Biology

Clockwise from upper left: A Nile crocodile, the common sunflower, Amoeba proteus, Sarcoscypha coccinea, the fruit fly, and Escherichia coli.

Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms. It is a broad natural science that encompasses a wide range of fields and
unifying principles that explain the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of life. Central to biology are five
fundamental themes: the cell as the basic unit of life, genes and heredity as the basis of inheritance, evolution as the driver of biological
diversity, energy transformation for sustaining life processes, and the maintenance of internal stability (homeostasis).[1][2]

Biology examines life across multiple levels of organization, from molecules and cells to organisms, populations, and ecosystems.
Subdisciplines include molecular biology, physiology, ecology, evolutionary biology, developmental biology, and systematics, among
others. Each of these fields applies a range of methods to investigate biological phenomena, including observation, experimentation, and
mathematical modeling. Modern biology is grounded in the theory of evolution by natural selection, first articulated by Charles Darwin,
and in the molecular understanding of genes encoded in DNA. The discovery of the structure of DNA and advances in molecular genetics
have transformed many areas of biology, leading to applications in medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, and environmental science.

Life on Earth is believed to have originated over 3.7 billion years ago.[3] Today, it includes a vast diversity of organisms—from single-
celled archaea and bacteria to complex multicellular plants, fungi, and animals. Biologists classify organisms based on shared
characteristics and evolutionary relationships, using taxonomic and phylogenetic frameworks. These organisms interact with each other
and with their environments in ecosystems, where they play roles in energy flow and nutrient cycling. As a constantly evolving field,
biology incorporates new discoveries and technologies that enhance the understanding of life and its processes, while contributing to
solutions for challenges such as disease, climate change, and biodiversity loss.

Etymology
From Greek bios, life, (from Proto-Indo-European root *gwei-, to live) and logy, study of. The compound was coined in 1800 by Karl
Friedrich Burdach and in 1802 used by both German naturalist Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.[4]

History
The earliest of roots of science, which included medicine, can be traced to ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200
BCE.[5][6] Their contributions shaped ancient Greek natural philosophy.[7][5][6][8][9] Ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle (384–
322 BCE) contributed extensively to the development of biological knowledge.[10] He explored biological causation and the diversity of
life. His successor, Theophrastus, began the scientific study of plants.[11] Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology
included al-Jahiz (781–869), Al-Dīnawarī (828–896), who wrote on botany,[12] and Rhazes (865–925) who wrote on anatomy and
physiology. Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew
heavily on Aristotelian thought.
Biology began to quickly develop with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's dramatic improvement of
the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the
diversity of microscopic life. Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in
entomology and helped to develop techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.[13]
Advances in microscopy had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th
century, biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell. In 1838, Schleiden and
Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the
cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the
idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells, continuing to support spontaneous
generation. However, Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow were able to reify the third tenet, and
by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets which consolidated into cell
theory.[14][15]

Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians. Carl Linnaeus
published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735, and in the 1750s introduced
scientific names for all his species.[16] Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, treated
species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting the possibility Drawing of what now are called Schwann
of common descent.[17] cells by one of the founders of cell theory,
Theodor Schwann.
Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who
presented a coherent theory of evolution.[19] The British naturalist Charles Darwin, combining
the biogeographical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, Malthus's writings on
population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, forged a
more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection; similar reasoning and evidence led
Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions.[20][21]

The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel in 1865.[22] This outlined the
principles of biological inheritance.[23] However, the significance of his work was not realized until the
early 20th century when evolution became a unified theory as the modern synthesis reconciled
Darwinian evolution with classical genetics.[24] In the 1940s and early 1950s, a series of experiments by
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase pointed to DNA as the component of chromosomes that held the
trait-carrying units that had become known as genes. A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as
viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson In 1842, Charles Darwin
and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics. From the 1950s penned his first sketch of On
onwards, biology has been vastly extended in the molecular domain. The genetic code was cracked by the Origin of Species.[18]
Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg after DNA was understood to
contain codons. The Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 to map the human genome.[25]

Chemical basis

Atoms and molecules

All organisms are made up of chemical elements;[26] oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen account for most (96%) of the mass of all
organisms, with calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium constituting essentially all the remainder. Different
elements can combine to form compounds such as water, which is fundamental to life.[26] Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes
within and relating to living organisms. Molecular biology is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of
biological activity in and between cells, including molecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions.

Water
Life arose from the Earth's first ocean, which formed some 3.8 billion years ago.[27] Since then, water continues to be the most abundant
molecule in every organism. Water is important to life because it is an effective solvent, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and
chloride ions or other small molecules to form an aqueous solution. Once dissolved in water, these solutes are more likely to come in
contact with one another and therefore take part in chemical reactions that sustain life.[27] In terms of its molecular structure, water is a
small polar molecule with a bent shape formed by the polar covalent bonds of two hydrogen (H) atoms to one oxygen (O) atom (H2O).[27]
Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive
charge.[27] This polar property of water allows it to attract other water molecules via hydrogen bonds, which makes water cohesive.[27]
Surface tension results from the cohesive force due to the attraction between molecules at the surface of the liquid.[27] Water is also
adhesive as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules.[27] Water is denser as a liquid than it is as a
solid (or ice).[27] This unique property of water allows ice to float above liquid water such as ponds, lakes, and oceans, thereby insulating
the liquid below from the cold air above.[27] Water has the capacity to absorb energy, giving it a higher
specific heat capacity than other solvents such as ethanol.[27] Thus, a large amount of energy is needed
to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into water vapor.[27] As a
molecule, water is not completely stable as each water molecule continuously dissociates into hydrogen
and hydroxyl ions before reforming into a water molecule again.[27] In pure water, the number of
hydrogen ions balances (or equals) the number of hydroxyl ions, resulting in a pH that is neutral.

Organic compounds
Organic compounds are molecules that contain carbon bonded to another element such as hydrogen.[27]
Model of hydrogen bonds (1)
With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon.[27][28] between molecules of water
Carbon can form covalent bonds with up to four other atoms, enabling it to form diverse, large, and
complex molecules.[27][28] For example, a single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such
as in methane, two double covalent bonds such as in carbon dioxide (CO2), or a triple covalent bond such as in
carbon monoxide (CO). Moreover, carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting carbon–carbon bonds
such as octane or ring-like structures such as glucose.

The simplest form of an organic molecule is the hydrocarbon, which is a large family of organic compounds that
are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted Organic compounds
by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the such as glucose are
chemical behavior of that compound.[27] Groups of atoms that contain these elements (O-, H-, P-, and S-) and are vital to organisms.
bonded to a central carbon atom or skeleton are called functional groups.[27] There are six prominent functional
groups that can be found in organisms: amino group, carboxyl group, carbonyl group, hydroxyl group, phosphate
group, and sulfhydryl group.[27]

In 1953, the Miller–Urey experiment showed that organic compounds could be synthesized abiotically within a closed system mimicking
the conditions of early Earth, thus suggesting that complex organic molecules could have arisen spontaneously in early Earth (see
abiogenesis).[29][27]

Macromolecules
Macromolecules are large molecules made up of smaller subunits or
monomers.[30] Monomers include sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides.[31]
Carbohydrates include monomers and polymers of sugars.[32] Lipids are the only
class of macromolecules that are not made up of polymers. They include steroids,
phospholipids, and fats,[31] largely nonpolar and hydrophobic (water-repelling)
substances.[33] Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules. They include
enzymes, transport proteins, large signaling molecules, antibodies, and structural
proteins. The basic unit (or monomer) of a protein is an amino acid.[30] Twenty
amino acids are used in proteins.[30] Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides.[34]
Their function is to store, transmit, and express hereditary information.[31]

Cells
The (a) primary, (b) secondary, (c) tertiary, and (d)
Cell theory states that cells are the fundamental units of life, that all living things quaternary structures of a hemoglobin protein
are composed of one or more cells, and that all cells arise from preexisting cells
through cell division.[35] Most cells are very small, with diameters ranging from 1
to 100 micrometers and are therefore only visible under a light or electron microscope.[36] There are generally two types of cells:
eukaryotic cells, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic cells, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms such as bacteria,
whereas eukaryotes can be single-celled or multicellular. In multicellular organisms, every cell in the organism's body is derived
ultimately from a single cell in a fertilized egg.

Cell structure
Every cell is enclosed within a cell membrane that separates its cytoplasm from the extracellular space.[37] A cell membrane consists of a
lipid bilayer, including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures. Cell membranes are
semipermeable, allowing small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to pass through while restricting the movement of
larger molecules and charged particles such as ions.[38] Cell membranes also contain membrane proteins, including integral membrane
proteins that go across the membrane serving as membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer side of the
cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell.[39] Cell membranes are involved in various
cellular processes such as cell adhesion, storing electrical energy, and cell signalling and serve
as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall, glycocalyx,
and cytoskeleton.

Within the cytoplasm of a cell, there

are many biomolecules such as
proteins and nucleic acids.[40] In
addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic Structure of an animal cell depicting
cells have specialized structures called various organelles
organelles that have their own lipid
bilayers or are spatially units.[41]
These organelles include the cell nucleus, which contains most of the cell's DNA,
or mitochondria, which generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to power cellular
processes. Other organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
play a role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. Biomolecules
such as proteins can be engulfed by lysosomes, another specialized organelle.
Structure of a plant cell Plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such
as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest
sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural
support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds.[41] Eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeleton that is made
up of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments, all of which provide support for the cell and are involved in the movement
of the cell and its organelles.[41] In terms of their structural composition, the microtubules are made up of tubulin (e.g., α-tubulin and β-
tubulin) whereas intermediate filaments are made up of fibrous proteins.[41] Microfilaments are made up of actin molecules that interact
with other strands of proteins.[41]

Metabolism
All cells require energy to sustain cellular processes. Metabolism is the set of chemical
reactions in an organism. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of food
to energy to run cellular processes; the conversion of food/fuel to monomer building blocks;
and the elimination of metabolic wastes. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to
grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolic
reactions may be categorized as catabolic—the breaking down of compounds (for example, the
breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or anabolic—the building up
(synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually,
catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. The chemical reactions of
metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed
Example of an enzyme-catalysed
through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific
exothermic reaction
enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable
reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to
spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts—they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly without being
consumed by it—by reducing the amount of activation energy needed to convert reactants into products. Enzymes also allow the
regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells.

Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in cells to convert chemical energy from nutrients into
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.[42] The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which
break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel
cellular activity. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are redox reactions. Although cellular
respiration is technically a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a cell because of the slow, controlled
release of energy from the series of reactions.

Sugar in the form of glucose is the main nutrient used by animal and plant cells in respiration. Cellular respiration involving oxygen is
called aerobic respiration, which has four stages: glycolysis, citric acid cycle (or Krebs cycle), electron transport chain, and oxidative
phosphorylation.[43] Glycolysis is a metabolic process that occurs in the cytoplasm whereby glucose is converted into two pyruvates, with
two net molecules of ATP being produced at the same time.[43] Each pyruvate is then oxidized into acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate
dehydrogenase complex, which also generates NADH and carbon dioxide. Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places
inside the mitochondrial matrix. At the end of the cycle, the total yield from 1 glucose (or 2 pyruvates) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP
molecules. Finally, the next stage is oxidative phosphorylation, which in eukaryotes, occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. Oxidative
phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a
series of four protein complexes that transfer electrons from one
complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH2
that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the
inner mitochondrial membrane (chemiosmosis), which generates a
proton motive force.[43] Energy from the proton motive force drives the
enzyme ATP synthase to synthesize more ATPs by phosphorylating
ADPs. The transfer of electrons terminates with molecular oxygen
being the final electron acceptor.

If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by

cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The
pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion but remains in the
cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be
removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the Respiration in a eukaryotic cell
electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and
removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+
so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides
NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type
of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain
cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen
combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also
be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from
lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or
ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy
that can later be released to fuel the organism's metabolic activities via cellular respiration. This chemical
energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and
water.[44][45][46] In most cases, oxygen is released as a waste product. Most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria
perform photosynthesis, which is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the
Earth's atmosphere, and supplies most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.[47]

Photosynthesis has four stages: Light absorption, electron transport, ATP synthesis, and carbon fixation.[43]
Light absorption is the initial step of photosynthesis whereby light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments
attached to proteins in the thylakoid membranes. The absorbed light energy is used to remove electrons from a Photosynthesis changes
donor (water) to a primary electron acceptor, a quinone designated as Q. In the second stage, electrons move sunlight into chemical
from the quinone primary electron acceptor through a series of electron carriers until they reach a final energy, splits water to
electron acceptor, which is usually the oxidized form of NADP+, which is reduced to NADPH, a process that liberate O2, and fixes
takes place in a protein complex called photosystem I (PSI). The transport of electrons is coupled to the CO2 into sugar.
movement of protons (or hydrogen) from the stroma to the thylakoid membrane, which forms a pH gradient
across the membrane as hydrogen becomes more concentrated in the lumen than in the stroma. This is
analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.[43]

During the third stage of photosynthesis, the movement of protons down their concentration gradients from the thylakoid lumen to the
stroma through the ATP synthase is coupled to the synthesis of ATP by that same ATP synthase.[43] The NADPH and ATPs generated by
the light-dependent reactions in the second and third stages, respectively, provide the energy and electrons to drive the synthesis of glucose
by fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide into existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) in a sequence of
light-independent (or dark) reactions called the Calvin cycle.[48]

Cell signaling
Cell signaling (or communication) is the ability of cells to receive, process, and transmit signals with its environment and with
itself.[49][50] Signals can be non-chemical such as light, electrical impulses, and heat, or chemical signals (or ligands) that interact with
receptors, which can be found embedded in the cell membrane of another cell or located deep inside a cell.[51][50] There are generally four
types of chemical signals: autocrine, paracrine, juxtacrine, and hormones.[51] In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that
releases it. Tumor cells, for example, can reproduce uncontrollably because they release signals that initiate their own self-division. In
paracrine signaling, the ligand diffuses to nearby cells and affects them. For example, brain cells called neurons release ligands called
neurotransmitters that diffuse across a synaptic cleft to bind with a receptor on an adjacent cell such as another neuron or muscle cell. In
juxtacrine signaling, there is direct contact between the signaling and responding cells. Finally, hormones are ligands that travel through
the circulatory systems of animals or vascular systems of plants to reach their target cells. Once a ligand binds with a receptor, it can
influence the behavior of another cell, depending on the type of receptor. For instance, neurotransmitters that bind with an inotropic
receptor can alter the excitability of a target cell. Other types of receptors include protein kinase receptors (e.g., receptor for the hormone
insulin) and G protein-coupled receptors. Activation of G protein-coupled receptors can initiate second messenger cascades. The process
by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a series of molecular events is called signal transduction.

Cell cycle

The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a cell that cause it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include the
duplication of its DNA and some of its organelles, and the subsequent partitioning of its cytoplasm into two daughter cells in a process
called cell division.[52] In eukaryotes (i.e., animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells), there are two distinct types of cell division: mitosis and
meiosis.[53] Mitosis is part of the cell cycle, in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to
genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is
preceded by the S stage of interphase (during which the DNA is replicated) and is often followed by telophase and cytokinesis; which
divides the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane of one cell into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular
components. The different stages of mitosis all together define the mitotic phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell
into two genetically identical daughter cells.[54] The cell cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled fertilized egg develops into a
mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal organs are renewed. After cell division, each of
the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. In contrast to mitosis, meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing
one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions.[55] Homologous chromosomes are separated in the first division (meiosis I), and
sister chromatids are separated in the second division (meiosis II). Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual
reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed to be present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor.

Prokaryotes (i.e., archaea and bacteria) can also undergo cell division (or binary fission). Unlike the
processes of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes, binary fission in prokaryotes takes place without the
formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell. Before binary fission, DNA in the bacterium is tightly
coiled. After it has uncoiled and duplicated, it is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it
increases the size to prepare for splitting. Growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium
(triggered by FtsZ polymerization and "Z-ring" formation).[56] The new cell wall (septum) fully
develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium. The new daughter cells have tightly coiled
In meiosis, the chromosomes
DNA rods, ribosomes, and plasmids.
duplicate and the homologous
chromosomes exchange genetic
information during meiosis I. The
Sexual reproduction and meiosis daughter cells divide again in
Meiosis is a central feature of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes, and the most fundamental function of meiosis II to form haploid
meiosis appears to be conservation of the integrity of the genome that is passed on to progeny by gametes.
parents.[57][58] Two aspects of sexual reproduction, meiotic recombination and outcrossing, are likely
maintained respectively by the adaptive advantages of recombinational repair of genomic DNA
damage and genetic complementation which masks the expression of deleterious recessive mutations.[59]

The beneficial effect of genetic complementation, derived from outcrossing (cross-fertilization) is also referred to as hybrid vigor or
heterosis. Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom[60] at the start of chapter
XII noted “The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that
generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented.” Genetic
variation, often produced as a byproduct of sexual reproduction, may provide long-term advantages to those sexual lineages that engage in
outcrossing.[59]
Genetics

Inheritance
Genetics is the scientific study of inheritance.[61][62][63] Mendelian inheritance, specifically, is the process by
which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring.[23] It has several principles. The first is that
genetic characteristics, alleles, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf),
each inherited from one of two parents. Based on the law of dominance and uniformity, which states that some
alleles are dominant while others are recessive; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the
phenotype of that dominant allele. During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate, so that each
gamete carries only one allele for each gene. Heterozygotic individuals produce gametes with an equal
frequency of two alleles. Finally, the law of independent assortment, states that genes of different traits can
Punnett square
segregate independently during the formation of gametes, i.e., genes are unlinked. An exception to this rule depicting a cross
would include traits that are sex-linked. Test crosses can be performed to experimentally determine the between two pea plants
underlying genotype of an organism with a dominant phenotype.[64] A Punnett square can be used to predict heterozygous for purple
the results of a test cross. The chromosome theory of inheritance, which states that genes are found on (B) and white (b)
chromosomes, was supported by Thomas Morgans's experiments with fruit flies, which established the sex blossoms

linkage between eye color and sex in these insects.[65]

Genes and DNA

A gene is a unit of heredity that corresponds to a region of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carries
genetic information that controls form or function of an organism. DNA is composed of two
polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix.[66] It is found as linear
chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. The set of chromosomes in a cell
is collectively known as its genome. In eukaryotes, DNA is mainly in the cell nucleus.[67] In prokaryotes,
the DNA is held within the nucleoid.[68] The genetic information is held within genes, and the complete
assemblage in an organism is called its genotype.[69] DNA replication is a semiconservative process
whereby each strand serves as a template for a new strand of DNA.[66] Mutations are heritable changes in
DNA.[66] They can arise spontaneously as a result of replication errors that were not corrected by
proofreading or can be induced by an environmental mutagen such as a chemical (e.g., nitrous acid,
benzopyrene) or radiation (e.g., x-ray, gamma ray, ultraviolet radiation, particles emitted by unstable
isotopes).[66] Mutations can lead to phenotypic effects such as loss-of-function, gain-of-function, and
conditional mutations.[66] Some mutations are beneficial, as they are a source of genetic variation for
evolution.[66] Others are harmful if they were to result in a loss of function of genes needed for
survival.[66]
Bases lie between two
spiraling DNA strands.
Gene expression
Gene expression is the molecular process by which a genotype encoded in DNA gives
rise to an observable phenotype in the proteins of an organism's body. This process is
summarized by the central dogma of molecular biology, which was formulated by
Francis Crick in 1958.[70][71][72] According to the Central Dogma, genetic information
flows from DNA to RNA to protein. There are two gene expression processes:
transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein).[73]

Gene regulation The extended central dogma of molecular biology

The regulation of gene expression by environmental factors and during different stages includes all the processes involved in the flow of
of development can occur at each step of the process such as transcription, RNA genetic information.
splicing, translation, and post-translational modification of a protein. [74] Gene
expression can be influenced by positive or negative regulation, depending on which of
the two types of regulatory proteins called transcription factors bind to the DNA sequence close to or at a promoter.[74] A cluster of genes
that share the same promoter is called an operon, found mainly in prokaryotes and some lower eukaryotes (e.g., Caenorhabditis
elegans).[74][75] In positive regulation of gene expression, the activator is the transcription factor that stimulates transcription when it binds
to the sequence near or at the promoter. Negative regulation occurs when another transcription factor called a repressor binds to a DNA
sequence called an operator, which is part of an operon, to prevent transcription. Repressors can be inhibited by compounds called
inducers (e.g., allolactose), thereby allowing transcription to occur.[74] Specific genes that can be activated by inducers are called inducible
genes, in contrast to constitutive genes that are almost constantly active.[74] In contrast to both, structural genes encode proteins that are
not involved in gene regulation.[74] In addition to regulatory events involving the promoter, gene expression can also be regulated by
epigenetic changes to chromatin, which is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells.[74]

Genes, development, and evolution

Development is the process by which a multicellular organism (plant or animal) goes through a series of changes, starting from a single
cell, and taking on various forms that are characteristic of its life cycle.[76] There are four key processes that underlie development:
Determination, differentiation, morphogenesis, and growth. Determination sets the developmental fate of a cell, which becomes more
restrictive during development. Differentiation is the process by which specialized cells arise from less specialized cells such as stem
cells.[77][78] Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate
indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell.[79] Cellular differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape, membrane
potential, metabolic activity, and responsiveness to signals, which are largely due to highly controlled modifications in gene expression
and epigenetics. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself.[80] Thus,
different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome. Morphogenesis, or the development of
body form, is the result of spatial differences in gene expression.[76] A small fraction of the genes in an organism's genome called the
developmental-genetic toolkit control the development of that organism. These toolkit genes are highly conserved among phyla, meaning
that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals. Differences in deployment of toolkit genes affect the body
plan and the number, identity, and pattern of body parts. Among the most important toolkit genes are the Hox genes. Hox genes determine
where repeating parts, such as the many vertebrae of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva.[81]

Evolution

Evolutionary processes
Evolution is a central organizing concept in biology. It is the change in heritable characteristics of populations
over successive generations.[82][83] In artificial selection, animals were selectively bred for specific traits. [84]
Given that traits are inherited, populations contain a varied mix of traits, and reproduction is able to increase
any population, Darwin argued that in the natural world, it was nature that played the role of humans in
selecting for specific traits.[84] Darwin inferred that individuals who possessed heritable traits better adapted to
their environments are more likely to survive and produce more offspring than other individuals.[84] He
further inferred that this would lead to the accumulation of favorable traits over successive generations,
thereby increasing the match between the organisms and their environment.[85][86][87][84][88] Natural selection for
darker traits

Speciation
A species is a group of organisms that mate with one another and speciation is the process by which one lineage splits into two lineages as
a result of having evolved independently from each other.[89] For speciation to occur, there has to be reproductive isolation.[89]
Reproductive isolation can result from incompatibilities between genes as described by Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model.
Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with genetic divergence. Speciation can occur when there are physical barriers that divide an
ancestral species, a process known as allopatric speciation.[89]

Phylogeny
A phylogeny is an evolutionary history of a specific group of organisms or their
genes.[90] It can be represented using a phylogenetic tree, a diagram showing lines of
descent among organisms or their genes. Each line drawn on the time axis of a tree
represents a lineage of descendants of a particular species or population. When a
lineage divides into two, it is represented as a fork or split on the phylogenetic tree.[90]
Phylogenetic trees are the basis for comparing and grouping different species.[90]
Different species that share a feature inherited from a common ancestor are described
as having homologous features (or synapomorphy).[91][92][90] Phylogeny provides the
basis of biological classification.[90] This classification system is rank-based, with the Phylogenetic tree showing the domains of
highest rank being the domain followed by kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes
genus, and species.[90] All organisms can be classified as belonging to one of three
domains: Archaea (originally Archaebacteria), Bacteria (originally eubacteria), or
Eukarya (includes the fungi, plant, and animal kingdoms).[93]
History of life
The history of life on Earth traces how organisms have evolved from the earliest emergence of life to present day. Earth formed about 4.5
billion years ago and all life on Earth, both living and extinct, descended from a last universal common ancestor that lived about 3.5
billion years ago.[94][95] Geologists have developed a geologic time scale that divides the history of the Earth into major divisions, starting
with four eons (Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic), the first three of which are collectively known as the Precambrian, which
lasted approximately 4 billion years.[96] Each eon can be divided into eras, with the Phanerozoic eon that began 539 million years ago[97]
being subdivided into Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras.[96] These three eras together comprise eleven periods (Cambrian,
Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary).[96]

The similarities among all known present-day species indicate that they have diverged through the process of evolution from their
common ancestor.[98] Biologists regard the ubiquity of the genetic code as evidence of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea,
and eukaryotes.[99][3][100][101] Microbial mats of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early Archean eon
and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place in this environment.[102] The earliest evidence of
eukaryotes dates from 1.85 billion years ago,[103][104] and while they may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when
they started using oxygen in their metabolism. Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, multicellular organisms began to appear, with
differentiated cells performing specialised functions.[105]

Algae-like multicellular land plants are dated back to about 1 billion years ago,[106] although evidence suggests that microorganisms
formed the earliest terrestrial ecosystems, at least 2.7 billion years ago.[107] Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the
inception of land plants in the Ordovician period. Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late
Devonian extinction event.[108]

Ediacara biota appear during the Ediacaran period,[109] while vertebrates, along with most other modern phyla originated about 525
million years ago during the Cambrian explosion.[110] During the Permian period, synapsids, including the ancestors of mammals,
dominated the land,[111] but most of this group became extinct in the Permian–Triassic extinction event 252 million years ago.[112] During
the recovery from this catastrophe, archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates;[113] one archosaur group, the dinosaurs,
dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.[114] After the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago killed off the
non-avian dinosaurs,[115] mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity.[116] Such mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by
providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify.[117]

Diversity

Bacteria and Archaea

Bacteria are a type of cell that constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a
few micrometers in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and
spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its
habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste,[118] and the deep
biosphere of the Earth's crust. Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants
and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only about 27 percent of the bacterial
phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory.[119]
Bacteria – Gemmatimonas
Archaea constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially classified as bacteria,
aurantiaca (-=1 Micrometer)
receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria kingdom), a term that has fallen out of
use.[120] Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other two domains, Bacteria
and Eukaryota. Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized phyla. Archaea and bacteria are
generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the
flat and square cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi.[121] Despite this morphological similarity to
bacteria, archaea possess genes and several metabolic pathways that are more closely related to those
of eukaryotes, notably for the enzymes involved in transcription and translation. Other aspects of
archaeal biochemistry are unique, such as their reliance on ether lipids in their cell membranes,[122]
including archaeols. Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from organic
compounds, such as sugars, to ammonia, metal ions or even hydrogen gas. Salt-tolerant archaea (the
Archaea – Haloarchaea
Haloarchaea) use sunlight as an energy source, and other species of archaea fix carbon, but unlike
plants and cyanobacteria, no known species of archaea does both. Archaea reproduce asexually by
binary fission, fragmentation, or budding; unlike bacteria, no known species of Archaea form endospores.

The first observed archaea were extremophiles, living in extreme environments, such as hot springs and salt lakes with no other organisms.
Improved molecular detection tools led to the discovery of archaea in almost every habitat, including soil, oceans, and marshlands.
Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in plankton may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the
planet.

Archaea are a major part of Earth's life. They are part of the microbiota of all organisms. In the human microbiome, they are important in
the gut, mouth, and on the skin.[123] Their morphological, metabolic, and geographical diversity permits them to play multiple ecological
roles: carbon fixation; nitrogen cycling; organic compound turnover; and maintaining microbial symbiotic and syntrophic communities,
for example.[124]

Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes are hypothesized to have split from archaea, which was followed by their
endosymbioses with bacteria (or symbiogenesis) that gave rise to mitochondria and
chloroplasts, both of which are now part of modern-day eukaryotic cells.[125] The major
lineages of eukaryotes diversified in the Precambrian about 1.5 billion years ago and can be
classified into eight major clades: alveolates, excavates, stramenopiles, plants, rhizarians,
amoebozoans, fungi, and animals.[125] Five of these clades are collectively known as protists,
which are mostly microscopic eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals.[125]
While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor (the last eukaryotic common
Euglena, a single-celled eukaryote that ancestor),[126] protists by themselves do not constitute a separate clade as some protists may be
can both move and photosynthesize more closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than they are to other protists. Like groupings
such as algae, invertebrates, or protozoans, the protist grouping is not a formal taxonomic
group but is used for convenience.[125][127] Most protists are unicellular; these are called
microbial eukaryotes.[125]

Plants are mainly multicellular organisms, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae, which would exclude fungi
and some algae. Plant cells were derived by endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium into an early eukaryote about one billion years ago, which
gave rise to chloroplasts.[128] The first several clades that emerged following primary endosymbiosis were aquatic and most of the aquatic
photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms are collectively described as algae, which is a term of convenience as not all algae are closely
related.[128] Algae comprise several distinct clades such as glaucophytes, which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled
in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae.[128] Unlike glaucophytes, the other algal clades such as red and green algae are
multicellular. Green algae comprise three major clades: chlorophytes, coleochaetophytes, and stoneworts.[128]

Fungi are eukaryotes that digest foods outside their bodies,[129] secreting digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before
absorbing them through their cell membranes. Many fungi are also saprobes, feeding on dead organic matter, making them important
decomposers in ecological systems.[129]

Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can
reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Over 1.5 million living animal
species have been described—of which around 1 million are insects—but it has been estimated there are over 7 million animal species in
total. They have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs.[130]

Viruses
Viruses are submicroscopic infectious agents that replicate inside the cells of organisms.[131] Viruses
infect all types of life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and
archaea.[132][133] More than 6,000 virus species have been described in detail.[134] Viruses are found in
almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity.[135][136]

The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from
plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria.
In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic
diversity in a way analogous to sexual reproduction.[137] Because viruses possess some but not all
characteristics of life, they have been described as "organisms at the edge of life",[138] and as self-
replicators.[139]
Bacteriophages attached to a
bacterial cell wall

Ecology
Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of life, the interaction between organisms and their environment.[140]
Ecosystems
The community of living (biotic) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving (abiotic) components (e.g., water, light, radiation,
temperature, humidity, atmosphere, acidity, and soil) of their environment is called an ecosystem.[141][142][143] These biotic and abiotic
components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.[144] Energy from the sun enters the system through
photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals move matter and energy through the
system. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers
release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can
be readily used by plants and other microbes.[145]

Populations
A population is the group of organisms of the same species that occupies an area
and reproduce from generation to generation.[146][147][148][149][150] Population
size can be estimated by multiplying population density by the area or volume.
The carrying capacity of an environment is the maximum population size of a
species that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food, habitat,
water, and other resources that are available.[151] The carrying capacity of a
population can be affected by changing environmental conditions such as changes
in the availability of resources and the cost of maintaining them. In human
populations, new technologies such as the Green revolution have helped increase
the Earth's carrying capacity for humans over time, which has stymied the
attempted predictions of impending population decline, the most famous of which
was by Thomas Malthus in the 18th century.[146]
Reaching carrying capacity through a logistic growth
curve
Communities
A community is a group of populations of species occupying the same
geographical area at the same time.[153] A biological interaction is the effect that a pair of
organisms living together in a community have on each other. They can be either of the
same species (intraspecific interactions), or of different species (interspecific interactions).
These effects may be short-term, like pollination and predation, or long-term; both often
strongly influence the evolution of the species involved. A long-term interaction is called
a symbiosis. Symbioses range from mutualism, beneficial to both partners, to competition, A (a) trophic pyramid and a (b) simplified food
harmful to both partners.[154] Every species participates as a consumer, resource, or both web. The trophic pyramid represents the
in consumer–resource interactions, which form the core of food chains or food webs.[155] biomass at each level.[152]
There are different trophic levels within any food web, with the lowest level being the
primary producers (or autotrophs) such as plants and algae that convert energy and
inorganic material into organic compounds, which can then be used by the rest of the community.[47][156][157] At the next level are the
heterotrophs, which are the species that obtain energy by breaking apart organic compounds from other organisms.[155] Heterotrophs that
consume plants are primary consumers (or herbivores) whereas heterotrophs that consume herbivores are secondary consumers (or
carnivores). And those that eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers and so on. Omnivorous heterotrophs are able to consume at
multiple levels. Finally, there are decomposers that feed on the waste products or dead bodies of organisms.[155] On average, the total
amount of energy incorporated into the biomass of a trophic level per unit of time is about one-tenth of the energy of the trophic level that
it consumes. Waste and dead material used by decomposers as well as heat lost from metabolism make up the other ninety percent of
energy that is not consumed by the next trophic level.[158]

Biosphere
In the global ecosystem or biosphere, matter exists as different interacting compartments, which can be biotic or abiotic as well as
accessible or inaccessible, depending on their forms and locations.[160] For example, matter from terrestrial autotrophs are both biotic and
accessible to other organisms whereas the matter in rocks and minerals are abiotic and inaccessible. A biogeochemical cycle is a pathway
by which specific elements of matter are turned over or moved through the biotic (biosphere) and the abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and
hydrosphere) compartments of Earth. There are biogeochemical cycles for nitrogen, carbon, and water.

Conservation
Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and
ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.[161][162][163] It is concerned with factors that influence
the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that engender genetic,
population, species, and ecosystem diversity.[164][165][166][167] The concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species
on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years,[168] which has contributed to poverty, starvation, and will reset the course of
evolution on this planet.[169][170] Biodiversity affects the functioning of
ecosystems, which provide a variety of services upon which people depend.
Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends of biodiversity loss,
species extinctions, and the negative effect these are having on our capabilities to
sustain the well-being of human society. Organizations and citizens are
responding to the current biodiversity crisis through conservation action plans that
direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at local
through global scales.[171][164][165][166]

See also
Biology in fiction
Glossary of biology
Fast carbon cycle showing the movement of carbon
Idiobiology
between land, atmosphere, and oceans in billions of
List of biological websites tons per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red
List of biologists are human contributions, white are stored carbon.
List of biology journals Effects of the slow carbon cycle, such as volcanic and
List of biology topics tectonic activity, are not included.[159]
List of life sciences
List of omics topics in biology
National Association of Biology Teachers
Outline of biology
Periodic table of life sciences in Tinbergen's four questions
Science tourism
Terminology of biology

References
1. Modell, Harold; Cliff, William; Michael, Joel; McFarland, Jenny; Wenderoth, Mary Pat; Wright, Ann (December 2015). "A
physiologist's view of homeostasis" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4669363). Advances in Physiology
Education. 39 (4): 259–266. doi:10.1152/advan.00107.2015 (https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fadvan.00107.2015). ISSN 1043-
4046 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1043-4046). PMC 4669363 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC466936
3). PMID 26628646 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26628646).
2. Davies, PC; Rieper, E; Tuszynski, JA (January 2013). "Self-organization and entropy reduction in a living cell" (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3712629). Bio Systems. 111 (1): 1–10. Bibcode:2013BiSys.111....1D (https://ui.adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/2013BiSys.111....1D). doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2012.10.005 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biosystem
s.2012.10.005). PMC 3712629 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3712629). PMID 23159919 (https://pubme
d.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23159919).
3. Pearce, Ben K.D.; Tupper, Andrew S.; Pudritz, Ralph E.; et al. (March 1, 2018). "Constraining the Time Interval for the
Origin of Life on Earth". Astrobiology. 18 (3): 343–364. arXiv:1808.09460 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1808.09460).
Bibcode:2018AsBio..18..343P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018AsBio..18..343P). doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1674 (http
s://doi.org/10.1089%2Fast.2017.1674). PMID 29570409 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29570409). S2CID 4419671 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4419671).
4. Mayr, Ernst (1982). The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pHThtE2R0UQC&pg=PA1165). Harvard University Press. p. 108. ISBN 9780674364462. Retrieved 29 May 2025.
5. Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Science before the Greeks". The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific
tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context (2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–
20. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7.
6. Grant, Edward (2007). "Ancient Egypt to Plato". A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth
Century (https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran). New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1 (https://archive.
org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n16)–26. ISBN 978-052-1-68957-1.
7. Handbook of the Historiography of Biology (https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-90119-0). Historiographies
of Science. 2021. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90119-0 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-90119-0). ISBN 978-3-319-
90118-3.
8. Magner, Lois N. (2002). A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded (https://books.google.com/books?id=YKJ6
gVYbrGwC). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-203-91100-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150324125937/http://books.
google.com/books?id=YKJ6gVYbrGwC) from the original on 2015-03-24.
9. Serafini, Anthony (2013). The Epic History of Biology (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3oECAAAQBAJ&q=biology%
20egypt&pg=PA2). Springer. ISBN 978-1-4899-6327-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210415122005/https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=Z3oECAAAQBAJ&q=biology%20egypt&pg=PA2) from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved
14 July 2015.
10. Morange, Michel. 2021. A History of Biology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Translated by Teresa Lavender
Fagan and Joseph Muise.
11. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh,
ed. (1911). "Theophrastus". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
12. Fahd, Toufic (1996). "Botany and agriculture". In Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (eds.). Encyclopedia of the History of
Arabic Science. Vol. 3. Routledge. p. 815. ISBN 978-0-415-12410-2.
13. Magner, Lois N. (2002). A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded (https://books.google.com/books?id=YKJ6
gVYbrGwC). CRC Press. pp. 133–44. ISBN 978-0-203-91100-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150324125937/
http://books.google.com/books?id=YKJ6gVYbrGwC) from the original on 2015-03-24.
14. Sapp, Jan (2003). "7". Genesis: The Evolution of Biology. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515618-8.
15. Coleman, William (1977). Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function, and Transformation. New York:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29293-1.
16. Mayr, Ernst. The Growth of Biological Thought, chapter 4
17. Mayr, Ernst. The Growth of Biological Thought, chapter 7
18. * Darwin, Francis, ed. (1909). The foundations of The origin of species, a sketch written in 1842 (http://darwin-online.org.u
k/converted/pdf/1909_Foundations_F1555.pdf) (PDF). Cambridge: Printed at the University Press. p. 53. LCCN 61057537
(https://lccn.loc.gov/61057537). OCLC 1184581 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1184581). Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20160304111606/http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/pdf/1909_Foundations_F1555.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
19. Gould, Stephen Jay. The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge,
2002. ISBN 0-674-00613-5. p. 187.
20. Mayr, Ernst. The Growth of Biological Thought, chapter 10: "Darwin's evidence for evolution and common descent"; and
chapter 11: "The causation of evolution: natural selection"
21. Larson, Edward J. (2006). "Ch. 3" (https://books.google.com/books?id=xzLRvxlJhzkC). Evolution: The Remarkable
History of a Scientific Theory. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-58836-538-5. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20150324124009/http://books.google.com/books?id=xzLRvxlJhzkC) from the original on 2015-03-24.
22. Henig (2000). Op. cit (http://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni). pp. 134–138.
23. Miko, Ilona (2008). "Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are
they?" (https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593/). Nature
Education. 1 (1): 134. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190719224056/http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/g
regor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593) from the original on 2019-07-19. Retrieved 2021-05-13.
24. Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Evolutionary Biology". Evolution (4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer
Associates. pp. 3–26.
25. Noble, Ivan (2003-04-14). "Human genome finally complete" (https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2940601.stm).
BBC News. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060614141605/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2940601.st
m) from the original on 2006-06-14. Retrieved 2006-07-22.
26. Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "The chemical context of life".
Campbell Biology (11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 28–43. ISBN 978-0134093413.
27. Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017).
"Water and carbon: The chemical basis of life". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 55–77.
ISBN 978-0321976499.
28. Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Carbon and the molecular diversity
of life". Campbell Biology (11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 56–65. ISBN 978-0134093413.
29. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Carbon and molecular diversity of life". Principles
of Life (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 56–65. ISBN 978-1464175121.
30. Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017).
"Protein structure and function". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 78–92. ISBN 978-0321976499.
31. Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "The structure and function of large
biological molecules". Campbell Biology (11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 66–92. ISBN 978-0134093413.
32. Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017).
"An introduction to carbohydrate". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 107–118. ISBN 978-
0321976499.
33. Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017).
"Lipids, membranes, and the first cells". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 119–141. ISBN 978-
0321976499.
34. Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017).
"Nucleic acids and the RNA world". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 93–106. ISBN 978-
0321976499.
35. Mazzarello, P. (May 1999). "A unifying concept: the history of cell theory". Nature Cell Biology. 1 (1): E13–15.
doi:10.1038/8964 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F8964). PMID 10559875 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10559875).
S2CID 7338204 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7338204).
36. Campbell, Neil A.; Williamson, Brad; Heyden, Robin J. (2006). Biology: Exploring Life (http://www.phschool.com/el_market
ing.html). Boston: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0132508827. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/
http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html) from the original on 2014-11-02. Retrieved 2021-05-13.
37. Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Membrane structure and function".
Campbell Biology (11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 126–142. ISBN 978-0134093413.
38. Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; et al. (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21
054/?term=Molecular%20Biology%20of%20the%20Cell) (4th ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN 978-0-8153-3218-3.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171220092628/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21054/?term=Molecula
r%20Biology%20of%20the%20Cell) from the original on 2017-12-20.
39. Tom Herrmann; Sandeep Sharma (March 2, 2019). "Physiology, Membrane" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538
211/). StatPearls. PMID 30855799 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30855799). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
220217034021/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538211/) from the original on February 17, 2022. Retrieved
May 14, 2021.
40. Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002). "Cell Movements and
the Shaping of the Vertebrate Body" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26863/). Molecular Biology of the Cell
(4th ed.). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200122055346/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26863/) from
the original on 2020-01-22. Retrieved 2021-05-13. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to
shape developing embryos. It is also common to describe small molecules such as amino acids as "molecular building
blocks (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books?cmd=Search&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=%22all%20cells%22%20AND%2
0mboc4%5Bbook%5D%20AND%20372023%5Buid%5D&rid=mboc4.section.4) ".
41. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Cells: The working units of life". Principles of Life
(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 60–81. ISBN 978-1464175121.
42. Bailey, Regina. "Cellular Respiration" (http://biology.about.com/od/cellularprocesses/a/cellrespiration.htm). Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20120505043947/http://biology.about.com/od/cellularprocesses/a/cellrespiration.htm) from the
original on 2012-05-05.
43. Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold.; Kaiser, Chris A.; Krieger, Monty; Scott, Matthew P.; Bretscher, Anthony; Ploegh, Hidde;
Matsudaira, Paul (2008). "Cellular energetics". Molecular Cell Biology (6th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
pp. 479–532. ISBN 978-0716776017.
44. "photosynthesis" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=photosynthesis&allowed_in_frame=0). Online Etymology
Dictionary. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130307020959/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=photosynt
hesis&allowed_in_frame=0) from the original on 2013-03-07. Retrieved 2013-05-23.
45. φῶς (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=fw=s2). Liddell, Henry George;
Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
46. σύνθεσις (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=su/nqesis). Liddell, Henry
George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
47. Bryant, D. A.; Frigaard, N. U. (Nov 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated". Trends in
Microbiology. 14 (11): 488–496. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tim.2006.09.001).
PMID 16997562 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16997562).
48. Reece, J.; Urry, L.; Cain, M. (2011). Biology (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781256158769/page/235)
(International ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. pp. 235, 244 (https://archive.org/details/isbn_97
81256158769/page/235). ISBN 978-0-321-73975-9. "This initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known
as carbon fixation."
49. Neitzel, James; Rasband, Matthew. "Cell communication" (https://www.nature.com/scitable/topic/cell-communication-1412
2659/). Nature Education. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100929110101/https://www.nature.com/scitable/topic/c
ell-communication-14122659/) from the original on 29 September 2010. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
50. "Cell signaling" (https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cell-signaling-14047077/). Nature Education. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20101031053612/https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cell-signaling-14047077/) from the
original on 31 October 2010. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
51. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Cell membranes and signaling". Principles of Life
(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 82–104. ISBN 978-1464175121.
52. Martin, E. A.; Hine, R. (2020). A dictionary of biology (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199204625.
OCLC 176818780 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/176818780).
53. Griffiths, A. J. (2012). Introduction to genetic analysis (10th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1429229432.
OCLC 698085201 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/698085201).
54. "10.2 The Cell Cycle – Biology 2e | OpenStax" (https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/10-2-the-cell-cycle).
openstax.org. 28 March 2018. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201129223722/https://openstax.org/books/biology
-2e/pages/10-2-the-cell-cycle) from the original on 2020-11-29. Retrieved 2020-11-24.
55. Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017).
"Meiosis". Biological Science (6th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson. pp. 271–289. ISBN 978-0321976499.
56. Casiraghi, A.; Suigo, L.; Valoti, E.; Straniero, V. (February 2020). "Targeting Bacterial Cell Division: A Binding Site-
Centered Approach to the Most Promising Inhibitors of the Essential Protein FtsZ" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC7167804). Antibiotics. 9 (2): 69. doi:10.3390/antibiotics9020069 (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fantibiotics9020069).
PMC 7167804 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7167804). PMID 32046082 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/32046082).
57. Brandeis M. New-age ideas about age-old sex: separating meiosis from mating could solve a century-old conundrum. Biol
Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2018 May;93(2):801–810. doi: 10.1111/brv.12367. Epub 2017 Sep 14. PMID 28913952
58. Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub
ahead of print. PMID 38497809
59. Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep
20;229(4719):1277–81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363
60. Darwin, C. R. 1878. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray. darwin-
online.org.uk
61. Griffiths, Anthony J.; Wessler, Susan R.; Carroll, Sean B.; Doebley, John (2015). "The genetics revolution". An Introduction
to Genetic Analysis (11th ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: W.H. Freeman & Company. pp. 1–30. ISBN 978-1464109485.
62. Griffiths, Anthony J. F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M., eds. (2000).
"Genetics and the Organism: Introduction" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.60). An Introduction
to Genetic Analysis (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-3520-5.
63. Hartl, D.; Jones, E (2005). Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes (https://archive.org/details/genetics00dani)
(6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett. ISBN 978-0-7637-1511-3.
64. Miko, Ilona (2008). "Test crosses" (https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/test-crosses-585/). Nature Education. 1 (1):
136. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210521003428/https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/test-crosses-58
5/) from the original on 2021-05-21. Retrieved 2021-05-28.
65. Miko, Ilona (2008). "Thomas Hunt Morgan and sex linkage" (https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/thomas-hunt-morg
an-and-sex-linkage-452/). Nature Education. 1 (1): 143. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210520234008/https://w
ww.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/thomas-hunt-morgan-and-sex-linkage-452/) from the original on 2021-05-20. Retrieved
2021-05-28.
66. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "DNA and its role in heredity". Principles of Life
(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 172–193. ISBN 978-1464175121.
67. Russell, Peter (2001). iGenetics (https://archive.org/details/igenetics0000russ_v6o1). New York: Benjamin Cummings.
ISBN 0-8053-4553-1.
68. Thanbichler, M; Wang, SC; Shapiro, L (October 2005). "The bacterial nucleoid: a highly organized and dynamic structure"
(https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjcb.20519). Journal of Cellular Biochemistry. 96 (3): 506–21. doi:10.1002/jcb.20519 (https://do
i.org/10.1002%2Fjcb.20519). PMID 15988757 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15988757). S2CID 25355087 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25355087).
69. "Genotype definition – Medical Dictionary definitions" (http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8472).
Medterms. Medterms.com. 2012-03-19. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054803/http://www.medterms.co
m/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8472) from the original on 2013-09-21. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
70. Crick, Francis H. (1958). "On protein synthesis". Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology. 12: 138–63.
PMID 13580867 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13580867).
71. Crick, Francis H. (August 1970). "Central dogma of molecular biology". Nature. 227 (5258): 561–3.
Bibcode:1970Natur.227..561C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970Natur.227..561C). doi:10.1038/227561a0 (https://d
oi.org/10.1038%2F227561a0). PMID 4913914 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4913914). S2CID 4164029 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:4164029).
72. "Central dogma reversed". Nature. 226 (5252): 1198–9. June 1970. Bibcode:1970Natur.226.1198. (https://ui.adsabs.harva
rd.edu/abs/1970Natur.226.1198.). doi:10.1038/2261198a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F2261198a0). PMID 5422595 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5422595). S2CID 4184060 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4184060).
73. Lin, Yihan; Elowitz, Michael B. (2016). "Central Dogma Goes Digital" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.molcel.2016.03.005).
Molecular Cell. 61 (6): 791–792. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2016.03.005 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.molcel.2016.03.005).
PMID 26990983 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26990983).
74. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Regulation of gene expression". Principles of Life
(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 215–233. ISBN 978-1464175121.
75. Keene, Jack D.; Tenenbaum, Scott A. (2002). "Eukaryotic mRNPs may represent posttranscriptional operons" (https://doi.
org/10.1016%2Fs1097-2765%2802%2900559-2). Molecular Cell. 9 (6): 1161–1167. doi:10.1016/s1097-2765(02)00559-2
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1097-2765%2802%2900559-2). PMID 12086614 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1208661
4).
76. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Genes, development, and evolution". Principles of
Life (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 273–298. ISBN 978-1464175121.
77. Slack, J.M.W. (2013) Essential Developmental Biology. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.
78. Slack, J.M.W. (2007). "Metaplasia and transdifferentiation: from pure biology to the clinic". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell
Biology. 8 (5): 369–378. doi:10.1038/nrm2146 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrm2146). PMID 17377526 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/17377526). S2CID 3353748 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3353748).
79. Atala, Anthony; Lanza, Robert (2012). Handbook of Stem Cells (https://books.google.com/books?id=wm-K_dKpjBAC&pg=
RA1-PA451). Academic Press. p. 452. ISBN 978-0-12-385943-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210412065854/
https://books.google.com/books?id=wm-K_dKpjBAC&pg=RA1-PA451) from the original on 2021-04-12. Retrieved
2021-05-28.
80. Yanes, Oscar; Clark, Julie; Wong, Diana M.; Patti, Gary J.; Sánchez-Ruiz, Antonio; Benton, H. Paul; Trauger, Sunia A.;
Desponts, Caroline; Ding, Sheng; Siuzdak, Gary (June 2010). "Metabolic oxidation regulates embryonic stem cell
differentiation" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873061). Nature Chemical Biology. 6 (6): 411–417.
doi:10.1038/nchembio.364 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnchembio.364). PMC 2873061 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2873061). PMID 20436487 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20436487).
81. Carroll, Sean B. "The Origins of Form" (http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/features/061488/the-origins-of-form). Natural
History. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181009154501/http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/features/061488/the-o
rigins-of-form) from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2016. "Biologists could say, with confidence, that
forms change, and that natural selection is an important force for change. Yet they could say nothing about how that
change is accomplished. How bodies or body parts change, or how new structures arise, remained complete mysteries."
82. Hall, Brian K.; Hallgrímsson, Benedikt (2007). Strickberger's Evolution (https://books.google.com/books?id=jrDD3cyA09k
C). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 4–6. ISBN 978-1-4496-4722-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2023032609370
7/https://books.google.com/books?id=jrDD3cyA09kC) from the original on 2023-03-26. Retrieved 2021-05-27.
 83. "Evolution Resources" (http://www.nas.edu/evolution/index.html). Washington, D.C.: National Academies of Sciences,
Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160603230514/http://www.nas.edu/evolution/in
dex.html) from the original on 2016-06-03.
84. Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Descent with modifications: A
Darwinian view of life". Campbell Biology (11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 466–483. ISBN 978-0134093413.
85. Lewontin, Richard C. (November 1970). "The Units of Selection" (http://joelvelasco.net/teaching/167/lewontin%2070%20-
%20the%20units%20of%20selection.pdf) (PDF). Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 1 (1): 1–18.
Bibcode:1970AnRES...1....1L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970AnRES...1....1L).
doi:10.1146/annurev.es.01.110170.000245 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.01.110170.000245). JSTOR 2096764
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/2096764). S2CID 84684420 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84684420). Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20150206172942/http://joelvelasco.net/teaching/167/lewontin%2070%20-%20the%20units%
20of%20selection.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2015-02-06.
86. Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species, John Murray.
87. Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Evolutionary biology". Evolution (4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer
Associates. pp. 3–26.
88. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Processes of evolution". Principles of Life
(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 299–324. ISBN 978-1464175121.
89. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Speciation". Principles of Life (2nd ed.).
Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 343–356. ISBN 978-1464175121.
90. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Reconstructing and using phylogenies".
Principles of Life (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 325–342. ISBN 978-1464175121.
91. Kitching, Ian J.; Forey, Peter L.; Williams, David M. (2001). "Cladistics" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B
9780123847195000228). In Levin, Simon A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 33–45.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-384719-5.00022-8 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-384719-5.00022-8).
ISBN 9780123847201. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210829234556/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art
icle/pii/B9780123847195000228) from the original on 29 August 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2021.)
92. Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Phylogeny: The unity and diversity of life". Evolution (4th ed.).
Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 401–429.
93. Woese, CR; Kandler, O; Wheelis, ML (June 1990). "Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains
Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC54159). Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 87 (12): 4576–79. Bibcode:1990PNAS...87.4576W (https://ui.adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1990PNAS...87.4576W). doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.87.12.4576).
PMC 54159 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC54159). PMID 2112744 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/211
2744).
94. Montévil, M; Mossio, M; Pocheville, A; Longo, G (October 2016). "Theoretical principles for biology: Variation" (https://ww
w.academia.edu/27942089). Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology. From the Century of the Genome to the
Century of the Organism: New Theoretical Approaches. 122 (1): 36–50. doi:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2016.08.005 (https://doi.
org/10.1016%2Fj.pbiomolbio.2016.08.005). PMID 27530930 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27530930).
S2CID 3671068 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3671068). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150
224/http://www.academia.edu/27942089/Theoretical_principles_for_biology_Variation) from the original on 2018-03-20.
95. De Duve, Christian (2002). Life Evolving: Molecules, Mind, and Meaning (https://archive.org/details/lifeevolvingmole00duv
e_331). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 44 (https://archive.org/details/lifeevolvingmole00duve_331/page/n60).
ISBN 978-0-19-515605-8.
96. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The history of life on Earth". Principles of Life
(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 357–376. ISBN 978-1464175121.
97. "Stratigraphic Chart 2022" (https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02.pdf) (PDF). International
Stratigraphic Commission. February 2022. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220402100018/https://stratigraphy.or
g/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
98. Futuyma 2005
99. Futuyma, DJ (2005). Evolution (https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu). Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0-87893-187-
3. OCLC 57311264 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57311264).
100. Rosing, Minik T. (January 29, 1999). "13C-Depleted Carbon Microparticles in >3700-Ma Sea-Floor Sedimentary Rocks
from West Greenland". Science. 283 (5402): 674–676. Bibcode:1999Sci...283..674R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
999Sci...283..674R). doi:10.1126/science.283.5402.674 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.283.5402.674).
PMID 9924024 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9924024).
101. Ohtomo, Yoko; Kakegawa, Takeshi; Ishida, Akizumi; et al. (January 2014). "Evidence for biogenic graphite in early
Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks". Nature Geoscience. 7 (1): 25–28. Bibcode:2014NatGe...7...25O (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2014NatGe...7...25O). doi:10.1038/ngeo2025 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fngeo2025).
102. Nisbet, Euan G.; Fowler, C.M.R. (December 7, 1999). "Archaean metabolic evolution of microbial mats" (https://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1690475). Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 266 (1436): 2375–2382.
doi:10.1098/rspb.1999.0934 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.1999.0934). PMC 1690475 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC1690475).
103. Knoll, Andrew H.; Javaux, Emmanuelle J.; Hewitt, David; et al. (June 29, 2006). "Eukaryotic organisms in Proterozoic
oceans" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1578724). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 361
(1470): 1023–1038. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2006.1843). PMC 1578724 (https://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1578724). PMID 16754612 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16754612).
104. Fedonkin, Mikhail A. (March 31, 2003). "The origin of the Metazoa in the light of the Proterozoic fossil record" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20090226122725/http://www.vend.paleo.ru/pub/Fedonkin_2003.pdf) (PDF). Paleontological Research. 7
(1): 9–41. Bibcode:2003PalRe...7....9F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PalRe...7....9F). doi:10.2517/prpsj.7.9 (http
s://doi.org/10.2517%2Fprpsj.7.9). S2CID 55178329 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55178329). Archived from
the original (http://www.vend.paleo.ru/pub/Fedonkin_2003.pdf) (PDF) on 2009-02-26. Retrieved 2008-09-02.
105. Bonner, John Tyler (January 7, 1998). "The origins of multicellularity". Integrative Biology. 1 (1): 27–36.
doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291520-6602%
281998%291%3A1%3C27%3A%3AAID-INBI4%3E3.0.CO%3B2-6).
106. Strother, Paul K.; Battison, Leila; Brasier, Martin D.; et al. (May 26, 2011). "Earth's earliest non-marine eukaryotes".
Nature. 473 (7348): 505–509. Bibcode:2011Natur.473..505S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.473..505S).
doi:10.1038/nature09943 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature09943). PMID 21490597 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21
490597). S2CID 4418860 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4418860).
107. Beraldi-Campesi, Hugo (February 23, 2013). "Early life on land and the first terrestrial ecosystems" (https://doi.org/10.118
6%2F2192-1709-2-1). Ecological Processes. 2 (1): 1–17. Bibcode:2013EcoPr...2....1B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
2013EcoPr...2....1B). doi:10.1186/2192-1709-2-1 (https://doi.org/10.1186%2F2192-1709-2-1).
108. Algeo, Thomas J.; Scheckler, Stephen E. (January 29, 1998). "Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links
between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC1692181). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 353 (1365): 113–130.
doi:10.1098/rstb.1998.0195 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1998.0195). PMC 1692181 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC1692181).
109. Jun-Yuan, Chen; Oliveri, Paola; Chia-Wei, Li; et al. (April 25, 2000). "Precambrian animal diversity: Putative phosphatized
embryos from the Doushantuo Formation of China" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18256). Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97 (9): 4457–4462. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.4457C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PNAS...97.
4457C). doi:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.97.9.4457). PMC 18256 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC18256). PMID 10781044 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10781044).
110. D-G., Shu; H-L., Luo; Conway Morris, Simon; et al. (November 4, 1999). "Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20090226122732/http://www.bios.niu.edu/davis/bios458/Shu1.pdf) (PDF). Nature. 402
(6757): 42–46. Bibcode:1999Natur.402...42S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Natur.402...42S). doi:10.1038/46965
(https://doi.org/10.1038%2F46965). S2CID 4402854 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4402854). Archived from
the original (http://www.bios.niu.edu/davis/bios458/Shu1.pdf) (PDF) on 2009-02-26. Retrieved 2015-01-22.
111. Hoyt, Donald F. (February 17, 1997). "Synapsid Reptiles" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090520072737/http://www.csupo
mona.edu/~dfhoyt/classes/zoo138/SYNAPSID.HTML). ZOO 138 Vertebrate Zoology (Lecture). Pomona, Calif.: California
State Polytechnic University, Pomona. Archived from the original (http://www.csupomona.edu/~dfhoyt/classes/zoo138/SY
NAPSID.HTML) on 2009-05-20. Retrieved 2015-01-22.
112. Barry, Patrick L. (January 28, 2002). Phillips, Tony (ed.). "The Great Dying" (https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/scienc
e-at-nasa/2002/28jan_extinction/). Science@NASA. Marshall Space Flight Center. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20100410015208/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/28jan_extinction/) from the original on
2010-04-10. Retrieved 2015-01-22.
113. Tanner, Lawrence H.; Lucas, Spencer G.; Chapman, Mary G. (March 2004). "Assessing the record and causes of Late
Triassic extinctions" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071025225841/http://nmnaturalhistory.org/pdf_files/TJB.pdf) (PDF).
Earth-Science Reviews. 65 (1–2): 103–139. Bibcode:2004ESRv...65..103T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ESR
v...65..103T). doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00082-5 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0012-8252%2803%2900082-5).
Archived from the original (http://nmnaturalhistory.org/pdf_files/TJB.pdf) (PDF) on 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2007-10-22.
114. Benton, Michael J. (1997). Vertebrate Palaeontology (2nd ed.). London: Chapman & Hall. ISBN 978-0-412-73800-5.
OCLC 37378512 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37378512).
115. Fastovsky, David E.; Sheehan, Peter M. (March 2005). "The Extinction of the Dinosaurs in North America" (https://www.ge
osociety.org/gsatoday/archive/15/3/pdf/i1052-5173-15-3-4.pdf) (PDF). GSA Today. 15 (3): 4–10. doi:10.1130/1052-
5173(2005)015<4:TEOTDI>2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1130%2F1052-5173%282005%29015%3C4%3ATEOTDI%3E2.0.
CO%3B2). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190322190338/https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/15/3/pdf/
i1052-5173-15-3-4.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2019-03-22. Retrieved 2015-01-23.
116. Roach, John (June 20, 2007). "Dinosaur Extinction Spurred Rise of Modern Mammals" (https://web.archive.org/web/2008
0511161825/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070620-mammals-dinos.html). National Geographic
News. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. Archived from the original (https://news.nationalgeographic.com/n
ews/2007/06/070620-mammals-dinos.html) on 2008-05-11. Retrieved 2020-02-21.
Wible, John R.; Rougier, Guillermo W.; Novacek, Michael J.; et al. (June 21, 2007). "Cretaceous eutherians and
Laurasian origin for placental mammals near the K/T boundary". Nature. 447 (7147): 1003–1006.
Bibcode:2007Natur.447.1003W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Natur.447.1003W). doi:10.1038/nature05854
(https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature05854). PMID 17581585 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17581585).
S2CID 4334424 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4334424).
117. Van Valkenburgh, Blaire (May 1, 1999). "Major Patterns in the History of Carnivorous Mammals" (https://zenodo.org/recor
d/890156). Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 27: 463–493. Bibcode:1999AREPS..27..463V (https://ui.adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AREPS..27..463V). doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.27.1.463 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.eart
h.27.1.463). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200229201201/https://zenodo.org/record/890156) from the original
on February 29, 2020. Retrieved May 15, 2021.
118. Fredrickson, J. K.; Zachara, J. M.; Balkwill, D. L. (July 2004). "Geomicrobiology of high-level nuclear waste-contaminated
vadose sediments at the Hanford site, Washington state" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC444790). Applied
and Environmental Microbiology. 70 (7): 4230–41. Bibcode:2004ApEnM..70.4230F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/200
4ApEnM..70.4230F). doi:10.1128/AEM.70.7.4230-4241.2004 (https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.70.7.4230-4241.2004).
PMC 444790 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC444790). PMID 15240306 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
15240306).
119. Dudek, N. K.; Sun, C. L.; Burstein, D. (2017). "Novel Microbial Diversity and Functional Potential in the Marine Mammal
Oral Microbiome" (https://escholarship.org/content/qt1w91s3vq/qt1w91s3vq.pdf?t=pghuwe) (PDF). Current Biology. 27
(24): 3752–3762. Bibcode:2017CBio...27E3752D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017CBio...27E3752D).
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.10.040 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2017.10.040). PMID 29153320 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/29153320). S2CID 43864355 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43864355). Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20210308145807/https://escholarship.org/content/qt1w91s3vq/qt1w91s3vq.pdf?t=pghuwe) (PDF) from the
original on 2021-03-08. Retrieved 2021-05-14.
120. Pace, N. R. (May 2006). "Time for a change" (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F441289a). Nature. 441 (7091): 289.
Bibcode:2006Natur.441..289P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.441..289P). doi:10.1038/441289a (https://doi.
org/10.1038%2F441289a). PMID 16710401 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16710401). S2CID 4431143 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:4431143).
121. Stoeckenius, W. (October 1981). "Walsby's square bacterium: fine structure of an orthogonal procaryote" (https://www.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC216199). Journal of Bacteriology. 148 (1): 352–60. doi:10.1128/JB.148.1.352-360.1981 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1128%2FJB.148.1.352-360.1981). PMC 216199 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC216199).
PMID 7287626 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7287626).
122. "Archaea Basic Biology" (https://basicbiology.net/micro/microorganisms/archaea). March 2018. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20210428221114/https://basicbiology.net/micro/microorganisms/archaea) from the original on 2021-04-28.
Retrieved 2021-05-14.
123. Bang, C.; Schmitz, R. A. (September 2015). "Archaea associated with human surfaces: not to be underestimated" (https://
doi.org/10.1093%2Ffemsre%2Ffuv010). FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 39 (5): 631–48. doi:10.1093/femsre/fuv010 (https://
doi.org/10.1093%2Ffemsre%2Ffuv010). PMID 25907112 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25907112).
124. Moissl-Eichinger. C.; Pausan, M.; Taffner, J.; Berg, G.; Bang, C.; Schmitz, R. A. (January 2018). "Archaea Are Interactive
Components of Complex Microbiomes". Trends in Microbiology. 26 (1): 70–85. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2017.07.004 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1016%2Fj.tim.2017.07.004). PMID 28826642 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28826642).
125. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The origin and diversification of eukaryotes".
Principles of Life (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 402–419. ISBN 978-1464175121.
126. O'Malley, Maureen A.; Leger, Michelle M.; Wideman, Jeremy G.; Ruiz-Trillo, Iñaki (2019-02-18). "Concepts of the last
eukaryotic common ancestor". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 3 (3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 338–344.
Bibcode:2019NatEE...3..338O (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatEE...3..338O). doi:10.1038/s41559-019-0796-3
(https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41559-019-0796-3). hdl:10261/201794 (https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F201794).
PMID 30778187 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30778187). S2CID 67790751 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:67790751).
127. Taylor, F. J. R. 'M. (2003-11-01). "The collapse of the two-kingdom system, the rise of protistology and the founding of the
International Society for Evolutionary Protistology (ISEP)" (https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.02587-0). International Journal
of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 53 (6). Microbiology Society: 1707–1714. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.02587-0 (https://
doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.02587-0). PMID 14657097 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14657097).
128. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The evolution of plants". Principles of Life
(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 420–449. ISBN 978-1464175121.
129. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The evolution and diversity of fungi". Principles of
Life (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 451–468. ISBN 978-1464175121.
130. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Animal origins and diversity". Principles of Life
(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 469–519. ISBN 978-1464175121.
131. Wu, K. J. (15 April 2020). "There are more viruses than stars in the universe. Why do only some infect us? – More than a
quadrillion quadrillion individual viruses exist on Earth, but most are not poised to hop into humans. Can we find the ones
that are?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20200528154701/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/04/factors-all
ow-viruses-infect-humans-coronavirus/). National Geographic Society. Archived from the original (https://www.nationalgeo
graphic.com/science/2020/04/factors-allow-viruses-infect-humans-coronavirus/) on 28 May 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
132. Koonin, E. V.; Senkevich, T. G.; Dolja, V. V. (September 2006). "The ancient Virus World and evolution of cells" (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1594570). Biology Direct. 1 (1): 29. doi:10.1186/1745-6150-1-29 (https://doi.org/10.1
186%2F1745-6150-1-29). PMC 1594570 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1594570). PMID 16984643 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16984643).
133. Zimmer, C. (26 February 2021). "The Secret Life of a Coronavirus - An oily, 100-nanometer-wide bubble of genes has
killed more than two million people and reshaped the world. Scientists don't quite know what to make of it" (https://ghostar
chive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/26/opinion/sunday/coronavirus-alive-dead.html). The New
York Times. Archived from the original (https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/26/opinion/sunday/coronavirus-alive-dead.html)
on 2021-12-28. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
134. "Virus Taxonomy: 2019 Release" (https://ictv.global/taxonomy). talk.ictvonline.org. International Committee on Taxonomy
of Viruses. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200320103754/https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy) from the original
on 20 March 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
135. Lawrence C. M.; Menon S.; Eilers, B. J. (May 2009). "Structural and functional studies of archaeal viruses" (https://www.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2675988). The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 284 (19): 12599–603.
doi:10.1074/jbc.R800078200 (https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.R800078200). PMC 2675988 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC2675988). PMID 19158076 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19158076).
136. Edwards, R.A.; Rohwer, F. (June 2005). "Viral metagenomics". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 3 (6): 504–10.
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1163 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrmicro1163). PMID 15886693 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15
886693). S2CID 8059643 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8059643).
137. Canchaya, C.; Fournous, G.; Chibani-Chennoufi, S. (August 2003). "Phage as agents of lateral gene transfer". Current
Opinion in Microbiology. 6 (4): 417–24. doi:10.1016/S1369-5274(03)00086-9 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1369-5274%28
03%2900086-9). PMID 12941415 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12941415).
138. Rybicki, E. P. (1990). "The classification of organisms at the edge of life, or problems with virus systematics". South
African Journal of Science. 86: 182–86.
139. Koonin, E. V.; Starokadomskyy, P. (October 2016). "Are viruses alive? The replicator paradigm sheds decisive light on an
old but misguided question" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5406846). Studies in History and Philosophy
of Biological and Biomedical Sciences. 59: 125–134. doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2016.02.016 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.shpsc.
2016.02.016). PMC 5406846 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5406846). PMID 26965225 (https://pubmed.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26965225).
140. Begon, M; Townsend, CR; Harper, JL (2006). Ecology: From individuals to ecosystems (4th ed.). Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-
4051-1117-1.
141. Habitats of the world (https://books.google.com/books?id=U-_mlcy8rGgC&pg=PA238). New York: Marshall Cavendish.
2004. p. 238. ISBN 978-0-7614-7523-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210415113154/https://books.google.co
m/books?id=U-_mlcy8rGgC&pg=PA238) from the original on 2021-04-15. Retrieved 2020-08-24.
142. Tansley (1934); Molles (1999), p. 482; Chapin et al. (2002), p. 380; Schulze et al. (2005); p. 400; Gurevitch et al. (2006),
p. 522; Smith & Smith 2012, p. G-5
143. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The distribution of Earth's ecological systems".
Principles of Life (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 845–863. ISBN 978-1464175121.
144. Odum, Eugene P (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology (https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofec0000odum) (3rd ed.).
New York: Saunders. ISBN 978-0-534-42066-6.
145. Chapin III, F. Stuart; Matson, Pamela A.; Mooney, Harold A. (2002). "The ecosystem concept". Principles of Terrestrial
Ecosystem Ecology. New York: Springer. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-387-95443-1.
146. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Populations". Principles of Life (2nd ed.).
Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 864–897. ISBN 978-1464175121.
147. Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Population ecology". Campbell
Biology (11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 1188–1211. ISBN 978-0134093413.
148. "Population" (http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Population). Biology Online. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0190413145351/https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Population) from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved
5 December 2012.
149. "Definition of population (biology)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104019/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definit
ion/english/population?q=population). Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original (http://oxfor
ddictionaries.com/definition/english/population?q=population) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 December 2012. "a
community of animals, plants, or humans among whose members interbreeding occurs"
150. Hartl, Daniel (2007). Principles of Population Genetics. Sinauer Associates. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-87893-308-2.
151. Chapman, Eric J.; Byron, Carrie J. (2018-01-01). "The flexible application of carrying capacity in ecology" (https://doi.org/1
0.1016%2Fj.gecco.2017.e00365). Global Ecology and Conservation. 13: e00365. Bibcode:2018GEcoC..1300365C (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018GEcoC..1300365C). doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2017.e00365 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ge
cco.2017.e00365).
152. Odum, E. P.; Barrett, G. W. (2005). Fundamentals of Ecology (https://web.archive.org/web/20110820163059/http://www.ce
ngage.com/aushed/instructor.do?disciplinenumber=1041&product_isbn=9780534420666&courseid=BI03&codeid=2BF6&
subTab=&mainTab=About_the_Book&mailFlag=true&topicName=) (5th ed.). Brooks/Cole, a part of Cengage Learning.
ISBN 978-0-534-42066-6. Archived from the original (http://www.cengage.com/aushed/instructor.do?disciplinenumber=10
41&product_isbn=9780534420666&courseid=BI03&codeid=2BF6&subTab=&mainTab=About_the_Book&mailFlag=true&t
opicName=) on 2011-08-20.
153. Sanmartín, Isabel (December 2012). "Historical Biogeography: Evolution in Time and Space" (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F
s12052-012-0421-2). Evolution: Education and Outreach. 5 (4): 555–568. doi:10.1007/s12052-012-0421-2 (https://doi.org/
10.1007%2Fs12052-012-0421-2). hdl:10261/167031 (https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F167031). ISSN 1936-6434 (https://
search.worldcat.org/issn/1936-6434).
154. Wootton, JT; Emmerson, M (2005). "Measurement of Interaction Strength in Nature". Annual Review of Ecology,
Evolution, and Systematics. 36: 419–44. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.091704.175535 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fann
urev.ecolsys.36.091704.175535). JSTOR 30033811 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/30033811).
155. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Ecological and evolutionary consequences within
and among species". Principles of Life (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 882–897. ISBN 978-
1464175121.
156. Smith, AL (1997). Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press.
p. 508. ISBN 978-0-19-854768-6. "Photosynthesis – the synthesis by organisms of organic chemical compounds, esp.
carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide using energy obtained from light rather than the oxidation of chemical compounds."
157. Edwards, Katrina. "Microbiology of a Sediment Pond and the Underlying Young, Cold, Hydrologically Active Ridge Flank".
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
158. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Ecological communities". Principles of Life
(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 898–915. ISBN 978-1464175121.
159. Riebeek, Holli (16 June 2011). "The Carbon Cycle" (https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/CarbonCycle/?src=eoa-fe
atures). Earth Observatory. NASA. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160305010126/http://earthobservatory.nasa.g
ov/Features/CarbonCycle/?src=eoa-features) from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
160. Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The distribution of Earth's ecological systems".
Principles of Life (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 916–934. ISBN 978-1464175121.
161. Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J (2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC2596898). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1636): 759–65.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2007.1370). PMC 2596898 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2596898). PMID 18198148 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18198148).
162. Soulé, Michael E.; Wilcox, Bruce A. (1980). Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective. Sunderland,
Mass.: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0-87893-800-1.
163. Soulé, Michael E. (1986). "What is Conservation Biology?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190412085412/http://www.mich
aelsoule.com/resource_files/85/85_resource_file1.pdf) (PDF). BioScience. 35 (11). American Institute of Biological
Sciences: 727–34. doi:10.2307/1310054 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1310054). JSTOR 1310054 (https://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/1310054). Archived from the original (http://www.michaelsoule.com/resource_files/85/85_resource_file1.pdf) (PDF) on
2019-04-12. Retrieved 2021-05-15.
164. Hunter, Malcolm L. (1996). Fundamentals of conservation biology (https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofco00hunt).
Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 978-0-86542-371-8.
165. Meffe, Gary K.; Martha J. Groom (2006). Principles of conservation biology (3rd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer
Associates. ISBN 978-0-87893-518-5.
166. Van Dyke, Fred (2008). Conservation biology: foundations, concepts, applications (https://books.google.com/books?id=Ev
h1UD3ZYWcC) (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6891-1 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-
4020-6891-1). hdl:11059/14777 (https://hdl.handle.net/11059%2F14777). ISBN 978-1402068904. OCLC 232001738 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/oclc/232001738). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200727115147/https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Evh1UD3ZYWcC) from the original on 2020-07-27. Retrieved 2021-05-15.
167. Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J.; Ferry, P. A. (2010). "Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the
expansion of vertebrates on land" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2936204). Biology Letters. 6 (4): 544–7.
doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2009.1024). PMC 2936204 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC2936204). PMID 20106856 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20106856).
168. Koh, Lian Pin; Dunn, Robert R.; Sodhi, Navjot S.; Colwell, Robert K.; Proctor, Heather C.; Smith, Vincent S. (2004).
"Species coextinctions and the biodiversity crisis". Science. 305 (5690): 1632–4. Bibcode:2004Sci...305.1632K (https://ui.
adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Sci...305.1632K). doi:10.1126/science.1101101 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.110110
1). PMID 15361627 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15361627). S2CID 30713492 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:30713492).
169. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World Resources
Institute, Washington, D.C.[1] (http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20191014033601/http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf)
2019-10-14 at the Wayback Machine
170. Jackson, J. B. C. (2008). "Ecological extinction and evolution in the brave new ocean" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2556419). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (Suppl 1): 11458–65.
Bibcode:2008PNAS..10511458J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PNAS..10511458J).
doi:10.1073/pnas.0802812105 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0802812105). PMC 2556419 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/pmc/articles/PMC2556419). PMID 18695220 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18695220).
171. Soule, Michael E. (1986). Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Sinauer Associates. p. 584.
ISBN 978-0-87893-795-0.

Further reading
Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; Raff, M.; Roberts, K.; Walter, P. (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (https://archive.or
g/details/molecularbiolog000wils) (4th ed.). Garland. ISBN 978-0-8153-3218-3. OCLC 145080076 (https://search.worldca
t.org/oclc/145080076).
Begon, M.; Townsend, C. R.; Harper, J. L. (2005). Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems (4th ed.). Blackwell Publishing
Limited. ISBN 978-1-4051-1117-1. OCLC 57639896 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57639896).
Campbell, Neil (2004). Biology (7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8053-7146-8.
OCLC 71890442 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/71890442).
Colinvaux, Paul (1979). Why Big Fierce Animals are Rare: An Ecologist's Perspective (https://archive.org/details/whybigfie
rceanim00paul) (reissue ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02364-9. OCLC 10081738 (https://search.worl
dcat.org/oclc/10081738).
Mayr, Ernst (1982). The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=pHThtE2R0UQC). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36446-2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2015
1003080726/https://books.google.com/books?id=pHThtE2R0UQC) from the original on 2015-10-03. Retrieved
2015-06-27.
Hoagland, Mahlon (2001). The Way Life Works. Jones and Bartlett Publishers inc. ISBN 978-0-7637-1688-2.
OCLC 223090105 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/223090105).
 Janovy, John (2004). On Becoming a Biologist (2nd ed.). Bison Books. ISBN 978-0-8032-7620-8. OCLC 55138571 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55138571).
Johnson, George B. (2005). Biology, Visualizing Life (https://archive.org/details/holtbiologyvisua00john). Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-016723-2. OCLC 36306648 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36306648).
Tobin, Allan; Dusheck, Jennie (2005). Asking About Life (3rd ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-534-
40653-0.

External links
OSU's Phylocode (http://phylonames.org/code/)
Biology Online – Wiki Dictionary (https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary)
MIT video lecture series on biology (https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/biology/7-012-introduction-to-biology-fall-2004/)
OneZoom Tree of Life (https://www.onezoom.org/)
Journal of the History of Biology (springer.com) (https://link.springer.com/journal/10739)
Journal links

PLOS ONE
PLOS Biology (https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/) A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the Public Library
of Science
Current Biology (http://www.cell.com/current-biology/): General journal publishing original research from all areas of
biology
Biology Letters (https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl): A high-impact Royal Society journal publishing peer-
reviewed biology papers of general interest
Science (https://www.science.org/collections): Internationally renowned AAAS science journal – see sections of the life
sciences
International Journal of Biological Sciences (https://www.ijbs.com/): A biological journal publishing significant peer-
reviewed scientific papers
Perspectives in Biology and Medicine (https://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives-biology-and-medicine): An
interdisciplinary scholarly journal publishing essays of broad relevance

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biology&oldid=1302524267"