseau in his book The Social Contract.
 When the king rejected this proposal, members of the third estate
walked out of the assembly in protest.
What did the representatives of the Third Estate do after walking out of
the Estates General meeting, and who were their leaders?
 The representatives of the third estate viewed themselves as
spokesmen for the whole French nation
 On 20 June they assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the
grounds of Versailles. They declared themselves a National Assembly
and swore not to disperse till they had drafted a constitution for France
that would limit the powers of the monarch.
 They were led by Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès.
 Mirabeau was born in a noble family but was convinced of the need to
do away with a society of feudal privilege. He brought out a journal and
delivered powerful speeches to the crowds assembled at Versailles.
 Abbé Sieyès, originally a priest, wrote an influential pamphlet called
‘What is the Third Estate’?
What led to the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, and how did
common people in France react to the food crisis and military actions?
  While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a
constitution, the rest of France seethed with turmoil.
 A severe winter had meant a bad harvest; the price of bread rose, often
bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies.
 After spending hours in long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry
women stormed into the shops.
 At the same time, the king ordered troops to move into Paris.
 On 14 July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille.
What caused the Great Fear in the French countryside, and how did
peasants respond to the rumors about brigands?
 In the countryside rumours spread from village to village that the lords
of the manor had hired bands of brigands who were on their way to
destroy the ripe crops.
 Caught in a frenzy of fear, peasants in several districts seized hoes and
pitchforks and attacked chateaux.
 They looted hoarded grain and burnt down documents containing
records of manorial dues.
 A large number off nobles fled from their homes, many of them
migrating to neighbouring countries.
How did Louis XVI respond to the National Assembly, and what major
reforms were introduced by the Assembly on 4 August 1789?
 Faced with the power of his revolting subjects, Louis XVI finally
accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the
principle that his powers would from now on be checked by a
constitution.
 On the night of 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing
the feudal system of obligations and taxes. Members of the clergy too
were forced to give up their privileges.
 Tithes were abolished and lands owned by the Church were confiscated.
As a result, the government acquired assets worth at least 2 billion
livres.
France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy
 The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791.
 Its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch. These powers
instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person, were now
separated and assigned to different institutions – the legislature,
executive and judiciary.
 This made France a constitutional monarchy.

 The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the

National Assembly, which was indirectly elected.
 That is, citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the
Assembly. Not all citizens, however, had the right to vote.
 Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3
days of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizens, that
is, they were entitled to vote.
 The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens.
To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the Assembly, a man
had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers.
  The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of
opinion, equality before law, were established as ‘natural and
inalienable’ rights, that is, they belonged to each human being by
birth and could not be taken away. It was the duty of the state to
protect each citizen’s natural rights.
Reading Political Symbols
Read it carefully in the book
France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic
 The situation in France continued to be tense during the following
years. Although Louis XVI had signed the Constitution, he entered into
secret negotiations with the King of Prussia.
 Rulers of other neighbouring countries too were worried by the
developments in France and made plans to send troops to put down the
events that had been taking place there since the summer of 1789.
 Before this could happen, the National Assembly voted in April 1792 to
declare war against Prussia and Austria. Thousands of volunteers
thronged from the provinces to join the army. They saw this as a war of
the people against kings and aristocracies all over Europe.
 Among the patriotic songs they sang was the Marseillaise, composed by
the poet Roget de L’Isle. It was sung for the first time by volunteers from
Marseilles as they marched into Paris and so got its name. The
Marseillaise is now the national anthem of France
How did the revolutionary wars affect the people in France, and what
role did political clubs like the Jacobins play during this time?
 The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the
people. While the men were away fighting at the front, women were left
to cope with the tasks of earning a living and looking after their families.
 Large sections of the population were convinced that the revolution had
to be carried further, as the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights
only to the richer sections of society.
  Political clubs became an important rallying point for people who
wished to discuss government policies and plan their own forms of
action.
 The most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins, which got its
name from the former convent of St Jacob in Paris.
 Women too, who had been active throughout this period, formed their
own clubs.
Who were the Jacobins, what did they represent, and why were some of
them called sans-culottes?
 The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less
prosperous sections of society. They included small shopkeepers,
artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as
well as servants and daily-wage workers.
 Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre. A large group among the
Jacobins decided to start wearing long striped trousers similar to those
worn by dock workers.
 This was to set themselves apart from the fashionable sections of
society, especially nobles, who wore knee breeches. It was a way of
proclaiming the end of the power wielded by the wearers of knee
breeches.
 These Jacobins came to be known as the sans-culottes, literally meaning
‘those without knee breeches’.
 Sans culottes men wore in addition the red cap that symbolized liberty
What happened during the Jacobin-led insurrection on August 10, 1792,
and how did it change voting rights in France?
 In the summer of 1792 the Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large
number of Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high
prices of food.
 On the morning of August 10 they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries,
massacred the king’s guards and held the king himself as hostage for
several hours.
 Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections were
held. From now on all men of 21 years and above, regardless of wealth,
got the right to vote.
What major decision did the Convention make on 21 September 1792,
and what form of government was established in France?
 The newly elected assembly was called the Convention. On 21
September 1792 it abolished the monarchy and declared France a
republic.
 As you know, a republic is a form of government where the people elect
the government including the head of the government. There is no
hereditary monarchy.
Why was Louis XVI executed, and what happened to Queen Marie
Antoinette afterward?
Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason. On 21
January 1793 he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde. The queen
Marie Antoinette met with the same fate shortly after.
The Reign of Terror
 The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror.
Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment.
 All those whom he saw as being ‘enemies’ of the republic – ex-nobles
and clergy, members of other political parties, even members of his own
party who did not agree with his methods – were arrested, imprisoned
and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal.
 If the court found them ‘guilty’ they were guillotined. The guillotine is a
device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is
beheaded. It was named after Dr Guillotin who invented it.
What were the Policies of Maximilian Robespierre?
 Robespierre’s government issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on
wages and prices. Meat and bread were rationed.
 Peasants were forced to transport their grain to the cities and sell it at
prices fixed by the government.
 The use of more expensive white flour was forbidden; all citizens were
required to eat the pain d’égalité (equality bread), a loaf made of
wholewheat.
 Equality was also sought to be practised through forms of speech and
address.
  Instead of the traditional Monsieur (Sir) and Madame (Madam) all
French men and women were henceforth Citoyen and Citoyenne
(Citizen).
 Churches were shut down and their buildings converted into barracks
or offices.
What led to the downfall of Robespierre, and how did his life end in July
1794?
Robespierre pursued his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters
began to demand moderation. Finally, he was convicted by a court in July
1794, arrested and on the next day sent to the guillotine.
What changes occurred after the fall of the Jacobin government, and how
did they lead to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte?
 The fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle classes
to seize power. A new constitution was introduced which denied the
vote to non-propertied sections of society.
 It provided for two elected legislative councils. These then appointed a
Directory, an executive made up of five members. This was meant as a
safeguard against the concentration of power in a one-man executive as
under the Jacobins.
 However, the Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who
then sought to dismiss them. The political instability of the Directory
paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.
Did Women have a Revolution?
 From the very beginning women were active participants in the events
which brought about so many important changes in French society
 They hoped that their involvement would pressurise the revolutionary
government to introduce measures to improve their lives.
 Most women of the third estate had to work for a living. They worked as
seamstresses or laundresses, sold flowers, fruits and vegetables at the
market, or were employed as domestic servants in the houses of
prosperous people
 Most women did not have access to education or job training. Only
daughters of nobles or wealthier members of the third estate could
 study at a convent, after which their families arranged a marriage for
them.
 Working women had also to care for their families, that is, cook, and
fetch water, queue up for bread and look after the children. Their wages
were lower than those of men.
How did women in revolutionary France fight for their political rights,
and what were their main demands?
 In order to discuss and voice their interests women started their own
political clubs and newspapers.
 About sixty women’s clubs came up in different French cities. The
Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous
of them.
 One of their main demands was that women enjoy the same political
rights as men.
 Women were disappointed that the Constitution of 1791 reduced them
to passive citizens. They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the
Assembly and to hold political office. Only then, they felt, would their
interests be represented in the new government.

What reforms did the revolutionary government introduce to improve

the social and legal status of women in France?

 In the early years, the revolutionary government did introduce laws that
helped improve the lives of women
 Together with the creation of state schools, schooling was made
compulsory for all girls.
 Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their
will. Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and
registered under civil law.
 Divorce was made legal, and could be applied for by both women and
men.
 Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small
businesses.

How were women’s political rights affected during the Reign of Terror,
and what consequences did they face for their activism?
Women’s struggle for equal political rights, however, continued. During the
Reign of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering closure of women’s
clubs and banning their political activities. Many prominent women were
arrested and a number of them executed.

How did the fight for women’s voting rights continue after the French
Revolution, and when did French women finally gain the right to vote?

 Women’s movements for voting rights and equal wages continued

through the next two hundred years in many countries of the world.
 The fight for the vote was carried out through an international suffrage
movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
 The example of the political activities of French women during the
revolutionary years was kept alive as an inspiring memory.
 It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.

The Abolition of Slavery

What was the role of the triangular slave trade in the French colonies,
and how did it contribute to the economic growth of port cities like
Bordeaux and Nantes?

 One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was
the abolition of slavery in the French colonies.
 The colonies in the Caribbean – Martinique, Guadeloupe and San
Domingo – were important suppliers of commodities such as tobacco,
indigo, sugar and coffee.
 But the reluctance of Europeans to go and work in distant and
unfamiliar lands meant a shortage of labour on the plantations. So this
was met by a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and the
Americas.
 The slave trade began in the seventeenth century. French merchants
sailed from the ports of Bordeaux or Nantes to the African coast, where
they bought slaves from local chieftains. Branded and shackled, the
slaves were packed tightly into ships for the three-month long voyage
across the Atlantic to the Caribbean.
 There they were sold to plantation owners. The exploitation of slave
labour made it possible to meet the growing demand in European
markets for sugar, coffee, and indigo. Port cities like Bordeaux and
Nantes owed their economic prosperity to the flourishing slave trade.
How did the French government’s stance on slavery change during and
after the revolution, and when was slavery finally abolished in the
French colonies?

 Throughout the eighteenth century there was little criticism of slavery

in France. The National Assembly held long debates about whether the
rights of man should be extended to all French subjects including those
in the colonies.
 But it did not pass any laws, fearing opposition from businessmen
whose incomes depended on the slave trade. It was finally the
Convention which in 1794 legislated to free all slaves in the French
overseas possessions.
 This, however, turned out to be a short-term measure: ten years later,
Napoleon reintroduced slavery.
 Plantation owners understood their freedom as including the right to
enslave African Negroes in pursuit of their economic interests. Slavery
was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.

Write one important law that came into effect in 1789?

 One important law that came into effect soon after the storming of the
Bastille in the summer of 1789 was the abolition of censorship
 In the Old Regime all written material and cultural activities ñ books,
newspapers, plays ñ could be published or performed only after they
had been approved by the censors of the king.
 Now the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed
freedom of speech and expression to be a natural right.

What happened after this law?

 Newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns

of France from where they travelled rapidly into the countryside.
 They all described and discussed the events and changes taking place in
France. Freedom of the press also meant that opposing views of events
could be expressed.
 Each side sought to convince the others of its position through the
medium of print.
 Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of people.
 This was one way they could grasp and identify with ideas such as
liberty or justice that political philosophers wrote about at length in
texts which only a handful of educated people could read.