Operational Procedure

● Section A: Safety of Flight

● Section B: Airports
● Section C: Aeronautical Charts
● Section D: Airspace
 Section A: Safety of Flight

Maintaining the safety of flight is your number one priority as a

pilot. Every flight is different and, as pilot in command, you need to
consider the factors which can affect your flight and take the
appropriate actions to ensure safety.
 Collision Avoidance
Learning collision avoidance procedures begins with your first
flight. The risk of an inflight collision exists for all pilots. Studies
show that the majority of midair collisions occur within five miles of
an airport, during daylight hours, and in VFR conditions.
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) - the rule that govern the operation of aircraft
in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) (conditions in which flight
solely by visual reference is possible).
Visual Meteorological Condition (VMC) - Visual Condition (Clear Sky)
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) - the rule which allow properly equipped
aircraft to be flown under instrument meteorological conditions (IMC).
Instrument Meteorological Condition (IMC) - Instrument Condition (Not
Clear Sky)
 Visual Scanning
To see and avoid other aircraft, you must develop an effective
visual scanning pattern which is compatible with the function of your
eyes. Two normal healthy eyes provide the average person with a field
of vision of approximately 200°. However, the area in which the eye
can focus sharply and perceive detail is a relatively narrow cone
(usually only about 10° wide) directly in the center of the field of vision.
Note: The most effective way to scan during daylight is
through a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements in 10°
sectors.
 Empty Field Myopia
Sky conditions also have an effect on your ability to see traffic.
Empty Field Myopia is when you are looking at a featureless sky
that is devoid of objects, contrasting colors, or patterns, your eyes
tend to focus at only 10 to 30 feet ahead. This means that spots on
the windshield which are out of focus could appear to be airplanes,
and distant traffic may go undetected.
 Blind Spots and Aircraft Designs

Airplanes, like automobiles, have problems associated with

blind spots. In both highwing and low-wing aircraft designs,
portions of your view are blocked by the fuselage and wings.
 Maneuvers in the Training Area

Prior to starting any maneuvers, make clearing turns and

carefully scan the area for other aircraft. Clearing turns, which
usually consist of at least a 180° change in direction, allow you to
see areas blocked by blind spots and make it easier to maintain
visual contact with other aircraft in the area.
Minimum Safe Altitudes
Taxiing in Wind
 Positive Exchange of Flight Controls
Frequently during your flight training, it will be necessary for you
to exchange the flight controls with your instructor. For example, your
instructor normally will demonstrate a maneuver first, before passing the
controls to you. To ensure that it is clear as to who has control of the
aircraft we use these Phrases:
Pilot Passing Control: “Your Control”
Pilot Taking Control: “My Control”
 Section B: Airports

Each time a pilot operates an aircraft, the flight

normally begins and ends at an airport. This chapter
examines airport operations, identifies features of an
airport complex, and provides information on operating
on or in the vicinity of an airport.
 Types of Airports

● Civil Airport
● Military/Federal Government Airport
● Private Airport
● Controlled Airport
● Uncontrolled Airport
 Controlled Airport
A towered airport has an operating control tower. Air traffic control
(ATC) is responsible for providing the safe, orderly, and expeditious
flow of air traffic at airports where the type of operations and/or volume
of traffic requires such a service. Pilots operating from a towered
airport are required to maintain two-way radio communication with
ATC and to acknowledge and comply with their instructions.
 Uncontrolled Airport
A non-towered airport does not have an operating control tower.
Two-way radio communications are not required, although it is a good
operating practice for pilots to transmit their intentions on the specified
frequency for the benefit of other traffic in the area.
Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF)
It is a frequency designated for the purpose of carrying
out airport advisory practices while operating to or from an
airport without an operating control tower.
● UNICOM - Ground to Air Communication
● MULTICOM - Air to Air Communication
 Runway Layout
Since airplanes are directly affected by wind during takeoffs and
landings, runways are not arbitrarily placed by builders. It is normally
positioned so that you can take off and land in the direction of the
prevailing wind. If there is more than one runway, the main runway is
aligned with the prevailing wind and the remaining runway or runways are
placed so that they are aligned with other common wind directions.
Plaridel Runway (RPUX)
Single, Parallel and Intersecting Runway
 Traffic Pattern
Traffic patterns are established to ensure that air traffic flows
into and out of an airport in an orderly manner. Although the
direction and placement of the pattern, the altitude at which it is to
be flown, and the procedures for entering and exiting the pattern
may vary, a standard rectangular pattern with five named legs is
used at most airports.
Wind Direction Indicators
 Segmented Circle
At an uncontrolled airport, you can determine landing
direction by observing the wind direction indicator. The
extensions on the segmented circle indicate whether a left-
hand or right-hand pattern should be used for a given
runway.
 Airport Visual Aids
When you begin your flight training, the airport environment
can seem confusing. However, just as you learn how to interpret
traffic signals, road signs, and highway markings, you will soon
become familiar with the visual aids at an airport that help you
maintain orientation and keep traffic flowing smoothly.
 Runway Markings
● Runway markings vary between runways used solely for VFR
operations and those used in conjunction with IFR operations.
● A visual runway usually is marked with only the runway number
and a dashed white centerline.
● When flying instrument approaches, pilots can use the additional
markings on IFR runways as references for landing.
Taxiway Markings
Airport Signs
 Ramp Area
The area where aircraft are parked and tied down is
called the apron, or ramp area.
Ramp Signals
 Land and Hold Short Operations
Land and hold short operations (LAHSO) include landing and then
holding short of an intersecting runway, taxiway, or predetermined point. A
LAHSO clearance is an air traffic control tool used to increase airport
capacity, maintain system efficiency, and enhance safety.
 Runway Incursion
Runway incursions are primarily caused by errors associated with
clearances, communication, airport surface movement, and positional
awareness. There are several procedures that you can follow and
precautions that you can take to avoid a runway incursion.
 Runway Incursion Avoidance
● During your preflight planning, study the airport layout by reviewing the airport
diagram and taxi routes.
● Complete as many checklist items as possible before taxi or while holding
short.
● Strive for clear and unambiguous pilot-controller communication. Read back
(in full) all clearances involving active runway crossing, hold short, taxi into
position, and hold instructions.
● While taxiing, know your precise location and concentrate on your primary
responsibilities. Don't become absorbed in other tasks, or conversation, while
the aircraft is moving.
● If unsure of your position on the airport, stop and ask for assistance. At a
controlled airport, you can request progressive taxi instructions.
● When possible, while in a run-up area or waiting for a clearance, position your
aircraft so you can see landing aircraft.
● Monitor the appropriate radio frequencies for information regarding other
aircraft cleared onto your runway for takeoff or landing. Be alert for aircraft
which may be on other frequencies or without radio communication.
● After landing, stay on the tower frequency until instructed to change
frequencies.
● To help others see your aircraft during periods of reduced visibility or at night,
use your exterior taxi/landing lights, when practical.
● Report deteriorating or confusing airport markings, signs, and lighting to the
airport operator or FAA officials. Also report confusing or erroneous airport
diagrams and instructions.
● Make sure you understand the required procedures if you fly into or out of an
airport where LAHSO is in effect.
 Notice to Airmen (NOTAM)
Issued to inform pilots of a runway closure, changes in the
status of navigational aids or instrument approach facilities, radar
service availability, and other information essential to planned
enroute, terminal, or landing operations.
NOTAM Sample
 Airport Lighting
Your flying experiences will soon take you from flying only in
the daytime to the new challenge of night flying. You will notice that
airport lighting is similar from one airport to the next. To maintain
continuity, airports that are lighted for nighttime operations use
CAAP approved lighting systems and colors.
 Airport Beacon
● At night, airport beacons are used to guide pilots to lighted airports.
Airport beacons may be of the older rotating type, or the newer
flashing variety which produces the same effect.
● An airport's rotating beacon operated during daylight hours normally
indicates that weather at the airport is below basic VFR minimums.
 Visual Glideslope Indicators
Visual glideslope indicators are light systems which indicate
your position in relation to the desired glide path to the runway. The
indicator lights are located on the side of a basic or instrument
runway and can be used for day or night approaches.
Types of Visual Glideslope Indicators

● Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)

● Tri-color VASI
● Pulsating VASI
● Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
 Approach Light System (ALS)
Some airports have approach lighting systems (ALS) to help
instrument pilots transition to visual references at the completion of an
instrument approach. Approach light systems can aid you in locating
the runway at night.
● The most complex systems are for precision instrument runways
and usually have sequenced flashing lights that look like a ball of
light traveling toward the runway at high speed.
● For non-precision instrument runways, the approach lighting is
simpler and, for VFR runways, the system may consist only of
visual glideslope indicators.
 Runway Edge Lights
Runway edge lights consist of a single row of white lights
bordering each side of the runway and lights identifying the runway
threshold. Runway edge lights can be classified according to three
intensity levels:
● High intensity runway lights (HIRLs)
● Medium intensity runway lights (MIRLs)
● Low intensity runway lights (LIRLs)
 Pilot Controlled Lighting
Pilot-controlled lighting is the term used to describe systems
that you can activate by keying the aircraft's microphone, or mike,
on a specified radio frequency.
Note: Keep in mind that other types of airport lighting may be
pilot controlled, not just approach and runway lighting. For
example, VASI and REIL lights may be pilot controlled at some
locations.
 Runway End Identifier Lights
Sometimes high intensity white strobe lights are placed on each side of
the runway to mark the threshold. These are called runway end identifier
lights (REILs) and can be used in conjunction with the green threshold lights.
 In-runway Lighting
● Some precision approach runways have flush-mounted centerline,
touchdown zone, and taxiway turnoff lighting. Viewed from the
threshold, the runway centerline lighting system (RCLS) is white until
the last 3,000 feet of the runway.
● From the 3,000-foot point to the 1,000-foot point, alternating red and
white lights appear.
● With the last 1,000 feet of lights changing to red only.
This system helps instrument pilots determine the amount of runway
remaining in very low visibility situations.
 Taxiway Lighting
As you taxi off the active runway, blue lights, lining both edges of the
taxiway, guide you from the runway to the ramp area. Because they can
be seen from any direction, they are said to be omnidirectional lights.
● At some airports, green taxiway centerline lights also may be
installed.
● These lights are located along the taxiway centerline in both straight
and curved portions of the taxiway.
● They also may be located along designated taxiing paths in portions
of runways and ramp areas.
 Obstruction Lighting
Obstruction lighting is used both on and off the airport, during the
day and at night. The purpose of obstruction lighting is to give you
advance warning of prominent structures such as towers, buildings
and, sometimes, even powerlines. Bright red and high intensity white
lights typically are used and flashing lights may be employed.
Section C: Aeronautical Charts
● World Aeronautical Chart (WAC)

1:1,000,000 (about 1 inch = 13.7 nautical miles or 16 statute miles)

● Sectional Chart (SEC)

1:500,000 (about 1 inch = 6.86 nautical miles or 8 statute miles)

● VFR Terminal Area Chart

1:250,000 (about 1 inch = 3.43 nautical miles or 4 statute miles)

 Section D: Airspace
The portion of the atmosphere above a particular land
area, especially above a nation.
● Controlled Airspace
● Uncontrolled Airspace
 Airspace Classification
● Class A - From 18,000 to 60,000 feet MSL (IFR)
● Class B - From surface to 10,000 feet MSL
● Class C - From surface to 1,200 feet MSL (Inner Ring) 1,200 feet
MSL to 4,000 feet MSL (Outer Ring)
● Class D - From surface to 2,500 feet MSL
● Class E - where the other airspaces are not.
● Class G - From surface to 700 or 1,200 feet AGL. Sometimes all
the to 14,500 feet MSL.
 Airspeed Limitations
Since the airspace at lower altitudes, and especially in the vicinity of
airports, tends to be congested, the FAA has established aircraft speed
restrictions.
● Flights below 10,000 feet MSL are limited to a maximum indicated
airspeed of 250 knots.
● When operating in Class C or D airspace, at or below 2,500 feet
above the surface and within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport,
you must not exceed 200 knots indicated airspeed.
● This 200-knot restriction also applies in airspace underlying a Class B
area and in VFR corridors through Class B airspace.
 Special Use Airspace
Special use airspace is used to confine certain flight activities and to
place limitations on aircraft operations which are not part of these
activities. Special use airspace is divided into:
● Alert areas
● Military operations areas
● Warning areas
● Restricted areas
● Prohibited areas
● Controlled firing areas
● National security areas
 Alert Areas
Areas shown on aeronautical charts to inform you of unusual types of
aerial activities, such as parachute jumping, glider towing, or high
concentrations of student pilot training are designated as alert areas.
 Military operations areas
A military operations area (MOA) is a block of airspace in which
military training and other military maneuvers are conducted.
 Warning Areas
Warning areas often contain hazards such as aerial gunnery or
guided missiles. Warning areas are depicted on aeronautical charts to
caution nonparticipating pilots of the potential danger. A warning area may
be located over domestic or international waters or both.
 Restricted Areas
Restricted areas often have invisible hazards to aircraft, such as
artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles. Permission to fly through
restricted areas must be granted by the controlling agency.
 Controlled Firing Areas
The distinguishing feature of a controlled firing area, compared to
other special use airspace, is that its activities are discontinued
immediately when a spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout personnel
determines an aircraft might be approaching the area. Since
nonparticipating aircraft are not required to change their flight path,
controlled firing areas are not depicted on aeronautical charts.
 Other Airspace Areas
Other airspace areas mainly consist of national security areas,
airport advisory areas and military training routes. Other segments
in this category may be designated as temporary flight restrictions,
flight limitations in proximity to space flight operations, and flight
restrictions in proximity to the Presidential party. Parachute jump
areas and terminal radar service areas (TRSAs) also are classified
as other airspace areas.
 Temporary Flight Restrictions
When necessary, temporary flight restrictions are imposed by the
FAA/CAAP to protect persons or property on the surface or in the air from
a specific hazard or situation.