THE CHOSŎN DYNASTY

(1392-1910)
King Sejoing, Preface to Hunminchŏngŭm
“The sounds of our language differ from those of Chinese
and are not easily communicated by using Chinese
graphs. Many among the ignorant, therefore, though they
wish to express sentiments in writing, have been unable
to communicate. Considering this situation with
compassion, I have newly devised twenty-eight letters. I
wish only that people will learn them easily and use them
conveniently in their daily life.”
 King Sejong’s Invention of Korean Alphabet

■ Strong conviction that reading and writing tools should be

accessible to the people.
■ Not meant to replace Chinese characters.
■ Not designed for colloquial translation or pronunciation of
Chinese characters.
■ Intended to replace idu.
■ Facilitated the development of Korean vernacular literature.
The Principles of Han'gŭl: Vowels
The vowels are based on three universal principles:
the sky(•), earth(ㅡ), and person(ㅣ).
"•" was modeled after the roundness of the universe
"ㅡ" after the flatness of the earth
Vowels
Vowel Harmony
• - Bright vowels
ㅗㅏ
Heaven
- Dark vowels
ㅡ Earth
ㅜ ㅓ
I man - Neutral
ㅡ ㅣ
The Principles of Han'gŭl: Consonants
Consonants
ㄱ (k,g) ㅋ (k’) ㄲ (kk)
ㄴ (n) ㄷ (t) ㅌ (t’) ㄸ (tt) ㄹ (r,l)
ㅁ (m) ㅂ (p) ㅍ (p’) ㅃ (pp)
ㅅ (s) ㅈ (ch) ㅊ (ch’) ㅉ (tch) ㅿ (z)
ㅇ (ø,ng) ㅎ (h) ㆁ (ŋ) ㆆ
 Han'gŭl and National Scripts
■ In 1446, hunmin chŏngŭm (Correct Sounds to Instruct the
People) was promulgated but did not become the official
language. Instead, it was intended for the uneducated, those
not proficient in classical Chinese. ->As a result, it was labeled
ŏnmun (vulgar script) or amk’ŭl (women’s script).
■ Only in 1894 was it elevated to kungmun (national script),
symbolizing modern, authentic, and indigenous Korean identity
at the brink of Chosŏn’s loss of sovereignty.
■ However, with Korea’s colonization by Japan, the national script
was replaced by Japanese.
■ After liberation, Korean regained its status along with the
national script.
The Family in Chosŏn
■ Family lineage (門中 munjung) -> fundamental unit of the society
■ Chokpo (族譜 족보): genealogy book, tracing paternal family line
■ The rites to the ancestors (chesa 제사 祭祀) was required by laws
Women’s House
Sunja Lee’s house #1,
Ancestral rites
Lee Sunmin, 1999
 Women in Chosŏn
■ The status of women declined during the Chosŏn period.
■ Neo-Confucianist influence: yeol (열, 熱): differentiation between men and
women
■ Women should obey their fathers in youth, their husbands in marriage,
and their sons in old age
■ Women’s virtue: chaste, faithful, obedient, frugal, and filial
■ Women cannot be a head of household, come into an inheritance, remarry,
divorce men
■ Ch’ilgŏjiak (seven grounds for divorce): disobedience to parents-in-law,
failure to bear a son, adultery, jealousy, hereditary disease, talkativeness,
and larceny
■ Gendered space: sarangch’ae (space for men and guests) vs. anch’ae
(inner chamber)
■ Lower-status women, such as mudang (shamans) and kisaeng (female
entertainers), had relatively more freedom than yangban women.
Chosŏn in the 19th Century: Dominance of Royal In-laws
■ The three sovereigns of this period were all boy kings, allowing the throne to be
controlled by the powerful clans of the queens they married, a system known as
influence politics (勢道政治, 세도정치).
• King Sunjo (b. 1790, r. 1800–1834) 純祖 순조: Became king at age 10 and was
married into the Andong Kim clan. His grandmother ruled as Queen Regent.
• King Hŏnjong (b. 1827, r. 1834–1849) 憲宗 헌종: Became king at age 7 and
was married into the Pungyang Cho clan.
• King Ch’ŏljong (b. 1831, r. 1849–1863) 哲宗 철종: A distant relative of King
Yŏngjo, adopted into the royal lineage but raised in poverty. Became king at age
19, but the government was controlled by the Andong Kim clan.
■ Widespread corruption plagued the government at all levels, with official
positions and yangban status being bought and sold.
■ Farmers faced heavy exploitation through multiple taxes, leading to frequent
popular rebellions.
 The Sirhak (實學 실학 “Practical Learning”)
■ Emerged in the 18th century as a reaction to factionalism, actively criticizing the
dogmatism of Neo-Confucian metaphysics.
■ Focused on practical matters and empirical investigation but had little political
influence, so their ideas were rarely implemented.
■ Spiritual ancestor: Yulgok Yi I (1536–1584) who emphasized the importance of
'material force' (氣, gi)
■ Considered themselves orthodox Confucians but critically examined
contemporary society.
■ Aimed for reform, not revolution.
■ Many Sirhak scholars were familiar with each other’s work, but they did not form
a political faction.
 Tasan Chŏng Yak-yong ( 1762-1836)
■ Wrote extensively on various subjects,
from agricultural innovations to history
and philosophy (182 books, 508
volumes).
■ Converted to Catholicism in 1784.
■ Exiled for 18 years (1801–1818) due
to political persecution.
■ Tasan remains highly regarded in
South Korea today.

Mokmin simsŏ (Guide for Local Government Officials)

 Sirhak in Korean history
■ The beginning of modern thought?
■ Korean historians describe this period as when “the seeds of
modernization” were planted in Korea.
■ Key developments: loosening of state restrictions on trade; growth of a
money economy; introduction of new cash crops; emergence of new
ideas on science and medicine; criticism of the yangban ruling class
■ Despite these changes, Korea remained a largely rural society.
■ Most “practical learning” scholars still operated within the Confucian
tradition.
 Taewongun, King Kojong, and Queen Min
■ Hŭngsŏn Taewongun regency (r.1863-1874)
■ Kojong(1852-1919) was adopted into the royal line and
made king in 1863 at the age of 12
■ As a result, his father, Yi Ha-ŭng ( 1820-98), became
regent ruling on behalf of his son and took the title
Hŭngsŏn Taewongun
■ Taewongun attempted internal reforms whilst strictly
maintaining Choson’s closed status as a nation, being
unwilling to deal with Western barbarians.
■ In1871 he closed some 650 Confucian sŏwon
academies, leaving just 47 in operation. (sŏwon was the
regional power bases of the political factions.)
■ Introduced taxation for the yangban, also reconstructed
Kyŏngbok-gung palace which had been in ruins since
the Japanese invasions.
 King Kojong and Queen Min
Ø King Gojong (1852–1919, reign 1863–1907) 高宗 고종
• Chosŏn’s last active monarch.
• Often regarded as a weak king, but actively attempted reforms
despite strong opposition from Confucian officials led by his
father.
• Caught between power struggles: Taewŏngun vs. Queen Min;
Russia, China, and Japan competing for influence.

Ø Queen Min (1851–1895) 明成皇后 명성왕후

• Also referred to as Empress Myŏngsŏng.
• Came from a powerful pro-Chinese clan and worked against her
rival, the Taewŏngun.
• Seen as a threat to Japanese ambitions to control King Gojong
and was assassinated by Japan in 1895.
 Western Skirmishes
■ In 1832 and 1845, the British East India Company attempted to send ships to
Korea but was turned away, as Korean law prohibited foreign commerce.
“Chinese imperial commissioner in Hong Kong explained to the British that Korea
cannot be opened to trade by China, as it is not a part of China but nor can Korea
open itself to trade, since it is not independent.” (Bruce Cumings)
■ French attack (Oct. , 1866): Retaliation for Korea’s suppression of Catholics; due
to Taewŏn’gun’s closed-door policy.
■ American attack (June, 1871): General Sherman Incident (1866) sparked conflict
-> Led to a U.S. military expedition demanding an apology and the opening of
trade.
-> Treaty of Peace, Amity, Commerce, and Navigation (May 1882), marking the first
official trade agreement between Korea and the U.S.
A North Korean stamp commemorating
the sinking of the General Sherman

“140th Anniversary of the Sinking of the American Imperialist Invasion Ship Sherman”
Japan’s Rise and Incursions
■ Japan’s Meiji Restoration (1866- 1877)
■ 1869: A Japanese envoy from Tsushima Island was turned away by Busan
officials for referring to the Japanese monarch as "emperor." Japan
considered invading Korea.
■ 1873: Another Japanese envoy was rejected for wearing Western suits. That
same year, Japan debated whether to invade Korea (征韓論 Chŏnghan-ron,
"Shall we invade Korea?").
■ 1875: Japan sent an envoy to negotiate a treaty of friendship (通交交涉
tonggyo-gyosŏp) but was refused. Japan then dispatched the warship Unyō-
ho to survey Korean waters near Busan and conduct live-fire exercises.
■ Unyō-ho Incident (1875):
• Near Kanghwa-do, the Unyō-ho provoked Korean guards, who fired at the
ship.
• The Unyō-ho returned fire, and Japanese troops landed on the island,
engaged with Korean forces, and later withdrew.
1876 Treaty of Kanghwa
(江華島條約 강화도 조약)

■ Korea’s forced opening

under Japanese pressure
■ Caught in Imperialist
Rivalries
■ Positioned Between China
and Japan
• Sino-centric tributary
system weakened
• Japan's penetration into
Korea began
 The Tonghak (東學 동학 “Eastern Learning”)
■ Founded by Ch’oe Che-u in 1860 as a response to Catholicism (Western
Learning, Sŏhak 西學).
■ Though anti-foreign in rhetoric, it integrated elements from Buddhism, Taoism,
Shamanism, Confucianism, and Christianity.
■ Core belief: 人乃天 ("People are Heaven/God").
■ Tonghak Uprising (1894–1895)
• Response to local corruption, oppressive taxation, and Japanese exploitation of
Korean agriculture.
• Nationalist, Anti-feudal, Anti-Japanese, Anti-Western peasant uprising.
• Leader: Chŏn Pong-jun (aka General Mung Bean), a member of the local gentry
(excuted in March 1895)
■ Renamed Ch’ŏndogyo (Heaven’s Way Religion) by Son Pyŏnghŭi, the third leader.
 Tonghak Uprising
■ Government’s Reponses
• Tonghak Uprising quickly spread across the southern provinces, posing a
substantial threat to the ruling Chosŏn
• The Korean government requested Qing assistance to suppress the Tonghak
Rebellion.
• As the Qing army moved into Chosŏn, Japan also advanced, citing the Treaty of
Tianjin (1884).
• The treaty, based on Qing-Japan equality, required both sides to notify each
other in writing before sending troops to Chosŏn.
• Led to the First Sino-Japanese War.
 Q & A between the Japanese Inquisitor and
Chŏn Pong-jun
“Q: You yourself did not suffer from the local magistrate Cho [Pyŏnggap’]’s actions.
Why then did you start the trouble?

A: An honorable man does not rise up in revolt

for his own personal suffering.
When a multitude of people sought redress for
their grievances, I wanted to eradicate the harm
in the people’s interest”.
The Nokdu Flower (2019)
 Sino-Japanese War (Sep. 1894 – Feb. 1895)
■ Coflict between Qing and Japan over Chosŏn
■ Qing’s defeat
■ 1895 April: Shimonoseki Treaty
China lost suzerainty over Korea and ceded the
Penghu (Pescadores) Islands, Taiwan (Formosa),
and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan.
■ Russia, France, and Germany forced Japan to
return the Liaodong Peninsula to China,
fearing Japan’s growing influence.
■ In exchange, Japan received a larger
indemnity from China, while Russia later took
control of Liaodong and expanded its
presence in Manchuria, heightening tensions
in East Asia.
Japanese lines of attack in the Sino-Japanese War (July 1894-April 1895)
Assassination of Queen Min (1985)

Empress Myeongseong (Drama, 2001-2002)

The Korean Monarch’s “Kabo (1894)”
Reform (1894.7 – 1896.8)
Sweeping reform over 200 reform bills under Japan’s
military pressures
■ Abolition of the civil service examination
■ Abolition of all forms of slavery and outcasts status
■ Break from the tributary relationship with China
■ Use of Western calendar
■ Use of the Korean vernacular scripts (Han’gŭl) in official
documents
■ Western style new educational system
■ Outlawing child marriage
The Independence Club (Tongnip hyŏphoe)
■ Formed in the spring of 1896
■ Aimed to decenter China and elevate Korea’s status.
■ Petitioned King Kojong to rename the kingdom Empire of the Great
Han (1897–1910) to assert independence from China.
■ Kojong adopted the title "emperor" (hwangje) to claim equal status
with Chinese and Japanese emperors.
■ Symbolic Reforms: Gate of Welcoming Imperial Grace (Yŏng’unmun)
→ Independence Gate (Tongnipmun); Hall of Cherishing China
(Mohwagwan) → Independence Hall (Tongnipgwan), a public meeting
space.
■ Fostered a new public sphere, promoting public education, a national
newspaper, and language reform.
■ The Independent, the first newspaper in vernacular han’gŭl,
reinforced national unity and linguistic identity.
King Kojong from Choson
to the Empire of the Great Han
(1897)
 Independence Gate (Tongnipmun)

The Gate of Welcoming Imperial Grace (Yŏng’unmun)

 Newspapers
1896-1899
• First privately managed modern daily newspaper
in Korea.
• Promoted representative government, national
sovereignty, and modern reforms.
• Led educational and cultural campaigns for
individual freedom and national independence.
, 1898-
1910
1904-
1910
1898-1910,
The Public Gathering of Ten Thousand
people (Manmin Kongdonghoe) in 1898
Conceptualization of Minjok (민족, 民族)
■ Minjok (민족, 民族) the term was first used by Japanese scholars
translating the newly encountered terms ‘ethnicity’ and ‘nation’
recently arriving from western nations.
■ After the signing of the Protectorate Treaty (1905) with Japan:
nationalist newspapers like Hwangsŏng sinmun (황성신문, 皇城新聞)
began to use it to refer to the people inhabiting the Korean peninsula
specifically.
■ “through emphasis on the importance of minjok, and securing it as
the sovereign basis of the state, nationalists were reasserting Korean
independence at a time when the government of Emperor Kojong was
falling under ever increasing Japanese influence” (Andre Schmid)
Minjok (민족, 民族) and Minjok Chuŭi (민족주의, Nationalism)
in Korea (Andre Schmid, Korea Between Empires: 1895-1919)
■ The “invention” of the Korean nation was not isolated but
influenced by external ideas and movements.
■ Vernacular newspapers became powerful tools for
producing and spreading nationalist discourse.
■ Sin Ch’aeho redefined history as the struggle for survival of
the minjok against others.
■ Tan’gun as the father of the Korean people: Nationalists
traced Korea’s origins to a single founding father. By
framing the nation in familial terms, they aimed to
strengthen national identity through familiar concepts.
 The Russo-Japanese War
- 1903.7. Russia’s entrance to Korea
- 1904.1. Korea’s declaration of neutrality
- 1904.2. Japan’s surprise attack
- 1905.5. Russia’s defeat by Japan
- 1905.7. Taft-Katsura Memorandum/Agreement
(1) The US’s tacit acceptance of he transfer of Korea to Japan
(2) Japan’s recognition of the US hold on the Philippines
Britain accepted Japan’s hold on Korea
-1905.11. Protectorate Treaty of 1905
-1906. Itō Hirobumi as Resident-General
-1907.7.31. Itō ordered the disbanding of the Korean army.
The Protectorate Treaty of 1905
■ Ito Hirobumi, escorted by Japanese troops, entered the palace and
forced officials to accept Japan’s draft treaty.
■ Opponents were removed, and the treaty was sealed without King
Kojong’s consent.
■ Five officials, including Yi Wanyong, agreed, granting Japan full control
over Korea’s foreign relations.
■ Kojong opposed the treaty and sent a delegation to the Second Hague
Peace Conference to expose Japan’s actions, but the delegates were
denied a hearing.
■ Under Japanese pressure, Kojong abdicated in 1907, and the crown
prince became Emperor Sunjong.
■ A new agreement gave the Japanese resident-general full authority
over Korea’s internal administration.
The Protectorate Treaty of 1905
■ In 1907, the Association for the Redemption of the National Debt was
formed to repay Korea’s immense debt but was suppressed as an
anti-Japanese movement.
■ In 1909, Ito Hirobumi was assassinated by Korean independence
activist An Chunggŭn in Harbin, Manchuria.
■ Terauchi Masatake, Japan’s war minister, suspended Korean
newspaper publications and negotiated the annexation treaty with
Korean Prime Minister Yi Wanyong.
■ In 1910, Korea was officially colonized under the Japan-Korea
Annexation Treaty.
Harbin (Woo Min-ho, 2024)