Lesson 1: Intellectual revolution that • Considered a golden age for

Defined Society. scholars but also a time of conflict

with religious authorities who
Definition & Importance opposed ideas that challenged
theological beliefs.
• Scientific Revolution – A
period in history (early modern Four Perspectives of Science
period) when developments in
mathematics, physics, 1. Science as an Idea – A collection
astronomy, biology, and of theories, explanations, and
chemistry transformed how observations about the natural
people understood nature. and physical world.

• Marked the emergence of 2. Science as Intellectual Activity

modern science and improved – Systematic, practical study of
methods of investigation, the world using observation and
experimentation, and experimentation.
observation.
3. Science as a Body of
• Considered a golden age for Knowledge – A field or subject
scholars but also a time of containing organized facts and
conflict with religious principles about the natural and
authorities who opposed ideas physical world.
that challenged theological
beliefs. 4. Science as Personal & Social
Activity – Human activities aimed
at understanding and improving
Definition & Importance
life, interwoven with daily living.
• Scientific Revolution – A
Four Stages of the Scientific
period in history (early modern
period) when developments in Revolution
mathematics, physics,
astronomy, biology, and 1. Primitive Period – Accumulation
chemistry transformed how of survival-related knowledge
people understood nature. (food, shelter, medicine) without
recording or applying the scientific
• Marked the emergence of method.
modern science and improved
methods of investigation, 2. Classical Period – Greeks and
experimentation, and Romans organized and recorded
observation. knowledge; explored natural
 phenomena.

3. Renaissance (14th–17th
Century) – Cultural “rebirth” that
rediscovered classical
philosophy, science, and arts.

4. Modern Times (18th Century–

Present) – Period from the
Enlightenment to today;
industrialization and modern
scientific advancements.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–

1543)

• Father of Modern Astronomy.

• Heliocentric Theory – The Sun,

not the Earth, is the center of the
universe.

• Published De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium in 1543.

• Proposed two types of planetary

motion:

1. Venus & Mercury orbit inside

Earth’s orbit (closer to Sun).

2. Mars, Jupiter & Saturn orbit

outside Earth’s orbit (farther
from Sun).

• Copernican Revolution – Shift

from geocentric (Earth-
centered) to heliocentric (Sun-
centered) view.
 2. Ego – Rational thought, reality-
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) oriented.

3. Superego – Moral values and societal

• Theory of Evolution by
rules.
Natural Selection – Organisms
evolve over time; the fittest
• Developed techniques like dream
survive and reproduce.
interpretation, free association,
and transference.
• Published On the Origin of
Species (1859).
• Focused on the influence of
human sexuality and unconscious
• Showed that traits and
desires on behavior, which was
adaptations develop to help
controversial at the time.
species survive in their
environment.

• Extended ideas to humans in

The Descent of Man, which was
controversial because it
challenged religious creationist
beliefs.

• Contributions:

1. Evolutionary Biology – Study

of changes in species over time.

2. Philosophy of Science –
Applying scientific reasoning to
living organisms.

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)

• Founder of Psychoanalysis –
A method for treating mental
disorders through conversation.

• Psychoanalytic Theory of
Personality – Human behavior
results from interaction of:

1. Id – Instincts and desires.

 recessive traits).
Other Important Scientists & Their
8. Rudolf Virchow – Father of
Contributions
Modern Pathology; promoted the
concept that diseases arise from
1. Hippocrates – Father of
cells; founder of social medicine.
Medicine; believed diseases
have natural causes and the
body can heal itself.

2. Galen – Greek physician;

studied anatomy, conducted
physiological experiments on
animals; last great biologist of
antiquity.

3. Aristotle – Greatest Ancient

Scientist; founder of Zoology;
contributed to logic, biology,
physics, ethics, and politics.

4. Galileo Galilei – Father of

Modern Science; improved the
telescope, confirmed
heliocentrism, developed laws of
motion; called the father of
observational astronomy and
modern physics.

5. Andreas Vesalius – Founder of

Modern Human Anatomy; author
of De Humani Corporis Fabrica.

6. Louis Pasteur – Father of

Modern Microbiology;
discovered vaccination,
pasteurization, and microbial
fermentation.

7. Gregor Mendel – Father of

Heredity; discovered laws of
inheritance through pea plant
experiments (dominant and
Lesson 2: Cradles of Early Science • Famous for colossal basalt
stone heads (rulers/ballplayers).

• Developed drainage systems,

Development of Science in practiced shamanism and ritual
Mesoamerica bloodletting.

Maya Civilization • Originated the Mesoamerican

ballgame.
• Lasted ~2,000 years; famous for • Name “Olmec” means “rubber
astronomy and temple-based people” (derived from use of
astronomical observation. natural rubber).
• Example: Pyramid at Chichen
Itza aligned with the Sun during
spring and fall equinoxes.

• Could predict eclipses and

used astrological cycles for
planting and harvesting.

• Developed two calendar

systems for time measurement,
rituals, and events.

• Agricultural advancements:
irrigation canals, terrace
farming, and crop diversity.

• Built looms for weaving, created

mica-based glitter paints,
produced rubber products
centuries before modern
patenting.

• One of the first to use

hieroglyphic writing and
developed a base-20 number
system.

• Olmec Civilization (1200–

400 BCE)

• Known as the "Mother Culture"

of Mesoamerica; influenced
Maya and Aztec.
 terrains.
Inca Empire (13th–16th Century)
4. 12-month calendar for festivals
and planting.
• Based in Cusco, Peru; largest
pre-Columbian empire. 5. First suspension bridges.

• Scientific achievements: 6. Quipu – knotted rope record-

keeping system.
1. Stone-paved roads.
7. Advanced textiles, terrace farming,
2. Earthquake-resistant stone freeze-dried foods, aqueducts, and
buildings. panpipe instruments.
3. Irrigation systems for various
terrains.

4. 12-month calendar for festivals

and planting.

5. First suspension bridges.

6. Quipu – knotted rope record-

keeping system.

7. Advanced textiles, terrace

farming, freeze-dried foods,
aqueducts, and panpipe
instruments.

Inca Empire (13th–16th Century)

• Based in Cusco, Peru; largest

pre-Columbian empire.

• Scientific achievements:

1. Stone-paved roads.

2. Earthquake-resistant stone
buildings.

3. Irrigation systems for various

 procedures.
Aztec Empire (1345–1521 CE)
• Mathematics:
• Covered most of northern • Mohenjodaro ruler – standardized
Mesoamerica. measurements.

• Contributions: • Aryabhata – trigonometric functions,

algebra, astronomy.
1. Mandatory education for all
children regardless of class or • Brahmagupta – gravity as
gender. attraction, use of zero, decimal
notation.
2. Chocolate production and cacao
as currency. • Madhava of Sangamagrama –
founder of mathematical analysis.
3. Antispasmodic medicine for
muscle relaxation during surgery.

4. Aztec calendar for rituals and

planting.

5. Canoe invention for water

transport.

6. Chinampa farming – rectangular

plots with canals for crop growth.

Development of Science in Asia

India

• Known for metallurgy – high-

quality steel admired by
Romans.

• Ayurveda – traditional medicine

system (since ~2500 BCE).

• Susruta Samhita – described

surgical and medical
 The Canon of Medicine and The
China Book of Healing.

• Discovered contagious nature of

• Influenced many Asian countries infectious diseases; introduced
through culture and technology. clinical pharmacology.
• Traditional medicine
(acupuncture, herbal remedies).

• Major inventions: compass,

papermaking, gunpowder,
printing.

• Other innovations: iron plough,

wheelbarrow, propeller,
bridge designs, seismological
detector, dry dock facility.

Development of Science in the

Middle East

• Golden Age of Islam (7th–13th

Century) – advances in the
scientific method through
experiments.

• Ibn al-Haytham – Father of

Optics; proved intromission
theory of light.

• Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi – father

of algebra, algorithms; refined
numeral system with decimal
notation.

• Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber) –

father of Arab chemistry;
contributed to modern
pharmacy.

• Ibn Sina (Avicenna) – father of

early modern medicine;
pioneered experimental
medicine, clinical trials; wrote
Development of Science in Africa

Egypt

• Advanced in astronomy,
mathematics, and medicine.

• Developed geometry for land

division and construction.

• Built pyramids, early dams, and

rectilinear structures.

• Known as a center of alchemy

(early chemistry).

• Practiced empirical medicine –

diagnosis, treatment, prognosis;
studied human anatomy and
pharmacology.

-yolac