Electric Vehicle

CO2 emissions of various sectors

Transportation is a substantial source of CO2 emissions, accounting for 48

percent of global transportation emissions.
Times Report
AUTOMOBILES

● Large Number - serious

problems [Human life and
environment ]
● Air pollution, global warming
and rapid depletion of earth’s
resources
● R & D - emphasize for
efficient ,safe , clean, green
source transportation.
CO2 Emissions over time
https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-co2-emissions-per-country

CO2 emissions - Our World in Data

CO2 Emissions - Worldometer (worldometers.info)
Sources of carbon Monoxide emissions
 Sources of sulphur dioxide emissions

1. Contributes to death and serious respiratory illness (e.g., asthma, chronic

bronchitis) due to fine particles.
2. Acidifies surface water, reducing biodiversity and killing fish.
3. Damages forests through direct impacts on leaves and needles, and by soil
acidification and depletion of soil nutrients.
4. Contributes to decreased visibility (regional haze).
5. Speeds weathering of monuments, buildings, and other stone and metal
structures.
 Sources of Nitrogen oxide emissions
1. High Temperature or pressures create favourable condition for formation of Nitrogen oxides
2. Results into formation of smog
A quarter of the Amazon rainforest now emits more carbon than it absorbs as a result of deforestation and
dryer conditions (Credit: Mauro Pimentel / Getty Images)
Electric Vehicle, Hybrid Electric Vehicle and Fuel cell electric vehicle will be replacing conventional
vehicles in future is proposed..
 What is an Electric Vehicle (EV?)
Any vehicle propelled by electric drivetrain taking
power from a rechargeable batteries or electrical energy source
(solar panels, fuel cells, etc.) by the help electric motors is called
an electric vehicle.
What is an electric Vehicle
(EV?)
A Car that runs on electricity ,
Uses electric motors for propulsion
 Why Electric Vehicles?
• Increasing automobiles
• Declining oil reserves
• Increasing greenhouse emissions
• Global warming, CARB regulations
1. An electric vehicle (EV) is one that operates on an electric motor, instead of
an internal-combustion engine that generates power by burning a mix of fuel
and gases.
2. Electric Vehicles (EV’s) include, road and rail vehicles, surface and
underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.
3. Though the concept of electric vehicles has been around for a long time, it has
drawn a considerable amount of interest in the past decade amid a rising
carbon footprint and other environmental impacts of fuel-based vehicles.
4. An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system by electricity
from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a battery, solar
panels, fuel cells or an electric generator to convert fuel to electricity.
 Electric Vehicles

● Electric Vehicles (EVs) are experiencing rapid growth because of five key
global trends:
(i) Fossil fuel depletion.
(ii) Growing public awareness.
(iii) Advances in technology.
(iv) The development of electric motors and electronic control systems.
(v) Advances in EV supporting technologies.
 Why Electric Vehicles?
1. Electric motor.
2. EV’s: road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels,
electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.
3. Past decade amid a rising carbon footprint [environmental
impacts].
4. An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system
by electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained
with a battery, solar panels, fuel cells or an electric generator to
convert fuel to electricity.
 Why we need Electric Vehicles?
1. High CO2 level
2. Increased Global Warming
3. 75% of carbon monoxide
emissions come from
automobiles
4. Rising Temperature
5. Need to reduce dependency
on crude oil imports of
around $112 billion dollars
which is equal to 3% of our
economy
 Electric Vehicle
• EV is a road vehicle based on modern electric propulsion consisting of
electric machines, power electronic converters, electric energy sources and
storage devices, and electronic controllers;
• EV is a broad concept, including BEV, HEV, FCEV, etc;
• Regenerative braking is possible in EVs;
• EV is not only just a car but a new system for our society’s clean and
efficient road transportation;
• EV is an intelligent system which can be integrated with modern
transportation networks;
• EV design involves the integration of art and engineering;
• More advancements are to be done to make them affordable;
 EV Mechanical compostion
Three major components and interconnections

propulsion wheels
system

energy auxiliary
source power

1. Electric Propulsion system: generates the necessary power to the wheels.

Includes transmission and energy management system
2. Energy source: consists of energy sources like fossil fuel, battery or fuel
cells. Generates or accepts energy
3. Auxiliary power system : supplies power to auxiliaries like a.c., fan,
lightning system etc.
 How do they work?

• Uses electricity not petrol

• Energy comes from a power outlet via a cord to the car.
• Energy stored in a battery
• Energy powers the electric car motor, moving the car.
 Benefits
Sustainability Efficiency
1. No tail pipe emissions 1. Well to wheel efficiency
2. Improves the liveability & air 2. Regenerative braking
quality 3. Instant power to wheels
3. More use solar panels & wind 4. Higher torque
energy
4. Healthy environment

Convenience
Economics
1. No Gear Box 1. Less running cost
2. Less maintenance 2. No tax
3. No oil changing problem 3. Cheaper fuel (electricity)
4. Large internal space 4. No dependency on oil imports
5. Can be charge at home
5. less maintenance.
 Disadvantages
• Currently more expensive [Battery]
• Limited charging infrastructure
• Range Anxiety
• Silent operation- potentially dangerous for pedestrians
• Long charging time
Ban on Petrol & Diesel in 9 countries & 12 Cities

2035 ??
 Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement aims to limit the global temperature rise well below
two degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit
the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

https://unfccc.int/most-requested/key-aspects-of-the-paris-agreement
Environmental Considerations

➔ Footprint generated by EV battery

➔ Environmental impact of drilling the metal [Lithium Mining] & its side effects.

[Water loss, ground destabilisation,contamination,biodiversity loss]

➔ How much EV emit on road? :reduction of air pollution.

➔ Reduce the enhanced greenhouse effect.
➔ Cars with zero tailpipe emissions protect the health of future generations
Report ranks less than 20% of country pledges as “sufficient”

The report ‘Truth Behind the Climate Pledges’ noted that emissions from the top
four emitters account for 56 percent of global greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions – China (26.8 percent), the U.S. (13.1 percent), the European
Union and its 28 member states (9 percent) and India (7 percent).

According to the report, of the total 187 pledges,

only 36 were deemed “sufficient” based on commitments to reduce

emissions by at least 40 percent by 2030,

14 pledges were considered “partially sufficient” for their commitments to

reduce emissions between 20-40 percent by 2030

137 pledges were partially or totally “insufficient”.

 SAFE, SMART AND SUSTAINABLE GREEN
TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
India First
NDC ● Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid &
(Nationally Electric Vehicles
Determined ● National Electric Mobility Mission Plan 2020
(NEMMP)
Contribution) ● Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Program [Bharat Stage VI
across the country in the near future]
https://www.skoda-storyboard.com/en/innovation/mobility/types-of-electric-vehicles-do-you-know-them-all/
The basic design consists of a dc power source battery. The battery is
connected to inverter that is fed to a BLDC motor that works on AC.
The motor is attached to the front wheel of the two wheeler vehicle.
As the motor rotates the attached wheel rotates too, thus, leading to
vehicle motion. At low speeds this mode of propulsion is used. The
next phase consists of an IC engine that moves the piston
continuously. This is connected to the transmission and thus, the
vehicle moves.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle

■ A Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) has at least two sources of

power for propulsion: ICE & EM.
1. Main Sources of Energy –
- Fuel Cell
- Battery
- Ultra Capacitors
- Flywheel
2. - Gasoline Engine + Electric Motor
- Diesel Engine + Electric Motor
A hybrid electric vehicle can perform at least one or more of the following
functions:

● engine idle stop/start

● electric torque assistance (fill and boost)
● energy recuperation (regenerative braking)
● electric driving
● battery charging (during driving)
● battery charging (from the grid)
Three main reasons for which the automotive
manufacturers are developing and selling HEVs:

➢ reduction of the CO2 emissions (by reduction of the fuel consumption)

➢ reduction of the exhaust gas toxic emissions
➢ improvement of the powertrain dynamics (by increasing total power and
torque)
If we have an ICE vehicle, in order to transform it into a
HEV, we need to add:

● a high voltage battery (between 200 and 400 V)

● a power electronics controller (inverter)
● an electric machine
● a DC-DC converter
Disadvantages
● More weight [additional electric components]
● it’s more difficult to build and the total price of purchasing and
ownership increases.
In most of the HEVs the electric propulsion is done using permanent-
magnet electric machines.
Advantages of an electric machine, compared to an ICE, are:

● constant high torque at low speeds

● very high efficiency
● instant torque delivery
● energy recuperation capability
What is a drivetrain?

●A drivetrain is the collection of components that deliver power from a

vehicle’s engine or motor to the vehicle’s wheels.
●In hybrid-electric cars, the drivetrain design determines how the electric
motor works in conjunction with the conventional engine.
●The drivetrain affects the vehicle’s mechanical efficiency, fuel
consumption, and purchasing price.
HEV

● The HEV is designed to hybridize the ICE drivetrain and electrical

drivetrain to boost up efficiency of the ICE system.

● Hybridization of energy sources in EVs and hybridization of

powertrains in HEVs can significantly boost system efficiency and
driving ranges of the EV and HEV.

● The onboard energy source is the most important part in drivetrain

hybridization in the HEV and energy source hybridization in the EV.
Drivetrain:
The mechanical parts of the powertrain, the gears and shafts, that connect the
engine to the wheels in a vehicle.
Powertrain
The group of components in a vehicle that generate power and deliver it .
Energy Savings Potential of Hybrid Drivetrains

● Regenerative braking
● More efficient operation of the ICE, including
reduction of idle
● Smaller ICE
● Potential for higher weight
● Electrical losses
ARCHITECTURE OF DRIVETRAIN
1) powertrain 1 individually delivers power to the load.
2) powertrain 2 individually delivers power to the load;
3) both powertrain 1 and 2 deliver power to the load simultaneously
4) powertrain 2 obtains power from load (regenerative braking);
5) powertrain 2 obtains power from powertrain
6) powertrain 2 obtains power from powertrain 1 and load at the same time;
7) powertrain 1 delivers power to load and to powertrain 2 at the same time;
8) powertrain 1 delivers power to powertrain 2, and powertrain 2 delivers
power to load;
9) powertrain 1 delivers power to load, and load delivers power to
powertrain 2.
Hybridization
●
❑ Classification of powertrain:
1. Based on the path of energy flow
a. Mechanical power transmission path (MPTP)
b. Electrical power transmission path (EPTP)
c. Combination of MPTP and EPTP
2. Based on architecture
a. Series
b. Parallel
c. Series-Parallel
3. Based on degree of hybridization
a. Mild
b. Power
c. Energy
4. Charge depleting
5. Charge sustaining
SERIES HEV
Series drivetrains
● Series drivetrains are the simplest hybrid configuration.
● In a series hybrid, the electric motor is the only means of providing power to the
wheels. The motor receives electric power from either the battery pack or from a
generator run by a gasoline engine.
● A computer determines how much of the power comes from the battery or the
engine/generator. The vehicle’s computer can option to power the motor with the
battery pack only, saving the engine for situations where it’s more efficient.
● Both the engine/generator and the use of regenerative braking recharge the battery
pack.
● Series hybrids perform at their best during stop-and-go traffic, where gasoline and
diesel engines are inefficient.
● The engine is typically smaller in a series drivetrain because it only has to meet
certain power demands; the battery pack is generally more powerful than the one
in parallel hybrids in order to provide the remaining power needs.
● This larger battery and motor, along with the generator, add to the vehicle’s cost,
making series hybrids more expensive than parallel hybrids.
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• ICE operation can be optimized, • Energy converted twice
and ICE itself can be redesigned to (ICE/G then Motor)
satisfy the needs
• Smaller engine possible • Additional weight/cost due to
increased components
• High speed engine possible [multi • Traction motor, generator,
– speed transmission ] clutch is ICE are full sized to meet the
eliminated. vehicle performance needs
• Single gear box ● Large more complicated
battery
• No transmission needed ● Highway driving
• Multiple motors or wheel motors ● Adds to the cost
are possible
• Simple control strategy ● Two electrical machines

● Ideal torque-speed
characteristics
● More efficient engine
 Applications

● Heavy commercial vehicles.

● Military vehicles and buses.
● Example of SHEV: Renault Kangoo,

Fisker Karma, Chevrolet VOLT.

 Parallel drivetrains

● The engine and electric motor work in parallel.

●Smaller battery pack.
●Power demands are low: motor as a generator.
●Efficiency of these hybrids on the highway.
Parallel HEV

Parallel
HEV
 Parallel drivetrains

●In vehicles with parallel hybrid drivetrains, the engine and electric
motor work in tandem to generate the power that drives the wheels.
Parallel hybrids tend to use a smaller battery pack than series
drivetrains, relying on regenerative braking to keep it recharged.
●When power demands are low, parallel hybrids also utilize the motor
as a generator for supplemental recharging, much like an alternator in
conventional cars.
●Since the engine is connected directly to the wheels in parallel
drivetrains, the inefficiency of converting mechanical power to
electricity and back is eliminated, increasing the efficiency of these
hybrids on the highway.
● This reduces, but does not eliminate, the efficiency benefits of
having an electric motor and battery in stop-and-go traffic.
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• ICE operation can be • Complicated control

optimized, with motor assist strategy
or share the power from the
ICE
• Flexible in configurations and • Complex transmission
gives room for optimization
of fuel economy and
emissions
• Reduced engine size
• Possible plug-in hybrid for
further improved fuel
economy and emission
reduction
➔ Most designs combine a large electrical generator and a motor into
one unit, often located between the combustion engine and the
transmission, replacing both the conventional starter motor and the
alternator .
➔ The battery can be recharged during regenerative braking, and during
cruising (when the ICE power is higher than the required power for
propulsion).
➔ As there is a fixed mechanical link between the wheels and the motor
(no clutch), the battery cannot be charged when the car isn’t moving.
➔ When the vehicle is using electrical traction power only, or during
brake while regenerating energy, the ICE is not running (it is
disconnected by a clutch) or is not powered (it rotates in an idling
manner)
Operation modes:
 Operation modes:

1. Electric power only

2. ICE power only
3. ICE + electric power
4. ICE + battery charging
5. Regenerative braking
(a) Electric power only: Up to speeds of usually 40 km/h, the electric motor
works with only the energy of the batteries, which are not recharged by the
ICE. This is the usual way of operating around the city, as well as in reverse
gear, since during reverse gear the speed is limited.
(b) ICE power only: At speeds superior to 40 km/h, only the heat engine
operates. This is the normal operating way at the road.
(c) ICE + electric power: if more energy is needed (during acceleration or at
high speed), the electric motor starts working in parallel to the heat engine,
achieving greater power
(d) ICE + battery charging: if less power is required, excess of energy is used
to charge the batteries. Operating the engine at higher torque than necessary, it
runs at a higher efficiency.
(e) Regenerative braking: While braking or decelerating, the electric motor
takes profit of the kinetic energy of the he moving vehicle to act as a generator.
Sometimes, an extra generator is used: then the batteries can be recharged
when the vehicle is not driving, the ICE operates disconnected from the
transmission. But this system gives an increased weight and price to the HEV.
Advantages
➢ Energy loss is less
➢ Compactness.

Drawbacks
➢ Narrow speed region.
➢ The mechanical configuration & control strategy are
complex
➢ Due to its compact characteristics, small vehicles use
parallel configuration.
➔ Example : Honda Civic,Honda Insight, the Chevy Malibu.
Honda's IMA (Integrated Motor Assist) uses a rather
traditional ICE with continuously variable transmission,
where the flywheel is replaced with an electric motor.
➔ Most passenger cars employ this configuration.
Series-Parallel System
● In the series-parallel hybrid the configuration incorporates the features of
both the series and parallel HEVs. However, this configuration needs an
additional electric machine and a planetary gear unit making the control
complex.
● There is a double connection between the engine and the drive axle:
mechanical and electrical.
● This split power path allows interconnecting mechanical and electrical
power, at some cost in complexity.
● Power-split devices are incorporated in the powertrain.
● The power to the wheels can be either mechanical or electrical or both.
● This is also the case in parallel hybrids. But the main principle behind
the combined system is the decoupling of the power supplied by the engine
from the power demanded by the driver.
Advantages:
1. Maximum flexibility to switch between electric and ICE power
2. Decoupling of the power supplied by the engine from the power demanded
by the driver allows for a smaller, lighter, and more efficient ICE design.

Disadvantages:
1. Very complicated system, more expensive than parallel hybrid.
2. The efficiency of the powertrain transmission is dependent on the amount
of power being.
3. transmitted over the electrical path, as multiple conversions, each with their
own efficiency, lead to a lower efficiency of that path (~70%) compared
with the purely mechanical path (98%).

Ex. Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Lexus RX400h

Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

➔ A Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle that combines
a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an electric propulsion
system (hybrid vehicle drivetrain).
➔ The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve better fuel economy and
performance.
➔ The best example of HEV efficiency is the Toyota Prius Hybrid, which gets the best gas mileage
(between 50 and 60mph) of any car using an internal combustion engine.
Micro-hybrid electric vehicles

1. Micro-hybrid electric vehicles have the lowest contribution of electric power.

2. In a micro hybrid, the electric motor is used for applications such as stop/start actions
of the engine and small scale of regenerative braking.
3. The start/stop functionality, for example, can help in turning off the engine
automatically at a stop light and hence reduce the fuel consumption.
4. The electric drivetrain, however, cannot be used to supply additional torque to the
wheels.
5. Ex. Chevy Malibu with stop-start, or Mazda’s i-ELOOP system.
Mild-hybrid EV

1. A mild-hybrid EV has all the functionality of a micro-hybrid.

2. In addition, it has features that allow it to improve the drawbacks of fossil fuel
vehicles by improving the efficiency levels.

3. If we see Mode of operation The ICE consumes more fuel and emits more pollutants
when coasting, braking or idling. In those situations the electric motor will assist in
order to increase the efficiency levels by helping the engine operation.

4. In a mild hybrid, the electric drive motor can assist the engine when extra power is
needed, but it is incapable of propelling the vehicle alone

5. Ex. Audi SQ7, La Crosse e-assist.

 1. Mild Hybrid [Ford]

MILD HYBRID https://youtu.be/u-p__-iKMEM

2. Mild Hybrid [Audi] With drive
states
https://youtu.be/NDr2DF1YaoI
Image: Valeo Belt Starter Generator system (MHEV)
Full hybrid car

1. A full hybrid car has the characteristics that the electric motor provides at least
40% of the maximum range power as additional torque.

2. These type of cars include a large motor and battery bank; this feature gives the
opportunity to reduce the size of the combustion engine especially in a parallel or
series-parallel configuration.

3. This configuration involves adding complexity to the powertrain structure in order

to provide movement from both motor and engine interchangeable, which increase
the cost-weight of the vehicle.

4. Ex. Toyota Prius , BMW XM , Volvo S90,Ford Fusion

 Ford Fusion Hybrid
https://avt.inl.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/hev/fact2010fordfusion.pdf
HEV Micro hybrid Mild hybrid Full hybrid
Classification

Battery Very small capacity Very small capacity Larger capactiy 2-

<1kWh, low voltage <1kWh, low voltage 10kWh, high voltage
battery, typically 12- battery, typically 12-48V battery, typically 200-
48V 400V

Engine start-stop Yes Yes Yes

whilst idling

Regenerative Small or no R.braking Mild R.braking Full R.braking

braking

Electric drive (or) No additional torque Additional torque to the All electric drive capable
electric torque to the wheels wheels, but incapable of of propelling vehicle
assistance propelling vehicle alone alone

Battery charging Not possible Not possible Possible, then called

from grid plug-in hybrid electric
car

Improvement in fuel 2-4 10-20 >25

economy (%)

Motor power (kW) <5 5-25 20-50

HYBRID POWERTRAIN CONCEPT
 Type Energy source Propulsion device Characteristics

– it has the ability to use the battery

energy for electrical systems without
mHEV – 99% fuel drawing power from the alternator
– 100% internal
(micro Hybrid (petrol/gasoline, diesel) – can modify the charging profile of the
combustion engine
Electric Vehicle) – 1% electrical energy low voltage battery (12 V) by increasing
the charge rate during vehicle
deceleration

– the electric machine can provide

additional torque during vehicle
acceleration phases
– the electric machine can recuperate
electrical energy during vehicle
– 80-90% fuel deceleration
MHEV – 80-90% internal
(petrol/gasoline, diesel) – has two electrical networks and
(Mild Hybrid combustion engine
– 10-20% electrical batteries, a low voltage one (12 V) and
Electric Vehicle) – 10-20% electric motor
energy a high voltage system (48-150V)
– has a DC-DC converter to exchange
energy between the low voltage and
high voltage network
– has a high voltage electric machine,
usually controlled by a 3-phase inverter
 Type Energy source Propulsion device Characteristics

– additional to the MHEV

characteristics:
– the vehicle can drive in EV mode
– 70-80% fuel
HEV – 70-80% internal – the high voltage system can go up to
(petrol/gasoline, diesel)
(Hybrid Electric combustion engine 300-400V
– 20-30% electrical
Vehicle) – 20-30% electric motor – the high voltage battery has higher
energy
energy content
– the electric machine has higher power
output

– additional to the HEV characteristics:

– the high voltage battery can be
charged from the grid
– 60-70% fuel
PHEV – 60-70% internal – the vehicle can be driven in EV mode
(petrol/gasoline, diesel)
(Plug-in Hybrid combustion engine up to 50-60 km
– 30-40% electrical
Electric Vehicle) – 30-40% electric motor – the high voltage battery has higher
energy
energy content
– the electric machine has higher power
output
Plug-in hybrid cars (PHEV)

➔ Configuration as a full HEV [downsized engine & electrical components]

➔ Electric power for the charge of the battery.
➔ While the engine operates, fuel efficiency is similar to a full HEV.
➔ PHEVs are ideal in urban commuting where trips are short, but are also equipped for
long trips.
Plug-in hybrid cars (PHEV)

➔ Electric motor and gas engine.

➔ Uses batteries .
➔ Mode of operation.
➔ greenhouse gas output.
➔ Ex.Kia Niro Plug-In Hybrid,BMW 225xe etc.
 Hybrid type
Functions
mHEV MHEV HEV PHEV

Engine idle stop/start • • • •

Energy recuperation • • • •

Electric torque assist • • •

Electric driving • •

Battery charging from the grid •

 Micro Mild Full Plug-in
Parameter
Hybrid Hybrid Hybrid Hybrid

Battery voltage [V] 12 48 – 160 200 – 300 300 – 400

Electric machine power

[kW] 2…3 10 … 15 30 … 50 60 … 100
(motor)

Electric machine power

[kW] <3 10 … 12 30 … 40 60 … 80
(generator)

EV mode range [km] 0 0 5 … 10 < 50

CO2 estimated benefit [%] 5…6 7 … 12 15 … 20 > 20

 Type of hybrid Micro Plug-in
Mild (MHEV) Full (FHEV)
electric vehicle (S&S) (PHEV)
Minimum battery SOC
80 … 90 40 … 60 30 … 50 10 … 20
[%]
Battery voltage [V] 12 48 / 160 200 – 300 300 – 400
lithium-ion / nickel
Battery chemistry lead-acid lithium-ion lithium-ion
– metal hydride
Plug-in hybrid cars (PHEV)

1. A Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) or Plug-In Hybrid, uses an electric

motor and gas engine to operate.

2. Its electric motor uses batteries that are recharged by plugging in to an electric

power source (a wall socket or EV charger).

3. Mode of operation is seen as the gas-powered motor can work together with the

electric motor, or separately on its own, to power the powertrain.

4. Extensive scientific studies have shown that powertrains using a gas engine plus an

electric motor (or, in many cases, 2 or 3 electric motors), creates much better fuel
efficiency.
5. Less fuel is burned during the PHEV’s operation, reducing greenhouse gas output.

An example of a PHEV is the Kia Niro Plug-In Hybrid.

Key Components

1. Battery (auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery provides electricity to start the
car before the traction battery is engaged and also powers vehicle accessories.
2. Charge port: The charge port allows the vehicle to connect to an external power supply in order to
charge the traction battery pack.
3. DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction battery pack to
the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and recharge the auxiliary battery.
4. Electric generator: Generates electricity from the rotating wheels while braking, transferring that
energy back to the traction battery pack. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the
drive and regeneration functions.
5. Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor drives the vehicle's
wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the drive and regeneration functions.
6. Exhaust system: The exhaust system channels the exhaust gases from the engine out through the
tailpipe. A three-way catalyst is designed to reduce engine-out emissions within the exhaust system.
7. Fuel filler: A nozzle from a fuel dispenser attaches to the receptacle on the vehicle to fill the tank.
➔ Fuel tank (gasoline): This tank stores gasoline on board the vehicle until it's needed by the

engine.
➔ Internal combustion engine (spark-ignited): In this configuration, fuel is injected into either

the intake manifold or the combustion chamber, where it is combined with air, and the air/fuel
mixture is ignited by the spark from a spark plug.
➔ Onboard charger: Takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge port and converts

it to DC power for charging the traction battery. It also communicates with the charging
equipment and monitors battery characteristics such as voltage, current, temperature, and state of
charge while charging the pack.
➔ Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy delivered by the

traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor and the torque it produces.
➔ Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature range of the

engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components.

➔ Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.

➔ Transmission: The transmission transfers mechanical power from the engine and/or electric

traction motor to drive the wheels.

 Comparison of BEV, HEV, and FCEV
Types of EVs BEV HEV FCEV
Propulsion •Electric motor drives •Electric motor drives •Electric motor drives
•ICE

Energy system •Battery •Battery •Fuel cells

•ultracapacitor •Ultracapacitor
•ICE generating unit

Energy source and •Electric grid charging •Gasoline stations •Hydrogen

facilities •Electric grid charging •Methanol or gasoline
infrastructure
facilities (optional for •ethanol
plug-in hybrid)

Characteristics •Zero emission •Low emission •Zero emission Independence

•Independence on fossil oil •Higher fuel economy on fossil oil
•Commercially available •Commercially available •High energy efficiency
•Under development (future
trend)

Major issues •Limitations of battery •Dependence on Fossil •High fuel cell cost
•Short range (100-200km) fuel •Lack of infrastructure
•Charging facilities •complex
 https://youtu.be/IEarYZ6ffoU

How Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles (PHEV) work

CLASSIFICATION OF VEHICLES
1. On the Basis of Load
2. Wheels
3. Fuel Used
4. Body
5. Transmission
EV Components
Electric Vehicles

➔ Battery electric vehicles: Electric motor {ICE}.

➔ Power motor: Traction battery pack
➔ Plugged in to a wall outlet or charging equipment: electric vehicle supply
equipment (EVSE).
➔ No exhaust from a tailpipe
➔ Does not contain the typical liquid fuel components, such as a fuel pump, fuel
line, or fuel tank.
 1. Battery
2. Charge port
3. DC/DC converter
EV Components 4. Electric traction motor
5. Onboard charger
6. Power electronics controller
7. Thermal system
8. Traction battery pack
9. Transmission
Components

❏ Charge port: The charge port allows the vehicle to connect to an external power
supply in order to charge the traction battery pack.
❏ DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the
traction battery pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle
accessories and recharge the auxiliary battery.
❏ Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor
drives the vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform
both the drive and regeneration functions.
Components

❏ Battery (all-electric auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary

battery provides electricity to power vehicle accessories.
❏ Onboard charger: Takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge
port and converts it to DC power for charging the traction battery. It also
communicates with the charging equipment and monitors battery
characteristics such as voltage, current, temperature, and state of charge while
charging the pack.
❏ Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy
delivered by the traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction
motor and the torque it produces.
Components

❏ Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating

temperature range of the engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other
components.
❏ Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.
❏ Transmission (electric): The transmission transfers mechanical power from the
electric traction motor to drive the wheels.
General Configuration
Of An Electric Vehicle
They are as follows:

➢ Electric Propulsion Subsystem

Three major subsystems. ➢ Energy Source Subsystem

➢ Auxiliary Subsystem
[1] The electric propulsion subsystem consists of five components. They are:
➢ The Electronic Controller
➢ Power Converter
➢ Electric Motor
➢ Mechanical Transmission
➢ Driving Wheels
[2] The energy source subsystem consists of three components. They are:
➢ Energy Source(ie Battery,Fuel Cell,Ultracapacitor and others)
➢ Energy Refueling Unit
➢ Energy Management Unit
[3] The auxiliary subsystem consists of three components. They are:
➢ Power Steering Unit
➢ Temperature Control Unit
➢ Auxiliary Power Supply
Electric Vehicle Configurations

➢ Based On Drive -Train Arrangements

➢ Based On Power Source Arrangements
Based On Drive-Train Arrangements

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration with clutch, gearbox, and differential

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration without clutch and gearbox

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration with fixed gearing, motor and differential

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration with two Electric Motors(EM)

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration with in-wheel motor and mechanical gear

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration with in-wheel motor and no mechanical gear

Based On Power Source Arrangements

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration with battery source

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration with two battery sources

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration with battery and fuel cell sources

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration with multiple energy sources

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration with battery and capacitors sources

➢ Electric Vehicle configuration with battery and flywheel sources

Vehicle Dynamics
What is vehicle dynamics?

➢ Vehicle dynamics is the study of vehicle in motion and its behaviour during the
interaction with the driver.
➢ Functions :

[1] Understanding behaviour of the vehicle under certain driver input

conditions.[ex.Turning steering wheel,pressing brake pendal etc.]

[2] Study and verify if the vehicle response is safe and comfortable to the
passengers sitting inside.
 Vehicle
Dynamics 1. Empirical [Trial and error]
2. Analytical [laws of physics]
Empirical

➢ Vehicle dynamics is accomplished at two levels::

a] Empirical : Empirical method is trial and error method which often lead to
failure.
b] Analytical : Analytical model is generally followed as it is based on laws
of physics. It uses mathematical models to get the outputs/response from
inputs.
 1. Longitudinal dynamics
2. Lateral dynamics

Vehicle 3. Vertical dynamics

Dynamics
Classification
1. When you have more than one dimension to control, the dynamics required to
be known as lateral dynamics.
2. A normal vehicle, let is say a IC engine based vehicle works on longitudinal
vehicle dynamics.
3. So the vehicle has to move in one direction and when the vehicle needs to be
turned, that job is done by differential.
4. So the control person do not need to understand the lateral dynamics of the
system a lot.
5. On the other hand, when we are going for dual motor system of electric vehicle
or in-wheel type of electric vehicle, both the longitudinal and lateral dynamics
has to be controlled by the individual electric drive trains.
6. There the understanding of lateral vehicle dynamics is very important. So it ís a
multidimensional way of modeling.
7. So generally when we go for a low speed vehicle, the first or the longitudinal
vehicle dynamics is enough to be understood.
8. But when we are going for very high speed operation, we have to understand
the lateral vehicle dynamics as well, for good control of the vehicle and road
handling.
Vehicle Dynamics

➢ Vehicle dynamics is classified into three levels::

➢ Longitudinal dynamics : Study of behaviour of the vehicle in a straight
line. i.e. during acceleration, braking, straight line stability etc.
➢ lateral dynamics:Study of the behaviour of the vehicle taking a turn i.e.
taking a turn, during overtaking etc.
➢ Vertical dynamics:Study of behaviour of the vehicle in a vertical
direction i.e. encountering a speed breaker, or a paddle etc.
Performance
1. Lateral acceleration is often used as a performance «yardstick». For braking, we usually
use the «100-0 km/h» distance. For acceleration, we usually use the time from the «¼-
mile» or the «0-100 km/h». All of these measurements depends solely on the acceleration
capability of the vehicle.
2. The tire friction coefficient will be the most important factor affecting maximum
acceleration in any direction. The stickier, the better.
3. Once that is set, some basic vehicle dimensions and configurations will limit what you can
get out of the tires. No matter what type of suspension, brakes, engine or transmission
you will use.
4. By introducing some aerodynamic downforce (or negative lift), you can extend those
limits, even eliminate them.
5. At high speed, the maximum longitudinal acceleration is usually limited by the amount of
power available at the wheels, no matter what type of engine or transmission is used.
 WEIGHT TRANSFER

1. Weight transfer is unavoidable.

2. unequally distributed between them.
3. weight transfer hurts grip in
cornering and braking - we would like
to have tires equally loaded.
4. So, in most cases, the «perfect» vehicle
would always have 25% of the total
vertical force (weight and downforce) on
each tire.
Dynamics of Vehicle

➢ Propulsion Unit
➢ The acceleration of the vehicle depends on:
1. the power delivered by the propulsion unit the road conditions
2. the aerodynamics of the vehicle
3. the composite mass of the vehicle
Forces acting on a vehicle going uphill
Tractive Force

➔ Def: Tractive force or tractive effort or traction is the force applied between the
tire and road surface to move a car or any vehicle for that matter.
➔ Def: The effort that is required to move the vehicle or propel the vehicle,
transmitted to the ground for moving the vehicle through the driving axle and the
wheels.
➔ The maximum permissible traction force that can be applied to the wheels is
governed by two things: the weight of the vehicle and the adhesion coefficient
between the tire and the road surface.
➔ More the weight and the adhesion coefficient more amount of tractive force can
be applied to the wheels without causing slips between the tires and road.
 Tw = Te ig if ht [N m]
and
TE =Tw / Rw [N]
where:
Tw is the wheel torque [N m]
Te is the engine torque [N m]
ig is the gearbox ratio
if is the final drive ratio
ht is the transmission efficiency
TE is the tractive effort [N]
Rw is the rolling radius or effective radius [m]

The tractive effort (TE) is equal to the torque at the driven wheels (Tw) divided
by the rolling radius or effective radius (Rw)
 ★ Total Tractive Efforts (TTE):

Tractive efforts is defined as the tractive force of a vehicle exerts on a surface or the
amount of tractive force is parallel to the direction of motor.

★ Traction or Tractive Force:

Tractive force is the force used for generate the variation between tangential surface
and body. Or Tractive force is nothing but the net force present at wheels
 Vehicle 1. Rolling resistance
Movement 2. Aerodynamic drag
3. Uphill resistance

The resistive forces are

Rolling Resistance

➢ Rolling resistance is the resistive force of vehicle which opposes the

rolling of the wheels, which is caused due to non-elastic effects at the
tire-road surface .
➢ The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is due to hysteresis in the
tire material

Pressure distribution in contact area

The moment produced by forward shift of the resultant ground reaction force
is called rolling resistance moment (Figure) and can expressed as

Force acting on a tyre vs.

deformation in loading and
unloading on a hard surface
When a vehicle is moving up a gradient
Force acting on a tyre vs. deformation in loading and
unloading on a soft surface
 function of:
1. tire material
2. tire structure
3. tire temperature
RRC 4. tire inflation pressure
5. tread geometry
6. road roughness
7. road material
8. presence of absence of
liquids on the road
Aerodynamic drag
Aerodynamic Drag
1. A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting its
motion. This force is known as aerodynamic drag.
2. The main causes of aerodynamic drag are:
● shape drag
● skin effect
Grading resistance

When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component of force that is
always directed downwards

The grade value is defined as

Vehicle going up a grade

Acceleration resistance

➔ In addition to the driving resistance occurring in steady state motion, inertial forces also occur
during acceleration and braking.
➔ The total mass of the vehicle and the inertial mass of those rotating parts of the drive accelerated
or braked are the factors influencing the resistance to acceleration:
Acceleration resistance

➔ The rotational component is a function of the gear ratio.

➔ The moment of inertia of the rotating drive elements of engine, clutch, gearbox, drive
shaft, etc., including all the road wheels are reduced to the driving axle. The
acceleration resistance can be expressed as
➢ The rotational component is a function of the gear ratio
➢ The moment of inertia of the rotating drive elements of engine, clutch, gearbox, drive shaft,
etc., including all the road wheels are reduced to the driving axle.
➢ The acceleration resistance can be expressed as
Advantages of EV

1. Lower running costs

2. Low maintenance cost
3. Zero Tailpipe Emissions
4. Tax and financial benefits
5. Petrol and diesel use is destroying our planet
6. Electric Vehicles are easy to drive and quiet
7. Convenience of charging at home
8. No noise pollution
Challenges of EV

1. Lack of charging stations and challenges from grid side.

2. Lacked of trained personnel
3. Uncertain consumer behavior
4. Supply chain problems
5. Impact of FAME II policy