Invitation to Philosophy Basic Moral Experience

Philosophy is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like
existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that
reflects on its own methods and assumptions.

 Ethics, also called moral philosophy, the discipline concerned with what is morally good
and bad and morally right and wrong. The term is also applied to any system or theory
of moral values or principles.
 Ethics is a system of moral principles. Ethics is concerned with what is good for
individuals and society and is also known as moral philosophy.
 The term is derived from the Greek word ethos which mean custom, habit, character or
disposition.

Ethics covers the following dilemmas:

- how to live a good life
- rights and responsibilities
- the language of right and wrong
- moral decisions (what is good and bad?)
Branches of Philosophy
1. Axiology: Study of the nature of value and valuation
2. Metaphysics: Study of the fundamental nature of reality
3. Epistemology: Study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge
4. Ethics Philosophy: Study of what is right and wrong in human behavior
5. Aesthetics: Study of beauty and taste
6. Logic Philosophy: Study of the nature and types of logic
7. Political Philosophy: Study of government, addressing questions about the nature, scope,
and legitimacy of public agents and institutions

Ethics

 The terms ethics and morality are

closely related. It is now common to
refer to ethical judgments or to ethical
principles where it once would have
been more accurate to speak of moral
judgments or moral principles. These
applications are an extension of the
meaning of ethics. In earlier usage, the
term referred not to morality itself but to the field of study, or branch of inquiry,
that has morality as its subject matter. In this sense, ethics is equivalent to moral
philosophy.
 Ethics deals with such questions at all levels. Its subject consists of the fundamental
issues of practical decision making, and its major concerns include the nature of
 ultimate value and the standards by which human actions can be judged right or
wrong.
Origin of Ethics
 If one has in mind ethics proper, the systematic study of what is morally right and
wrong it is clear that ethics could have come into existence only when human beings
started to reflect on the best way to live. This reflective stage emerged long after
human societies had developed some kind of morality, usually in the form of customary
standards of right and wrong conduct. The process of reflection tended to arise from
such customs, even if in the end it may have found them wanting. Accordingly, ethics
began with the introduction of the first moral codes.
 Virtually every human society has some form of myth to explain the origin of morality.
In the Louvre in Paris there is a black Babylonian column with a relief showing the
sun god Shamash presenting the code of laws to Hammurabi (died c. 1750 BCE), known
as the Code of Hammurabi. The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) account of God’s giving
the Ten Commandments to Moses (flourished 14th–13th century BCE) on Mount Sinai
might be considered another example.
 In the dialogue Protagoras by Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE), there is an avowedly
mythical account of how Zeus took pity on the hapless humans, who were physically no
match for the other beasts. To make up for these deficiencies, Zeus gave humans a
moral sense and the capacity for law and justice, so that they could live in larger
communities and cooperate with one another.

Problems of Divine Origin

 A modern theist (theism) might say that, since God is good, God could not possibly
approve of torturing children nor disapprove of helping neighbors. In saying this,
however, the theist would have tacitly admitted that there is a standard of goodness
that is independent of God. Without an independent standard, it would be pointless to
say that God is good; this could mean only that God is approved of by God. It seems
therefore that, even for those who believe in the existence of God, it is impossible to
give a satisfactory account of the origin of morality in terms of divine creation. A
different account is needed.
 There are other possible connections between religion and morality. It has been said
that, even if standards of good and evil exist independently of God or the gods,
divine revelation is the only reliable means of finding out what these standards are. An
obvious problem with this view is that those who receive divine revelations, or who
consider themselves qualified to interpret them, do not always agree on what is good
and what is evil. Without an accepted criterion for the authenticity of a revelation or an
interpretation, people are no better off, so far as reaching moral agreement is
concerned, than they would be if they were to decide on good and evil themselves,
with no assistance from religion.
Theist vs. Atheist
Theist
- a person who believes in the existence of a god or gods, specifically of a creator
who intervenes in the universe.
Theist Similarities Atheist
Atheist
Theist are more Have Moral Believe the morality - a person who don’t
inclined Compasses of an believes or lacks belief in
the existence of God or
to endorse moral • Share moral values action is based on its
gods.
values related to protecting
consequences Ancient Greece
that promote group vulnerable - Ancient Greece
individuals was the
cohesion
birthplace of
and liberty
Western
philosophical
ethics. The ideas of Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE), Plato, and Aristotle (384–322 BCE).

Socrates
 Socrates, who once observed that “the unexamined life is not worth living,” must be
regarded as one of the greatest teachers of ethics. Yet, unlike other figures of comparable
importance, such as the Buddha or Confucius, he did not tell his audience how they should
live. What Socrates taught was a method of inquiry.
 The Greeks believed that virtue is good both for the individual and for the community. To be
sure, they recognized that living virtuously might not be the best way to prosper financially;
but then they did not assume, as people are prone to do today, that material wealth is a
major factor in whether a person’s life goes well or ill.
Plato
 Socrates’ greatest disciple is Plato, he accepted the key Socratic beliefs in the objectivity of
goodness and in the link between knowing what is good and doing it. He also took over
the Socratic method of conducting philosophy, developing the case for his own positions by
exposing errors and confusions in the arguments of his opponents. He did this by writing his
works as dialogues in which Socrates is portrayed as engaging in argument with others,
usually Sophists. The early dialogues are generally accepted as reasonably accurate accounts
of the views of the historical Socrates, but the later ones, written many years after Socrates’
death, use the latter as a mouthpiece for ideas and arguments that were in fact original to
Plato.
Ethics
 According to Plato, justice exists in the individual when the three elements of the soul
—intellect, emotion, and desire, act in harmony with each other. The unjust person
lives in an unsatisfactory state of internal discord, trying always to overcome the
discomfort of unsatisfied desire but never achieving anything better than the mere
absence of want.
 The soul of the just person, on the other hand, is harmoniously ordered under the
governance of reason, and the just person derives truly satisfying enjoyment from the
pursuit of knowledge. Plato remarks that the highest pleasure, in fact, comes from
intellectual speculation. He also gives an argument for the belief that the human soul
 is immortal; therefore, even if a just individual lives in poverty or suffers from illness,
the gods will not neglect him in the next life, where he will have the greatest rewards
of all. In summary, then, Plato asserts that we should act justly because in doing so we
are “at one with ourselves and with the gods.”
Aristotle
- What, however, is the potentiality of human beings?
 For Aristotle this question turns out to be equivalent to asking what is distinctive about
human beings; and this, of course, is the capacity to reason. The ultimate goal of
humans, therefore, is to develop their reasoning powers. When they do this, they are
living well, in accordance with their true nature, and they will find this the most
rewarding existence possible.
 This line of thought makes sense if one thinks, as Aristotle did, that the universe as a
whole has a purpose and that human beings exist as part of such a goal-directed
scheme of things, but its error becomes glaring if this view is rejected and human
existence is seen as the result of a blind process of evolution. Whereas the distinctive
capacity of a knife is a result of the fact that knives are made for a specific purpose—
and a good knife is thus one that fulfills this purpose well—human beings, according to
modern biology, were not made with any particular purpose in mind. Their nature is the
result of random forces of natural selection. Thus, human nature cannot, without
further moral premises, determine how human beings ought to live.
4 Ethical “isms”
1. Moral Realism
○ Moral realism is based on the idea that there are real objective moral facts or truths in the
universe
2. Subjectivism
○ feelings or attitudes, and that ethical statements do not contain factual truths about
goodness or badness.
3. Emotivism
○ is the view that moral claims are no more than expressions of approval or disapproval.
4. Prescriptivism
○ Prescriptivists think that ethical statements are instructions or recommendations.

Supernaturalism
- God-based ethics - supernaturalism
- Supernaturalism makes ethics inseparable from religion. It teaches that the only source
of moral rules is God. So, something is good because God says it is, and the way to lead
a good life is to do what God wants.
Intuitionists
- Intuitionists think that good and bad are real objective properties that can't be broken
down into component parts. Something is good because it's good; its goodness doesn't
need justifying or proving.
Consequentialism
- This is the ethical theory that most non-religious people think they use every day. It bases
morality on the consequences of human actions and not on the actions themselves.
Non- Consequentialism or Deontological Ethics
- Non-consequentialism is concerned with the actions themselves and not with the
consequences. It's the theory that people are using when they referto "the principle of
the thing".
Virtue Ethics
- Virtue ethics looks at virtue or moral character, rather than at ethical duties and rules,
or the consequences of actions - indeed some philosophers of this school deny that
there can be such things as universal ethical rules.
Situation Ethics
- Situation Ethics rejects prescriptive rules and argues that individual ethical decisions
should be made according to the unique situation. Rather than following rules, the
decision maker should follow a desire to seek the best for the people involved. There
are no moral rules or rights - each case is unique and deserves a unique solution.

Sources of Moral Standards

Egoism and Altruism

Psychological Egoism
 states that if not all; many human behaviors are motivated by selfish reasons.
 contends that self-oriented interests are the primary motives of human behavior and
that is inherent in all humans.
 “By nature human beings are rational and desire above all their own self-preservation.
Human beings are selfish”
-British philosopher Thomas Hobbes

Hedonism- the pursuit of selfish pleasures

-Psychological Altruism
 Opposite of psychological egoism
 Some of our behaviors are motivated by benevolence or kindness towards
others and that this benevolence comes naturally
Reason and Emotion
 “Reason without emotion is a mask for cruelty. Emotion without reason lets people walk
all over you.”
 St. Paul, in his letter to the Romans, described very clearly how a man could know what is
right, yet does what is not.
 Knowing what is right and wrong does not automatically make a person righteous.
 We can recognize that there is a separation of “knowledge and the will”.
 There are strong emotions that can weaken the will to resist doing what reason says is
unreasonable.
Reason
 use of the intellect or the faculty for thinking
 explanation or justification of some specific behavior or conduct
 effort to change the mind of another
Emotion
  a mental state that arises spontaneously rather than through conscious effort and is
often accompanied by physiological changes
 are the intense feelings of anger, frustration, lust, joy, and love among others.

Emotional Quotient (EQ)

 refers to the ability to regulate our emotions
 studies have shown that people with high EQ have greater mental health, exemplary
job performance, and more potent leadership skills.
 Religion is another source of moral values
 The overriding love and concern that parents feel for their children
 The sympathy and empathy we feel
 The sense of duty and loyalty
 The anger and indignation
 Unfairness
 Injustice
 Positive feelings
 Freedom
 Admiration
 Guilt or shame
Moral vs. Non-Moral Standards

Morality and Related Norms

Norms of Morality
 is the criteria of judgement about the sorts of person we ought to be and the sorts of
action we ought to perform.
 the quality of things manifesting their conformity or non-conformity with the norm or
criteria (evil or immoral).
-Subjective Norm-Conscience
- Objective Norm- Law (natural)

Conscience
-Derived from the Latin word “con” plus “scientia” which means “with knowledge” of what
is right or wrong or “trial of oneself” both in accusation and in defense.
- It is the “inner or little voice of God in man”
-The subjective/proximate norm of morality.
-It is proximate because it is what directly confronts an action as good or bad.
Function
-to examine/investigate, to judge, to pass punishment on our moral actions.
Kinds of Conscience
 Antecedent- judgement is passed before an action is performed
 Consequent- judgement is passed after an action is performed
 Right/True- good or evil
 Erroneous/False- bad and good
 Certain Conscience- lawfulness or unlawfulness
 Doubtful Conscience- unable to define a judgement
 Lax Conscience- one who refuses to be bothered
 Scrupulous Conscience- extremely afraid of commiting evil
Formation of Conscience
1. By studying and searching for truths in the laws and in the sciences. Overcoming
ignorance and error in moral matters.
2. Cultivating good habits. Overcoming ignorance and error in moral matters.
3. By militating against evil, condemning and fighting against it.
4. One must learn how to use properly his/her freedom.
Law
-it is an ordinance of reason directed towards the common good and promulgated by the one
who has take care of the community or in authority.
Elements:
1. Ordinance/mandate- because it contains a decisive command to perform or to avoid
the performance of something.
2. Reasonable- a law should not be dictated by a despotic desire or momentary whim of
an authority. It must not be capricious, arbitrary, discriminatory, whimsical
3. For the common good
4. Promulgated
5. Enacted by a competent authority
Kinds of Law
1. Eternal Law- it is the Divine reason or the will of God commanding that the natural
order of things be preserved and forbidding that it be disturbed.
2. Natural Law- it is man’s participation in the eternal law of God.
 -it refers to the nature of all created things which is the principle of movements and
action.
3. Human Positive Law- are the laws which proceed from a properly constituted authority
such as the state or the church.
-Laws of the State
-Laws of the Church
Human Positive Law
1. A human law should be in accord with the divine law
2. A human law should be in accord with the natural law
3. A human law must promote the common good
4. A human law must have a universal character
“Every human law has just so much of the nature of the law as it is derived from the law of
nature. But if, at any point, it departs from the law of nature, it is no longer a law but a
perversion of law.”
Definition and the Problem of Morality
Problem of Morality
- At first glance, Asimov’s quote may seem paradoxical. Most of us consider acting
“morally” to be the epitome of doing what is right. We elevate our own morality to a
sacred status and praise those who stand by their moral convictions, especially in the
face of adversity.
- We stigmatize those who express inconsistent moral values, or even worse, morally
transgress. We do this for good reason; morality is at the heart of a well-functioning
society. Our moral compass compels us to keep our baser instincts in check and put our
self-interest aside for the good of the group. As a result, morality directly affects group-
living, and in many ways, positively shapes society.
- Morally like-minded individuals band together to form moral communities that adhere
to agreed upon codes of conduct (Haidt, 2001; 2007). These codes of conduct function
to guide interpersonal behavior based on mutually understood notions of right and
wrong, and in this way, morality is fundamental to the smooth functioning of society.
Without it, cooperation and collective action would unravel.
- To examine the potential negative consequence of morality, this article unfolds in four
stages. First, we define morality and distinguish it from nonmoral attitudes. We then
discuss the intrapersonal and interpersonal consequences of morality, reviewing how
our morality alters our cognitive processing (motivated reasoning, bias, and
dogmatism), leads to negative interpersonal consequences (outgroup derogation and
dehumanization), and can result in intergroup conflict, and even violence.
- While moral values remain an important guide to prosocial behavior, individuals can
also respond in intolerant, counterproductive, and at times dangerous ways when they
feel that their sacred values are jeopardized.
 Moral Conviction
 Moral Beliefs
 Rejection of Science and Technology on Moral Grounds

What is Ethics and How It Differs From Morality

 Morals - refer mainly to guiding principles, and
Ethics - refer to specific rules and actions or behaviors
 A persons idea of morals tends to be shaped by their surrounding environments.
Moral values shape a person’s ideas about right and wrong.
- They often provide the guiding ideas behind ethical systems.
- That’s where it gets tricky, MORALS are the basics for ETHICS
Ethics from Morals
- Ethics are distinct from morals in that they’re much more practical.
- A moral percept is a idea or opinion that’s driven by a desire to be good.
- An ethical code is a set of rules that defines allowable actions or correct behavior.
- An ethical code doesn’t have to be moral. It’s just a set of rules for people to follow.
- It is just a set of rules to ensure members stay out of trouble and act in a way that
brings credit to the profession.
Moral Dilemmas
Dilemma -it is a situation where a person is forced to choose between two or more conflicting
options, neither of which is acceptable. When dilemmas involve human actions which have
moral implications, they are called ethical or moral dilemmas.

Moral dilemmas
-are situations where persons, who are called "moral agents" in ethics, are forced to
choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which resolves the situation in
a morally acceptable manner. In moral dilemmas, the moral agent "seems fated to commit
something wrong, which implies that he/she bound to morally fail because in one way or
another he/she will fail to do something which he/she ought to do. In other words, by
choosing one of the possible moral requirements, the person also fails on others."
CONDITIONS TO BE CALLED ACT MORAL DILEMMA
a) The person or the agent of a moral action is obliged to make decision about which course
of action is best;
b) There must be different courses of choose of action to choose from;
c) no matter which course of action the moral agent chooses, there is always that moral
principle that is compromised.
1ST LEVEL INDIVIDUAL - a person, or an individual, has two or more moral values to consider,
he or she can choose one only, and choosing one or the other will not solve the problem in
a moral way
2ND LEVEL ORGANIZATIONAL – can take many forms and these are the moral problems in
the workplace
3RD LEVEL STRUCTURAL - refer to moral predicaments in public administration

Epistemic Moral Dilemmas

-There are two or more requirements that conflict with each other,
-The moral agent hardly knows which one takes precedence over the other
Ontological Moral Dilemmas
-There are two or more requirements that conflict with each other, yet neither of these
conflicting moral requirements overrides each other
Self-Imposed Moral Dilemma
-Caused by moral agents wrong doings
World-Imposed Dilemma
-Certain events in the world place the moral agent in a situation of moral conflict

Obligation Dilemmas
-More than one feasible action is obligatory
Prohibition Dilemmas
-All feasible actions are forbidden
Single- Agent Dilemma
-The agent “ought, all things considered, to do X. Ought, all things considered, to do Y, and
he cannot do both X and Y.
SDG 16
 Seeks to promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access
to justice for all, and build effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels.
 Peace, justice, and strong institutions are fundamental enablers for achieving all the SDG and
ensuring the well-being and prosperity of all people.
 This target aims to significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates worldwide.
It includes violence against children, human trafficking, and other forms of exploitation.
 This target aims to ensure equal access to justice for all individuals, regardless of their
economic or social status, and provide legal identity for everyone by 2030.