UNIT SIX

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS IN

ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941
6.1. Nature of Interactions among the Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn

6.1.1. Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia

A. Qabena

• Origin: Emerged from Hadiya-Gurage coalition.

• Location: South-central Ethiopia.
• Timeframe: Second half of the 19th century.
• Religious Role:
o Became a center of Muslim revivalist movement northeast of the Gibe River.
o Influenced by Muslim refugees from Wollo and possibly Mahdist Sudan.
o Resulted in rapid spread of Islam across the region.

B. The Five Gibe States

(Monarchical states replacing the Gadaa system among Mecha Oromo in early 19th century)

• Key Features:
o Replaced Gadaa with hereditary leadership.
o Leaders gained wealth and power through long-distance trade control and taxation.

1. Limmu-Enarya

• Founding Leader: Bofo / Abba Gomol (r.1800–1825).

• Expansion & Zenith: Under Ibsa / Abba Bogibo (r.1825–1861).
o Incorporated regions like Hagalo and Badi-Folla.
• Successor: Abba Bulgu (r.1861–1883).

2. Guma

• Initiated by: Jilcha Abba Bal’o (Chira), after killing Sarbaroda (Dagoye clan).
• Formation Completed by: Oncho (r.1810–1830).
• Successor: Jawwe (r.1840–1854).

3. Gomma

• Founder: Abba Boke (r.1800–1829).

• Successor: Abba Mano (r.1829–1840).
o Conquered Qattu.
o Promoted Muslim ulama, leading to early mass conversion to Islam.

4. Jimma

• Early Influence: Makahore (notable woman at Oda Hulle, 18th century).

 • First Monarch: Ose Kobi (Abba Faro).
• State Consolidation: Sanna / Abba Jifar I (r.1830–1855).
• Notable Monarchs:
o Abba Rebu (r.1855–1859),
o Abba Boqa (r.1859–1861),
o Abba Gomol (r.1861–1875),
o Abba Jifar II (r.1875–1934) — most famous.
• Economy:
o Iron mining: Dakkano.
o Iron smelting: Kitto.

5. Gera

• State Formation Completed: Under Tullu Gunji (r.1835–1838).

• Successor: Abba Rago I (r.1838–1848).

Common Government Structure in Gibe States

• Officials:
o Abba Gurmu: Second to king.
o Abba Mizan: Treasurer & Foreign Affairs.
o Abba Dango: Immigration head.
o Lammi: Envoy.
o Abba Qoro: District governor.
o Abba Ganda: Village chief.
o Abba Busi: Tax administrator.
o Abba Jiga: Judge for murder cases.
o Abba-Qawe: Royal bodyguard.
• Taxation:
o Replaced Gadaa’s no-tax tradition.
o Farmers taxed on crops using:
▪ Buchano: ~15 kg.
▪ Guboo: ~25 kg.

C. The Leqa States

1. Leqa-Naqamte

• Founder: Bakare Godana (1840).

• Height of Power: Under Kumsa Moroda (later Dejjazmach Gebre-Egzi’abiher).
• Developments:
o Promoted handcrafts, gold washing, coffee planting, and game reserves.

2. Leqa-Qellam

• Founder: Tullu.
• Major Leader: Jote (Tullu's son).
• Capital: Gidami.
• Control: Extended to Seyyo-Dambi Dollo.

D. Ilu
 • Founder: Chali Shono (Tume clan leader), also known as Abba Bor.
• Established: Early 19th century.
• Nature: Strong, consolidated, and prosperous state.

E. Nilotic Sheikdoms

(Arabic-Sudanese merchants imposed rule over the indigenous Berta; known as “Watawit”)

Major Sheikdoms & Leaders:

• Asosa / Aqoldi: Sheikh Khojale al-Hasan.

• Bela / Beni-Shangul: Abd al Rahman Khojale.
• Khomosha: Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud.
• Guba: Located north of the Abbay River along the Ethio-Sudanese border.

Economic Base:

• Agriculture
• Gold mining
• Frontier trade

Foreign Interest:

• Rich gold reserves attracted:

o Mahdist Sudanese,
o Egyptians (attempted control at various times).

6.1.2. Trade and Trade Routes

Historical Context

• In the 19th century, major trade routes in the Horn of Africa gained prominence.
• This growth was partly due to the revival of external trade in the Red Sea region.

Major Trade Routes

1. Southwestern Ethiopia to Northern Region

• Linked peoples and states of southwestern Ethiopia with the north.

• Key market centers along the route:
o Bonga (capital of the Kafa Kingdom)
o Hirmata (Jimma)
o Saqa (Limmu)
o Billo (Leqa-Naqamte)
o Asendabo (Guduru)
o Basso-Yajube (Gojjam)
o Yifag and Darita (Begemider)
o Gondar
• Route splits from Gondar:
o Westward branch through Chilga to Matamma-Qallabat (Gallabat)
o Northeastern branch through Adwa and Asmara to Massawa
 • Additional split at Basso:
o Passed through Ancharro and Dawwe (in Wollo)
o Continued to Awusa (Afar)
o Reached Tajura, Obbok, and Rahe'ita (in modern Djibouti)

2. Bonga to Harar and the Somali Coast

• Passed through:
o Hirmata
o Agabja, Andode, Toli, and Soddo (southwest Shewa)
o Rogge (near Yerer)
o Aliyu Amba or Abdul Rasul (northern Shewa)
o Harar
• From Harar, the route branched to:
o Zeila
o Berbera

Traded Commodities

Exports (mainly from the southwest)

• Civet musk, Honey wax, Coffee, Various spices, Slaves

Imports

• Mirrors, Ironware

Mediums of Exchange

• Salt bars (amole)

o Mined from the Taltal plains (Afar region bordering Eastern Tigray)
o Processed and distributed in Mekelle
o Supervised by the governor of Enderta
▪ Held the title Balgada
▪ Collected tributes and acted as a tax judge
• Cowrie shells
• Pieces of cotton cloth (abujadi)
• Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT)
o Silver coin introduced from Austria in the late 18th century
o Bore the image of Queen Maria Theresa

Traders and Trade Communities

• Local peoples were active in local market centers.

• Muslims were key long-distance traders, including:
o Muslim Oromo (Afqala) from the southwest
o Jabarti (northern Muslim merchants)
o Jallaba (Sudanese traders)
• Argobba from the Shewa Kingdom
o Traded via Harar to the northern Somali coast
6.2. The Making of the Modern Ethiopian State

• Process of Territorial Unification

▸ Emperor Tewodros II (Kasa Hailu)

• Ended the Zemene-Mesafint (Era of Princes) and initiated reunification.

• Began as a shifta (bandit) after being denied governance of Qwara.
• Rose to power through military victories:
o Defeated Dejjach Goshu Zewde (Gojjam, 1852), four Dejjazmachs (1853), Ras Ali II (1853),
and Dejjach Wube (1855).
• Crowned Emperor as Tewodros II on Feb 9, 1855 by Abune Salama.
• Sought to centralize power and reduce the autonomy of local rulers.
• Faced widespread resistance from regional lords across Ethiopia (e.g., Tadla Gwalu, Amade Bashir,
Seifu).
• Imprisoned Europeans, prompting British expedition.
• Defeated at Maqdela (April 13, 1868) by British forces; committed suicide.
• Though unsuccessful in the long term, he is seen as a symbol of national unity and laid groundwork
for future emperors.

▸ Succession After Tewodros II

– Tekle-Giorgis II (Wagshum Gobaze of Lasta)

• Assumed throne in 1868.

• Sought peace with Kasa Mircha but ended up in conflict.
• Defeated at Battle of Assam (Adwa, July 1871).

– Emperor Yohannes IV (Kasa Mircha of Tigray)

• Crowned in Jan 1872 after victory over Tekle-Giorgis.

• Focused on state-building through a decentralized model:
o Recognized Menilek as Negus of Shewa (1878, Liche Agreement).
o Designated Ras Adal Tesema as Negus of Gojjam and Kafa (1881).
• Promoted religious unity:
o Held Council of Boru Meda (1878)—declared Tewahedo the official doctrine.
o Launched conversion campaigns, often met with reluctant or outward submission.
o Some resisted and fled; others revolted (e.g., uprising led by Sheikh Tolla Jafar).
• Killed in Battle of Metemma (March 9, 1889) during Mahdist conflict.
• Named Mengesha Yohannes as successor, but power struggles followed.

– Emperor Menilek II (of Shewa)

• Leveraged resources, military strength, and diplomacy to claim the throne (1889).
• Suppressed Mengesha Yohannes and appointed him governor of Tigray.

• Territorial Expansion under Menilek II

▸ Overview

• Most successful expander of territory in the 19th century.

 • Key advantages:
o Access to modern firearms.
o Control over resource-rich territories.
o Support from dedicated generals and loyal local allies.
• Expansion occurred in three phases:
1. As King of Shewa (1865–1889)
2. From coronation to Battle of Adwa (1889–1896)
3. Post-Adwa campaigns (1896–1900)

▸ Key Territorial Campaigns and Resistance

– Oromo Regions

• Incorporated Tulama and Eastern Mecha Oromo pre-1870s.

• Supported by Oromo leaders: Ras Gobana Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde, Dejjach
Balcha Safo.

– Gurage

• Northern Gurage (Kistane) submitted peacefully (1875–76).

• Western Gurage resisted under Hasan Enjamo; defeated by Ras Gobana (1888).

– South of Abay River

• Horro Guduru: Initially controlled by Ras Adal Tesema (Gojjam).

• Battle of Embabo (1882): Shewan victory over Gojjam.
• Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, Jimma Abba Jifar submitted peacefully in return for autonomy.
• Resistance from leaders like Garbi Jilo and Tucho Dano; key battles:
o Battle of Gara Dobbi
o Sambo Darro: Regional alliance vs Menilek’s local allies.

– Gibe Region

• Firissa of Guma resisted (1889–1901).

• Abba Bosso of Gomma defeated in 1900.
• Ilu Abba Bor incorporated by Ras Tesemma Nadew through persistent fighting.

– Arsi Oromo

• Conducted six campaigns (1882–1886); extremely violent.

• Resistance leaders: Sufa Kuso, Damu Usu, Lenjiso Diga, others.
• Initial defeats for Menilek; later victory at Battle of Azule (1886) under Ras Darge.
• Anole Incident (1887): Mass atrocity; remains controversial among historians.

– Eastern Ethiopia

• Ittu Oromo territory incorporated (1886) by Dejjach Wolde-Gabr’el.

• Harar occupied after defeating Emir Abdullahi and Bakar Ware at Battle of Chalanqo (Jan 6,
1887).
• Ras Makonnen appointed governor of Harar.
– Great Famine (Kifu Qen, 1888–92)

• Created openings for territorial annexations:

o Dawuro-Konta (1889) and Kambata (1890) occupied.
o By mid-1890s: Control extended to Bale, Sidama, Gamo Gofa, Wolayta.

– Wolayta Campaign (1894)

• Led directly by Emperor Menilek and top generals.

• King Tona led fierce resistance; ultimately defeated.
• Massive casualties and destruction.

– Other Southern Territories

• Conquest of Gedeo, Borana, and Konso followed.

• Kafa incorporated in 1897:
o King Tato Gaki Sherocho resisted and lost to Ras Wolde Giorgis.
o Resulted in heavy human losses.

– Western Peripheries

• Beni Shangul-Gumuz incorporated after Battle of Fadogno (1897/98).

• Maji occupied (1898–99).
• Baro and Nasir (Gambella) brought under control by Tesemma Nadew.

• Centralization After Menilek II

▸ Continued Nation-Building in the 20th Century

• Regional autonomies abolished to strengthen central authority.

• Teferi Mekonnen (later Emperor Haile Selassie I) spearheaded this centralization.
o Wollo: Autonomy ended after Battle of Segele (1916).
o Begemidir: Reduced to a province after Battle of Anchim (1930).
o Gojjam: Lost autonomy after Ras Hailu's detention (1932).
o Jimma: Integrated in 1933.

6.3. Modernization Attempts

• Efforts by Ethiopian Rulers to Modernize Governance, Military, and Society
▸ Tewodros II (r. 1855–1868)
→ Early Visionary of Modernization in Ethiopia
• Military Reforms
o Introduced modern military ranks: Yasr Alaqa (corporal), Yamsa Alaqa (sergeant), Yashi Alaqa
(major), etc.
o Aimed to replace feudal regional armies with a salaried national army loyal to the central
government.
• Technology and Defense
 o Built a military-industrial workshop at Gafat (near Debre Tabor).
o Produced about 35 cannons; the most famous being "Sebastopol" (a massive artillery piece).
o Attempted to build a small navy on Lake Tana—the first naval initiative in Ethiopian history.
• Infrastructure Development
o Initiated construction of the first road network linking Debre Tabor, Gondar, Gojjam, and
Maqdela.
• Social and Religious Reforms
o Enacted land reform to weaken feudal lords.
o Banned polygamy, aiming to modernize family structure and law.
o Sought to limit the power of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC):
▪ Reduced the amount of land owned by the church.
▪ Decreased the number of priests and deacons per church.
▪ These reforms led to conflict with the clergy, contributing to his downfall.
• Cultural and Literary Advancements
o Encouraged the development of written Amharic for administration.
o Established a library at Maqdela.
o Communicated with foreign governments in Amharic, enhancing its status as an administrative
language.
• Challenges
o Many of his reforms remained incomplete due to internal revolts and external pressures (e.g.,
British expedition).
▸ Emperor Yohannes IV (r. 1872–1889)
→ Promoter of Diplomacy and Public Health
• Foreign Engagement
o Appointed a consul to London—first Ethiopian emperor to do so.
o Hired foreign experts for technical and medical assistance:
▪ French mechanic (René), Hungarian gunsmith (Andre), Italian builder (Giacommo
Naretti), Greek physician (Nicholas Parisis).
• Public Health Reforms
o Introduced modern smallpox vaccination, replacing traditional methods.
o Oversaw syphilis treatment programs in major towns—a sign of growing state concern for
public health.
▸ Emperor Menilek II (r. 1889–1913) – Post-Adwa Period
→ Architect of Modern State Institutions and Infrastructure
• Modern Communication and Transport
o Established postal service.
o Introduced telephone and telegraph systems.
o Oversaw construction of the railway from Djibouti to Addis Ababa.
• Financial and Economic Development
o Founded the Bank of Abyssinia in 1905—Ethiopia’s first modern bank.
o Issued Ethiopia’s own silver coin, replacing the Maria Theresa Thaler (MTT) as currency.
• Education and Health Institutions
o Taytu Hotel (formerly Itege Hotel) – opened in 1907, Ethiopia’s first modern hotel.
o Menilek II School – established in 1908, the first modern school.
o Russian Red Cross Hospital (1906) and Menilek II Hospital (1910), run with Russian support.
• Administrative Reform
o Introduced European-style ministerial cabinet system (1907):
▪ Nesibu Meskelo – Minister of Justice
▪ Metaferia Melke-Tsadiq – Minister of the Imperial Court
▪ Mulugeta Yigezu – Minister of Finance
▪ Habte-Giorgis Dinagde – Minister of War
▪ Hailegiorgis Weldemikael – Minister of Commerce and Foreign Relations
▪ Gebre-Selase Welde Aregay – Minister of Pen
• Succession Planning
o Appointed Lij Iyasu as his heir in 1908.
o Named Ras Tesemma Nadew as regent.
▸ Lij Iyasu (r. 1913–1916)
→ Reform-Minded but Controversial Ruler
• Judicial and Administrative Reforms
o Abolished the Quragna system, which involved chaining both the accused and the accuser until
the case was resolved.
o Attempted to reform the Leba Shay system, a mystical method of identifying criminals.
o Established Tirnbulle, a municipal police force for Addis Ababa.
o Started government account auditing, enhancing transparency.
• Religious and Social Integration
 o Attempted to integrate Ethiopian Muslims into the national administration—a radical move at
the time.
• Industrialization
o Encouraged small-scale modern industries:
▪ Flour mill, sawmill, tannery, and soap factory.
▸ Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi Makonnen (Later Emperor Haile Selassie I)
→ Dual Rule (Diarchy) with Diverging Visions (1916–1930)
• Contrasting Perspectives
o Empress Zewditu favored traditionalism.
o Ras Teferi was a modernist, aiming to elevate Ethiopia’s international profile.
• Reforms Under Teferi (as Regent and then Emperor Haile Selassie I)
o Promulgated Ethiopia’s first written constitution in 1931, inspired by European models.
o Established the Kebur Zebegna (Imperial Bodyguard) in 1930, trained with help from Belgian
military advisers.
o Opened Ethiopia’s first military academy at Holeta in 1934, with assistance from a Swedish
military mission.

6.4. Socio-Economic Developments

6.4.1. Agriculture and Land Tenure (19th – Early 20th Century)

→ Land, agriculture, and power dynamics in imperial Ethiopia

• Growing Demand for Agricultural and Grazing Land

o Driven by population growth and military expansion.
o Agricultural land was crucial for:
▪ Farming to support food production.
▪ Grazing to support livestock economy.
• Agriculture’s Role in Politics and Expansion
o Control over surplus-producing areas was a key driver of political conflict and conquest.
o Menilek II’s territorial expansion into southern Ethiopia was partly motivated by:
▪ Need for land to settle soldiers and their families.
▪ Ensuring food security for the imperial military structure.

• Incorporation of Southern Ethiopia into the Empire

o Led to redefinition of land access and rights.
o The imperial state imposed new systems of control and taxation in both:
▪ Peacefully submitted areas
▪ Resisting regions
• Administrative Systems Based on Submission
o Peacefully Submitted Regions
▪ Granted relative self-administration.
▪ Required to pay qurt gibir (a fixed annual land tax).
 o Resisting Regions
▪ Placed under the naftegna-gabbar system:
▪ Naftegna: literally “man-at-arms,” referred to northern soldiers settled in the
south.
▪ Gabbar: local southern peasants required to pay tribute and labor services to the
naftegna.
▪ The system was exploitative, with negative impacts on:
▪ Settlement patterns
▪ Traditional agricultural practices

• Creation of New Agrarian Social Classes

o Ballabat – landlords (often government agents or northern settlers)
o Gabbar – tribute-paying peasants
o Tenants – emerged as a result of dispossession and land reallocation
• Land Ownership Imbalance
o Landholders were mostly outsiders or government appointees.
o Local southern populations were increasingly marginalized and reduced to gabbar or tenant
status.

• Qalad System – Land Measurement and Distribution (Starting in the 1890s)

o Introduced to systematize land distribution and enhance state control.
o Key features:
▪ Social stratification of access to land:
▪ Elite and collaborators received land.
▪ Local peasantry lost access, especially in the south.
▪ Facilitated taxation and formalized land tenure.
• Land Categorization for Taxation Purposes
o Lam – cultivated land (high tax)
o Lam-taf – partly cultivated land (moderate tax)
o Taf – uncultivated or fallow land (low or no tax)

6.4.2. Slavery and Slave Trade

→ Causes, practices, individual stories, and abolition efforts in 19th–20th century Ethiopia and the Horn

• Expansion of Slave Trade in the Horn of Africa (19th Century)

o Driven by rising foreign demand for slaves.
o Primary export destinations:
▪ Middle Eastern countries (including Egypt and Arabia)
▪ Ottoman Turkey
▪ Persia
▪ India
o Major trade routes:
▪ Overland through Sudan
▪ Maritime via the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ports
o Primary purposes for slaves:
▪ Agricultural labor
▪ Military service
▪ Sources of income (slaves were sold for revenue)

• Methods of Slave Acquisition

 o Raiding villages and regions
o Kidnapping individuals, including children
o War captivity – taking prisoners of war as slaves
o Debt bondage – enslaving individuals as a form of debt repayment
o Open market purchase – slaves bought and sold in public markets

• Main Geographic Sources of Slaves

o Southern Ethiopia
o Southwestern Ethiopia
These areas were repeatedly targeted due to their vulnerability and remoteness from the
imperial center.

• Notable Individuals Who Were Enslaved

o Bilile (later renamed Mahbuba):
▪ Captured from Guma in 1837
▪ Sold to German Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau in Cairo
▪ Became his mistress
o Hika (later known as Onesimos Nasib):
▪ Kidnapped in Hurumu at age 4 in 1869
▪ Sold in Massawa
▪ Freed by a Swedish mission
▪ Later translated the Holy Bible into Afan Oromo at Menkulu
o Aster Gano:
▪ Sold from Limmu
▪ Emancipated in 1886
▪ Collaborated with Onesimos Nasib in the Bible translation project

• Efforts to End the Slave Trade and Slavery

o Mid-19th Century Onwards:
▪ Ethiopian emperors made attempts to end the slave trade, though not slavery itself at
first.
o Ras Teferi (later Emperor Haile Selassie I):
▪ 1923 – Officially banned the slave trade
▪ 1924 – Issued a decree for emancipation of slaves
o 1932 – Established the Office for the Abolition of Slavery
▪ Freed slaves were placed under the supervision of Hakim Warqineh Eshete
o Italian Occupation (1936–1941):
▪ Italians proclaimed slavery abolished during their rule
o Post-Liberation Ethiopia:
▪ In 1942, Emperor Haile Selassie issued a final decree abolishing all forms of slavery
and the institution itself

6.4.3. Manufacturing

→ The rise of modern manufacturing in Ethiopia (late 19th to early 20th century)

• Introduction of Modern Manufacturing in Post-Adwa Ethiopia

o Followed the opening of foreign legations after the Battle of Adwa (1896).
o Inflow of expatriates played a key role in introducing industrial activities.
▪ Contributed skills and entrepreneurial capital
▪ Acted as agents for industrialization
 • Key Foreign Groups Involved in Early Manufacturing
o Armenians
o Greeks
o Italians
o Indians
These groups brought with them technical expertise, machinery, and financial resources.

• Early Manufacturing Establishments (Pre-1927)

o Holeta Grain Mill – Established in 1896
o Massawa Salt Processing Plant – Launched in 1904
o By 1927, approximately 25 factories had been set up in major towns:
▪ Addis Ababa
▪ Dire Dawa
▪ Asmara
▪ Massawa
o Types of Factories Established:
▪ Cement factories
▪ Wood and clay workshops
▪ Tanneries (leather processing)
▪ Soap manufacturing plants
▪ Edible oil processing units
▪ Ammunition factories
▪ Breweries
▪ Tobacco processing plants
▪ Grain mills
o Notable Factories Before Italian Occupation:
▪ Artistic Printing Press
▪ Ambo Mineral Water Plant

• Later Developments (Post-1928)

o More than 10 additional industries were set up after 1928.
o Expansion continued during the brief Italian occupation (1936–1941).
▪ Italian influence contributed to further industrialization and infrastructure development.

6.4.4. Urbanization

→ The rise and transformation of Ethiopian towns in the 19th and early 20th centuries

• Key Drivers of Urbanization

o Expansion of Trade (Early 19th Century onward)
▪ Growth in local and long-distance trade
▪ Old market centers began to develop into permanent towns
o Railway Construction and Its Impact
▪ Djibouti–Addis Ababa Railway began operation in 1917
▪ Stimulated the rapid growth of new urban centers along the railway line:
▪ Dire Dawa
▪ Adama (Nazret)
▪ Mojo
▪ Bishoftu (Debre Zeyit)
o Transformation of Royal Camps into Towns
▪ Temporary imperial encampments often evolved into permanent settlements
 ▪ When royal camps shifted, many previously thriving towns declined
▪ Addis Ababa is a key example of a camp-turned-capital:
▪ Founded in 1886 by Empress Taytu Betul
▪ Chosen for its hot springs (Fel-Wuha / Hora Finfinne)
o Establishment of Katamas (Garrison Towns)
▪ In southern Ethiopia, during late 19th century
▪ Set up by Emperor Menilek II’s generals after military expansion
▪ Functioned as military outposts to control conquered regions
▪ Examples:
▪ Gobba
▪ Ticho
▪ Gore
▪ Arjo

• Notable Towns and Their Origins

o Addis Ababa
▪ Evolved from royal camp
▪ Strategic and symbolic imperial capital
▪ Chosen for its natural resources (hot springs)
o Dire Dawa, Adama, Mojo, Bishoftu
▪ Developed due to proximity to the railway line
▪ Became key commercial and administrative hubs
o Gobba, Ticho, Gore, Arjo
▪ Emerged as military-administered garrison towns in the south
▪ Helped secure and govern newly annexed provinces

6.5. External Relations

6.5.1. Agreements and Treaties

→ Ethiopia's foreign relations and treaty diplomacy from the early 19th to early 20th century

• Early Foreign Engagements (as of 1804)

o Agents of Contact
▪ Foreign travelers acting as:
▪ Explorers (adventure and scientific research)
▪ Unofficial diplomats (fostering trade and friendship)
▪ Colonial agents (disguised missions for imperial interest)
o Ethiopian Rulers' Initiatives
▪ Sent delegations abroad to build diplomatic ties

• Notable Early Encounters & Treaties

o Henry Salt (British traveler)
▪ Reached Ras Wolde-Selassie of Tigray (1805)
▪ Claimed to promote British-Ethiopian friendship
▪ Returned in 1809 and concluded a formal agreement
o Christian Kugler – German traveler in the 1830s
o Captain W.C. Harris (British envoy)
▪ Visited Shewa and signed a treaty with Negus Sahle Selassie (1841)
o Rochet d'Hericourt (French)
▪ Claimed to sign a treaty with Sahle Selassie (1843), later exposed as a forgery
 o John Bell and Walter Plowden
▪ Plowden signed treaty with Ras Ali II in 1849
o Eduard Rüppell (Germany) – Arrived in 1846
o Italian Geographic Society – Arrived in 1869

• Religious-Based Diplomacy
o Ethiopian Orthodox settlements in Jerusalem (Deir Al-Sultan) were threatened by Egyptian
interference
o Rulers like Ali II and Wube appealed to Queen Victoria (UK) in the 1850s for protection

• Imperial Diplomacy and Treaties

o Emperor Tewodros II
▪ Sought Western military support to defend against foreign threats
o Emperor Yohannes IV
▪ Aimed to:
▪ Regain lost territories
▪ Define national borders
▪ Protect Ethiopian sovereignty
▪ Use negotiation rather than warfare
▪ Hewett Treaty (Adwa, June 3, 1884)
▪ Signed with British Rear Admiral Hewett (on behalf of Egypt)
▪ Ethiopia facilitated evacuation of Egyptian troops trapped by Mahdists (Ethio-
Sudanese border)
▪ In return:
▪ Bogos province restored to Ethiopia
▪ Right to use Massawa as a free port
▪ Britain secretly handed Massawa to Italy (Feb 1885)
▪ Yohannes incurred Mahdist hostility for aiding Egyptians

• Emperor Menilek II’s Foreign Policy

o As King of Shewa
▪ Built commercial ties with Italy and imported weapons
o Treaty of Wuchale (May 2, 1889)
▪ Signed in Wollo with Count Pietro Antonelli (Italian envoy)
▪ Contained 20 articles in both Amharic and Italian
o Naples Convention (Oct 1889)
▪ Signed by Ras Makonnen during visit to Italy
▪ Introduced the phrase "effective occupation" to justify Italian territorial claims
▪ Led to Italy declaring Eritrea a colony (Jan 1890)
o Article XVII Controversy
▪ Italian version: Ethiopia "consents to use" Italy for foreign relations
▪ Amharic version: Ethiopia "may use" Italian support (optional)
▪ Italy claimed protectorate status, forcing foreign powers (except Russia) to deal via
Italy
o Menilek's Response
▪ Abrogated the Treaty (Feb 1893)
▪ Italian attempt to colonize failed despite:
▪ Tricky treaties
▪ Subversive tactics
▪ Persuasion
▪ Tigrian lords (Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi, Dejjach Hagos Teferi)
joined Menilek
 o Battle of Adwa (March 1, 1896)
▪ Result of Ethiopian resistance vs. Italian colonial ambition
▪ Historic Ethiopian victory safeguarding sovereignty

• Post-Adwa Diplomatic Expansion

o Foreign legations opened in Addis Ababa
o Menilek signed boundary treaties with colonial neighbors:
▪ French Somaliland (Djibouti): March 20, 1897
▪ British Somaliland (Somaliland): June 4, 1897
▪ Italian Eritrea: July 10, 1900
▪ Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: May 15, 1902
▪ British East Africa (Kenya): 1907
▪ Italian Somaliland: 1908

• Lij Iyasu’s Foreign Policy (WWI Period)

o Showed pro-Central Powers sympathy (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire)
▪ Believed Allied defeat would help Ethiopia expel Italy from Eritrea and Somalia
o Allied himself with Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan (Somali anti-colonial leader)

• Achievements in Early 20th Century Diplomacy

o Ethiopia admitted to the League of Nations (1923)
▪ Recognition of Ethiopia’s sovereign international status
o Teferi Mekonnen’s European Tour (1924)
▪ Strengthened Ethiopia’s global visibility and diplomatic ties

6.5.2. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism

• Overview
o Ethiopia, throughout the 19th century, faced repeated invasions and military threats from foreign
powers including Egypt, Britain, Italy, and the Mahdists.
o The resistance was marked by heroic leadership, strategic battles, and a strong spirit of
patriotism that safeguarded national sovereignty.

Against Egyptian Invasions

• Wad Kaltabu (1837)

o Ethiopian forces led by Kasa and Kinfu Hailu decisively defeated Egyptian forces in Eastern
Sudan.
o Marked an early show of resistance against Egyptian expansion.
• Dabarki (1848)
o Fought between Kasa Hailu (later Emperor Tewodros II) and Egyptian forces.
o Despite Ethiopian courage, Kasa’s army was defeated due to:
▪ Superior Egyptian military organization
▪ Better weapons and training
o Impact: Kasa realized the need to modernize his army.
• Egyptian Invasion Campaign (1875–1876)
o Ambition: Egypt aimed to control Northeast Africa and the Nile source.
o Three-Pronged Attack Ordered by Khedive Ismail Pasha:
▪ Zeila Front: Led by Mohammed Rauf Pasha; resulted in Egyptian occupation of the
Harar Emirate (1875–1885).
 ▪ Tajura Front: Led by Werner Munzinger; his entire force was killed by the Afar at
Odduma.
▪ Massawa Front: Led by Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey.
▪ Faced 20,000 Ethiopian troops under Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula
Engida.
• Battle of Gundet (November 16, 1875)
o Ethiopian forces decisively crushed Egyptian troops.
o Demonstrated superior strategy and leadership.
• Battle of Gura (March 7–9, 1876)
o Despite Egyptian reorganization and the involvement of European and American officers
(Loring, Stone, Dye), they were again decisively defeated.
o Reinforced Ethiopia’s military reputation in Africa and beyond.

Against British Intervention

• Battle of Maqdala (1868)

o Background: Tewodros II requested British aid via Queen Victoria in 1862.
▪ After receiving no response, he imprisoned British Consul Cameron and other Europeans.
o British Response:
▪ 32,000 troops under Sir Robert Napier invaded via Massawa.
▪ Defeated Ethiopian troops at the Battle of Aroge (April 10, 1868).
▪ Tewodros II, refusing to be captured, committed suicide at Maqdala (April 13, 1868).
o Aftermath:
▪ British troops burned the fortress and looted religious and cultural treasures, including
manuscripts and Tewodros’s crown.

Against Italian Colonial Expansion

• Italy’s Entry into the Red Sea Region

o 1869: Suez Canal opened; Red Sea became strategically vital.
o 1869: Italian company Rubatino purchased Assab; handed to the Italian government by 1882.
o 1885: Britain handed Massawa to Italy.
o Italy began occupying nearby territories: Sa'ati, Aylet, and Wia (Mereb Milash region).
• Battle of Dogali (January 26, 1887)
o Ras Alula decisively defeated Italian forces, halting their advancement.
o Italy responded by signing a Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek (October 1887), attempting to
isolate Yohannes IV.
• Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath
o Cause: Disagreement over the Wuchale Treaty (mistranslation led Italy to claim Ethiopia as a
protectorate).
o Menilek II’s Response:
▪ Declared a national mobilization; ~100,000 Ethiopian troops assembled at Wara-Illu
(South Wollo).
▪ Fitawrari Gebeyehu routed Italian forces at Amba Alage.
▪ Italians retreated to Mekelle and were besieged (Jan 7–21, 1896).
▪ Empress Taytu’s stratagem: Denied Italians access to water; eventually forced them to
surrender.
o Battle of Adwa (March 1, 1896)
▪ A decisive Ethiopian victory against colonial Italian forces.
▪ Italian generals involved: Oreste Baratieri, Dabormida, Arimond, Albertone, Elena.
 ▪ Casualties:
▪ Italians: ~8,000 killed, ~1,500 wounded, ~3,000 captured
▪ Ethiopians: ~4,000–6,000 killed
o Aftermath:
▪ Treaty of Addis Ababa (October 26, 1896): Italy officially recognized Ethiopia’s
independence.
▪ Other global powers followed suit.
o Significance of Adwa:
▪ Became a symbol of black resistance against colonialism.
▪ Inspired Pan-African movements and leaders like Marcus Garvey, who praised Ethiopia
in his "Back to Africa" campaign.

Against the Mahdist Invasions (Sudanese Threats)

• Context: In response to the Hewett/Adwa Treaty, Mahdists (Islamic revivalist movement in Sudan)
launched attacks on Ethiopia.
• Battle of Kufit (September 1885)
o First major clash between Ras Alula and Uthman Digna.
• Battle of Sar-Wuha, Dembia (January 1888)
o Yohannes IV ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot to counter Mahdist attacks.
o Result: Mahdists under Abu Anja defeated Ethiopian troops.
• Battle of Gute Dilli, Najjo-Wallagga (October 14, 1888)
o Mahdists were defeated by Ras Gobena, Menilek’s commander.
• Battle of Metemma (March 9, 1889)
o Amid internal tensions:
▪ Menilek and Tekle-Haymanot plotted against Emperor Yohannes IV.
▪ Yohannes devastated Gojjam, then marched to Metemma.
o Outcome: Yohannes was killed in battle while fighting the Mahdists, ending his reign.

6.5.3. The Italian Occupation (1936–41) and the Patriotic Resistance

• Italian Occupation & Patriotic Resistance (1936–1941)

○ Background to the Invasion

• Fascist Italy and Mussolini's Ambitions

o Mussolini came to power in 1922.
o Sought to restore the glory of the ancient Roman Empire.
o Aimed to avenge the Italian defeat at the Battle of Adwa (1896).
• Subversive Activities Pre-Invasion
o Italy tried to create unrest in Ethiopian provinces: Tigray, Begemidir, Gojjam, Wollo.
o Used consulates in towns like Adwa, Gondar, Debre Markos, Dessie to spread propaganda and
gather military/political intelligence.
• Key Italian Figures in Pre-War Efforts
o Corrado Zoli (Governor of Eritrea, 1928–30) – oversaw subversion efforts.
o Guiliano Cora (Head of Legation in Addis Ababa) – led the policy of rapprochement (false
reconciliation).
• 1928 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty
o Signed as part of Italy’s deceptive peace efforts.
o Meant to appear friendly while Italy secretly planned invasion.
 • Pretext for Invasion: The Walwal Incident (Dec 5, 1934)
o Caused by lack of clear borders.
o Italians occupied Walwal, attacked Ethiopian troops.
o Despite more Ethiopian casualties, Italy demanded reparations.
o Ethiopia appealed to the League of Nations, but diplomatic efforts failed.

○ 1935 Invasion and Its Aftermath

• Outbreak of War (October 3, 1935)

o Italians invaded from Eritrea across the Mereb River.
o Three-pronged attack: Adigrat, Enticho, Adwa.
• Ethiopian Counter-Offensive (Northern Front)
o Commanders:
▪ Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie – Western front.
▪ Ras Kasa Hailu and Ras Seyoum Mengesha – Central front.
▪ Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War Minister) – Eastern front.
o Key Battles:
▪ Jan 20, 1936: Failed offensive due to poor coordination.
▪ Jan 24, 1936: First Battle of Temben – Ethiopian defeat.
▪ Amba-Aradom: Major Italian victory; Ras Mulugeta killed.
▪ Feb 27–29, 1936: Second Battle of Temben – Ras Kasa and Ras Seyoum defeated.
• Western Front
o Ras Emiru led a more organized and effective resistance.
o Fewer casualties compared to other fronts.
• Battle of Maychew (March 31, 1936)
o Emperor Haile Selassie personally led troops.
o Kebur Zebegna (Imperial Guard) fought bravely.
o Crushed by Italian air and ground assault.
• Fall of Major Cities
o April 4, 1936: Dessie occupied.
o May 2, 1936: Emperor fled the country.
o May 5, 1936: Italians entered Addis Ababa.

○ Southern Front Campaign

• Leaders
o Ras Desta Damtew – South.
o Dejjazmach Nesibu Zamanuel – Southeast.
• Key Battles
o Qorahe (Nov 1935) and Genale Dorya (Jan 1936): Ethiopian defeats.
• Notable Developments
o Eritrean askari (local recruits) defected to Ethiopian side.
o Boosted morale and prolonged resistance.
• End of Resistance
o Ras Desta continued fighting until captured and executed at Goggeti (early 1937).
o Southern front inflicted significant Italian casualties, delaying their central advance.

○ Italian Rule and Administration

• Formation of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, AOI)

o Merged Ethiopia with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland.
o Divided into six regions (e.g., Amhara, Oromo & Sidama, Somalia, etc.).
 o Capital: Addis Ababa (renamed Shewa).
• Governors of AOI
o Marshal Badoglio (till May 1936).
o Marshal Graziani (till Feb 1937).
o Duke Amadeo Umberto of Aosta.
• Nature of Rule
o Bureaucratic corruption and inefficiency.
o Foreign businesses (non-Italian) destroyed.
o Industrial and trade sectors developed more than agriculture.
o Attempted but largely failed Italian settler colonization (only 10% implemented).
• Italian Urban Legacy
o Lasting impacts mainly in cities:
▪ Architecture (Addis Ababa, Asmara, Gondar, etc.).
▪ Roads, motor transport, electricity, and clean water.
▪ Introduced Western customs, Italian words.
▪ Promoted cash economy and prostitution.
▪ Deliberate ethnic and religious divisions.

• The Patriotic Resistance Movement

○ First Phase: 1936 Uprising

• Southern Front Commanders

o Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene Merid, Dejjach Gebre Maryam Gari.
• Five-Pronged Attack on Addis Ababa (Summer 1936)
o Led by: Asfawesen Kasa, Aberra Kasa, Balcha Safo, Abebe Aregay, Fikre-Mariam Yinnadu.
o Failed due to lack of coordination.
• Martyrdom of Abune Petros
o Inspired resistance; executed by Italians.
• Assassination Attempt on Graziani
o Feb 19, 1937: Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom threw a bomb at Graziani.
o Resulted in brutal reprisals by the Black Shirts:
▪ 3-day massacre (~30,000 killed).
▪ Debre Libanos Massacre (297 monks executed on May 21, 1937).
▪ Targeted educated Ethiopians and EOC.

○ Second Phase: Guerrilla Warfare

• Notable Patriot Leaders

o Women: Lekyelesh Beyan, Kebedech Seyoum.
o Men: Dejjach Umar Samatar, Colonel Abdisa Aga, Colonel Jagama Kello, Dejjach Belay
Zeleqe, and others.
• Challenges to the Resistance
o Banda: Ethiopian collaborators undermined efforts.
o No centralized national command.
o Internal rivalries and disunity among guerrilla groups.

○ Turning Point: British Alliance (1940–41)

• Context
o Italy entered WWII (June 10, 1940) on Germany’s side.
o Britain recognized Emperor Haile Selassie as an ally (July 12, 1940).
• Joint Operations
o General William Platt – Attacked Italians from Eritrea (north).
o General Cunningham – Advanced from Kenya (south).
o Gideon Force (British + Ethiopian troops) entered Gojjam with Emperor (Jan 1941).
• Liberation of Ethiopia
o Addis Ababa liberated on March 6, 1941.
o May 5, 1941: Haile Selassie returned triumphantly to the capital.