CHAPTER 8 American Intervention and Filipino Independence

While Aguinaldo and his group went to voluntary exile in Hong Kong, the Cubans under Spain in the
Americas were also staging their revolution against their colonial masters. Owing to the huge
Investments of American businessmen in the sugar industry of Cuba, the US government was
dragged into a war with Spain. This development was closely monitored then by the Filipino
revolutionaries in exile. This chapter is focused on the events that led to American intervention in the
internal affairs of the Philippines and the subsequent liberation of the country from Spanish tutelage.
The Spanish-American War of 1898
Cuba, a Spanish colony in West Indies, revolted against its colonial master sometime in February
1895. In response to this rebellion, Governor-General Valeriano Weyler, the commander of Spanish
forces in Cuba established concentration camps for the rebels and their sympathizers. Since this
country is quite close to the US, many American businessmen had huge investments in sugar industry
in Cuba. Fearing that American nationals are endangered by the on-going struggle between the
Cubans and Spanish authorities, President William McKinley sent the US battleship Maine to Cuba
for the purpose of evacuating American citizens in case the revolution worsens.
Meanwhile, a letter from Enrique Dupuy de Lome, the Spanish minister to the United States, which
had been stolen from a post office in Havana was published in the New York Journal on February 9,
1898. This letter pictured and described President McKinley as a “would-be politician” and a weak
president. It aroused the ire of the American people considering that the person insulted was the
symbol of the American nation. To aggravate
The situation, the American battleship Maine docked at Havana harbor was blown up allegedly by
the Spaniards on February 15, 1898 which resulted in the loss of about 260 crewmen. This incident
aroused public indignation in the US. According to Randolf Hearst the Father of Yellow Journalism,
the aforementioned battleship was actually blown up and sank not by the Spaniards but by the
American spies stationed in Cuba to provoke the war,from his own Republican Party. President
McKinley recommended direct American recommendation and voted for war with Spain. Spain,
however, reacted quite late due to declared war against US on April 24, 1898, Thus, on April 25,
1898, the Spanish-American
Owing to public indignation caused by the loss of American lives in Cuba and pressure intervention in
Cuba to the US Congresson April 11, 1898. USCongress accepted McKinleys the problem of
addressing two revolutions at the same time. To save face, however, she War began.
Battle of Manila Bay
On April 25, 1898, Commodore George Dewey, upon orders, of President McKinley, proceeded
immediately to the Philippines with a squadron of four armored cruisers, two gunboats, and a
revenue cutter. It was led by the flagship Olympia. They entered Manila Bay in the early morning of
May 1, 1898, and engaged the Spanish fleet of 12 ships, headed by Admiral Patricio Montojo, in a
battle that lasted for only a few hours.
The Battle of Manila Bay was one of the most significant battles in the history of the American
people as it established the United States as a world power. For the Filipinos, however, Dewey’s
victory signaled the end of more than 300 years of Spanish colonial rule in the country. It, likewise,
marked the beginning of American colonial rule in the Philippines.
Attempts at Gaining Filipino Support
After defeating the Spanish fleet, Dewey blockaded Manila while awaiting reinforcements from the
US. This was because he had no land forces to back them up in besieging the city.
At this time, the governor-general of the country was already Basilio Agustin, the successor of Primo
de Rivera. He was very much demoralized by the defection of the Filipinos from the Spanish army to
Aguinaldo’s side and Dewey’s victory over the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay.He, therefore, appealed to
the Filipino people to assist Spain in her struggle for survival from American aggression. To convince
the Filipinos to cooperate with the Spaniards,Agustin issued two decrees creating a Filipino Volunteer
Militia and a Consultative Assembly. His purpose was to win over the ilustrados, whom he appointed
to both bodies. However, this backfired because all of those appointed in the militia instead, sided
Aguinaldo. On the other hand, the Consultative Assembly, which was headed by Pedro paterno, the
negotiator of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and who appealed to the Filipinos to support Spain,
accomplished nothing.
Filipino-American Collaboration
The Filipino exiles in Hong Kong closely monitored the developments in the Philippines and the
conflict between Spain and the United States. They considered seeking American assistance in their
armed struggle against the Spaniards. Meanwhile, a problerd cropped up regarding disposal of the
P400000 from Governor-General Primo de Rivera, under the terms of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato.
Isabelo Artacho wanted the money to be apportioned among them. Aguinaldo rejected the said
proposal. Artacho, therefore, sued Aguinaldo in the Hong Kong Supreme Court. To escape the
inconvenience of having to go to court, Aguinaldo, with Gregorio del Pilar and I. Leyba, secretly went
to Singapore and arrived there on April 23, 1898. In the afternoon, Howard Bray, an Englishman who
had been living in Singapore, informed Aguinaldo that E. Spencer Pratt, the American consul, wanted
to confer with him. Apparently, the Americans were considering the Filipinos as an ally should
hostilities between the U.S. and Spain take a turn for the worst. Pratt gave Aguinaldo the impression
that the Americans would not colonize the Philippines. He said that if they were going to leave Cuba
alone after driving the Spaniards away, why the Americans would want the Philippines, which was
10,000 miles away. Aguinaldo, therefore, consented to return with Commodore Dewey to the
Philippines to once more lead the revolution against Spain, fighting alongside the Americans. Dewey,
however, had already sailed for Manila when Aguinaldo returned to Hong Kong. But Rounseville
Wildman, American consul in Hong Kong, told Aguinaldo that Dewey had left instructions for his
return to the Philippines. He and Wildman met several times after this. He later suggested that
Aguinaldo establish a dictatorial government, which was needed in the prosecution of the war
against Spain, but it had to be replaced with a government similar to that of the United States once
the war was over and peace was restored. Wildman and Pratt assured Aguinaldo that the American
government sympathized with the Filipinos’ aspirations for independence, but they did not make any
formal commitment.
In view of the new developments, The Hong Kong Junta met on May 4, to deliberate on what course
of action to take. Present in this meeting were Felipe Agoncillo, temporary president; Doroteo Lopez,
temporary secretary; and Teodoro Sandico, Anastacio Francisco, Mariano Llanera, Miguel Malvar,
Andres Garchitorena, Severo Buenaventura, Maximo Kabigting. Faustino Lichauco, Antonio
Montenegro, and Galicano Apacible. Aguinaldo briefed them on what transpired in his meetings with
Pratt and Wildman, and solicited
Their advice on what to do. After the deliberation, the Junta unanimously decided that
Aguinaldo should return to the Philippines to lead the struggle against the Spaniards.
In preparation for his return to the Philippines, Aguinaldo gave Wildman P117000 to be used in
purchasing guns and ammunitions. The frst shipment for P50000 arrived promptly. Nevertheless, the
second delivery never happened.
Aguinaldo’s Return to the Philippines
Consul Wildman arranged Aguinaldo’s return on the revenue cutter McCulloch.which he and his
companions boarded at night to avoid rousing the suspicion of the Spanish consul in Hong Kong.
On May 17, 1898, the ship left and arrived in Cavite two days later. Immediately,Aguinaldo was taken
aboard Olympia, where he was accorded honors due to a general.Aguinaldo reportedly said that in
their conference Dewey had given him assurance that the United States would recognize Philippine
independence, which Dewey, however, denied. It is suggested that, there being no sufficient
evidence to prove Aguinaldo’s statement, he had mistakenly thought that Dewey was speaking for
the American government.
With Aguinaldo’s return to the Philippines, Constantino identified “four major forces
On the historical stage”:
• Spanish colonialism, which was trying to ward off its impending end;
American imperialism, which was waiting for such time when it had gathered
Sufticient military strength in the Philippines before showing its real motives;
The Filipino ilustrados, whose main concern was to place themselves in a jockeying
Position whatever political setup was to emerge; and
The masses, who still believed in and fought for the revolutionary objectives of the Katipunan.
On May 21, 1898, two days after he arrived, Aguinaldo in a letter advised the people to”respect
foreigners and their properties, also enemies who surrender…if we do not conduct ourselves thus
the Americans will decide to sell us or else divide up our territory as they will hold us incapable of
governing our land, we shall not secure our liberty; rather the contrary;our own soil will be delivered
over to other hands.”
When news of Aguinaldo’s arrival spread, a number of Filipino volunteers in the Spanish army
defected to the Filipino side. They were assigned to occupy Dalahikan, the Cavite shipyard, to
prevent it from falling into the hands of the Spaniards. Munitions were obtained from the captain of
the American warship Petrel.
By the end of May, with the growing number of revolutionary supporters, 5,000 Spaniards had been
captured. Within a week, Imus and Bacood, in Cavite, and Parañaque and Las Piñas in Morong, were
seized from Spanish control, so with San Fernando and Macabebe in Pampanga loining the fight for
freedom were the provinces of Laguna,Batangas. Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Tayabas (Quezon),
and Camarines.
The renewed revolution after Aguinaldo's arrival from Hong Kong Immediately became a success. By
June 2, 1898, General Artemio Ricarte accepted the surrender of the Spanish commanding general in
Cavite. The Filipinos gained victory after victory. Within the month of June 1898, almost the whole of
Luzon, except for the port of Cavite and Manila,had fallen into hands of Filipino rebels.
The Filipino Siege of Manila
All the while, the Americans waited for reinforcements. Aguinaldo was treated with the courtesies
befitting a head of state. They took care not to make any commitment at the same time, continuing
to let the Filipinos think they meant well. Their motive was to use the Filipinos to fight the Spaniards
until reinforcements arrived.
When the Spanish navy was destroyed, many Spaniards had taken refuge at Intramuros or the Walled
City. When Dewey did not bombard the city after winning the Battle of Manila Bay the Spanish
authorities became optimistic. They didn’t know that he was just waiting for reinforcements.
However, Aguinaldo seized the opportunity to besiege the city and cut off its food and water supply
to force the Spaniards out. Aguinaldo offered the option of surrender three times, with generous
terms, to Governor-General Agustin but these were rejected as he was awaiting reinforcements from
Spain which never came.
The Aguinaldo Dictatorship
When Aguinaldo arrived from Hong Kong, he brought with him a draft of a constitutional plan drawn
up by Mariano Ponce. “The plan was for the establishment of a federal republic. His adviser
Ambrosio Reinzares Bautista, however, convinced him to set aside his plan of establishing a federal
republic and suggested a dictatorial government to prosecute the war against Spain. On May 24,
1898, Aguinaldo issued a decree formally establishing such form of government, albeit temporary in
nature. The decree also nullified the orders issued under the Biak-na-Bato Republic.
Having a government in operation, Aguinaldo deemed it necessary to declare the independence of
the Philippines. Aguinaldo’s unofficial adviser at this time was Apolinario Mabini, who objected to
this plan. Mabini stressed the need to reorganize the government first into one that could prove to
foreign powers its independence and stability before declaring independence. Aguinaldo, however,
prevailed over Mabini.
Proclamation of Philippine Independence
Philippine independence was proclaimed on June 12, 1898 in the presence of a huge crowd at the
ancestral home of General Emilio Aguinaldo between four and five in the afternoon in Cavite El Viejo,
now known as Kawit. Thisevent was highlighted by the following:unfurling of the Philippine national
flag sewed in Hong Kong by Marcela Agoncillo,Lorenza Agoncillo and Delfina Herborsa; playing of the
Marcha Filipina Magdalo, by the San Francisco de Malabon marching band, as the country’s national
anthem which was composed by Julian Felipe; and the reading of the Declaration of Philippine
Independence which was written by Ambrosio Reinzares Bautista.
The ”declaration of Independence as translated into English by Sulpicio Guevarra is
In the town of Cavite-Viejo, Province of Cavite, this 12 th day of June 1898 BEFORE ME, Ambrosio
Rianzares Bautista, War Counsellor and Special Delegaté designated to proclaim and solemnize this
Declaration of Independence by the Dictatorial Government of the Philippines, pursuant to, and by
virtue of a Decree issued by the Egregious Dictator Don Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy The proclamation of
June 12, however, was later modified by another proclamation done at Malolos, Bulacan, upon the
insistence of Apolinario Mabini. Mabini objected to the original proclamation as it basically placed
the Philippines under the protection of the United States.
From Dictatorial to Revolutionary Government
On June 18 Aguinaldo issued a decree reorganizing local government in areas liberated from Spain.
The most distinguished persons in each province were asked to take Over local governments. The
chiefs of the towns were to elect delegates to the Congress,and military commanders who liberated
towns became their commissioners. At this time,Apolinario Mabini, the Sublime Paralytic, became
Aguinaldo’s liberal advisor. He thought the declaration of independence was premature, and by
virtue of the Decree of June 23 they announced that the dictatorship was changed to a Revolutionary
Government. The Orders of the previous Biak-na-bato Republic were also revoked. Emilio Jacinto
who was operating independently, was invited by Mabini to join the government in
Malolos.Aguinaldo appointed delegates for those provinces not yet pacified. By the end of June the
rebels controlled all of Luzon except Manila, which was besieged.
 On July 15, Aguinaldo chose his cabinet that included his brother Baldomero a secretary of War and
Public Works. His cabinet was composed of ilustrados, most of who had been on the Spanish side.
Cayetano Arellano was offered the post of Secretary of foreigr affairs but declined considering that
he was pro-American. Mabini later on accepted the position. Aguinaldo was proclaimed the chief
general on July 23. Immediately, he deployed 14,000 Filipino soldiers between the Spaniards and the
Americans outside Manila’s walk American forces were arriving. General Thomas Anderson brought
2,500 on June 30 General Francis V. Greene 3,500 on July 17, and General Arthur Mac-Arthur 4,800
on July 31. General Wesley E. Merritt now commanded 10,964 men and 740 officers.
Surrender Negotiations and the Mock Battle of Manila
While the Walled City was under naval blockade from the Manila Bay, in June and July, 1898,
Aguinaldo had already accomplished a complete tight land siege around the city For the fourth time,
on July 7 Aguinaldo made another demand from the Spanish general to surrender. The Spanish
official, however, refused to do so upon instruction from Madrid He was ordered that if it was
inevitable to surrender, he should surrender to the Americans not to the Filipinos.
After fresh American troops arrived on June 30, July 17, and July 31, 1898, Dewey started
negotiating with Governor-General Agustin and with Belgian Consul, Andre, acting as mediator for
the surrender of the Spaniards. Word about this reached the Peninsular Government, which
immediately replaced Agustin with General Fermin Jaudenes. The two powers then very secretly
agreed to stage a mock battle between them on one conditionthat no Filipino troops would be
allowed to enter Manila, clearly an act of betrayal of the Filipinos on the part of the Americans.
All along, Aguinaldo and his forces guarded the city, and waited for the Spaniards to give in to hunger
and thirst and surrender. After the secret deal between the Americans and the Spaniards, General
Merritt, who had overall command of the American forces, decided to conduct the “offensive”
against Manila from the side of Manila Bay.
General Francis Greene, who was the commander of the second reinforcements, was instructed to
tell Aguinaldo and his troops to cooperate with the Americans by leaving the area free for the
foreigners to occupy. Aithough Aguinaldo showed caution by demanding that this request be made
in writing, he gullibly withdrew his troops when Greene promised to grant that request after the
evacuation. But Greene did not fulfill his promise.
Aguinaldo started getting suspicious about the continuous arrival of Americn reinforcements. He
considered them unnecessary as the Filipinos had the situation well in hand. His sentiments were
shared by his generals. They did not, however, do anything about this. Therefore, the American
troops were able to position themselves in place.
On the eve of the mock battle, General Anderson, commander of the firs reinforcements, even
telegraphed Aguinaldo warning him not to let his troops enter Manila without permission fram the
American commander or else they would be shot.
The Filipinos, however, were not completely left out of the assault. On the dark nd rainy morning of
August 13, 1898, they amassed on the right side of General Arthur MacArthur, who had led the third
American reinforcements, ready for battle,
The Americans started their mock attack, with the Filipinos unsuspectingly fighting with all their
might. There was token resistance from the Spaniards. At about 11:20 a.m.,jhe Spaniards raised a
flag of surrender, but it was only noticed at noon. By 5:00 p.m., the prrender negotiations were
completed. The Spanish authorities agreed to surrender the Spaniards and the Filipino volunteers in
the city on the condition that the Americans would saleguard the city and its inhabitants, churches,
and religious worship.
The next day, August 14, the document stating the terms of surrender was formally signed by
representatives of both parties.General Merritt then announced the establishment of the Military
Government. It turned out that the mock battle need not have been staged, as the two powers had
already been negotiating to end hostilities. On August 12, Washington,D.C. time, American President
McKinley issued a proclamation directing the suspension of all military operations against the
Spaniards. However, this did not reach Dewey as he had cut the cable between Manila and the
outside world after winning the Battle of Manila Bay. By the time he received it, on August 16, the
surrender agreement had been signed,
End of Filipino-Américan Collaboration and Spanish Rule
The surrender of Manila to the Americans signaled the end of the Filiptno-American collaboration.
Filipino soldiers felt insulted not allowed entry into Manila despite the assistance they extended the
Americans. The Filipinos, then, started feeling hostile to the Americans. Meanwhile, General Riego de
Dios, the successor of Jaudenes, transferred the headquarters of the Spanish government to lloilo
and took command of the Spanish Army in the South. Martin Delgado, leader of the Visayan patriots,
however, compelled de Dios to leave lloilo on December 24. From Iloilo, General de Dios moved to
Zamboanga. Meanwhile,American troops occupied Jolo on May 19, 1899, displacing the Spanish
garrison in the area. By November 1899, all Spanish forces in the South were shipped to Spain.
The Treaty of Paris of 1898
Peace commissioners of Spain and the US met in Paris, France to draft a peace treaty in Paris on
October 1, 1898 to end the six-month war of hostilities between these two countries. The American
peace commission was composed of William R. Day,Sen. Cushman K. Avis, William P. Frye, Sen.
George Gray, and the Honorable Whitelaw Reid.The Spanish commission was headed by Don Eugenio
Montero Rios, the President of the Senate. Jules Cambon, a French diplomat, also negotiated on
Spain’s behalf. The American commissioners negotiated in a hostile atmosphere because all Europe,
except England, was sympathetic to the Spanish side.The final treaty was concluded in Paris on
December 10, 1898 and provided for the following:
• Spain agreed to remove all soldiers from Cuba and recognize American occupation
Of the area;
• Spain ceded Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States;
• The United States compensated Spain for its losses with a payment of $20 million.
Ratification of this treaty was not a foregone conclusion in the United States Senate A great debate
ensued, pitting imperialists against anti-imperialists. The point of friction was the Philippines, which
were deemed by many not to be an area of vital interest to the U.S. Proponents of expansion argued
that other powers, probably Germany, would mov into the Philippines if American did not. Further,
the U.S. had a duty to export its superior democratic institutions to this region-a revival of the old
manifest destiny argument. In February 1899, the treaty received the necessary two-thirds
ratification approval by a single vote. Finally, the United States had emerged as a world power.

CHAPTER 7 The Struggle for Nationhood

The discovery of the Katipunan left Bonifacio and the Katipuneros no choice but to prepare for an
armed struggle. Even before this incident, the Katipuneros had already started drifting into war. This
chapter focuses on one of the most important events in the history of our people-the struggle for
nationhood.
Preparation for the Struggle
Bonifacio and some of his confidante surveyed the Hill of Montalban on April 10,1895 in search for a
good meeting place, which can also serve as their headquarters. They were able to spot a cave in the
area, where they reached a decision to stage a revolution against Spain. Their decision was clearly
manifested by their shouting of the famous war cry “Long Live the Philippines!” This event is known
in Philippine history as the Cry of Montalban. Their very emotional shouting of that war cry was a
very firm declaration of the Katipuneros to win their lost freedom through a revolution.
The Katipunan solicited the support of Dr. Jose Rizal in their plan of staging a revolution against
Spain. Bonifacio commissioned Pio Valenzuela to be his emissary to Rizal.In the conversation that
Valenzuela had with Rizal, Rizal clearly expressed his rejection of the plan for a bloody revolution of
the KKK. His disapproval rested on two grounds: the unpreparedness of the people; and the lack of
funds and weapons. Rizal further stressed the point that pursuing the plan would definitely
tantamount to national suicide. He even suggested that the Katipunan should wait more before going
ahead with the revolution. He added the need for the Katipunan to obtain the support of wealthy
and influential Filipinos first, in order to gain financial assistance. Likewise, he recommended that
Antonio Luna be made the Commander of the Revolution owing to his expertise in military science
and tactics.
Despite Rizal’s opposition of the untimely revolution planned by the Katipunan,Bonifacio ordered the
manufacture of bolos for distribution to the Katipuneros. Aware that their weapons were no match
with the rifles and canons of the Spaniards, the Katipunan tried to address its arms supply problem
and took steps to smuggle in weapons from abroad Bonifacio organized a committee of top
Katipunan leaders in May 1896 to negotiate with Admiral Kanimura, the captain of a Japanese ship,
named Kongo, docked in Manila Bay but the talks apparently failed as the Japanese declined to
support the revolution. By this time the Katipunan had become the talk of the town in Manila, in its
suburbs,and in the provinces of Luzon. This happened after copies of Kalayaan were circulated
among the people. However, the new members were rash and impatient so nightly meetings had to
be held. It was, thus, inevitable that the suspicions of the authorities were aroused Rumors about
the mectings circulated in Manila and caused worry particularly among the Spanish friars, although
no concrete evidence could be found to substantiate such rumors.The big break came on August 19,
1896 when a KKK member, Teodoro patiño told his sister Honoria about the existence of the
Katipunan. After hearing Patiño’s revelations, Father Mariano Gil, accompanied by several Civil
Guards immediately scarched the premises of Diario de Manila and found evidence of the
Katipunan’s existence. The governor general was quickly notified of the incident. The Incident led to
a series of arrests of wealthy Filipinos. Even the innocent ones suspected of being Katipuneros, were
thrown in jail or imprisoned at Fort Santiago in Manila. Inasmuch as the wealthy Filipinos refused to
join the Katipunan, Andres Bonifacio came up with a roster of wealthy Filipinos who were allegedly
funding the Katipunan to force them to join this society. Instead of being coerced to join, however,
these wealthy Filipinos denied any knowledge of the existence of the Katipunan. Nonetheless,
Spanish authorities did not believe them. One of the prominent men in Manila, Francisco L.
Roxas,was executed by the Spanish authorities.
The Outbreak of the Revolution
The news of the discovery of the KKK alarmed Bonifacio and the Katipuneros.Bonifacio, Jacinto and
other leaders of the KKK immediately rushed to the hills of Balintawak. A mass meeting was
conducted the vicinity of the house of the Melchora Aquinos son, Juan A. Ramos, in Pugad Lawin in
Balintawak. On August 23, 1896 Bonifacio and his colleagues discussed the final plan for the
revolution. After heated exchange of views on what to do, they finally decided to push through with
the armed struggle against Spain. They also agreed to attack Manila on the August 29. Bonifacio and
his men took out their cedulas, the symbol of their vassalage to Spain and tore them to pieces
shouting”Mabuhay and Pilipinas! Mabuhay ang Katipunan!”This event came to be known as the Cry
of Pugad Lawin.
Soon the Spanish civil guards discovered the mecting at Pugad Lawin, which led to the first encounter
between the Katipuneros and the Spaniards the Battle of Pasong Tamo. While the Katipunan initially
had the advantage, Spanish civil guards turned the fight around Bonifacio and his men were forced to
retreat toward Marikina, proceeded to San Mateo,Rizal, which the Katipuneros were able to control.
Nevertheless, the Spaniards, however.
Were able to regain San Mateo after three days. The first real battle of the revolution was the Battle
of Pinaglabanan. This battle took place in San Juan del Monte on August 30 when Katipuneros
stormed the Spanish arsenal in the area. Around 150 Katipuneros sacrificed their lives in this
encounter. Many of those who were captured by the Spaniards, however,were summarily executed.
At about the same time, Katipuneros in other suburban Manila areas, like Caloocan, San Pedro de
Tunasan (now Makati City). Pateros and Taguig, rose up in arms. The revolution spread to several
provinces in Luzon. This prompted Governor-General Ramon Blanco to place the first eight provinces
to rise up in arms against Spanish sovereignty under martial law: Manila, Laguna, Bulacan,
Batangas.Cavite, Pampanga, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija.
To avert the further spread of the revolution, Governor-General Blanco implemented a policy of
altraction. In the decree he issued it was made it clear that anyone who would surrender within 48
hours after its publication would not be tried in military courts. Some Katipuneros therefore
surrendered, only to be subjected to torture. Subjection to torture inevitably led them to disclose the
names of some of their brother Katipuneros.
Spanish Reactions to the Revolution
Even before the discovery of the Katipunan, Rizal volunteered his services as a doctor in the Spanish
army in Cuba in his desire to persuade the Spanish authorities of his loyalty to the Spanish Crown. His
application was accepted and he arrived in Manila to board a ship for Spain in August 1896, shortly
before the Katipunan was discovered. But while Rizal was on his journey to Spain, the revolution
broke out. A telegram overtook the steamer at Port Said, recaling Rizal to the Philippines to face
charges that he masterminded the revolution. He was later executed by musketry on December 30,
1896 at Bagumbayan (now known as Luneta).
While Rizal was being tried by a military court for treason, the prisoners taken in the Battle of
Pinaglabanan – Sáncho Valenzuela, Ramon Peralta, Modesto Sarmiento, and Eugenio Silvestre – were
executed by musketry on September 6, 1896 at Bagumbayan.Six days later, they also executed by
musketry the Thirieen Martyrs of Cavite at Fort San Felipe in Cavite. Ihe Spanish colonial authorities
also pressed the prosecution of those who were arrested after the raid on the Diario de Manila
printing press, where they found evidence incriminating both and wealthy leaders of the Katipunan.
This was followed by the execution of the Bicol Martyrs on January 4, 1897, namely: Manuel Abella,
Domingo Abella, Inocencio Herrera, Gabriel Pricto and Severino Diaz, Camio Jacob, Tomas Prieto,
Florencio Lerma, Macario Valentin, Cornelio Mercado and Mariano Melgarejo.Meanwhile, prominent
businessmen were also arrested and their properties confiscated.Accused of supporting Katipunan
were Francisco Roxas, Telesforo Chuidian and Jacinto Limjap. Despite the absence of a prima facie
evidence, Roxas was found guilty of treasonAnd executed by musketry on January 11, 1897 at
Bagumbayan.
Numerous Filipinos were summarily executed by firing squad on February 6, 1897a Bagumbayan.
Rizal’s execution, however, was the most significant. Although Rizal rejected the Katipunan’s
revolution, he became a hero through his martyrdom at Bagumbayan. L aroused the ire of many
Filipinos and even heightened the determination of the Katipuneroy to sustain the revolution at all
cost. Thus, Katipuneros who witnessed Rizal’s execution raised their voices shouting their battle cries:
Mabuhay ang Katagalugan! And Mabuhay si Dr. Jose Rizal! This is because they acknowledged Rizal’s
as the Honorary President of the KKK.
The Revolution In Cavite
While Katipuneros in Manila were waging their struggles against the colonial authorities, parallel
developments were taking place in Cavite. The Katipuneros stormed the municipal building of San
Francisco de Malabon on August 31, 1896.The Magdiwang faction likewise attacked the Spaniards in
Noveleta, while the Magdalo faction under Candido Tirona captured the Spanish garrison. While
these events were happening. Aguinaldo and his men prevented Spanish reinforcements from
Manila but their efforts proved futile. Aguinaldo was forced to retreat to Imus, where he was able to
defeat the Spanish command of General Aguirre. At Imus, Aguinaldo became the hero of the hour.
Katipuneros, particularly those from the Magdalo group headed by Aguinaldos cousin, Baldomero,
started calling him no longer as Kapitan Miong but Heneral Miong
As a consequence of Emilio Aguinaldo’s successes in the battlefield, Baldomero Aguinaldo, the leader
and founder of the Magdalo agitated for the leadership of Heneral Miong to the Katipunan. This was
something unacceptable to the members of the Magdiwang faction,under the leadership of
Bonfacio’s uncle Mariano Alvarez. For them, Bonifacio is the supreme leader of the Katipunan,
inasmuch as he was its founding father The misunderstanding between these two factions was
intensified when they started refraining from assisting each other in the battlefield. As a result towns
undel the control of these two factions fell one by one to the Spanish Army under the command of
Governor-General Camilo de Polavieja.
Attempts at Patching Up the Rift
To patch up the rift between the Magdalo and Magdiwang factions of the Katipunan in Cavite, the
Magdalo invited Bonifacio to come to Cavite and mediate. At the outset,Bonifacio declined the
invitation as he was with the Katipuneros in Morong fighting the Spanish forces. Later on, he
accepted the invitation
Imus Assembly. On December 31, the Imus Assembly was convened to settle the leadership issue in
Cavite. The Magdalo faction aired its concern of supplanting the Katipunan with a new revolutionary
government before continuing the struggle against Spain. Conversely, the Magdiwang faction
asserted the retention of the Katipunan as it was aiready a government in itself, with a constitution
and by-laws accepted and recognized by all. This meeting adjourned without resolving the leadership
issue in the province.
Tejeros Convention. Alarmed by the continuing successes of the Spanish campaigns against them, the
Katipuneros decided to meet on March 22, 1897 to map out their strategies on how Cavite should be
defended. Instead of discussing and planning defense strategies,this meeting ended up with a
resolution of establishing a new revolutionary government to supplant the KKK. This was followed by
an election of officers of the revolutionary government.
Bonifacio agreed to chair the assembly. Before the voting was started, he warned everyone that
whoever would be elected to any position should be respected. Ironically,after the elections,
Bonifacio, the Supremo of the Katipunan lost the leadership to Emilio Aguinaldo, who was voted
president.
The following were elected officials of the new revolutionary government via secret
Balloting: Emilio Aguinaldo, Mariano Trias Artemio Ricarte Emiliano Riego de Dios Andres Bonifacio
When Bonifacio was being proclaimed, Daniel Tirona, a Magdalo, questioned the competence of
Bonifacio for the position on the ground that Bonifacio was not a lawyer.Embarrassed by the remarks
of Daniel Tirona, Bonifacio drew his pistol to shoot him.Cooler heads, however, intervened. As the
Katipuneros who attended the meeting, started leaving the hall, the infuriated Bonifacio shouted
that he, in his capacity as chairman of the assembly and Supremo of the Katipunan, declared the
assembly dissolved and all its approved actions null and void.
The Death of the Supremo
On March 23, 1897, Aguinaldo was sworn in as president of the new revolutionary government along
with other elected officials in Santa Cruz de Malabon in Cavite, Most of these officials were
Caviteños.
Bonifacio, however, refused to recognize Aguinaldo’s government. On March 23,1897. Bonifacio and
45 of loyal men met at the estate house in Tejeros. In this meeting,they drew up the document called
Acta de Tejeros, which declared the results of the Tejeros Convention null and void. From there, they
proceeded to Naic. Meanwhile, Aguinaldo sent a delegation to convince Bonifacio to cooperate the
new revolutionary government.Bonifacio, however, was very firm in his decision of not cooperating
with Aguinaldo.
To furthermanifest his disapproval of the newly-established revolutionary government, Bonifacio and
his men prepared another document while they were at Naic. This came to be known as the Naic
Military Agreement. The agreement specified the establishment of a government independent from
Aguinaldo’s revolutionary government. It also reasserted Bonifacio as leader of the revolution.
Moreover, through this document it was made clear that Bonifacio and his men will be organizing an
army distinct from the revolutionary forces of Aguinaldo who shall be recruited through persuasive
and coercive means. Notable among the 41 signatories of this agreement were Andres Bonifacio,
Artemio Ricarte, Pio del Pilar as commander-in-chief and Emilio Jacinto as general of the provinces of
Morong,Bulacan, Nueva Ecija and Manila.
From Naic, Bonifacio moved to the barrio of Limbon in Indang, Cavite. With him at this time were his
wife, Gregoria and his two brothers, Ciriaco and Procopio. Upon learning the contents of the Naic
Military Agreement drafted and signed by Bonifacio and his men,Aguinaldo immediately ordered Col.
Agapito Bonzon and his men to arrest Bonifacio and his brothers.
In the confrontation that followed, his brother Procopio was wounded, while his brother Ciriaco was
killed. Bonifacio was stabbed in the larynx but was taken alive. From Indang, Bonifacio was brought
to Naic, which had become the seat of the new revolutionary government.
From April 29 to May 4, Bonifacio and Procopio were tried by a military tribunal in Maragondon
Cavite. Despite the lack of evidence, the Bonifacio brothers were found guilty of treason and sedition
for attempting to overthrow the new revolutionary government and its president. Without the
opportunity to defend themselves, Bonifacio and his brother were sentenced to be executed.
Aguinaldo, however, commuted the death sentence to deportation on May 8, 1897.Upon learning
this move by Aguinaldo, General Mariano Noriel and General Pio del Pilar, former supporters of
Bonifacio, immediately convinced Aguinaldo to revoke his commutation order on the ground that as
long as Bonifacio was alive, there will be disunity among the revolutionaries.
On the early morning of May 10, 1897, a group of soldiers led by General Lazara Makapagal brought
Andres and Procopio from the Maragondon jail as ordered by Genera Mariano Noriel, the president
of the Council of War that tried the Bonifacio brothers.sealed letter had been handed to Makapagal,
with strict orders to read it after reaching M Nagpatong in the Maragondon mountains.
Upon reaching Mt. Nagpatong. Makapagal opened the sealed letter. It was an order from General
Noriel to execute Andres and Procopio. Makapagal immediately carried out the general’s command
and the Bonifacio brothers were shot. Using their bayonets and bolos, the soldiers dug a shallow
grave for the two men. After covering the bodies with twigs and weeds, they hurriedly left to escape
the Spanish troops who were combing the mountains of Maragondon.
Aguinaldo to Biak-na-Bato
After the execution of Andres Bonifacio, Aguinaldo’s revolutionary forces suffered a series of reverses
as Spanish forces were strengthened by reinforcements from Spain. This time the seat of the
revolutionary government was moved to Maragondon after Naic was captured by the Spanish forces.
After the relief of General Camilo de Polavieja by Fernando Primo de Rivera, Spanish authorities
continued its work of regaining rebel territories in Cavite. Against Primo de Rivera,Aguinaldo and his
men were forced to retreat to Batangas Province. The Spaniards,therefore, gained control of
practically the whole province of Cavite. Thus, Primo de Rivera extended a decree granting pardon
for those Filipinos surrendering beyond the initial deadline of May 17. There were some Filipinos
who took advantage, but the others continued their fight.
Meanwhile, Aguinaldo, who had established his headquarters in Talisay, Batangas Province,
successfully escaped the Spanish cordon which had surrounded the place. From Batangas, he
proceeded with his men to the hilly province of Morong. From there, he and about 500 handpicked
men proceeded to Biak-na-Bato, San Miguel de Mayumo, in Bulacan.It was here where Aguinaldo
established a new government, which came to be known as the Biak-na-Bato Republic.
He also Issued a proclamation in July entitled To the Brave Sons of the Philippines.which enumerated
the following demands of the revolutionary government from the Spanish government, which
seemed to manifest his willingness to return to Spanish fold if these demands were met:
For themselves;
• Expulsion of the friars and the return to the Filipinos of the lands they appropriated Representation
in the Spanish Cortes, freedom of press, and tolerance of all religious Equal treatment and pay for
peninsular and insular civil servants and abolition of the power of the government to banish citizens;
and
• Legal equality for all persons.
The constitution of the new republic was prepared by Felix Ferrer and Isabelo Artacho,which they
plagiarized from the Cuban Constitution of Jimaguayu. With the signing of the Biakia’Baio
Consttution on November 1, 1897, the Biak-na-Bato Republic was established with the following
officials:
Emilio Aguinaldo
Mariano Trias
Isabelo Artacho
Antonio Montenegro Baldomero Aguinaldo Emiliano Riego de Dios
The Pact of Biak-na-Bato
Realizing that it would be impossible for him to end the revolution, Governor-General Primo de
Rivera toyed with the idea of exploring peaceful negotiations as an alternative.The chance came
when Pedro A. Paterno, a mestizo who had spent some years in Spain,volunteered as a peace
negotiator. On August 9, 1897, Paterno brought Primo de Rivera’s offer of peace to Aguinaldo’s
headquarters. It took four months before Paterno was able to come up with a peace agreement, now
called the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, signed by Paterno as representative of the revolutionists and Primo
de Rivera for the Spanish government.
The peace pact, whichh was signed on December 14 and 15, 1897, consisted of three parts. The pact
provided for an end to the revolution by the laying down of arms by Aguinaldos revolutionary forces.
Aguinaldo. They would then be granted amnesty and allowed to return to their homes. Aguinaldo
and the other leaders would go on voluntary exile to Hong Kong. They would be given P800, 000 by
the Spanish government in three installments:
■ P400000, upon leaving the Philippines.
P200000, when at least 700 arms have been surrendered.
• The balance upon declaration of a general amnesty.
Spain also promised to pay P900, 000 to Filipino civilians who suffered losses because of the
revolution.
To ensure that the Spanish government will fulfill its promises, Aguinaldo demanded that two
Spanish generals remain at Biak-na-Bato as hostages. In addition to this demand,Aguinaldo saw to it
that the governor’s nephew, Colonel Miguel Primo de Rivera accompany the exiles to Hong Kong.
With a check amounting to P400, 000, Aguinaldo together with 25 revolutionary leaders left for Hong
Kong on December 27, 1897. Nonetheless, those who were left behind asked Primo de Rivera to give
them the balance of P400, 000, supposedly to be given to the needy ones among them. Governor
Rivera, however, released only P200, 000 which they apportioned among themselves.
Continuation of Hostilities
There was celebration in Manila the following month. However, although some of the Filipino
generals left behind did all they could to surrender the arms from the rebels, some of them were
suspicious of the Spaniards. Thus, they declined to give up their arms. One of them, General
Francisco Makabulos of Tarlac Province, established the Central Executive Committee, which would
exist until a general government of the republic would again be established. For their part, the lower-
ranking Spanish authorities continued to arrest and imprison many Filipinos suspected of having
been involved in the rebellion.
Thus, the rebellion spread further to the different provinces of the archipelago.,including Zambales,
Pampanga, Laguna, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, La Union, Ilocos Sur Cebu, Bulacan, Caloocan,
and Camarines Norte. The Pact of Biak-na-Bato was, thus, a cessation of hostilities only for the
compromisers, Aguinaldo and his group. The Pact of Biak-na-Bato turned out to be a failure.
The Balangiga Massacre took place in 1901, a few weeks after a company of
American soldiers arrived in Balangiga, Samar, upon the request of the town
mayor to protect the inhabitants from the Muslim and rebel raids.

Due to the public demand in the U.S. for retaliation, President Theodore
Roosevelt ordered the pacification of Samar. Within six months, General “Jake”
Smith transformed Balangiga into a “howling wilderness.” He ordered his men to
kill anybody capable of carrying arms, including ten-year old boys. Smith
particularly ordered Major Littleton Waller to punish the people of Samar for the
deaths of the American troops. His exact orders were: “I want no prisoners. I wish
you to kill and burn, the more you kill and burn, the better you will please me.”

The Resistance Continues

After taking over the leadership of Aguinaldo, General Miguel Malvar of
Batangas, continued the fight. He was the commanding general of all forces
south of the Pasig River. The Americans committed barbaric acts because of the
population’s support to the guerrillas.
All men, women, and children of the towns of Batangas and Laguna, were herded
into small areas within the poblacion on December 25, 1901 of their respective
towns and were kept prisoners for months. The American troops burned their
houses, carts, poultry, animals, etc. The people were prisoners for months. These
acts paralled the early version of the concentration camps used by American
soldiers in the Vietnam War. The same tactics were perpetrated by the American
army against non-combatants from March to October 1903 in the province of
Albay and in 1905 in the provinces of Cavite and Batangas.
February 27, 1902, General Vicente Lukban, who resorted to ambushing
American troops in Samar, was captured in Samar. General Malvar surrendered
to General J. Franklin Bell in Lipa, Batangas, on April 16, 1902.
Luciano San Miguel, who revived the Katipunan in 1886 in Zambales,
sustained the gucrilla war against the Americans in 1902. He died in a battle with
Philippine Constabulary and Philippine scouts in the District of Pugad-Baboy in
Morong. Faustino Guillermo, took over the leadership of the new Katipunan
movement when San Miguel was killed. Others who took part in the guerrilla
warfare were Macario Sakay, who had been with Bonifacio and Jacinto during the
initial struggles of the Katipunan, and Julian Montalan and Cornelio Felizardo
The Philippine Constabulary, Philippine Scouts, and elements of the United States
Army combined their forces to go after the guerrillas. In the province of Albay,
General Simeon Ola launched guerrilla raids on U.S.-occupied towns until his
surrender on September 25,1903. He was the last Filipino general to surrender to
the Americans. Sakay, leader of a band of patriotic Filipinos and whom the
Americans branded as a bandit, continued to fight. He even established the
Tagalog “Republic” He surrendered on July 14, 1906. Sakay and his men were
tried and convicted as bandits. Sakay was hanged on September 13, 1907.