Feudalism in Europe

• Feudalism was a system where kings gave land to nobles in exchange for military
service. It started during the Carolingian period, combining Germanic traditions
with Roman customs. Nobles (vassals) owned land (fiefs) and pledged loyalty and
military help to their lords. Sometimes, they swore allegiance to multiple lords.

• Knights were skilled warriors on horseback and symbolized feudal power.

• Castles were homes for lords, built to defend the land they controlled.

• By the 14th century, feudalism began to change, with money replacing military
service. As monarchs became stronger and economies changed, feudalism
declined by the 16th century.

The Vikings (793–1069 CE)

• Raids and Settlements: The Vikings came from Scandinavia and began raiding
Europe in 793 CE. They attacked the monastery at Lindisfarne and later settled in
England, Iceland, Greenland, and briefly in North America around 1000 CE.

• Kievan Rus: Viking traders, mostly from Sweden, set up trading posts in Russia, like
Staraya Ladoga. They founded the Kievan Rus dynasty in Kiev, which became
Christian in 988 CE under Vladimir I.

The Normans (911–1087 CE)

• Origins in Normandy: In 911 CE, Viking leader Rollo was given Normandy in return
for defending it. The Normans eventually adopted French culture and created a new
society.
 • Conquests: Under William the Conqueror, the Normans invaded England in 1066
CE and won the Battle of Hastings. They also conquered southern Italy and Sicily,
forming a kingdom that lasted until 1194 CE.

Monasticism

• Foundations: Early monks followed strict rules, like the Rule of St. Benedict
(c.480–547 CE). Monastic orders like the Benedictines and Cistercians became
rich and influential.

• Reform Movements: In the 13th century, new orders like the Franciscans and
Dominicans focused on poverty, education, and helping others.

Popes and Emperors (1049–1122 CE)

• Church-State Conflict: The Investiture Controversy was a struggle between Pope

Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV over who could appoint bishops. Gregory
wanted to stop corruption, but Henry took over Rome, leading to Gregory’s exile.

The Crusades (1096–1291 CE)

• Religious Wars: The First Crusade was launched by Pope Urban II to take
Jerusalem from the Muslims. Over time, Crusades became about more than
religion, involving politics and economics.

The Black Death (1347–1351 CE)

• Pandemic Impact: The bubonic plague killed 30–60% of Europe's population,

causing labor shortages and social chaos. This contributed to the decline of
feudalism and led to economic changes.
The Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453 CE)

• England vs. France: The war was fought over territory and succession. Major
battles included Agincourt (1415), and Joan of Arc played a key role. The war ended
with France reclaiming its land, leading to stronger centralized states.

The Early Byzantine Empire (395–717 CE)

After the Roman Empire split in 395 CE, the eastern part became the Byzantine Empire,
with its capital in Constantinople.

• The Byzantines were able to resist early invasions and remained stable under
leaders like Justinian I (527–565 CE).
Justinian's Achievements

• Justinian reconquered parts of North Africa and Italy, but these gains were weak
due to damaged land and low taxes.

• He created the Corpus Juris Civilis, a legal code that influenced future European
laws.

• He built Hagia Sophia, a famous church, showcasing Byzantine architecture.

Challenges and Decline

• In 568 CE, the Lombards took over much of Italy.

• Constant wars with Persia weakened the empire.

• Arab forces captured key areas like Jerusalem (637 CE), Alexandria (640 CE), and
Carthage (698 CE).

• By 717 CE, the empire barely survived an Arab siege of Constantinople.

Byzantine Revival and Decline (717–1453 CE)

• Leo III (717–741 CE) defended Constantinople from Arab invaders, but his ban on
religious images caused internal conflict.
• During the Macedonian dynasty, the empire grew stronger with victories in Syria
and Bulgaria, particularly under Basil II, who defeated the Bulgars in 1014 CE.
Decline of Byzantium (11th–15th Centuries)

• In 1071 CE, the Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at Manzikert, losing much of
Asia Minor.

• Norman forces took parts of Italy, and Slavic kingdoms grew in strength in the
Balkans.

• In 1204 CE, Crusaders sacked Constantinople, breaking the empire into smaller
parts. Though the Byzantines regained it in 1261, their power was greatly reduced.

Fall of Constantinople (1453 CE)

By the early 1500s, the empire had shrunk to Constantinople and a few other areas. In
1453, Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople, ending the
Byzantine Empire.

The america

The Toltecs (c.900–c.1180)

• Rise of the Toltecs: The Toltecs emerged in Central Mexico around the 9th
century, with their capital in Tollan (modern Tula). They controlled regions in
Mexico, Puebla, and Morelos.

• Cultural Traits: They were known for their warrior culture, reflected in their stone
statues of armed warriors and skull racks in Tollan.

• Decline: Tollan was destroyed around 1180, marking the fall of the Toltec Empire.
The Maya (c.800–1697)

• Decline of Lowland Cities: By the 800s, many Maya cities in the lowlands declined
due to natural disasters and internal problems. People moved to the northern
Yucatán Peninsula.

• Chichen Itzá: This city thrived from the 9th to 11th centuries and showed evidence
of trade and cultural exchange with the Toltecs.

• Decline: Chichen Itzá declined, and Mayapán became the center until the
Spanish arrived. The last independent Maya city, Nojpetén, fell in 1697.

The Aztecs (c.1168–1520)

• Origins and Expansion: The Aztecs migrated to Mexico in 1168 and founded
Tenochtitlán in 1325. By 1429, they formed a Triple Alliance with Texcoco and
Tlacopan to dominate Mexico.

• Agricultural Innovations: They created chinampas (artificial islands) for farming,

which helped feed their growing population.

• Religion and Sacrifice: The Aztecs worshipped gods like Huitzilopochtli (war),
Tlaloc (rain), and Quetzalcoatl (wind). Human sacrifices were performed to
ensure the sun’s journey across the sky.

• Decline: The Spanish, led by Cortés, arrived in 1519, and by 1521, the Aztec
Empire collapsed.

Early North American Cultures (c.700–c.1450)

• Southwestern Traditions:

o Hohokam built irrigation systems and ballcourts.

o Anasazi built cliff dwellings and multi-story pueblos, such as Mesa

Verde’s Cliff Palace.
 • Mississippian Mound-Builders: Cahokia, near modern St. Louis, had a population
of 30,000 and built large mounds for ceremonies. It was abandoned by 1450.

Early South American Cultures (c.650–c.1470)

• Tiwanaku and Wari:

o Tiwanaku (in Bolivia) built terraced fields and large structures, but
collapsed around 1000 CE.
o The Wari in Peru created fortified cities before their collapse around

• Chimú Civilization: The Chimú emerged after the Moche and built Chan Chan as
their capital. They were absorbed into the Inca Empire around 1370.

The Inca Empire (c.1300–1532)

• Formation and Expansion: The Inca empire, centered in Cuzco, expanded under
Pachacuti (r. 1438–1471) to dominate the Andes. The empire was divided into
provinces with a strong network of roads and used quipus (knotted strings) for
communication.

• Cultural Achievements: The Incas built grand structures, including the

Qorikancha temple and Machu Picchu. They worshipped the sun god Inti and
practiced rituals to keep balance with nature.

Polynesia

Polynesia: Expansion and Navigation (c.200 BCE–1000 CE)

• Origins and Cultural Background: The Polynesians are thought to have originated
from Southeast Asia, possibly Taiwan, and share genetic ties with people from
Melanesia (northeast of Australia). This cultural mix led to the development of the
Lapita culture, known for its red pottery dating back to 1600 BCE.
 • Polynesian Expansion: Starting around 200 BCE, the Polynesians began
expanding across the South Pacific. They traveled vast distances using outrigger
canoes and navigated by the stars, wind, currents, and birds.

o They reached the Marquesas Islands by 200 BCE, Easter Island, Tahiti, and
Hawaii by 400 CE, and New Zealand by 1000 CE.

o They created chiefdoms in these areas, leading to complex societies.

• Navigation Techniques: Polynesians used stars, bird migration patterns, ocean

swells, and wind patterns to guide their voyages. They might have also used stick
charts to help with navigation. Their advanced sailing skills made them one of the
most widespread people of their time.

The Maori in New Zealand (c.1000–1840 CE)

• Settlement of New Zealand: The Maori were the last Polynesians to settle in New
Zealand, with the first arrivals around 1000 CE. Due to the colder climate, they
adapted by shifting to fishing, hunting, and gathering, though some crops like sweet
potatoes grew well. By 1300 CE, agriculture became more important due to food
shortages from hunting.

• Development of Maori Culture: As their population grew, the Maori built fortified
villages (pa), especially on the North Island, for protection. These forts reflected a
more complex society.
 o After 1350 CE, they built even larger forts due to increased warfare between
groups.

o The Maori never united politically, which later made them vulnerable to
European colonization.

Easter Island (Rapa Nui)

• Settlement and Environmental Impact: Easter Island was one of the most
isolated places in the world and was likely settled around 400 CE.

o Between 1000–1200 CE, deforestation increased as the Polynesians built

large moai statues, which required a lot of resources to transport.

o By 1600 CE, the island’s environment collapsed due to overuse of trees,

leading to soil erosion and a decline in agriculture. The loss of trees also
impacted boat-building, causing social and ecological problems.

o By the early 18th century, the moai statues were toppled, signaling a period
of turmoil.

The early modernworld

Asia

China: Decline of the Ming and Rise of the Qing

• Decline of the Ming (1449–1644): The Ming Dynasty weakened after the capture of
Emperor Zhengtong by the Mongols in 1449, halting expansion. Later emperors like
Jiajing and Wanli became disconnected from their people, allowing government
officials (eunuchs) to gain control. By the 1640s, peasant uprisings (like the one led
by Li Zicheng) led to the fall of Beijing in 1644. The Qing Dynasty, led by the
Manchus, replaced the Ming and took control of China.
The Qing Dynasty (1644–1795)

• Foundation and Expansion: The Qing Dynasty was founded by the Manchu people
in 1616 and seized power in 1644. Under emperors like Kangxi, Yongzheng, and
Qianlong, the empire expanded its territory, including Outer Mongolia and Tibet.
The Qing kept many of the Ming Dynasty's systems but introduced their own
customs, including the queue hairstyle, which led to some resistance.

• Cultural and Religious Influence: Kangxi promoted religious tolerance and

welcomed Jesuit missionaries. During this period, Chinese exports like tea, silk,
and ceramics became popular in Europe.

Japan: The Tokugawa Shogunate

• Unification and the Tokugawa Shogunate (1560–1868): After the Ashikaga

Shogunate collapsed, Japan was unified by warlords like Oda Nobunaga,
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu. In 1603, Ieyasu established the
Tokugawa Shogunate, which lasted for over 250 years.

• Peace and Isolation: The Tokugawa regime brought peace but also isolated Japan
from the outside world, a policy known as sakoku. The Dutch were allowed limited
trade through Nagasaki. This isolation lasted for centuries.

• Cultural Growth: The Tokugawa era saw the rise of cultural activities like the tea
ceremony, haiku poetry, Noh theatre, and the development of ukiyo-e
woodblock prints.

The Mughal Empire in India

• Rise of the Mughals: Founded by Babur in 1526, the Mughal Empire expanded
quickly under Akbar (1556–1605), who promoted religious tolerance and land
reforms. His successors, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, further
strengthened the empire.
 • Decline Under Aurangzeb: Aurangzeb (1658–1707) expanded the empire but also
created tensions by re-imposing taxes on non-Muslims and fighting long wars with
the Marathas. After his death, weak rulers led to the empire’s decline, and in 1739,
Nadir Shah of Persia invaded and looted Delhi.
o

The Age of Discovery

• Portuguese Exploration: Portugal led early exploration to find sea routes to Asia.
In 1486, Diogo Cão reached the Congo River, and in 1488, Bartolomeu Dias
rounded the Cape of Good Hope. In 1498, Vasco da Gama became the first
European to sail to India, opening the way for Portuguese trade.

• Christopher Columbus and the Spanish Route: In 1492, Christopher Columbus

sailed westward, believing he would reach Asia, but instead found the Americas.
He continued to believe he had reached Asia. Later, John Cabot explored North
America in 1497, and Jacques Cartier explored Canada in 1534.

• Portuguese and the Americas: In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral accidentally

discovered Brazil, which became a Portuguese colony.
o

The First Circumnavigation of the Globe

• Magellan’s Expedition: In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan set out to find a route to the
Spice Islands. He died in the Philippines, but his crew, led by Juan Sebastián
Elcano, completed the first successful trip around the world by 1522.

Spain's Conquests in the Americas

• Conquest of Mexico: In 1519, Hernán Cortés arrived in Mexico, allied with local
tribes, and overthrew the Aztec Empire by 1521.

• Conquest of Peru: Francisco Pizarro led the conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532,
capturing and executing the Inca emperor Atahualpa.

Printing in the Early Modern World (1450–1750)

Introduction of the Printing Press: Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press
around 1440 changed how information spread. His first printed book, the Latin Bible
(1455), used movable type and oil-based ink, making books cheaper to produce than hand-
copying. This shift from manuscripts to print culture greatly sped up the spread of ideas.

Spread Across Europe: By 1470, Germany had seven printing presses, which grew to over
50 by 1499. Printing spread to Italy in 1467, France in 1470, and England by 1476, when
William Caxton set up the first press there.

Notable Printer: Aldus Manutius was a key early printer who founded the Aldine Press in
Venice in 1495, focusing on Greek, Latin, and Italian texts.

Impact on Knowledge and Communication: Printed books made literature and

knowledge cheaper and more accessible. By 1500, around 35,000 different books were in
circulation. Book fairs began to emerge in cities like Lyons, Leipzig, and Frankfurt, and
printed newsbooks, the precursor to newspapers, appeared in 1609 in Strasbourg, marking
the start of mass media.

Social and Cultural Influence: Printing helped spread ideas like Martin Luther’s 95
Theses, fueling the Reformation. It also contributed to the rise of public education,
scientific inquiry, and the Enlightenment.

European Colonial Empires

The Spanish and Portuguese Empires

Expansion into the Americas

• Spain and Portugal dominated the Americas during the early modern period.
 • After Columbus’s 1492 voyage, Spain rapidly colonized much of Central and South
America and the Caribbean.
• Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Aztec and Inca Empires,
bringing wealth (gold and silver) to Europe.
• Portugal initially focused on trade routes to India but later expanded into Brazil, its
most profitable colony, with sugar plantations.
• Both empires relied on mining and plantation agriculture, using forced indigenous
labor and, later, African slaves.

Colonial Systems and Administration

• Encomienda System (Spain): Spanish settlers were granted land and labor from
indigenous people, leading to exploitation and population declines.
• Haciendas (Portugal): Large estates where crops like sugar, tobacco, and coffee
were grown to meet European demand.

British and French Colonization

British Colonies

• By the 17th century, England established colonies in North America, including

Jamestown (1607) and Plymouth (1620).
• Colonies grew rapidly after the Glorious Revolution (1688) under stable governance.
• The British Empire profited from the Atlantic Slave Trade, using African slaves on
plantations in the Caribbean, Southern colonies, and West Indies.

French Colonies

• France established colonies in Canada (New France), parts of the Caribbean, and
Louisiana.
• Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec in 1608, and Jacques Cartier explored the
St. Lawrence River, boosting the French fur trade in North America.
Dutch and Other European Empires

Dutch East India Company

• The Dutch established a strong presence in the Indian Ocean, capturing Malacca
(1511) and forming a spice trade monopoly in Southeast Asia.
• The Dutch East India Company (VOC), founded in 1602, dominated global
commerce until competition from the British increased in the mid-17th century.

Other European Empires

• Denmark and Sweden: Established short-lived colonies. Denmark focused on the

slave trade in the Caribbean, while Sweden briefly colonized parts of North
America.

Asian Empires and European Rivalries

The Mughal Empire

• Under emperors like Akbar, the Mughal Empire reached its peak in the 16th and
17th centuries, controlling much of India.
• Akbar’s reign was marked by religious tolerance and economic prosperity.
• By the early 18th century, internal strife and foreign invasions weakened the empire,
allowing the British East India Company to take control of India.

China and the Qing Dynasty

• The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) expanded China's territory to include Tibet,

Mongolia, and Taiwan.
• The Qing stabilized China, promoting economic growth and prosperity.
• By the early 19th century, internal corruption, rebellions, and European imperialism
weakened China’s dominance.

The Ottoman Empire

• The Ottoman Empire, once dominant in Southeastern Europe, North Africa, and the
Middle East, began to decline in the 18th century.
 • It lost territory to Russia and Austria in Eastern Europe and faced economic
difficulties due to European competition.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade

Rise of the Slave Trade

• The transatlantic slave trade became a cornerstone of European colonial

economies.
• Millions of African slaves were transported to the Americas, where they worked on
plantations, especially in the Caribbean, Brazil, and the American South.
• The slave trade caused significant demographic and social changes in Africa, with
many regions suffering depopulation.

The Rise of Capitalism and Global Trade

Mercantilism

• In the 17th and 18th centuries, European powers followed mercantilist policies to
increase wealth through colonial trade and accumulation of precious metals.
• Sugar, tobacco, cotton, and spices became key commodities in the Atlantic
economy.

Commercial Revolution

• The Commercial Revolution saw the rise of global markets, banking systems, and
joint-stock companies, like the Dutch East India Company and British East India
Company, which financed imperial ventures.

Challenges to Empire and Independence Movements

Revolutions in the Americas

• In the late 18th century, European colonial powers faced resistance in their
American colonies.
• The American Revolution (1776) set the stage for Latin American independence
movements.
• Haiti (1791–1804) became the first independent slave republic.
• Other Spanish colonies in South America, such as Argentina, Chile, and Venezuela,
gained independence through leaders like Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín.