Chapter-2

1. Four factors that directly influence individual behavior and performance

Individual behavior and performance in organizations depend on four main factors:

1. Motivation – The internal force that drives a person to work hard, achieve goals, and
put effort into tasks.

2. Ability – The person’s natural talents and learned skills that help them perform their
work.

3. Role Perceptions – How clearly an individual understands their duties,

responsibilities, and expectations in the organization.

4. Situational Factors – External conditions (resources, working environment, support

from others) that affect performance.

Together, these factors explain why some employees perform better than others.

2. Five types of individual behavior in organizations

There are five main types:

1. Task Performance – Completing the core duties and responsibilities of a job.

2. Organizational Citizenship – Voluntary behaviors that support the organization, like

helping co-workers.

3. Counterproductive Work Behaviors – Negative actions that harm the organization,

such as theft, absenteeism, or gossip.

4. Joining and Staying with the Organization – Choosing to become part of the
organization and remain with it.

5. Maintaining Work Attendance – Regularly showing up to work and being punctual.

3. Personality and its role in organizations

Personality is the relatively stable pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that make
each person unique.

• Big Five Personality Dimensions (OCEAN model):

1. Openness to Experience – Creative, curious, and willing to try new things.

2. Conscientiousness – Responsible, dependable, organized.

 3. Extraversion – Outgoing, sociable, energetic.

4. Agreeableness – Cooperative, kind, trusting.

5. Neuroticism (Emotional Stability) – Ability to remain calm under stress (low

neuroticism = high stability).

These dimensions predict behavior such as teamwork, leadership, and job

performance.

• Four MBTI Types (from Myers-Briggs):

o Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I) – Source of energy (people vs. solitude).

o Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N) – How information is gathered (facts vs.
patterns).

o Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F) – Decision-making style (logic vs. values).

o Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P) – Lifestyle preference (organized vs. flexible).

MBTI helps understand communication, teamwork, and leadership styles.

4. Schwartz’s model of individual values

Shalom Schwartz identified 10 basic human values (e.g., achievement, power, security,
benevolence, universalism). These values form a circle model, where some are
compatible and others conflict.

When do values influence behavior?

• When they are strongly held (important to the person).

• When the situation gives a person freedom of choice.

• When the value is relevant to the situation (e.g., honesty in financial reporting).

5. Ethical principles and factors influencing ethical behavior

Three ethical principles:

1. Utilitarianism – Choose the action that produces the greatest good for the greatest
number.

2. Individual Rights – Respect and protect fundamental human rights (freedom,

privacy, etc.).

3. Distributive Justice – Ensure fairness in the distribution of resources and rewards.

Three factors that influence ethical behavior:

1. Individual Moral Development – A person’s values, conscience, and stage of moral

reasoning.

2. Organizational Culture – Ethical climate, leadership, and codes of conduct.

3. Situational Pressures – Peer influence, time pressure, or incentives that may push
someone to act unethically.

6. Five values commonly studied across cultures

Researchers often look at these five cultural values:

1. Individualism vs. Collectivism – Focus on personal goals vs. group goals.

2. Power Distance – Acceptance of unequal distribution of power in society.

3. Uncertainty Avoidance – Comfort level with ambiguity and risk.

4. Achievement vs. Nurturing (Masculinity vs. Femininity) – Focus on competition

and success vs. relationships and quality of life.

5. Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation – Emphasis on future rewards (planning,

saving) vs. present and past (tradition, quick results).

Chapter-4

1. How emotions and cognition influence attitudes and behavior

• Emotions are strong feelings (like happiness, anger, fear) that affect how we react to
situations immediately.

• Cognition is the conscious reasoning, beliefs, and logical thinking behind our
choices.

Both work together:

• Emotions create quick judgments (e.g., “I feel excited to work with this team”).

• Cognition gives rational support (e.g., “This team has skilled people, so it makes
sense to join them”).

Effect on behavior:
 • Positive emotions = more cooperation, motivation, and creativity.

• Negative emotions = conflict, withdrawal, or poor performance.

• Cognition helps control emotions, so behavior is not only emotional but also
reasonable.

2. Emotional labor and emotional intelligence in the workplace

• Emotional Labor = Managing and displaying emotions at work to meet job

expectations.

o Example: A flight attendant must smile and stay calm even if they feel
stressed.

o Can cause emotional strain if real feelings and displayed feelings don’t
match.

• Emotional Intelligence (EI) = The ability to recognize, understand, manage, and

influence emotions in yourself and others.

o Four components:

1. Self-awareness – Knowing your own emotions.

2. Self-management – Controlling emotional reactions.

3. Social awareness – Understanding others’ emotions (empathy).

4. Relationship management – Handling interactions effectively.

High EI helps reduce stress, improve teamwork, manage conflicts, and make better
leadership decisions.

3. Job dissatisfaction: consequences and strategies to increase commitment

Consequences of Job Dissatisfaction:

• Exit – Leaving the organization (resignation).

• Voice – Complaining or suggesting changes.

• Loyalty – Waiting for conditions to improve.

• Neglect – Reduced effort, absenteeism, or poor work quality.

Strategies to increase organizational (affective) commitment:

 1. Fair Treatment – Build trust by being just and transparent.

2. Job Enrichment – Give meaningful and challenging work.

3. Employee Involvement – Let employees take part in decision-making.

4. Supportive Leadership – Managers show care and recognition.

5. Work–Life Balance – Flexible hours, stress management, family support.

4. Stress experience and four major stressors

Stress Experience:

• Stress is an emotional and physical response to demands that exceed a person’s

resources.

• Includes: Stressors (the cause), Stress (the reaction), and Strain (the long-term
effect like burnout or illness).

Four major workplace stressors:

1. Work Overload – Too many tasks, tight deadlines.

2. Role Conflict/Ambiguity – Unclear or conflicting job expectations.

3. Lack of Control – No influence over work decisions.

4. Interpersonal Conflict – Tension with colleagues, supervisors, or customers.

5. Five ways to manage workplace stress

1. Time Management – Prioritizing tasks, setting realistic deadlines.

2. Relaxation Techniques – Breathing, meditation, exercise.

3. Social Support – Talking to friends, colleagues, or mentors.

4. Work–Life Balance – Taking breaks, vacations, flexible work options.

5. Organizational Support – Stress management training, clear job roles, healthy work
environment.

Chapter-8
1. Why employees join informal groups + benefits and limitations of teams

Why employees join informal groups:

 • Belongingness – People like to feel part of a group.

• Identity – Groups give members a sense of “who we are.”

• Social Support – Friends help reduce stress and provide advice.

• Power – Groups give more influence than individuals alone.

• Information Sharing – Easy access to ideas, knowledge, and tips.

Benefits of teams:

• More creativity and diverse ideas.

• Higher motivation and commitment.

• Better decision-making through collaboration.

• Shared workload and mutual support.

Limitations of teams:

• Conflicts may arise.

• Groupthink (pressure to agree, poor decisions).

• Slower decisions compared to individuals.

• Risk of free-riding (some members not contributing enough).

Alright let’s break this down clearly for you:

Team Effectiveness Model (Outline)

The team effectiveness model explains what makes teams successful. It has three main
parts:

1. Inputs – Resources, leadership, team design (size, composition, task

characteristics).

2. Processes – How the team works together (communication, norms, cohesion, trust,
decision making).

3. Outcomes – The results (team performance, member satisfaction, long-term

viability).
 A team is effective when it achieves goals, satisfies members, and remains capable
of working together in the future.

2.Influence of Task Characteristics, Team Size, and Team Composition

a) Task Characteristics

o Complex, interdependent tasks usually require teamwork.

o Clear, meaningful tasks motivate members and increase cooperation.

o Tasks that allow autonomy give teams more ownership and effectiveness.

b) Team Size

o Small teams (5–7 people): Better communication, faster decisions, stronger

cohesion.

o Large teams: More ideas and diverse skills, but risk of conflict, coordination
problems, and free-riding.

o Best size depends on task complexity—bigger for complex tasks, smaller for
simple ones.

c) Team Composition

o Skills and Knowledge: A mix of technical and interpersonal skills improves

problem-solving.

o Personality: Conscientious, cooperative, and emotionally stable members

improve reliability and trust.

o Diversity: Brings creativity and innovation, but may slow down decision-
making if differences create conflict.

o Experience: Balanced levels of experience ensure fresh ideas and practical

wisdom.

3. Four team processes and their effect

i. Team Development – Teams go through stages (forming, storming, norming,

performing, adjourning). Smooth development = better performance.

ii. Norms – Shared expectations of behavior. Positive norms (e.g., punctuality) boost
success; negative norms (e.g., accepting low effort) harm it.
 iii. Cohesion – Emotional attachment among team members. High cohesion = trust,
cooperation, and motivation, but may lead to groupthink.

iv. Trust – Belief in each other’s reliability. More trust = faster decisions, less conflict,
stronger collaboration.

4. Characteristics of self-directed and virtual teams

Self-Directed Teams (SDTs):

• Members manage themselves (no direct supervisor).

• Make decisions about work methods and scheduling.

• Require: strong trust, broad skills, empowerment, clear goals.

Virtual Teams:

• Work across distance, often using technology (Zoom, Slack).

• Members may be in different countries or time zones.

• Require: strong communication tools, cultural awareness, trust, discipline, and

clear rules for collaboration.

5. Four constraints on team decision making + four structures

Constraints:

1. Time Pressure – Group decisions take longer.

2. Evaluation Apprehension – People hold back ideas out of fear of criticism.

3. Production Blocking – Only one person can talk at a time, so others forget ideas.

4. Conformity Pressure (Groupthink) – Members avoid disagreement to maintain

harmony.

Decision-making structures (with pros & cons):

1. Brainstorming

o Encourages creativity, free flow of ideas.

o Risk of production blocking, some ideas lost.

2. Nominal Group Technique (NGT)

 o Members write ideas silently, then share → reduces dominance and
groupthink.

o Can feel artificial, less natural discussion.

3. Delphi Technique

o Anonymous, independent idea-sharing (often via surveys) → reduces peer

pressure.

o Slow process, lacks face-to-face interaction.

4. Electronic Brainstorming (online tools)

o Large number of ideas collected quickly, anonymity helps shy members.

o Technical problems, less personal interaction.

Chapter-10
1. Dependence model of power + five sources of power
Dependence model of power:

• Power exists when one person depends on another for something valuable
(resources, knowledge, approval).

• The more someone depends on you, the more power you have over them.

• Example: If an employee depends on the manager for promotions, the manager has
power.

Five sources of power in organizations (French & Raven):

1. Legitimate Power – Comes from position or authority (e.g., manager, supervisor).

2. Reward Power – Ability to give rewards (salary, promotion, recognition).

3. Coercive Power – Ability to punish (firing, demotion, discipline).

4. Expert Power – Based on skills, knowledge, or experience.

5. Referent Power – Based on respect, admiration, or being a role model.

2. Four contingencies of power
Power is stronger when these conditions exist:

1. Substitutability – Power increases when your resources or skills cannot be

replaced easily.

2. Centrality – Power grows if your work is important and affects many people.

3. Discretion – More power if you have freedom to make decisions without rules
restricting you.

4. Visibility – Power is greater when others know about your skills, achievements, and
position.

3. Power through social networks

• Social networks = relationships and connections inside and outside the
organization.

• They give access to information, opportunities, and influence.

• Three ways networks give power:

1. Information Access – Networks give valuable knowledge others may not

have.

2. Visibility – Being well-connected makes others notice and respect you.

3. Referent Power – Good networks increase trust and reputation.

• Example: An employee with strong ties across departments can influence decisions
more easily.

4. Influence tactics, consequences, and contingencies

Eight influence tactics:

1. Silent Authority – Relying on your formal position.

2. Assertiveness – Demanding, checking, or pressuring to comply.

3. Information Control – Selectively sharing or withholding information.

4. Coalition Formation – Gaining support from others to strengthen your position.

5. Upward Appeal – Using higher authority or policies to back your request.

 6. Persuasion – Using logic, facts, and emotional appeals.

7. Ingratiation/Impression Management – Gaining favor by being friendly or

flattering.

8. Exchange – Offering benefits or favors in return for compliance.

Three consequences of influence:

1. Commitment – Strong agreement and motivation to act.

2. Compliance – Doing what is asked but without enthusiasm.

3. Resistance – Refusing, arguing, or delaying action.

Three contingencies when choosing tactics:

1. Organizational Position – Higher authority may rely on silent authority; lower ranks
may use persuasion.

2. Cultural Values – Some tactics work better in certain cultures (e.g., coalition in
collectivist cultures).

3. Expectations & Relationships – Influence style should match the relationship

(trust level, past history).

5. Organizational politics
Conditions that create organizational politics:

• Scarce resources (competition for budget, promotions).

• Ambiguous decision-making (unclear rules, policies).

• Organizational change (uncertainty creates self-interest behavior).

Personal characteristics linked with politics:

• High self-serving ambition.

• Strong Machiavellianism (manipulative behavior).

• Low organizational commitment.

Ways to minimize politics:

1. Transparency – Clear policies and fair decision-making.

 2. Resource Allocation – Provide sufficient resources to reduce competition.

3. Trust and Communication – Encourage open dialogue and ethical leadership.

4. Performance-Based Rewards – Promote fairness by linking rewards to merit, not

politics.

Chapter-12

1. Leadership and Shared Leadership

• Leadership = The process of influencing, motivating, and enabling others to achieve

organizational goals.

• Shared Leadership = When leadership is not only from one person (like a manager)
but is distributed across team members who take turns leading depending on
their expertise.

Shared leadership works well in self-directed and knowledge-based teams.

2. Four elements of transformational leadership (the “4 I’s”)

1. Idealized Influence – Leaders act as role models, showing integrity and gaining
respect.

2. Inspirational Motivation – Leaders create a clear, attractive vision of the future.

3. Intellectual Stimulation – Leaders encourage creativity, questioning, and new

ideas.

4. Individualized Consideration – Leaders support each employee’s personal growth.

Why important for organizational change?

• Helps employees accept change positively.

• Builds trust, motivation, and creativity.

• Aligns individual goals with organizational vision.

3. Managerial vs. Transformational Leadership + Leadership styles

Managerial Leadership:
 • Focuses on day-to-day operations.

• Ensures goals are achieved through planning, organizing, and monitoring.

• Short-term focus (efficiency, stability).

Transformational Leadership:

• Focuses on big-picture change and vision.

• Motivates employees to go beyond self-interest.

• Long-term focus (innovation, growth).

Leadership styles:

• Task-Oriented Leadership – Focus on structure, goals, performance, deadlines.

• People-Oriented Leadership – Focus on employee well-being, trust, relationships.

• Servant Leadership – Focus on serving followers’ needs first, empowering them,

and promoting growth.

4. Path–Goal Theory, Fiedler’s Contingency Model, and Leadership Substitutes

Path–Goal Theory:

• Leaders adapt their style (directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented)

depending on employee characteristics and task needs.

• Goal: Help employees see the “path” to success and remove obstacles.

Fiedler’s Contingency Model:

• Leadership effectiveness depends on a match between leader’s natural style (task-

or relationship-oriented) and the situation (leader-member relations, task structure,
leader’s power).

Leadership Substitutes:

• Sometimes leadership is unnecessary because:

o Task characteristics (clear procedures).

o Team characteristics (experienced, self-motivated members).

o Organization systems (rules, feedback mechanisms).

5. Implicit Leadership Perspective

Two components:

1. Prototype of Leadership – People compare a leader to their mental image of an

“ideal leader” (e.g., confident, decisive).

2. Romance of Leadership – People tend to give leaders too much credit (success) or
blame (failure), even when other factors play a big role.

6. Eight personal attributes of effective leaders + Authentic Leadership

Eight attributes of effective leaders:

1. Self-confidence.

2. Integrity (honesty, ethics).

3. Emotional intelligence.

4. Motivation and drive.

5. Intelligence and problem-solving skills.

6. Knowledge of the business.

7. Communication skills.

8. Flexibility/adaptability.

Authentic Leadership:

• Being true to yourself, values, and beliefs.

• Leaders are transparent, self-aware, and act consistently.

• Builds trust and long-term respect.

7. Cultural and Gender Similarities/Differences in Leadership

Cultural differences:

• Some cultures value directive leadership (high power distance, e.g., Asia, Middle
East).

• Others value participative leadership (low power distance, e.g., Scandinavia, US).

• Collectivist cultures expect leaders to focus on group harmony, while individualist

cultures value independence.
Gender differences:

• Men often use task-oriented, directive styles.

• Women often use people-oriented, participative styles.

• Similarities: Both can be equally effective. Research shows effectiveness depends

more on situation than gender.

Chapter-14
14-1 Elements of Organizational Culture + Subcultures

Elements of Organizational Culture:

1. Shared Values – What the organization believes is important (e.g., innovation,

teamwork).

2. Shared Assumptions – Deep, taken-for-granted beliefs about reality and human

behavior (e.g., “customers always come first”).

Importance of Subcultures:

• Large organizations often have subcultures in different departments or regions.

• Subcultures may support the main culture (strengthening it) or challenge it

(encouraging change).

• They provide employees with identity, belonging, and flexibility.

14-2 Four categories of artifacts

Artifacts are the visible signs of culture. Four categories:

1. Stories and Legends – Tales about past events or people that communicate values
(e.g., founder stories).

2. Rituals and Ceremonies – Routine activities (rituals) and special events

(ceremonies) that reinforce culture.

3. Language – Specific phrases, jargon, or metaphors that symbolize values.

4. Physical Structures and Symbols – Office layout, dress code, logos, building design
that reflect culture (e.g., open offices = teamwork).
14-3 Importance of Organizational Culture + Conditions for Strength

Importance:

• Provides identity and belonging.

• Guides decision-making and behavior.

• Improves coordination and consistency.

• Increases motivation and commitment.

When culture strength improves performance:

1. When culture fits the external environment (e.g., innovation culture in tech
industry).

2. When culture is not too strong – overly strong cultures may resist needed change.

3. When culture aligns with the organization’s strategy (e.g., customer-service culture
in hospitality).

4. When culture builds adaptive values – encourages flexibility, learning, and

innovation.

14-4 Four strategies for merging organizational cultures

1. Assimilation – One organization fully adopts the culture of the other (common in
acquisitions).

2. Deculturation – One culture dominates and forces the other to abandon its values.

3. Integration – Cultures combine the best elements of both to form a new culture.

4. Separation – Cultures remain separate but work together (common in joint

ventures).

14-5 Five strategies for changing and strengthening culture (including ASA theory)

1. Actions of Founders and Leaders – Leaders model values through behavior and
decisions.

2. Aligning Artifacts with Desired Culture – Change symbols, rituals, and physical
settings to match new values.

3. Introducing Culturally Consistent Rewards and Recognition – Reward behaviors that

reflect the desired culture.
 4. Attraction–Selection–Attrition (ASA) Theory –

o Attraction: People are attracted to organizations with values similar to their

own.

o Selection: Organizations hire people who fit their culture.

o Attrition: People who don’t fit eventually leave.

5. Supporting Stability and Communication – Keep reinforcing values through training,

stories, and ongoing communication.

14-6 Organizational Socialization Process + Strategies

Socialization Process:
The process of learning and adapting to an organization’s culture.

• Pre-Employment Stage – Job seekers form expectations.

• Encounter Stage – New hires experience reality and adjust.

• Role Management Stage – Employees strengthen relationships and adopt culture

fully.

Strategies to improve socialization:

1. Realistic Job Previews – Give honest info before hiring to reduce shock.

2. Orientation and Training Programs – Teach culture, values, and behaviors.

3. Mentoring and Buddy Systems – Experienced employees guide newcomers.

4. Role Models and Leaders – Leaders demonstrate desired values.

5. Social Events and Networking – Help new members feel included and build
cohesion.