Understanding the Self — Philosophical Perspectives

INTRODUCTION

 The good life quote by Carl Rogers: "The good life is a process, not a state of being. It is a direction,
not a destination."

 Sets the frame for understanding the self as dynamic, developing, and influenced by ongoing choices
and growth rather than a fixed essence.

PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE

 Socrates: "To find yourself, think for yourself". Emphasizes self-inquiry and autonomous reasoning as
a route to authentic self-knowledge.

PHILOSOPHERS PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

SOCRATES (470-399 B.C.)

 Core claim: Dualism — there is a material body and an immortal immaterial soul.

 Self-concept: The self is more than the body; the soul persists beyond physical life.

 Significance: Sets up the enduring question of what constitutes true personhood and where identity
resides (mind/soul vs body).

 Key takeaway: The self is anchored in the immaterial and in conscious life that outlives the body.

 Foundational idea: The self is separate from the body, with the soul as the enduring essence.

PLATO (428/427-348/347 BC)

 Influence from Socrates: Plato extends dualistic thinking and introduces a tripartite structure of the
self.

 Self components: Reason, Physical Appetite, Spirit (also termed Passion).

 Immortality: The self is immortal and composed of three interacting parts.

 Significance: Provides an early framework for understanding internal conflicts (rational vs. appetitive
vs. spirited) and the pursuit of virtue through harmonizing these parts.

 Key takeaway: The self’s integrity depends on the governance of Reason over Appetite and Spirit.

ST. AUGUSTINE (354-430)

 Relationship between body and soul: Initially views the body as the soul’s slave, ultimately sees the
body as the spouse of the soul—united for completeness.

 Unity of body and soul: The person is a unified whole in which body and soul are inseparably linked.

 Principle expression: "I doubt, therefore I am" as a foundational statement of self-awareness and
certainty of existence through thought.
  Significance: Introduces a dual relationship between skepticism, faith, and the embodied self;
emphasizes inner certainty grounded in conscious reflection.

 Key takeaway: Selfhood emerges from a durable unity of body and soul rather than a clash between
them.

 Quotation in context:

o “I doubt, therefore I am.”

RENE DESCARTES (1596-1650)

 Core claim: The self is a thinking thing distinct from the body.

 Dualism: Mind (nonmaterial, immortal, conscious) vs. body (material, mortal, non-thinking).

 Epistemology: The thinking self is the anchor of certainty; knowledge arises from reflexive thinking.

 Significance: Establishes the primacy of consciousness in defining personal identity and sets the
stage for modern philosophy of mind.

 Key takeaway: The self is defined by consciousness and rational thought, independent of the physical
form.

 Quotations: “Cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am).

JOHN LOCKE (1634-1704)

 Core claim: The mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate).

 Self/Personal identity: Constructed from sense experiences that accumulate and shape the self over
time.

 Self-consciousness: Personal identity is secured by self-awareness and continuity of consciousness.

 Significance: Emphasizes empirical foundations of self; experience and memory create a coherent
sense of self across time.

 Key takeaway: The self is formed and stabilized through experiential input and reflective self-
awareness.

 Notation: “tabula rasa” (blank slate).

DAVID HUME (1711-1776)

 Core claim: There is no enduring, single self; instead there is a bundle of perceptions.

 Self as fiction: Humans desire a unified, continuous self and thus imagine a coherent self by
constructing a narrative from perceptions.

 Significance: Challenges the notion of a fixed identity; highlights the role of mental habit and
storytelling in self-conception.

 Key takeaway: The sense of self arises from the integration of disparate experiences, not from an
intrinsic, unchanging essence.
IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804)

 Core claim: The mind actively structures experiences; the self is a product of reason that makes
unified experience possible.

 Self as organizer: The self provides the framework for experience by imposing order and coherence.

 Significance: Bridges rationalist and empirical perspectives; the self is both a passive receiver of
impressions and an active organizer of meaning.

 Key takeaway: The self is necessary for making sense of experiences; reason organizes phenomena
into a coherent whole.

SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939)

 Core claim: The self comprises three layers: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

 Structural model: The conscious mind; the preconscious (accessible memories); and the unconscious
(hidden drives and wishes).

 Significance: Explains internal conflicts, motivation, and behavior through layered mental processes.

 Key takeaway: The self is not fully accessible to introspection; much of self-determination lies
outside awareness.

GILBERT RYLE (1900-1976)

 Core claim: "I Act therefore I am"; the self is characterized by patterned behavior.

 View of the self: The self is essentially a summary of dispositions and actions—behavioral patterns.

 Significance: Challenges substance-based notions of the self; emphasizes external expressions of

agency.

 Key takeaway: Selfhood is demonstrated through consistent action and behavior, not through an
inner essence alone.

PAUL CHURCHLAND (1942)

 Core claim: "The self is the brain"; the self is inseparable from the brain and the physiological body.

 Mechanistic view: The physical brain provides the basis for the sense of self; neural processes give
rise to self-awareness.

 Significance: Advances a physicalist account of identity; aligns identity with neuroscience.

 Key takeaway: Selfhood is reducible to brain function and neural activity.

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY (1908-1961)

 Core claim: The self has embodied subjectivity; knowledge of self and world is grounded in
subjective experience.

 Embodied consciousness: What you are aware of is situated in your lived body and perceptual
experiences.
  Significance: Emphasizes how perception and bodily experience shape self-knowledge; counters
purely disembodied notions of the self.

 Key takeaway: The self arises from embodied engagement with the world; consciousness is
inseparable from the body.

Sociological Perspective
Sociology is the study of society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and the culture of
everyday life. Man is a social being, born into existence in a community before he is even able to know
himself. Early in life, as children, we become aware of our social nature. It is through socialization, which
begins in the family, that we are exposed to behavior, social rules, and attitudes that lead to social
development. Social institutions such as the family, school, church, and the community we interact with
every day lead us to a deeper understanding of our social identity—our social self.

In sociology, there are a few basic points to remember:

 People are what they think about themselves.

 “No man is an island.”

 Socialization is a lifelong process.

Socializing the Individual

The sociological self is an individual's distinct identity, shaped by social interactions and relationships.
Through socialization, our personality develops to conform to those regarded as desirable and appropriate in
any particular society.

Personality is the basic organization of individuals that determines the uniqueness of their behavior. The
basic organization refers to the structure of how a personality is created or put together. There are five
aspects of personality:

1. Physical Appearance – This is the most obvious part of an individual’s personality. You may be short
or tall, fat or thin, light or dark in complexion, with black or brown hair, or a pointed or flat nose. For
example, Africans who have dark skin, or who are known as Black people, were treated as slaves in
the past by Americans.

2. Abilities – These are skills developed within the culture. Abilities are formed depending on the
culture or opportunities available.

3. Interests – The things you become interested in depend on the cultural alternatives available and on
your awareness of your own existence.

4. Beliefs – These include beliefs about yourself, your friends, nature, religion, work, and more. Beliefs
also include attitudes, values, preferences, superstitions, prejudices, and knowledge.

5. Habits – These are regular, routine ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Habits can be observed in
how you dress, eat, interact with others, and do everyday tasks. As Aristotle once said, “We are what
we repeatedly do.”
Influence of Heredity and Environment

This leads us to the classic question: Is it “nature or nurture”? If culture affects all aspects of your
personality, what role does heredity play in personality development?

1. Heredity – These are characteristics that are innate or present at birth, such as physical traits like
hair, skin, and eye color, and body size. Heredity involves the transmission of genetic characteristics
from parents to their children. We inherit basic needs and capacities. As human beings, we have
biological drives. Heredity plays an important role in shaping human personalities by setting limits on
individuals.

2. Birth Order – Personality can also be influenced by whether you have brothers, sisters, both, or
neither, as well as whether you are the first-born, middle child, or youngest.

3. Parents – Another factor within the family that can influence personality is the age of the parents.

4. Subcultures – A subculture is a portion of a society that has enough unique characteristics to set it
apart but is still part of the larger society.

5. Cultural Environment – Every culture is different, and these cultural differences affect personality
development. The cultural environment is what makes individuals human, helping us embrace
similarities and celebrate differences.

At birth, a person cannot talk, walk, feed themselves, or protect themselves from harm. They know nothing
about the ways of their culture or society. Through interaction with other people and the environment,
individuals gain knowledge of their culture and become participants in society. This process of cultural
molding—how individuals learn basic skills, values, beliefs, and behavior patterns—is called socialization.

The Socialization Process

The following theories help explain how we become socialized and develop our identity or self:

John Locke (1632–1704)

John Locke, an English philosopher, insisted that each newly born individual was a tabula rasa, or clean slate,
on which could be written just about anything. He claimed that people are born without qualities and that
personality is developed as a result of experiences. Locke’s view supports the idea that socialization is a
process of absorbing the culture we encounter.

Through socialization, we develop our social self—the way we see ourselves as a result of interacting with
others. We begin to form a sense of self from daily interactions with other people.

Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929)

Cooley, an American sociologist, developed a theory about the social self. He observed that a person begins
to have a sense of self—understanding who they are—only after noticing how others perceive them.

George Herbert Mead (1863–1931)

Mead expanded on the idea of self-awareness, stating that seeing ourselves as others see us is just the
beginning. Eventually, we also “take the role of the other.” Mead identified two categories of people we
encounter:

1. Significant Others – These are from our earliest contacts: parents, siblings, relatives, and close
friends.

o From these relationships, we develop the I-self—the subjective, personal, and constant
aspect of the self, independent of our social role. This explains why we can sometimes act in
ways not expected of someone in our role.

2. Generalized Others – These are people or roles we relate to in a more abstract and general way. For
example, while playing bahay-bahayan, a child realizes that anyone can take the role of a mother or
father, and that these roles exist beyond their own parents.

o The Me-self develops here, representing our objective social identity, which is tied to a
particular social situation. Human interaction and communication depend on recognizing
and relating to many generalized others.

Anthropological Perspective
Anthropology is the science of humanity, rooted in the Greek words anthropos (man) and logus (study). It
explores human evolution—both physical and cultural—across time and place. Anthropologists examine how
factors like race, ethnicity, religion, language, beliefs, and family influence one’s self-concept. These
elements shape how individuals understand themselves in diverse social and cultural contexts, making
anthropology a key field in understanding what makes humans unique.

As anthropologist Ruth Benedict once said, “The main purpose of anthropology is to make the world safe for
human differences.”

Human Universals

Are there characteristics and experiences which are inherently common among us? Are there universals in
terms of our biological endowments and predispositions? Given the uniformity in our physiology and genetic
profile, are our behaviors and actions rooted in the same drives and passions? Do we share the same
biological needs?

With the identicalness of our physical environment and the cultures in which we thrive, can we affirm that all
humans are alike? These questions about human universals form part of the central themes of anthropology
since its inception as a scientific discipline.

In their book Personality in Nature, Society, and Culture (1953), psychologist Henry Murray and
anthropologist Clyde Kluckhohn claimed that:

“Every man is in certain respects like all other men, like some other men, and like no other man.”

Understanding the totality of all the processes and elements that constitute the self—and the relationships
between them—remains fundamental in comprehending the human being.
The Concept of Culture

Cultural anthropology, one of the sub-disciplines of anthropology, emphasizes the concept of culture and its
influence in shaping the self.

Culture encompasses a wide range of elements such as clothing, food, language, festivals, beliefs, values,
and even humor, all of which shape a person’s way of life. A key aspect of culture is symbolism, which allows
individuals to express their identity and differentiate their culture from others. When these symbols are
preserved and passed down, they become enduring representations of both personal and collective identity.

Think of times in your life when you pursued a particular fashion style or altered your body image because it
was “in” or seemed typical in your cultural context.

Our Bodies and Culture

Have you ever gotten a tattoo or body piercing to convey something about your status? Have you refrained
from cutting your hair because of religious beliefs? Or avoided wearing revealing clothing because it is
considered taboo?

Our bodies often project our cultural identities. Examples include:

 Apo Whang-Od Oggay, the living legend mambabatok (tattoo artist) of the Butbut Tribe in Buscalan,
Kalinga, Philippines.

 A woman from the Mursi Tribe in South Ethiopia, Africa, wearing large lip and earlobe plates.

 A woman from the Karen Tribe (Padaung People) of Thailand, wearing heavy brass neck rings.

 A member of the Bagobo People from coastal Mindanao, Philippines, with filed and blackened
teeth.

This illustrates that not everyone shares the same cultural reasons as you do. It is a reminder to be kind and
open-minded.

The Self Embedded in Culture

The self, as a basic psychological concept, is often assumed to be static and universal. However, it is
susceptible to change depending on social situations and cultural contexts. The self is malleable, capable of
acting in different ways depending on circumstances. It is multi-faceted yet unified, and must be examined
as an entity embedded in culture.

For instance, a person can be a daughter, a friend, a leader, a member of the Iglesia Ni Cristo, or a stranger—
all depending on the social context.

Marcel Mauss: Moi and Personne

Sociologist and anthropologist Marcel Mauss used the term moi to refer to the concept of self, and personne
to refer to the concept of person. He emphasized the latter in explaining personhood, seeing it as primarily a
cultural conception or a category within a particular community.

Three Aspects of the Self

Mauss identified three aspects of the self, which were also highlighted in psychology:

1. Private Self – Cognitions involving traits, states, or behaviors of the person. This is an assessment of
the self by the self.

2. Public Self – Cognitions about the generalized other’s view of the self. This is an assessment of the
self by others.

3. Collective Self – An assessment of the self based on membership in specific reference groups.

All three aspects of the self are heavily influenced by culture.

“Hindi mo kailangang makibagay at ipagpilitan sarili mo sa iba.”

Psychological Perspective
Psychology, as a science, studies how the self changes and develops as it interacts with various forces in life.
While the self can remain stable and consistent over time, it can also change based on our experiences,
relationships, and challenges. Different psychologists have offered perspectives that help us understand who
we are and how we see ourselves.

Carl Jung once said:

"Everything that irritates us about others can lead us to an understanding of ourselves."

This means that our reactions to other people often reveal something about our own personality, values, or
insecurities.

William James – The I-Self and Me-Self

William James (1842–1910) proposed that the self has two aspects:

1. I-Self – The “knower” or “subject” part of the self.

o This is the self in action: the one who thinks, feels, and makes decisions.

o It is the active side of our identity, the doer.

2. Me-Self – The “known” or “object” part of the self.

o This is how we see ourselves, based on our experiences, memories, and perceptions.

o James called it the Empirical Self, and divided it into three components:
  Material Self – Things we own and our physical body.

 Social Self – How others see and interact with us.

 Spiritual Self – Our inner values, beliefs, and conscience.

James illustrated perception by saying:

"Whenever two people meet, there are really six people present."
This means there is how each sees themselves, how each thinks the other sees them, and who they truly are.

Carl Rogers – Real Self and Ideal Self

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) focused on self-concept and personal growth.

 Real Self – How we honestly view ourselves in the present.

o It might not be perfect, but it is authentic and grounded in reality.

 Ideal Self – The version of ourselves we aspire to be.

o Usually shaped by our goals, dreams, and values.

The gap between the real self and ideal self can affect our mental health. A smaller gap often leads to self-
acceptance, while a larger gap can cause frustration or dissatisfaction.

Rogers said:

"The curious paradox is that when I accept myself just as I am, then I can change."
Meaning true growth starts with self-acceptance.

Albert Bandura – Proactive and Agentic Self

Albert Bandura (1925–2021) is known for his social cognitive theory.

 Proactive Self – Believes in constructive action and optimism in facing challenges.

 Agentic Self – Takes charge of one’s actions, reflects on decisions, and regulates behavior.

A central idea in Bandura’s theory is self-efficacy – our belief in our own ability to succeed in specific
situations.

He said:

"Self-belief does not necessarily ensure success, but self-disbelief assuredly spawns failure."

Murray Bowen – Differentiated Self

Murray Bowen (1913–1990) developed family systems theory and spoke about differentiation:
  Highly differentiated individuals – Balance independence (autonomy) and closeness (intimacy) in
relationships. They can think rationally even under stress.

 Poorly differentiated individuals – Tend to become overly emotionally dependent or “fused” with
others.

Differentiation means balancing:

1. Emotional vs. intellectual functioning

2. Intimacy vs. autonomy in relationships

Bowen advised:

"We all have an infant inside of us, but the infant doesn’t have to run the show."
Meaning emotions are natural, but they shouldn’t control our lives.

Donald Woods Winnicott – True Self and False Self

Donald Winnicott (1896–1971) focused on authenticity.

 True Self – Comes from genuine experiences, living in alignment with who we truly are.

 False Self – A protective mask we wear to hide vulnerabilities or please others.

o While it can help us cope, overusing it can block authentic expression and harm well-being.

Winnicott believed creativity helps us discover ourselves, saying:

"With games, and only with games, can the child or the adult create, and use their whole personalities."

Final Thought

These perspectives remind us that the self is multi-layered:

 James shows us the self as both subject and object.

 Rogers teaches the importance of aligning our real and ideal selves.

 Bandura highlights personal agency and belief.

 Bowen stresses emotional independence.

 Winnicott warns against losing authenticity.

And as Aristotle wisely said:

"Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom."

The Self in Western & Eastern Thoughts

The opening quote by Ella Wilcox reminds us that life’s direction is not determined by outside forces alone
but by our own choices and inner strength. In other words, regardless of circumstances, the way we "set our
sails" — our mindset, actions, and self-understanding — will determine our life’s path.

Studying the self from both Western and Eastern perspectives helps us:

1. See the differences in how cultures view personal identity.

2. Understand the philosophies that shape these views.

3. Reflect on our own Filipino concept of self and where it fits in.

Individualistic vs. Collective Thoughts

 Individualistic Thought

o Views the self as independent and unique.

o Focuses on personal goals, abilities, and standing out from others.

o Success is measured by personal achievement.

 Collective Thought

o Views the self as part of a larger whole — family, community, and society.

o Identity is shaped by relationships and group harmony.

o Success means fulfilling one’s role and maintaining peace within the group.

Western vs. Eastern View of the Self

Western Perspective

 Individualistic – Focuses on “I” rather than “We.”

 The self is independent, unique, and separate from others.

 Truth is sought outside through science, research, and logic.

 Values freedom, equality, and self-expression.

 Emphasizes rights and personal goals.

 Life is seen as linear: birth → life → death.

Eastern Perspective

 Collectivistic – Focuses on “We.”

 The self is interconnected with others, society, and the spiritual world.

 Truth is found inside through meditation, reflection, and harmony.

  Values duties, roles, and social unity.

 Emphasizes harmony, interdependence, and spiritual growth.

 Life is seen as cyclical: reincarnation, life after death.

Construction of the Self

In Western Thought

 Focuses on personal traits — personality, intelligence, abilities.

 The self is separate and self-contained.

 Success = personal achievement.

 Encourages independence, self-development, and self-expression.

 Self-esteem grows through social comparison and standing out.

In Eastern Thought

 The self is connected to others, nature, and the universe.

 Emphasizes unity, harmony, and responsibility to the group.

 Success = fulfilling duties and maintaining peace.

 Self develops through family, tradition, and community roles.

 Prioritizes inner peace and spiritual growth over material gain.

Major Eastern Philosophies About the Self

Hinduism

 The true self is Atman — our eternal essence.

 Goal: Moksha — liberation from Maya (illusion) and suffering.

 Belief in reincarnation — the cycle continues until unity with Brahman (the universal soul).

Buddhism

 Believes in Anatta — “non-self”; the self constantly changes.

 Desire and attachment cause suffering.

 Goal: Enlightenment — ending suffering through the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path.

Confucianism

 The self is a moral and social being.

 True self lives by benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and loyalty.

  Identity is deeply connected to relationships and social harmony.

Taoism

 The self is part of nature.

 Goal: live in harmony with the Tao (“The Way”).

 Values simplicity, humility, and Wu Wei (non-forcing, letting things flow naturally).

Filipino Concept of the Self

The Filipino self is shaped by shared humanity and strong social bonds:

 Pagkatao – our shared human essence.

 Loob – inner self; compassion.

 Kagandahang-Loob – kindness and moral goodness.

 Pakikisama – maintaining good relations.

 Utang-na-Loob – debt of gratitude.

 Bayanihan – community cooperation.

 Relational Self – prioritizing group over individual.

 Gulong ng Palad – life’s cycles of fortune and hardship.

 Harmony – keeping peace in relationships.

Final Reflection

The Western view teaches self-expression, independence, and personal achievement, while the Eastern
view focuses on harmony, interconnectedness, and fulfilling social duties. As Filipinos, our cultural values
tend to blend both: we value community and relationships (Eastern influence) but also strive for personal
growth and self-expression (Western influence). Understanding these perspectives helps us navigate
between individuality and togetherness, and to shape a self that is both authentic and socially responsible.