THE GIST OF NCERT

GEOGRAPHY class 7

Chapter 1: Environment
1.1 Definition of Environment

 Environment refers to the place, people, things, and nature surrounding any
living organism.
 It is a combination of natural and human-made phenomena.
 Natural Environment includes biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
conditions.
 Human Environment includes human activities, creations, and interactions.
 Word Origin: Environment comes from French ‘environner’, meaning
neighbourhood.

1.2 Components of Natural Environment

 Includes land, water, air, plants, animals.

 Domains of the environment:
o Lithosphere (land)
o Hydrosphere (water)
o Atmosphere (air)
o Biosphere (living world)

1.3 Lithosphere

 Solid crust or hard top layer of Earth, made of rocks and minerals, with a
thin soil layer.
 Includes mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys – found on both continents and
ocean floors.
 Provides land for agriculture, forests, human settlements, and is a source of
minerals.

1.4 Hydrosphere

 Refers to all forms of water bodies – rivers, lakes, seas, oceans.

 Water is essential for life.

1.5 Atmosphere

 Thin layer of air surrounding the Earth, held by gravitational force.

 Protects from harmful solar rays and heat.
 Composed of gases, dust, and water vapour.
 Weather and climate result from atmospheric changes.

1.6 Biosphere

 Includes all plants and animals; the living world.

 A narrow zone where land, water, and air interact to support life.
1.7 Ecosystem

 Defined as interaction among living organisms and their physical &

chemical surroundings.
 Examples: Rainforests, grasslands, deserts, mountains, rivers, ponds,
oceans.
 All elements are linked by energy and material transfer.

1.8 Human Environment

 Humans interact and modify the environment to fulfill needs.

 Early humans lived simply, adapted to nature, and used natural resources
directly.
 Over time, needs increased, leading to development of tools, farming, animal
domestication, and settled life.
 Key human advances:
o Invention of wheel
o Agricultural surplus
o Barter system: Trade without money
o Trade and commerce growth
o Industrial Revolution: Enabled mass production
o Transport became faster
o Information Revolution led to instant global communication

1.9 Important Fact

 World Environment Day is celebrated on 5th June every year to raise

awareness about environmental protection.

Chapter 2: Inside Our Earth

2.1 Earth – A Dynamic Planet

 Earth is constantly undergoing internal and external changes.

 Like an onion, Earth has concentric layers.

2.2 Interior of the Earth

 Crust:
o Outermost, thinnest layer.
o Thickness: 35 km (continental), 5 km (oceanic).
o Composition:
 Continental Crust: Silica + Alumina = SIAL.
 Oceanic Crust: Silica + Magnesium = SIMAL.
 Mantle:
o Below crust, extends to 2900 km depth.
o 84% of Earth’s volume.
 Core:
o Innermost layer, radius ~3500 km.
o Composition: Nickel + Iron = NIFE.
o Very high temperature and pressure.
o Makes up 15% of Earth’s volume.
 Total Earth radius = 6371 km.
2.3 Rocks and Minerals

 Earth’s crust is made of rocks – natural mass of mineral matter.

 Rocks vary in colour, size, texture.

2.4 Types of Rocks

 Igneous Rocks (Primary Rocks):

o Formed from cooling of molten magma.
o Types:
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks: Magma cools on surface, fine-
grained (e.g., Basalt – Deccan Plateau).
 Intrusive Igneous Rocks: Magma cools inside crust, coarse-
grained (e.g., Granite – used in grinders).
 Sedimentary Rocks:
o Formed from compressed and hardened sediments.
o Example: Sandstone (from sand grains).
o May contain fossils (remains of ancient life).
 Metamorphic Rocks:
o Formed when igneous/sedimentary rocks change under heat &
pressure.
o Example: Granite → Gneiss, Coal → Diamond.

2.5 Rock Cycle

 Rock cycle = continuous transformation of rocks.

o Magma → Igneous Rock → Sediments → Sedimentary Rock → Heat &
Pressure → Metamorphic Rock → Melts → Magma again.

2.6 Minerals

 Naturally occurring substances with fixed physical properties and chemical

composition.
 Importance:
o As fuels: coal, natural gas, petroleum.
o In industries: iron, aluminium, gold, uranium.
o In medicine, fertilisers, etc.

2.7 Important Terms

 Crust: Earth’s outermost hard layer.

 Mantle: Layer beneath crust.
 Core: Earth’s inner part (nickel + iron).
 Rock: Solid part of Earth’s crust, made of minerals.
 Mineral: Naturally occurring, non-living solid.
 Rock Cycle: Transformation process of one rock type into another.
 Fossils: Remains of dead plants/animals in rocks.

.
 Chapter 3: Our Changing Earth
3.1 Lithospheric Plates

 Earth’s crust consists of large and small rigid plates carrying continents and
ocean floors.
 These are called lithospheric plates.
 Plates move a few millimetres per year due to circular movement of molten
magma inside the Earth.

3.2 Forces Causing Earth Movements

 Endogenic Forces: Originate inside the Earth (e.g., earthquakes, volcanoes).

 Exogenic Forces: Originate on Earth’s surface (e.g., weathering, erosion).

3.3 Endogenic Forces – Sudden Movements

 Volcano: An opening (vent) in Earth's crust where molten material erupts.

 Earthquake:
o Vibration of Earth’s surface due to plate movement.
o Focus: Place inside crust where movement starts.
o Epicentre: Point directly above focus on Earth’s surface.
o Waves: Vibrations radiate outward from epicentre.

3.4 Types of Earthquake Waves

1. P waves (Primary) – Longitudinal

2. S waves (Secondary) – Transverse
3. Surface waves – Most destructive

3.5 Measuring Earthquakes

 Measured by Seismograph.
 Magnitude: Richter Scale.
o <2.0 – Minor; 5.0 – Damage likely; ≥7.0 – Major quake.

3.6 Earthquake Preparedness

 Safe Spots: Under table, desk, or against interior wall corner.

 Avoid: Fireplaces, chimneys, windows, mirrors.
 Be Prepared: Spread awareness to reduce impact.
 Local signs: Unusual animal behaviour may indicate upcoming quakes.

3.7 Major Landform Evolution

 Caused by weathering (breaking of rocks) and erosion (wearing away by water,

wind, ice).
 Deposition of eroded material forms new landforms.
3.8 Work of a River

 Waterfall: Formed when river tumbles over steep slopes or hard rock (e.g.,
Angel Falls – Venezuela; Niagara Falls – USA/Canada; Victoria Falls –
Zambia/Zimbabwe).
 Meander: Large bend in river.
o Ox-bow Lake: Formed when meander loop is cut off from main river.
 Floodplain: Formed by deposited sediments during floods.
o Raised river banks = Levees.
 Delta:
o Formed as river slows down near sea, breaks into distributaries, and
deposits sediments at river mouth.

3.9 Work of Sea Waves (Coastal Landforms)

 Sea waves erode and deposit material along the coast, forming coastal
landforms.
 Sea Caves: Cracks in coastal rocks enlarge to form hollow caves.
 Sea Arches: Roof of large sea cave remains, forming an arch.
 Stacks: Roof eroded further; only vertical walls remain.
 Sea Cliff: Steep rocky coast rising vertically above sea water.
 Beaches: Formed by deposition of sediments along the shore.

3.10 Work of Ice (Glacial Landforms)

 Glaciers: Rivers of ice that erode landscape by bulldozing soil and rocks.
 Create deep hollows, later filled with water to form glacial lakes.
 Glacial Moraine: Deposits of rocks, sand, silt left behind by glaciers.

3.11 Work of Wind (Desert Landforms)

 Wind is a major agent of erosion and deposition in deserts.

 Mushroom Rocks: Wind erodes lower section of rocks more, forming narrow
base and wide top.
 Sand Dunes: Formed when wind-blown sand is deposited in small hill-like
structures.
 Loess: Fine sand carried over long distances by wind, deposited in large areas
(e.g., China).

3.12 Important Terms Summary

 Earthquake: Sudden shaking due to movement in Earth’s crust.

 Volcano: Opening in Earth’s crust where molten material erupts.
 Focus: Origin point of an earthquake inside Earth.
 Epicentre: Surface point directly above the focus.
 Weathering: Breaking of rocks on Earth’s surface.
 Erosion: Wearing away of landscape by water, wind, or ice.
 Sea Caves → Sea Arches → Stacks → Sea Cliffs: Sequence of landform
evolution by sea wave erosion.
 Chapter 4: Air
4.1 Atmosphere – Definition and Importance

 The atmosphere is a blanket of air surrounding Earth.

 It sustains life, provides oxygen for breathing, and protects from harmful solar
radiation.
 Acts as a temperature regulator, preventing extreme heating (day) or freezing
(night).

4.2 Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

 Carbon dioxide (CO₂) traps heat radiated by Earth, creating a greenhouse

effect—essential for maintaining Earth's temperature.
 Global warming: Excess CO₂ from burning fuels (coal, oil) increases Earth’s
temperature, causing:
o Melting snow, rising sea levels, floods, and climate changes.
o Possible extinction of plant and animal species.

4.3 Composition of Atmosphere

 Major Gases:
o Nitrogen (78%) – Plants need it; soil bacteria convert it into usable
form.
o Oxygen (21%) – Vital for breathing; replenished by photosynthesis.
o Carbon dioxide (0.03%) – Used by plants; balanced through respiration
and photosynthesis.
 Minor Gases: Argon, Helium, Ozone, Hydrogen.
 Dust particles and water vapour are also present.
 Air circulation: Warm air rises, cold air sinks, causing movement of air.

4.4 Structure of the Atmosphere

Divided into 5 layers based on temperature and height:

Layer Height Key Features

Most important; weather phenomena (rain, fog, hail)
Troposphere 0–13 km
occur here.
Clear sky; ideal for flying; contains ozone layer (UV
Stratosphere 13–50 km
shield).
Mesosphere 50–80 km Meteorites burn up in this layer.
Temperature rises; Ionosphere helps in radio
Thermosphere 80–400 km
transmission.
Above 400 Uppermost layer; gases like helium, hydrogen escape
Exosphere
km to space.

4.5 Weather and Climate

 Weather: Hour-to-hour, day-to-day condition of atmosphere (e.g., rain,

sunshine, wind).
 Climate: Average weather condition over a long period.
 Daily weather forecasts help predict short-term atmospheric changes.
4.6 Temperature

 Degree of hotness or coldness of the air.

 Influenced by insolation – solar energy received by Earth.
 Insolation decreases from equator to poles, hence poles are colder.
 Urban Heat Island Effect: Cities are warmer than villages due to heat-retaining
materials (e.g., concrete, asphalt).
 Standard Unit: Degree Celsius (°C); water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C.

4.7 Air Pressure

 Defined as pressure exerted by air's weight on Earth’s surface.

 Highest at sea level, decreases with height.
 Warm air → rises → low pressure → cloudy skies & rain.
 Cold air → sinks → high pressure → clear skies & sun.
 Wind blows from high pressure to low pressure areas.
 Astronaut suits are pressurized to prevent internal bleeding due to lack of
external pressure.

4.8 Wind

 Wind: Movement of air from high to low pressure.

 Types of Winds:
1. Permanent Winds: Trade winds, Westerlies, Easterlies – blow year-
round in fixed direction.
2. Seasonal Winds: Change direction by season – e.g., Monsoon in India.
3. Local Winds: Blow in small areas for short periods – e.g., land and sea
breeze, Loo (hot, dry wind in northern India).
 Winds are named after the direction they blow from – e.g., Westerly.

4.9 Cyclone – Nature’s Fury

 Example: Odisha cyclone (Bay of Bengal) – caused wind damage, heavy rain,
tidal surges.
 Impact: Flooding, coastal destruction, severe weather due to depression
formation.

4.10 Moisture and Humidity

 Moisture: Water vapour in air.

 Humidity: Amount of moisture in air at any time.
o Hot air holds more moisture → more humid.
 Clouds: Form when water vapour condenses into droplets.
 When droplets become heavy → precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, hail).
 Types of Rainfall:
1. Convectional Rainfall
2. Orographic Rainfall
3. Cyclonic Rainfall
 Rainwater replenishes groundwater; trees help prevent floods.
 Chapter 5: Water
1. The Water Cycle
 Definition: The continuous process of evaporation, condensation, and
precipitation by which water circulates between oceans, land, and atmosphere.
 Process:
o Evaporation: Water turns into vapour due to sun’s heat.
o Condensation: Vapour cools to form clouds.
o Precipitation: Water falls as rain, snow, or sleet.

Do You Know? 3/4th of the Earth’s surface is covered with water.

2. Sources of Freshwater
Source Nature Notes
Rivers Fresh Surface runoff from land
Ponds Fresh Small inland water bodies
Springs Fresh Natural groundwater outlets
Glaciers Fresh Frozen freshwater reserves
Oceans & Seas Saline Contain dissolved salts, mainly NaCl

Salinity: Amount of salt (grams) in 1000 grams of water.

Average ocean salinity: 35 ppt (parts per thousand).
Dead Sea Salinity: ~340 grams/litre → high density, swimmers float.

3. Distribution of Water Bodies on Earth

Water Body % of Total Water Nature
Oceans 97.3% Saline
Ice-caps (glaciers) 2.0% Fresh
Groundwater 0.68% Fresh
Freshwater Lakes 0.009% Fresh
Inland Seas/Salt Lakes 0.009% Saline
Atmosphere 0.0019% Fresh
Rivers 0.00001% Fresh

4. Ocean Circulation – An Overview

 Definition: Continuous movement of ocean water due to external forces like
wind, gravity, and Earth’s rotation.
 Types of Movements:
o Waves – surface water rise and fall.
o Tides – periodic rise/fall due to gravity.
o Currents – stream-like movement of water.

Do You Know? March 22 is observed as World Water Day to promote water

conservation.
5. Waves
 Definition: Alternate rising and falling of ocean surface water.
 Cause: Winds scraping across ocean surface.
 Effect: Bigger waves with stronger winds.
 Storm Waves: During storms, high-speed winds generate large waves →
potential destruction.

Tsunami – A Special Type of Wave

 Definition: Huge tidal wave caused by underwater earthquake, volcanic

eruption, or landslide.
 Height: Can reach up to 15 m or more.
 Speed: Travels up to 700–900 km/hr.

Do You Know? Tsunami means Harbour Wave in Japanese – often destroys harbours.

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami Case Study

 Date: 26 December 2004

 Epicentre: Near western boundary of Sumatra (Magnitude: 9.0 Richter scale)
 Cause:
o Indian Plate subducted under Burma Plate → sudden sea floor
movement.
o Water displacement → tsunami waves.

Impact Details
Speed Initially 800 km/hr → slowed to 70 km/hr near coast
Reach Up to 3 km inland
Casualties Over 10,000 deaths in India
Most Affected Regions Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Puducherry, Andaman
(India) & Nicobar Islands
Property destruction, loss of life, land submergence (e.g.,
Damage
Indira Point)

Observation: People gathered at shore to watch water withdrawal → heavy casualties

due to lack of awareness and early warning systems.

6. Significance of Tsunami Preparedness

 Problem: No tsunami warning systems in Indian Ocean at that time.
 Contrast: Pacific Ocean has early warning systems due to high seismic activity.
 Lesson: Need for early monitoring, public awareness, and infrastructure to
minimize future damage.

Important Terms

 Salinity: Salt content in water.

 Water Cycle: Circulation of water through evaporation, condensation,
precipitation.
 Tsunami: Large wave caused by underwater disturbances.
 Precipitation: Rain, snow, sleet falling from clouds.
 Condensation: Vapour cooling into water droplets..
7 Tides

 Definition: Rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice a day.

o High Tide: Water rises to highest level, covering much of shore.
o Low Tide: Water falls to lowest level and recedes from shore.

Causes of Tides:

 Gravitational pull of the moon and sun on Earth’s water.

 Stronger moon’s pull (due to proximity) causes greater tide effects.

Spring Tide:

 Occurs on Full Moon & New Moon days.

 Earth, Moon, and Sun are in a straight line.
 Causes highest tides.

Neap Tide:

 Occurs on First Quarter & Last Quarter moon phases.

 Gravitational pull of Sun and Moon acts in opposite directions.
 Causes low tides.

Importance of Tides:

 Navigation: High tides raise water levels near shores, aiding ship movement
into harbours.
 Fishing: More fish come near shore during high tide → better catch.
 Tidal Energy: Rise/fall of tides used in some places for electricity generation.

8 Ocean Currents
 Definition: Streams of ocean water flowing constantly in definite directions
on ocean surface.
 Can be Warm or Cold.

Types:

1. Warm Ocean Currents:

o Originate near equator, flow towards poles.
o E.g. Gulf Stream (Atlantic Ocean)
2. Cold Ocean Currents:
o Originate near poles, flow towards tropics.
o E.g. Labrador Current (North Atlantic)

Impact of Ocean Currents:

 Temperature Regulation:
o Warm currents → increase coastal temperatures.
o Cold currents → cool down nearby land areas.
 Fishing Grounds:
o Where warm and cold currents meet → nutrient-rich waters → best
fishing zones.
o Examples:
 Coasts of Japan (Kuroshio + Oyashio)
 Eastern North America
  Navigation Hazard: Meeting of currents causes foggy weather, affects
visibility and shipping safety.

Important Definitions (For Prelims):

Term Meaning

Tide Rhythmic rise/fall of sea water twice daily.

Spring Tide Highest tide (Moon, Earth, Sun aligned).

Neap Tide Lowest tide (Moon at quarter phases).

Ocean Current Constant flow of water in definite direction.

Terrarium Enclosure for growing small house plants.

Saline Water with salt content (e.g., oceans, salt lakes).

Do You Know?

 Salinity: Salt in 1000g of water.

o Average ocean salinity = 35 ppt.
 Tsunami: In Japanese – “Harbour Wave”.
 World Water Day: 22 March (theme: water conservation).

CHAPTER 6: NATURAL VEGETATION AND

WILDLIFE

1. Natural Vegetation – Definition

 Natural Vegetation: Plants that grow naturally without human interference.
 Classification of Natural Vegetation:

Category Region Type Description

Forests High temperature & rainfall areas Dense/open tree cover
Grasslands Moderate rainfall areas Grass dominant
Shrubs Dry regions Thorny bushes, scrub vegetation

2. Types of Forests and Their Features

A. Tropical Evergreen Forests (Tropical Rainforests)

 Location: Near the equator and tropics.

 Climate: Hot & heavy rainfall throughout the year.
 Features:
o No dry season → trees do not shed leaves together → evergreen.
o Dense canopy prevents sunlight from reaching ground.
 o Hardwood trees: Rosewood, Ebony, Mahogany.
 Wildlife: Anaconda (can kill/eat large animals like crocodiles), monkeys, birds.

B. Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests)

 Location: India, Northern Australia, Central America.

 Climate: Seasonal changes → dry and wet seasons.
 Features:
o Trees shed leaves in dry season to conserve water.
o Hardwood trees: Sal, Teak, Neem, Shisham → used for furniture,
transport, construction.
 Wildlife: Tigers, Lions, Elephants, Langurs, Monkeys.

C. Temperate Evergreen Forests

 Location: Mid-latitude coastal regions – e.g., SE USA, South China, SE

Brazil.
 Features:
o Mix of hardwood and softwood trees: Oak, Pine, Eucalyptus.
o Moderate rainfall, no distinct dry season.

D. Temperate Deciduous Forests

 Location: NE USA, China, New Zealand, Chile, Western Europe.

 Features:
o Trees shed leaves in dry season.
o Common trees: Oak, Ash, Beech.
 Wildlife: Deer, Foxes, Wolves, Birds (Pheasants, Monals).

E. Mediterranean Vegetation

 Location:
o Around Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa, Asia.
o Also in California (USA), SW Africa, SW South America, SW
Australia.
 Climate: Hot dry summers, mild rainy winters.
 Features:
o Trees have thick bark, waxy leaves to reduce water loss.
o Vegetation cleared for fruit cultivation: Oranges, Figs, Olives, Grapes.
 Wildlife: Sparse wildlife due to human modification.

Do You Know? Mediterranean regions are known as “Orchards of the World” due to
rich fruit cultivation.

F. Coniferous Forests (Taiga)

 Location: Higher latitudes (50°–70° N Hemisphere) and higher altitudes (e.g.,

Himalayas).
 Features:
o Evergreen softwood trees: Chir, Pine, Cedar.
o Used for pulp (paper, newsprint), match/packing boxes.
o Wildlife: Silver Fox, Mink, Polar Bear.
Summary Table: Forest Types & Key Details

Forest Type Key Trees Wildlife Uses

Tropical Rosewood, Ebony, Anaconda, Birds, Timber, Oxygen
Evergreen Mahogany Monkeys source
Tropical Sal, Teak, Neem, Tiger, Elephant,
Furniture, Transport
Deciduous Shisham Langur
Temperate Timber,
Oak, Pine, Eucalyptus Moderate wildlife
Evergreen Construction
Temperate
Oak, Ash, Beech Deer, Fox, Pheasant Timber, Hunting
Deciduous
Olive, Fig, Citrus
Mediterranean Sparse wildlife Fruit cultivation
fruits
Silver Fox, Mink, Paper, Newsprint,
Coniferous (Taiga) Chir, Pine, Cedar
Polar Bear Packing

3. Grasslands – Types and Features

A. Tropical Grasslands

 Location: On either side of the equator extending to the tropics.

 Rainfall: Moderate to low rainfall.
 Vegetation:
o Tall grasses – up to 3–4 metres in height.
 Example: Savannah Grasslands of Africa.
 Wildlife: Elephants, Zebras, Giraffes, Deer, Leopards.

Do You Know?
Grasslands have different names across regions:

Region Grassland Name

East Africa Savanna
Brazil Campos
Venezuela Llanos

B. Temperate Grasslands

 Location: Mid-latitudinal zones, interior of continents.

 Vegetation:
o Short and nutritious grass.
 Wildlife: Wild Buffaloes, Bisons, Antelopes.

Do You Know?
Names of Temperate Grasslands:

Region Grassland Name

Argentina Pampas
North America Prairie
South Africa Veld
Central Asia Steppe
Australia Downs
4. Desert Vegetation – Thorny Bushes
 Location: Tropical deserts, mostly on western margins of continents.
 Climate: Scanty rainfall, scorching heat.
 Vegetation:
o Sparse cover – thorny bushes, shrubs.
 Indian Example: Thar Desert (Great Indian Desert).
 Wildlife: Camel, Desert Fox, Snakes, Lizards.

Do You Know?
Desert regions can be identified on the world map – e.g., Sahara (Africa), Gobi (Asia),
Atacama (South America).

5. Tundra Vegetation (Polar Region)

 Location: Polar regions – Europe, Asia, North America.
 Climate: Extremely cold, short summer.
 Vegetation:
o Only mosses, lichens, and small shrubs grow.
 Wildlife:
o Animals with thick fur/skin to survive cold:
Seals, Walruses, Musk-oxen, Arctic Owl, Polar Bear, Snow Fox.

6. Important Terms – Glossary

Term Definition
Vegetation Plants in general, or plants in a specific area.
Wildlife Wild animals collectively.
Tropical Area between the two Tropics; hot and humid.
Deciduous Trees that shed leaves annually.
Temperate Moderate climate – neither too hot nor too cold.
Region around Mediterranean Sea; mild, dry summers and wet
Mediterranean
winters.
Coniferous Trees with cones and evergreen leaves (e.g., Pine, Cedar).
Tundra Flat, treeless Arctic region – cold with short vegetation season.

CHAPTER 7: HUMAN ENVIRONMENT –

SETTLEMENT, TRANSPORT AND
COMMUNICATION

1. Human Settlements
A. Definition

 Settlement: A place where people build homes and live.

 Early Humans: Lived in trees and caves; later began growing food and
needed permanent homes.
B. Development of Settlements

 Earliest settlements grew near river valleys (due to water availability and
fertile soil).
 Growth of trade, commerce, and manufacturing led to larger settlements and
civilizations.

Do You Know?
Famous ancient river valley civilizations:

 Indus (India)
 Tigris-Euphrates (Mesopotamia)
 Nile (Egypt)
 Hwang-He (China)

2. Types of Settlements
A. By Duration

Type Characteristics

Temporary Occupied for short time, e.g., by hunters, gatherers, shifting cultivators.

Permanent People build permanent homes, engage in agriculture, trade, etc.

 Transhumance: Seasonal movement of people who rear animals, moving in

search of pastures.

3. Transport – Evolution and Importance

A. Definition

 Transport: The means by which people and goods move from one place to
another.

B. Historical Development

 Early humans walked, used animals for carrying goods.

 Invention of wheel made transport easier.
 Today, transport includes modern vehicles, but animals are still used in many
regions.

Examples of Animal Transport:

Region Animals Used

India Donkeys, Mules, Bullocks, Camels

Andes Mountains Llamas

Tibet Yaks
4. Roadways
A. Types of Roads

Type Description

Metalled Roads Pucca roads, made of concrete/tar; found mostly in plains.

Unmetalled Roads Kutcha roads; used in rural/remote areas.

B. Special Road Constructions

 Subways/Underpasses: Roads built underground.

 Flyovers: Roads built above ground on raised structures.

Important Fact:

 Manali-Leh Highway (Himalayas) – one of the highest roads in the world.

 Xining-Lhasa Train (China) runs at 4,000 m altitude, highest point at 5,072 m.

Do You Know?

 India has National and State highways.

 The Golden Quadrilateral Expressway connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai,
Kolkata.

5. Railways

 Railways carry heavy goods and passengers over long distances, quickly and
cheaply.
 Development began after invention of the steam engine during the Industrial
Revolution.
 Today, diesel and electric engines are common; some areas have superfast
trains.
 Railway networks are dense in plains; in mountains, fewer due to construction
difficulty.
 Indian Railways: One of the largest networks in the world and largest in
Asia.

Do You Know?
The Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway line, connecting St. Petersburg to
Vladivostok (Russia).

6. Waterways

 One of the oldest and cheapest transport modes, ideal for heavy and bulky
goods.
 Two types:
o Inland Waterways: Rivers, lakes (e.g., Ganga–Brahmaputra, Great
Lakes, Nile).
o Sea Routes: Used for international trade, connected to ports.
 Major Ports:
o Asia – Mumbai, Singapore
o North America – New York, Los Angeles
o South America – Rio de Janeiro
o Africa – Durban, Cape Town
o Australia – Sydney
 o Europe – London, Rotterdam

7. Airways

 Fastest transport mode, developed in early 20th century.

 Most expensive due to high fuel cost; weather (fog, storms) affects travel.
 Reaches remote areas where roads/railways are absent.
 Helicopters used in disaster relief, rescue, and supply operations.
 Major Airports: Delhi, Mumbai, New York, London, Paris, Cairo.

8. Communication

 Communication: Process of conveying messages and information.

 Modern technology has enabled fast and global communication.
 Mass media: Newspapers, radio, TV – reach large audiences.
 Satellites: Enhance communication, help in weather forecasts, disaster
warning, resource mapping.
 Internet: Enables emails, online bookings, access to global information.
 Mobile phones: Popular wireless communication tool.
 Global Society: Interconnected world through information and
communication technologies (ICTs).

Important Terms

 Transport – Movement of people and goods.

 Communication – Process of message exchange.
 Mass Media – Media used to reach large public (e.g., TV, Internet).
 Transhumance – Seasonal movement for grazing pastures.
 Settlement – Place to live, may be temporary or permanent.

Chapter 8: Human Environment

Interactions – The Tropical and
Subtropical Region

8.1 The Amazon Basin – Location and Geography

 The Amazon Basin lies in the equatorial region (between 10°N and 10°S).
 The Amazon River flows from west to east, originating in the Andes
Mountains and draining into the Atlantic Ocean.
 The mouth of a river is the place where it flows into another water body.
 The basin covers Brazil, parts of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, and
Venezuela.

Do You Know?
Spanish explorers named the river Amazon after encountering tribes resembling
Amazons, the fierce female warriors of Roman lore.

8.2 Climate of the Amazon Basin

 The region has a hot and wet equatorial

  climate throughout the year.
 Day and night temperatures are high; humidity remains consistently high.
 Daily rainfall is common, often sudden. The air feels sticky.

8.3 Rainforests – Vegetation and Wildlife

 Heavy rainfall supports dense rainforests.

 The forest canopy forms a dense roof, preventing sunlight from reaching the
forest floor.
 Only shade-tolerant plants grow on the dark, damp ground.
 Orchids and bromeliads grow as epiphytes (plant parasites).

Fauna of the Amazon Rainforest

 Birds: Toucans, hummingbirds, bird of paradise – bright plumage, large beaks,

loud calls.
 Animals: Monkeys, sloths, anteaters (tapirs).
 Reptiles: Snakes (python, boa constrictor), crocodiles, anaconda.
 Insects: Thousands of species.
 Fishes: Includes piranha – a flesh-eating species.

Do You Know?
Bromeliads store water in their leaves; frogs lay eggs in these water pockets.

8.4 People of the Rainforests – Lifestyle and Agriculture

 People clear small forest patches to grow food – practice slash and burn
agriculture.
 Men hunt and fish; women grow tapioca, pineapple, sweet potato.
 Staple food: Manioc (cassava) – grows underground like potatoes.
 Diet also includes queen ants and egg sacs.
 Cash crops: Coffee, maize, cocoa.

Housing

 Houses built from wood; types:

o Thatched beehive-shaped huts.
o Maloca: Large, apartment-like houses with steep slanting roofs.

Do You Know?
Slash and burn farming: Trees are cut and burnt to release nutrients into the soil. After
a few years, soil becomes infertile, and a new patch is cleared.

8.5 Environmental Impact of Development

 Earlier, river navigation was the only way to access forest interiors.
 In 1970, the Trans-Amazon Highway made rainforests more accessible.
 Aircraft and helicopters now reach remote areas.
 Indigenous people were displaced and resettled but continued traditional
farming.

Consequences of Forest Destruction

 Rainforests are rapidly disappearing, mainly due to developmental

activities.
 Loss of forests leads to soil erosion; rain washes away topsoil.
 Lush forests are replaced by barren land, affecting biodiversity and climate.
8.6 Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin – Location and Geography

 Formed by tributaries of Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers (e.g., Ghaghra, Son,

Chambal, Gandak, Kosi).
 Located in the subtropical region (between 10°N and 30°N latitudes).
 Main landforms: Ganga-Brahmaputra plains, Himalayan foothills, and the
Sundarbans delta.
 Ox-bow lakes are common in the plains.
 Climate: Monsoon type – hot summers, cool winters; rainfall from June to
September.

8.7 Population and Settlement Patterns

 Population density varies due to topography.

o Mountains: Sparse population due to steep slopes and difficult terrain.
o Plains: Densely populated due to fertile soil and flat land.
 Population density examples:
o Uttarakhand: 189 persons/km²
o West Bengal: 1029 persons/km²
o Bihar: 1102 persons/km²

8.8 Agriculture – Crops and Techniques

 Main occupation: Agriculture.

 Staple crop: Paddy (rice) – grown in areas with high rainfall.
 Other food crops: Wheat, maize, sorghum, gram, millets.
 Cash crops: Sugarcane, jute, banana (plantations in plains).
 Tea plantations: Found in West Bengal and Assam.
 Sericulture (silk farming): Practiced in Bihar and Assam.
 In hilly regions, crops are grown using terrace farming.

Do You Know?
Terrace farming creates flat areas on steep slopes to reduce water runoff and grow
crops efficiently.

8.9 Natural Vegetation

 Plains: Tropical deciduous trees like teak, sal, peepal.

 Brahmaputra plain: Rich in bamboo groves.
 Sundarbans delta: Covered with mangrove forests.
 Mountains (Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh): Coniferous trees –
pine, deodar, fir.

8.10 Wildlife

 Common animals: Elephants, tigers, deer, monkeys.

 One-horned rhinoceros: Found in Brahmaputra plains.
 Sundarbans delta: Home to Bengal tiger, crocodiles, alligators.
 Aquatic life: Rivers, lakes, and the Bay of Bengal have rohu, catla, hilsa fish.
 Susu (blind dolphin) found in Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers – indicator of
river health.

Do You Know?
Susu dolphins are endangered due to pollution from untreated urban and industrial
waste.
8.11 Transport and Cities

 All four modes of transport (road, rail, air, water) are well-developed in the
basin.
o Plains: Extensive roadways and railways.
o Waterways: Important for river transport; Kolkata is a major port on
Hooghly River.
o Airports: Present in several cities.

8.12 Major Cities and Pollution

 Major cities: Allahabad, Kanpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, Patna, Kolkata.

 These cities discharge waste into rivers, causing river pollution.

8.13 Tourism and Cultural Importance

 Major tourist places:

o Taj Mahal (Agra), Allahabad (confluence of Ganga and Yamuna),
o Buddhist stupas (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar),
o Lucknow’s Imambara,
o Kaziranga and Manas Wildlife Sanctuaries (Assam),
o Tribal culture (Arunachal Pradesh).

Important Terms

 Basin: Area drained by a river and its tributaries.

 Delta: Low flat land where a river divides before flowing into the sea.
 Rainforest: Dense tropical forest with heavy rainfall.
 Slash and burn: Farming method involving cutting and burning trees.
 Mouth: Where a river flows into another water body.

Chapter 9: Life in the Temperate

Grasslands
9.1 Grasslands – Definition and Types

 Grasslands: Regions where grasses dominate plant life.

 Cover about 25% of Earth’s land surface.
 Vegetation depends on climate and soil conditions.
 Classified into:
o Temperate grasslands – e.g., Prairies.
o Tropical grasslands – e.g., Savannas (covered in Part 2).

9.2 The Prairies – Location and Origin

 Prairies: Temperate grasslands of North America.

o Origin: Latin word priata meaning meadow.
 Landscape: Flat, gently sloping or hilly, mostly treeless.
o Tall grasses (up to 2 m) form a "sea of grass".
o Some woodlands in river valleys.
 Bounded by Rocky Mountains (West) and Great Lakes (East).
 Located in parts of USA and Canada.
o USA: Drained by tributaries of Mississippi River.
 o Canada: Drained by Saskatchewan River tributaries.

Do You Know?
Native tribes such as the Apache, Crow, Cree, Pawnee lived here. Known as “Red
Indians” by European settlers.

9.3 Climate of the Prairies

 Continental climate – large temperature variations.

o Summer: Warm (~20°C).
o Winter: Cold (down to –20°C in Winnipeg, Canada); snow cover
common.
 Moderate rainfall – ideal for grass growth.
 Chinook: Hot local wind in winter; melts snow quickly, making pasture
available.

Do You Know?
Chinook winds cause sudden warming, aiding winter grazing.

9.4 Flora and Fauna

 Mostly tree-less, except near water sources (willow, alder, poplar).

 Fertile soil – suitable for agriculture where rainfall >50 cm.
o Main crop: Maize.
o Others: Potato, soybean, cotton, alfalfa.
 Low-rainfall areas: Sparse grass, ideal for cattle rearing.
o Large cattle farms = Ranches; managed by cowboys.
 Key animals:
o Bison (American buffalo) – once near extinction; now protected.
o Others: Rabbits, coyotes, gophers, prairie dogs.

9.5 People and Economy

 People are hardworking, utilizing natural resources efficiently.

 Located in USA and Canada – among world’s most developed nations.
o Use of scientific farming, tractors, harvesters, combines.
 Agricultural surplus – especially wheat; called “Granaries of the World”.
 Dairy farming: Major industry; dairy belt from Great Lakes to Atlantic
Coast.
 Development of food processing industries due to:
o Surplus agriculture
o Dairy farming
 Rich in coal, iron; excellent transport network (roads, rail, canals).
o Result: One of the most industrialised regions globally.

Do You Know?
Major cities –
USA: Chicago, Minneapolis, Indianapolis, Kansas, Denver
Canada: Edmonton, Saskatoon, Calgary, Winnipeg

The Velds (South Africa)

9.6 The Velds – Location and Physical Features

 Velds: Temperate grasslands of South Africa.

 Terrain: Rolling plateaus, elevation 600–1100 m. o
o
  Bounded by:
o Drakensberg Mountains (East)
o Kalahari Desert (West)
 High Velds (NE): Some parts rise >1600 m.
 Drained by rivers: Orange and Limpopo tributaries.

Do You Know?
The name “Veld” was given by Dutch settlers before British colonization.

9.7 Climate of the Velds

 Mild climate due to Indian Ocean influence.

 Winter (June–Aug): Cold and dry; temp. 5°C to 10°C; July is coldest.
 Summer (Nov–Feb): Short and warm; e.g., Johannesburg ~20°C.
 Rainfall: Mainly in summer; due to warm ocean currents.
o If winter rainfall is low → risk of drought.

9.8 Flora and Fauna

 Vegetation: Sparse; dominated by grass cover.

o Red grass common in bush velds.
o High Velds: Trees like acacia and maroola.
 Wildlife:
o Predators: Lion, leopard, cheetah.
o Herbivore: Kudu.

9.9 People and Economic Activities

Agriculture and Animal Rearing

 Soil fertility: Generally low, due to discontinuous grasses and exposed surface.
o In fertile areas, crops grown:
 Food crops: Maize, wheat, barley, oats, potato.
 Cash crops: Tobacco, sugarcane, cotton.
 Sheep rearing:
o Most important occupation.
o Breed: Merino sheep – known for warm wool.
o Basis of wool industry.
 Dairy farming:
o Cattle reared in warmer, wetter areas.
o Produce butter, cheese for domestic use and export.

Mining and Industry

 Rich mineral reserves:

o Coal, iron → iron and steel industry.
o Gold (Johannesburg – "Gold Capital")
o Diamonds (Kimberley – famous diamond mines)

Do You Know?
Mining of gold and diamonds established trade with Britain; led to South Africa’s
colonization.

 Well-developed transport network supports mining and trade.

Important Cities and Historical Significance

City Known For

Johannesburg Gold mining capital of the world

Kimberley Diamond mining hub

Key Terms to Remember

 Veld: Open, uncultivated grassland in Southern Africa.

 Prairie: Grassland in North America.
 Combine: Machine for cutting, threshing, cleaning crops.
 Ranch: Large farm for rearing animals (mainly in North America).
 Flora and Fauna: Plant and animal life of a region.
 Bison: American buffalo.

Chapter 10: Life in the Deserts

The Hot Desert – The Sahara Desert
10.1 Deserts – An Overview

 Deserts are regions with low rainfall, sparse vegetation, and extreme
temperatures.
 Two types based on temperature:
o Hot deserts – e.g., Sahara
o Cold deserts – e.g., Ladakh (India), Gobi (Mongolia)
 People adapt and live where water is available (e.g., oases).

10.2 The Sahara Desert – Location and Extent

 World’s largest hot desert, located in North Africa.

 Area: ~8.54 million sq. km (India ~3.2 million sq. km for comparison).
 Covers 11 countries:
o Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan,
Tunisia, Western Sahara.
 Terrain includes:
o Sand dunes, gravel plains, rocky plateaus (elevation up to 2500 m).

Do You Know?
Ancient cave paintings show Sahara was once lush and green with rivers and wildlife
(e.g., crocodiles, elephants).

10.3 Climate of the Sahara Desert

 Scorching hot days (up to 50°C) and freezing nights (~0°C).

 Rainfall: Very low; short rainy season.
 Sky: Clear and cloudless – high evaporation rate.
 Al Azizia, Libya – recorded highest temperature (57.7°C) in 1922.
10.4 Flora and Fauna

 Vegetation adapted to dryness:

o Cactus, date palms, acacia.
o Oasis – fertile areas with water and greenery (e.g., date palms).
 Wildlife:
o Camels, hyenas, jackals, foxes, scorpions, snakes, lizards.

Do You Know?
Fossil remains of fish found in Sahara – indicates it was once water-rich.

10.5 Life of People in the Sahara

Nomadic Tribes

 Bedouins, Tuaregs – traditional nomadic herders.

o Livestock: Goats, sheep, camels, horses.
o Products: Milk, hides (leather items), hair (mats, carpets, clothes,
blankets).
 Wear heavy robes for protection against dust storms and heat.

Settled Population

 Live around oases and Nile Valley (Egypt).

o Grow date palms, rice, wheat, barley, beans.
o Egyptian cotton – globally famous crop.

10.6 Modern Transformations

 Oil discovery in Algeria, Libya, Egypt:

o Transformed the economy; rise of oil & gas industries.
 Other minerals: Iron, phosphorus, manganese, uranium.
 Cultural landscape changing:
o Modern buildings, roads, superhighways replacing camel paths.
o Trucks replace camels in salt trade.
o Tuaregs now act as tourist guides; many shift to urban jobs.

Do You Know?
Oases form in depressions where underground water reaches surface.
Example: Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco (~13,000 sq.km) – among largest oases in the
world.

Key Terms to Remember

Term Meaning

Oasis Fertile area in a desert where water is available

Nomad Person who moves from place to place for food, water, pasture

Depression Low landform created by wind erosion, exposing groundwater

Bedouins/Tuaregs Nomadic tribes in the Sahara

10.7 Ladakh – Location and Physical Features

 Ladakh is a cold desert located in the Great Himalayas, eastern Jammu &
Kashmir (UT).
 Enclosed by:
o Karakoram Range (North)
o Zanskar Mountains (South)
 Major river: Indus River – forms deep valleys and gorges.
 Famous glacier: Gangri Glacier.

Word Origin:
“La” = mountain pass; “Dak” = country → Ladakh = Land of Mountain Passes.

 Altitude: Varies from 3000 m (Kargil) to 8000 m (Karakoram).

10.8 Climate of Ladakh

 High altitude results in extremely cold and dry climate.

 Air is thin → intense sun exposure during the day.
 Summer temperatures: slightly above 0°C (day), <30°C (night).
 Winter temperatures: fall below –40°C.
 Lies in rain shadow of Himalayas → scanty rainfall (~10 cm/year).
 Experience of freezing winds and burning sun simultaneously.

Do You Know?
Drass (Ladakh) is one of the coldest inhabited places on Earth.
Ladakh is also called Khapachang = Land of Snow.

10.9 Flora and Fauna

 Due to high aridity, vegetation is sparse:

o Scanty grasses, shrubs, willows, poplars in valleys.
o Summer bloom: apples, apricots, walnuts.

Birds and Animals:

 Birds: Robins, Redstarts, Tibetan Snowcock, Ravens, Hoopoe (many

migratory).
 Animals: Wild goats, wild sheep, yak, Ladakhi dogs.
o Provide milk, meat, hides.
o Yak’s milk → cheese and butter.
o Sheep/goat hair → woollens.

Do You Know?
Chiru (Tibetan antelope) – endangered species, hunted for shahtoosh wool.

10.10 Life of People in Ladakh

 Resemblance with people of Tibet and Central Asia.

 Religion: Muslims and Buddhists.
 Famous Buddhist monasteries (Gompas): Hemis, Thiksey, Shey, Lamayuru.

Occupation and Agriculture:

 Summer crops: Barley, potatoes, peas, beans, turnips.

 Winter: People engage in festivities, ceremonies due to harsh climate.
 Women: Work in household, fields, manage shops/businesses.
10.11 Connectivity and Tourism

 Capital: Leh – well connected via road and air.

o NH-1A connects Leh to Kashmir Valley via Zoji La Pass.
o Other Himalayan passes: Rohtang La, Baralacha La, Lungalacha La,
Tanglang La.

Do You Know?
Willow trees of Ladakh used for making finest cricket bats.

 Tourism – Major activity:

o Visit Gompas, trekking, view glaciers, festivals.
 Life is changing due to modernisation but people maintain harmony with
nature.
o Resources like water and fuel are used with great care, nothing is
wasted.

Key Terms to Remember

Term Meaning

Cold Desert Arid region with extremely cold climate and low rainfall

Glacier Large, slow-moving mass of ice

Grove Cluster of trees (e.g., willows, poplars)

Monastery Place where monks live and worship

Gompa Buddhist monastery in Ladakh, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan

Shahtoosh Fine wool from Chiru antelope (highly valued, endangered)