WRITING I

NAME : NIA REMANA

CLASS : B

NPM : 13020311062

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

STKIP YPM BANGKO

ACADEMIC YEAR 2014/2015

 CHAPTER I

FUNDAMENTAL OF WRITING

A. Basic competencies

After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.

1. Understand of fundamental of writing

2. Understand of kind paragraph

B. Material

Definitions of writing

Writing is a method of representing language in visual or tactile form. Writing

systems use sets of symbols to represent the sounds of speech, and may also have
symbols for such things as punctuation and numerals.

Daniels, Peter T. & Bright, William (Oxford University Press,1996 ) A set of visible
or tactile signs used to represent units of language in a systematic way, with the purpose
of recording messages which can be retrieved by everyone who knows the language in
question and the rules by virtue of which its units are encoded in the writing system.

Coulmas, Florian (Oxford, Blackwell,1999) All writing systems use visible signs
with the exception of the raised notation systems used by blind and visually impaired
people, such as Braille and Moon. Hence the need to include tactile signs in the above
definition.

Writing is a medium of communication that represents language through the

inscription of signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to speech or
spoken language. Writing is not a language but a form of technology. Within a language
system, writing relies on many of the same structures as speech, such as vocabulary,
grammar and semantics, with the added dependency of a system of signs or symbols,
usually in the form of a formal alphabet. The result of writing is generally called text, and
the recipient of text is called a reader. Motivations for writing include publication,
storytelling, correspondence and diary. Writing has been instrumental in keeping history,
dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems.

Kind of paragraph

1. Narration (narrative writing)

Narration is story telling. In many ways it is the easiest kind of writing because it
comes so naturally to most people. Practically everyone enjoys telling and hearing
stories. Narratives usually progress chronologically, and must have a clear beginning,
middle and end. Short stories, novels, personal narratives, anecdotes, and biographies are
all examples of narrative writing. Writing tells story or relates a series of events.
Example: A composition describing your explorations among rocks and tide pools along
the ocean shore.

2. Description (descriptive writing)

Think of description as painting a picture with words. Of course, when you use
words, you can paint more than what you see, but also what you feel, hear, smell and
taste. The idea of description is to make the thing described seem real to your reader’s
imagination. Not much writing is purely descriptive; writers typically weave description
into longer narrative works. Some essentially descriptive writing, however, might include
certain forms of advertising, character sketches, and photograph captions. Writing
describes a person, place or thing. Example: A brochure describing giant redwoods, a
"Lost Kitten" poster that tells exactly what the kitten looks like.

3. Exposition (expository writing)

Exposition is writing that explains or informs. It is a practical kind of writing (the

kind you are reading right now!). Examples of expository writing include encyclopedia
entries, news reports, instruction manuals, informative essays, and research papers.
Writing gives information or exsplains. Example: An article entitled "How the Internet
has Changed Our lives".
 4. Persuasion (persuasive writing)

Persuasive writing seeks to convince the reader of a particular position or opinion.

Persuasive writing is in many ways the most difficult to do well because it requires
knowledge of the subject, strong convictions, logical thinking, and technical skill. Some
examples of persuasive writing include literary essays, editorials, advertisements, and
book, music or movie reviews. Writing attempts to convince someone to do or believe
something. Example. An advertisement, an article about importance of water
conservation.

The fundamentals of writing

1. Purpose

2. Reader

3. Topics

Reader is the people who read the writing. Example :The student read a book, the girl
read a magazine .

Topics is a matter dealt with in a text, discourse, or conversation ; a subject.

 CHAPTER II

PUNCTUATION

A. Basic competences

After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.

1. Student know about definition and purpose of punctuation

2. Understand type of punctuation and example

B. Material

A. Definition of Punctuation

The set of marks used to regulate texts and clarify their meanings, principally by
separating or linking words, phrases, and clauses. You may find some aspects of
punctuation harder to grasp than others (for example, when to use a semicolon or a
colon). If so, just click on the relevant heading in the list to the left. There are also handy
sections with advice on using punctuation when writing direct speech, lists, or
abbreviations.

B. Purpose of Punctuation
Punctuation is used, in printing and writing, to imitate speech. When we speak we
use voice inflections, stops, pauses, and even body language to indicate our meaning. For
example, when we ask a question our voice rises at the end of a sentence.
Punctuation marks are essential when you are writing. They show the reader where
sentences start and finish and if they are used properly they make your writing easy to
understand, When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate
emphasis. This section gives practical guidance on how to use commas, semicolons, and
other types of punctuation correctly, so that your writing will always be clear and
effective.
C. Types of punctuation
1) Full stop or period ( . )

Is used to show that you have come to the end of sentence. You can also use them to
show that you have shortened or abbreviated words. There are 2 type of abbreviations
that use full stop.

1. You can put after full stop after the first letter of each abbreviated word.
-R.A.C – Royal Automobile Club
-B.B.C – British Broadcasting Corporation

2. After selected group of letters from a word.

-St. – street
-Rd.- road
-Mr. – mister
-Etc.- etcetera
2) Comma ( , )

A comma marks a slight break between different part of a sentence. Comma make
the meaning of sentences clear by grouping and separating words, phrases, and clauses.

Here are the main cases when you need to use comma:

 Use commas In lists

You need to put a comma between the different items in a list, as in the following
sentence.

For example:

Many sports that are good for our bodies including fitness, floor gymnastic, aerobic,
etc.
 Use commas In direct speech

When a writer quotes a speaker’s words exactly as they were spoken this in known as
direct speech. If the piece of direct speech commas after the information about who is
speaking, you need to use a comma to introduce the direct speech.

Example :

‘you’re right, he said. ‘feels strange.’

‘thinking back, ‘she said, ‘he didn,t expect to win.’

 Use commas to separate clauses

Commas are used to separate clauses in a complex sentence (a sentence which is

made up of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.)

for example:

After lunch, I went back to the college

3) Semi-Colon ( ; )

Colon (It's no accident that a semicolon is a period atop a comma. Like commas,
semicolons indicate an audible pause—slightly longer than a comma's, but short of a
period's full stop. Semicolons have other functions, too. But first, a caveat: avoid the
common mistake of using a semicolon to replace a colon (see the "Colons" section).

Rule 1. A semicolon can replace a period if the writer wishes to narrow the gap
between two closely linked sentences.

Examples:
Call me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then.
We have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges listed in the contract.
 Rule 2. Use a semicolon before such words and terms as namely, however, therefore,
that is, i.e., for example, e.g., for instance, etc., when they introduce a complete
sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after these words and terms.

Example: Bring any two items; however, sleeping bags and tents are in short supply.

Rule 3. Use a semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units
contain commas.

Incorrect: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho,
Springfield, California, Alamo, Tennessee, and other places as well.

Note that with only commas, that sentence is hopeless.

Correct: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho;
Springfield, California; Alamo, Tennessee; and other places as well.

Rule 4. A semicolon may be used between independent clauses joined by a connector,

such as and, but, or, nor, etc., when one or more commas appear in the first clause.

Example: When I finish here, and I will soon, I'll be glad to help you; and that is a
promise I will keep.

4) Colon (: )

Use a colon before a list or an explanation that is preceded by a clause that can stand
by itself. Think of the colon as a gate, inviting one to go on:

There is only one thing left to do now: confess while you still have time.
The charter review committee now includes the following people:
the mayor
the chief of police
the fire chief
the chair of the town council
 You nearly always have a sense of what is going to follow or be on the other side of
the colon. (Compare the function of a semicolon in this regard.) You will find
differing advice on the use of a colon to introduce a vertical or display list. See Using
Numbers and Creating Lists.

We will often use a colon to separate an independent clause from a quotation (often of
a rather formal nature) that the clause introduces:

With today's sophisticated word-processing programs (which know how much space
to put after punctuation marks), we insert only one space (hit the space-bar only once)
after a colon.

It might be useful to say, also, when we don't use a colon. Remember that the clause
that precedes the mark (where you're considering a colon) ought to be able to stand on
its own as an independent clause. Its purpose might be strictly to introduce the clause
that follows, so it might feel rather incomplete by itself, but grammatically it will have
both a subject and a predicate. In other words, we would not use a colon in situations
like the following:

 Her recipe for gunpowder included saltpeter, dry oatmeal, and ground-up charcoal
briquets. (no colon after "included")
 His favorite breakfast cereals were Rice Krispies, Cheerios, and Wheaties. (no
colon after "were")

 Her usual advice, I remember, was "Keep your head up as you push the ball up the
court." (no colon after "was")

5) Hyphen ( – )

Just as all punctuation marks ensure the clarity of writing, hyphens function to avoid
confusion and misreading by joining compound words including nouns and other
modifiers. Hyphens perform seven basic functions.
 Compound numbers and fractions

1. Use hyphens with compound numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine. For
example:

 twenty-one
 forty-five

 seventy-seven

 ninety-nine

Also use hyphens to separate numerators and denominators in fractions. For example:

 one-half
 two-thirds

 five-eights

 three-tenths

 Compound nouns

2. Use hyphens with some compound nouns.

 mother-in-law
 T-shirt

 cul-de-sac

3. Use hyphens with certain prefixes and suffixes such as all-, anti-, -elect, ex-, mid-,
neo-, post-, pre-, pro-, and self-. For example:

 all-purpose
 mid-century

 self-employed
  president-elect

Dash ( — )

You can used dash to denote a sudden twist in thought or a diviation from sentence’s
main point. In some cases the interruption relater to the original idea.
For example: The boy – the one in the white shirt and blue jeans – is my cousin.

Question Mark ( ? )
The question mark has a very simple function in writing. It indicates a question. If a
sentence ends with question mark, then it is asking a question or interrogative sentence.

Exclamation Mark ( ! )
Is usually showhes stronge feeling such as surprise anger or joy. Using an
exclamation mark when writing is rether like shouting or raising your voice when
speaking. Exclamation mark are most commenly used in writing quoted speech. You
should avoid using exclamation marks in formal writing, unless absolutely necessary.
1. Used un exclamation mark to indicate stronge feelings or raised voice in speech: She
shouted at him,”Go way! I hat you!”
2. Many interjections need an exclamation mark: Hi! What’s new? Ouwch! That hurt.
3. A non-question santence beginning with “what” or “how” is often an exclamation
and requites an exclamation mark: what idiots we are! (we are such idiots) how
preety she looked in that dress! (she looked very pretty in that dress.)
4. Informal writing (personal letter or imel),people sometimes used two or more
exclamation mark together: Remember,don’t be late!!

Slash, Forward Slash Or Oblique ( / )

 Slash is often used indicate “or”

Ex: marry will eat cake / fruit.
 Used a noun fof fraction
 Ex: ½ (one half)

Double Quotation Marks ( " " )

We use Quotation marks to show the beginning and end of a word or prase that is
some how spesial or comes from out side the text that we are writing. Quotation Marks
can be double(“...”) or singgle (‘....’) that is really a mater of slile. Quotation Marks are
also colled quwoites or inverted comas

1. Use Quotation Marks around the title or mane of a book film ship etc.
Eg: “Titanic”is a 1997 movie directed by james cameron about the sinking of the
ship “Titanic”
2. We use Quotation Marks around apiece of texs that we are guoting or citing, usually
on an other source
Eg: in the cambridge or encyclopedia of the English language, David crytal argues
that punctuation “plays a critical role in the modern writing system”.
3. Use Quotation Marks around dialogue or directspeech.
Eg: Mary turned to him and said: “do you love me,jomes?”
4. Use Quotation Marks around a word or phase that we see as slang or jargon.
Eg: The police were called to a “disturbence”-which in reality was a pretty big fight.

Single Quotation Marks ( ' ' )

Apostrophe ( ' )

Use the Apostrophe to show possessive, with a singular noun, add an Apostrophe
plus the letter s.
Eg: A woman’s hat the boss’s wife Mrs. Chang’s house.
Underline

Underline, also called an underscore,is a more or less horizontal line immediately

below a portion of writing. In a manuscript to be typesed, various froms of underlining
were conventionally used to indicate that textshould be set in aspecial typeface such as
italics to show emphasis, part ofa procedure known as mark.

 Book titles 1984

 Magazine and journal titles The AMA Journal

Underscore ( _ )

The underscore sign is mainly used to show a space where a space is not allowed,
such as in internet usernames, email addresses and some computer programs.

Examples:

 john_doe@mymail.net

This email address would read: john underscore doe at my mail dot net.

 sandy_heart_1957@gmail.com

This email address would read: sandy underscore heart underscore nineteen fifty-
seven at gmail dot com.
 ask_the_teacher@myschool.net

This email address would read: ask underscore the underscore teacher at my school
dot net.

Brackets [ ] ( ) { } ⟨ ⟩

Brackets to set apart or interject other text. Used unqualified, brackets refer to
different types of Brackets, in different parts of the world and in different contexts.
 Ellipsis Mark ...

The Ellipsis Mark consists of thee dots (periods). We use the ellipsis mark in a place
of missing words. If we intentionally omit one or more words from an original text, we
replace them with an ellipsis mark.
Eg: “the film focused on thee English learners...studying at university.”
The new sentence still makes sense, but the ellipsis mark shows the reader that something
is missing. We sometimes also use an ellipsis mark to indicate a pause when someone is
speaking, or unfinished sentence.
Eg: Dearling, there is something... I need to tell you.
 CHAPTER III

STRUCTURE SENTENCE

A. Basic competences
After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.
1. Student know structure of sentence
2. can make a sentence correctly

B. Material
PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

A. Subject

The subject of a sentence is the noun or word group acting as a noun that performs
the action expressed in the predicate of a sentence or clause. The subject may be one
word: Sally loves chocolate. The subject may be in a noun phrase:
cat that likes to steal

B. Predicate
The predicate is the part of the clause or sentence that says something about the
subject. In other words, the part of the sentences that is not the subject and its modifiers is
the predicate. A predicate can be one word or several words, not all of which are verbs.

The principal part of the predicate is the verb.

His new car tax has already been paid by his assistant
C. Objects

The object of a sentence can be a noun, pronoun, or word group that acts as a noun,
and receives the action of a verb or is influenced by a transitive verb, verbal (a word
derived from a verb, i.e., gerund, infinitive, and participle), or a preposition. (More on
Objects)Direct object: Receives the action of a verb or verbal and frequently follows it in
a sentence.

1. Direct objects are often needed to complete the thought of a sentence. "Rueben
reads the newspaper." "Reuben reads" is a complete sentence, but it doesn't
express the complete thought. Reuben reads what? He reads the
newspaper.Indirect object: Tells for whom, to whom, or to what something is
done. "Reuben reads his grandmother the newspaper." Reuben reads the
newspaper to whom? to his grandmother. Grandmother is the indirect
object. Pronouns are also used as indirect objects: "Reuben reads her the
newspaper."
2. Indirect objects often come between the verb and the direct object. The sentence
could also be: "Reuben reads the newspaper to his grandmother." The
prepositional phrase to his grandmother is the indirect object of the sentence.
STRUCTURE SENTENCE

1. Simple Sentences

A simple sentence contains only one independent clause. An independent

clause is a group of words (with a subject and a verb) that expresses a complete
thought.

I drink coffee.

I drink coffee is an independent clause. It contains a subject (I) and a verb (drink),
and it expresses a complete thought. Learn more about the simple sentence here.

2. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These

clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. A coordinating
conjunction is a word that glues words, phrases, or clauses together.

She cooked and he cleaned.

She cooked is an independent clause. He cleaned is also an independent

clause. And is a coordinating conjunction joining the two independent clauses. She
cooked and he cleaned is a compound sentence.

3. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence contains a subordinate clause and an independent clause.

A subordinate clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb but does not
express a complete thought.
I washed the dishes after I ate breakfast.

I washed the dishes is an independent clause. After I ate breakfast is a dependent

adverb clause modifying the verb washed. I washed the dishes after I ate
breakfast is a complex sentence.

4. Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at

least one subordinate clause.

I would have purchased the cheese that you like,

but it was too expensive.

I would have purchased the cheese and it was too expensive are both independent
clauses. They are being joined by the conjunction but.

That you like is a dependent adjective clause modifying the noun cheese. The
whole sentence is a compound-complex sentence.
 CHAPTER IV

AGREEMENT SUBJECT VERB

Usage - Subject-Verb Agreement

Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural).
Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its verb
must also be plural.

In present tenses, nouns and verbs form plurals in opposite ways:

nouns ADD an s to the singular form,

BUT

verbs REMOVE an s from the singular form.

Here are nine subject-verb agreement rules.

1. A phrase or clause between subject and verb does not change the number of the
subject.

2. Indefinite pronouns as subjects

Singular indefinite pronoun subjects take singular verbs. Plural indefinite pronoun
subjects take plural verbs.

PLURAL: several, few, both, many

Some indefinite pronouns may be either singular or plural: with uncountable, use
singular; with countable, use plural.
EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL: some, any, none, all, most.

Sugar is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular verb.

Marbles are countable; therefore, the sentence has a plural verb.

3. Compound subjects joined by and are always plural.

4. With compound subjects joined by or/nor, the verb agrees with the subject nearer to it.

In the above example, the plural verb are agrees with the nearer subject actors.

In this example, the singular verb is agrees with the nearer subject director.

5. Inverted Subjects must agree with the verb.

6. Collective Nouns (group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) may be singular or plural, depending
on meaning.

In this example, the jury is acting as one unit; therefore, the verb is singular.

In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore, the verb
is plural.

7. Titles of single entities (books, organizations, countries, etc.) are always singular.

8. Plural form subjects

Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular verb. (e.g. news, measles,
mumps, physics, etc.)

Plural form subjects with singular or plural meaning take a singular or plural verb,
depending on meaning. (e.g. politics, economics, etc.)

In this example, politics is a single topic; therefore, the sentence has a singular verb.

In this example, politics refers to the many aspects of the situation; therefore, the
sentence has a plural verb.
 Plural form subjects with a plural meaning take a plural verb. (e.g. scissors, trousers)

Note: In this example, the subject of the sentence is pair; therefore, the verb must
agree with it. (Because scissors is the object of the preposition, scissors does not
affect the number of the verb.)

9. With subject and subjective complement of different number, the verb always agrees
with the subject.

10-A. With one of those ________ who, use a plural verb.

The above example implies that others besides Hannah like to read comic books.
Therefore, the plural verb is the correct form to use.

10-B. With the only one of those ________who, use a singular verb.

The above example implies that no one else except for Hannah likes to read comic
books. Therefore, the singular verb is the correct for to use.

11-A. With the number of _______, use a singular verb.

11-B. With a number of _______, use a plural verb.

12. With every ______ and many a ________, use a singular verb.
 CHAPTER V

CONSISTENT OF USE PRONOUN

A. Basic competences

After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.

1. Student understand about definition of pronoun

2. Student understand use the pronoun

B. Material

Definition of pronoun

Pronouns are words used to replace noun. These nouns can be people, animals,
places, and abstracts concepts.

1. Personal pronoun

Personal pronouns are pronouns for a person, animal , place , or thing. In a sentence ,
the personal pronouns can be used as the subject ( the subject of a verb ) or object ( the
object of a verb).

a) Subject pronouns

Personal pronouns used as the subject of the verb is I, you , he , she, it , we , and they .
Consider the following example sentences :

Example : please take the book, I will return it to the library

b ) Object pronouns
 Personal pronouns used as the object of a verb is me , you , him , her , it , us and
them . Consider the following example sentences :

Example : she was beautiful, I like it.

2. Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns are pronouns that show ownership of an object . The words used
are mine , yours, his , hers , ours , theirs, its, and theirs.

Example : it is my pen, it is yours.

3. Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronoun is used that substitute nouns when the nouns they replace can
be understood from the context. At the same time, to indicate whether they are close or
far, in space or time, from the speaker in the moment of speaking. They also indicate
whether they are replacing singular or plural words.

"This" (singular) and "These" (plural) refer to an object or person NEAR the speaker.

"That" (singular) and "Those" (plural) refer to an object or person further AWAY.

Example :

- That is a good idea .

- I will never forget this .

- Those are my friends .

- These are my books .

4. Interrogative pronouns
 Interrogative pronoun is used to ask people, objects , or an option . The pronoun that is
often used is what, who, whose, which and whom.

Example : what are you doing ?

5. Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns are pronouns that refer to the preceding noun (antecedent) which
serves as kind of relative pronouns are who, which, that , and Whose Whose .

Example : the boy who use t-shirt is my boyfriend

To refer to people, use the relative pronouns : who , Whom , Whose and that .

- The man who spoke

- The man that spoke ( although usage is also true that , WHO is suggested as the
subject pronoun )

- The man that I SAW

- The man Whom I SAW ( although the use of Whom is also true , that is suggested
as an object pronoun )

To refer to other objects or animals , use relative pronouns : which , that and Whose .

- The cat which was sitting on the mat

- Whose the book cover was torn

When pointing to anything , of the which can be used to replace Whose .

- A book the cover of which was torn

6. Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are pronouns that are used to indicate the actions or activities
undertaken by the subject himself ( the subject of the verb). Reflextive pronoun is used
personal pronouns (my , your , him , her , it , our , them ) coupled with “self” singular
noun ( singular ) or “selves” plural noun ( plural ) .

The pronoun is used as a reflexive pronoun is : myself , yourself , yourselves ,

Themselves , himself , herself , and itself .

examples :

- He encouraged Immediately himself to do his homework .

7. Indefinite pronouns

The use of this pronouns , objects or things that are general and not specific to
using this type of pronouns . Indefinite pronouns are divided into single , multiple or even
both. Type Indefinite pronouns : indefinite persons or thing and in definite quantities.
Indefinite persons or things are somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone,
anything, nobody, no one, nothing, everybody, everyone, everything. Indefinite quantities
are all, another, any, both, each, either, few, least, less, little, a lot (of), many, more, most,
much, neither, none, one, other(s), several, some.

Examples :

- Anyone could win tonight.

8. Reciprocal pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns are pronouns reciprocity which means that an action or activity
that occurs involving two people / groups who do the same thing to each other . The
pronoun is used as a reciprocal pronoun are each other and one another.

Examples:

- Andrew and Jessica help Each Other with Reviews their work.
 CHAPTER VI

COMPOUND SENTENCE AND COMPLEX SENTENCE

A. Basic competences

After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.

1. Student know about compound and complex sentence

2. Student can make a compound and complex sentence

B. Material

1. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses

(or complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction.
Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words "FAN BOYS":

 For
 And

 Nor

 But

 Or

 Yet

So Examples of compound sentences include the following:

 That airplane has been missing for a long time now and nobody knows what
happened to it.
 2. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more

dependent clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an independent
clause, or complete sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that would make it a
complete sentence.

Examples of dependent clauses include the following:

The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.

Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone as a sentence, but they
can be added to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.

Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of

the most common subordinating conjunctions.

 after
 although

 as

 because

 before

 even though

 if

 since

 though

 unless

 until
  when

 whenever

 whereas

 wherever

 while

A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses.

The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the independent clause, as
in the following:

Tip: When the dependent clause comes first, a comma should be used to separate
the two clauses.

1. Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not see
them at the station.
2. While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late.

3. After they left on the bus, Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the
train station.

Conversely, the independent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the
dependent clause, as in the following:

Tip: When the independent clause comes first, a comma should not be used to
separate the two clauses.

1. I did not see them at the station because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus
station before noon.
2. Joe realized that the train was late while he waited at the train station.

3. Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the train station after they left
on the bus.
 Complex sentences are often more effective than compound sentences because a
complex sentence indicates clearer and more specific relationships between the main
parts of the sentence. The word "before," for instance, tells readers that one thing occurs
before another. A word such as "although" conveys a more complex relationship than a
word such as "and" conveys.

The term periodic sentence is used to refer to a complex sentence

beginning with a dependent clause and ending with an independent clause, as in
"While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late.’’ Periodic
sentences can be especially effective because the completed thought occurs at the
end of it, so the first part of the sentence can build up to the meaning that comes at
the end.

Beginning Sentences with "And" or "Because"

Should you begin a sentence with "and" or "but" (or one of the other coordinating
conjunctions?)

The short answer is "no." You should avoid beginning a sentence with "and,"
"or," "but," or the other coordinating conjunctions. These words generally are used to join
together parts of a sentence, not to begin a new sentence.

However, such sentences can be used effectively. Because sentences beginning

with these words stand out, they are sometimes used for emphasis. If you use sentences
beginning with one of the coordinating conjunctions, you should use these sentences
sparingly and carefully.

Should you begin a sentence with "because"?

There is nothing wrong with beginning a sentence with "because."

Perhaps some students are told not to begin a sentence with "because" to avoid
sentence fragments (something like "Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus
station before noon" is a sentence fragment), but it is perfectly acceptable to begin a
sentence with "because" as long as the sentence is complete (as in "Because Mary and
Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not see them at the station.")

CHAPTER VII

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES

A. Basic competence

After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.

1. Student understand about active and passive voice

2. Student can make a sentence active and passive voice

A. Material
A. Active Voice
A sentence is written in active voice when the subject of the sentence performs the
action in the sentence.
Formula:

S + V1 +
s/es
Example :
I buy a book
She drink water
B. Passive Voice
A sentence is written in passive voice when the subject of the sentence has an
action done to it by someone or something else.
Formula:

S + to be + V3 + by
+o
Example :
The book is brought by her
The flower is bought by him

C. Formation of the Passive Voice

Active Passive
present simple am/are/is + past participle
She does the homework. The homework is done (by her).
past simple was/were + past participle
He did the homework. The homework was done (by him).
present continuous am/are/is + being + past participle
She is doing the homework. The homework is being done (by her).
past continuous was/were + being + past participle
He was doing the homework. The homework was being done (by him).
present perfect have/has + been + past participle
She has done the homework. The homework has been done (by her).
past perfect had + been + past participle
He had done the homework. The homework had been done (by him).
 CHAPTER VIII

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

A. Basic competences

After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.

1. Student know about conditional sentence

2. Student can make conditional sentence

B. Material

A. Conditional Sentence

Conditional sentences also known as conditional clauses or if clauses. Conditional

sentence is used to express an event or action that may or may not occur. They are made
up of two halves. The first halves with the word if in is a condition, and the other halves
the main clause states the action to occur if the condition is fulfilled.

B. Type of Conditional Sentence

1. Conditional sentence type 1

Conditional sentences that used when the result or consequence of the condition
have the possibility to realized in the future due to the realistic condition to fulfilled.
 Formula of conditional sentence type 1:

If + simple present tense, Simple future tense

Simple future tense + if + simple present tense

NOTE: do not forget to enter, (comma) if you want to put the first subordinate clause. No
need to put a comma if the main clause, you input first.

For example: if I much money I will go to America

2. Conditional sentence type 2

Conditional sentence that used to expressed events that may not occur because
the condition cannot happen. This sentence used to expressed the fact that the
opposite of the present.

Formula of conditional sentence type 2:

If + Simple past tense, Past future tense

Past future tense + if + simple past tense

For example:

If I were superman, I would fly to the moon.

I would fly to the moon if I were superman.

3. Conditional sentence type 3
Conditional sentence types 3 are used when it is impossible for condition to be
fulfilled because the possibility has already passed.

Formula of conditional sentence type 3:

If + Past perfect, Past participle

Past participle + if + past perfect
For example:
If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.
 CHAPTER IX

NOUN CLAUSE

A. Basic competences

After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.

1. Student know about noun clause

2. Student can make a sentence noun clause

B. Material

1. The Meaning of Noun Clause

Noun clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate noun. Noun
Clause answers the question related to the verb, the noun is usually start with That,
What, How, However, Why, Whether, dan Whoever.
Formula : Conjunction + Subject + Predicate+object
An example is : I forgot that the fact was very important
2. Use of Noun Clause
As for the use of the noun clause is as follows :
a. Subject of verb
 Eg : That he has bought the hotel is known to all.

 Whether to apply for the post is a problem to me.

b. Transitive object verb

Eg :
 We don’t know how long she wants to remain unmarried.

c. Object verb

Eg :

 I am satisfied with what I achieved in life.

 She did not pay attention to what I explained to her.

d. Additional information on the noun or pronoun

Eg :

 We believe the principle that all men are born free.

e. Verbs of incomplete predications/incomplete verb or as predicative noun

Eg :

 His fear is that he will lose his job.

3. Types of Noun Clause

A. Noun Clauses That Preceded by Question Words

Noun clauses that preceded by question words are usually used to answer

a question. The following examples :

 Where does Sarik Live?. I don't know where Sarik lives.

B. Noun Clauses That Preceded by Whether or If

Noun clauses that preceded by whether or if are used to answer yes/no

type questions. Whether and if are usually interchangeable.

The following examples:

 Does Judy own a Honda? I don't know if Judy owns a Honda.

C. Noun Clauses That Preceded by That

Noun clauses that preceded by that are used to answer questions in which

person who is answering is thinking, giving an opinion, or using a mental activity

verb. The following examples:

 I believe that there is an ATM in the supermarket.

 I knew that he had to go.

 CHAPTER X

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE AND RELATIVE CLAUSE

A. Basic competences

After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.

1. Student understand about definition adverbial clause and relative clause

2. Student can make a sentence adverbial clause and relative clause

A. Material
A. Definition of Adverbial Clause
Adverbial clause is a subordinate clause used to modify a verb, adjective, or
adverb in the main clause. Every adverb clause is introduced by a subordinating
conjunction. An adverb clause tells when, where, why, how, to what extent, or how
much about the word it modifies.
B. Kinds of Adverbial Clause
1. Adverbial clause of result
Adverb clauses of result are introduced by subordinating conjunction (so, hence,
thus, therefore, consequently, that).
- Example : They fought so bravely that the enemy was driven off.
2. Adverb clauses of supposition
Adverb clauses of supposition are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions
( though, although, even, if, etc). The adverb of clauses of concession are one and the
same as adverb clauses of supposition.
For example:
- Though he is poor, he is honest.
3. Adverb Clause of Reason
We use adverb clause of reason to modify verb in main clause and to tell the cause
that an action takes place ( because, as, for, that). These clauses are used to indicate
the reason for something.
For example:
- I come here because I want to meet you.
- He forgot to lock the door because he was in a hurry.
4. Adverb Clause of Time
Adverb clause of time are used to modify verb in main clause and to tell the time that
an action takes place ( when, whenever, anytime, before, after, till, until, while,
since, etc).
For example:
- She ran away while I was sleeping.
5. Adverb Clause of Place
Adverb clause of place are introduced by the conjunctions “where and wherever”.
For example:
- Where there is a will there is a way.
6. Adverb Clause of Purpose
Adverb clauses of purpose are used to indicate the purpose an action ( so that, in
order that, in order to + V1).
For example:
- He plans to visit the village so that he can meet his uncle.
 C. Definition Of Relative Clauses
A clause is a part of a sentence. A relative clause tells us which person or thing ( or
what kind of person or thing) the speaker means. Relative clauses ( relative pronoun) also
mentioned adjective clauses that modifies a noun. It describes or gives information about
a noun.
D. Kinds Of Relative clauses
1. Relative clauses as subject
a. Subject of person ( who/that)
Who is used in a relative clause when we are talking about people. We use “who”
instead of he/she/they.
Example : she is my friend
b. Subject of Thing ( which/that)
Which / that are used when we are talking about things. We used which/that instead of
it / they.
Eg:
The pen on the table is mine
The pen which on the table is mine
2. Relative clauses as Object
a. Object of Person ( whom)
Whom is possible instead of who ( for people) when it is the object of the verb in
the relative clause.
Eg:
- I saw him driving a bus.
b. Object of Things ( Which)
Which are used for things.
Eg:
I bought them.
The books which I bought were expensive.
3. Relative Clauses of Possessive
a. Possessive of Person and things ( Whose)
Whose is used to show possession. It carries the same meaning as other possessive
pronouns used as adjectives his, her, its, and their. Whose is connected to a noun.
Like his bicycle - whose bicycle
Eg:
- His bicycle was stolen.
b. Possessive of Things ( of which)
Eg:
- The doors of it are broken.
4. Relative Adverb ( where, why, when)
a. Relative adverb of place refers to a place
Eg:
-The place where we met him.
b. Relative adverb of time refers to a time expression.
Eg:
- I’ll never forget the day when I met you.
c. Relative adverb refers to a reason.
Eg:
- The reason why we met him.
5. Relative Clauses “extra information”
A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This
often makes the sentence easier to understand.
a. Relative clause of preposition + whom/which
Eg:
- The men are angry.
- The girl is talking are to them.
The men to whom the girl is talking are angry.
- The store is big .
- I bought the ice cream from it
The store from which I bought the ice cream is big.
b. Relative clause in phrases ( All of/most of +whom/which
Eg: - Jack has three brothers. All of them are married. ( 2 sentences)
-Jack has three brothers, all of whom are married. ( 1 Sentence)
 CHAPTER XI

PARAGRAPH

A. Basic competences

After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.

1. Understand about the concept of paragraph

2. Know about kinds of paragraph
B. Material
1. Definition of paragraph
A paragraph is a group of sentences about a topic. Every paragraph should have one
topic, which is usually presented in the first sentence called the topic sentence. All the
other sentences in the paragraph must develop and support the topic. According to Oshina
and Hogue (1981), a paragraph is a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group
of related sentences develop mean idea. Meanwhile, McWhorter (1985) argued that a
paragraph then, provides explanation and support for a main idea about a particular topic.

A paragraph gives one main idea and all the examples or the smaller ideas that
explain it. The main idea is sometimes called the theme.

2. The theme of a paragraph is given in the topic sentence. This is usually the first
sentence of the paragraph. The topic sentence tells your reader what the paragraph is
about and what your idea is.The structure of a paragraph
A paragraph is made up of three components: the topic sentence, the supporting
sentences (body), and the concluding sentence.
 1. Topic sentence
 The first sentence in a paragraph
 Presents the topic and the controlling idea (an important idea about the topic) of
the paragraph

2. Supporting sentences
 The main part of the paragraph
 Provide several supporting points that explain the controlling idea of the
paragraph
 Provide details that explain each supporting point
3. Concluding sentence
 The last sentence in a paragraph
 Restates the controlling idea and summarizes the supporting points

Example: Gold

Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First

of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is
suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be
polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin
remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago.
Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science.
For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most
recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields
for protection outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for
its beauty but also for its utility.
The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the topic of
the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one or two areas that can be discussed
completely in the space of a single paragraph. The specific area is called the controlling
idea. Notice how the topic sentence of the model states both the topic and the controlling
idea:
(Topic) (Controlling Idea)
 Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics.

Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence. That is, they explain the topic sentence
by giving reasons, examples, facts, statistics, and quotations. Some of the supporting
sentences that explain the topic sentence about gold are
 First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.
 For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was
minted twenty-three centuries ago.
 Another important characteristic of gold is its utility in industry and science.
 The most recent application of gold is in astronauts’ suits.
The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with
important points to remember:
 In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.
 CHAPTER XII

PARAGRAPH DESCRIPTION

After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.

A. Basic competences

1. Understand about paragraph description

2. Know about element of paragraph description

B. Material Definition Paragraph Description

Paragraph description is a paragraph that describes or depicts something based on the

experience of all the senses with words clearly and in detail. The purpose of this
paragraph is to provide details or details about the object so that the reader as if they went
to see, hear, feel, or experience what is described.

example: The park was also decorated with several statues of white stork. The
statues that look very unique. In the middle of the park there is a pond. In the middle of
the pond, there is a fountain. Various children's toys helped complete the Park Ground.

The Elements Of Paragraph Description

Elements of the description in this paragraph means the parts that build the paragraph
description. Iitu element, too, who also became a benchmark assessment of a paragraph
description, whether written paragraph is perfect or not. Wandono in Siburian (2010: 18)
suggests elements of this paragraph the following description.

1) contents
 In paragraph description, the contents are aspects of assessment. Contents
include topics and sequence development. A topic can be sourced from the
experience, knowledge, imagination, opinion and belief, the facts. So the paragraph
may present opinions, beliefs, facts, opinions attitudes, responses, imagination,
divination, and so on. A topic in paragraph formulated again into sub-topics to form
a good framework, or a sequence of development in a paragraph.Fill good paragraph
should memeprlihatkan fairly detailed sequence of development, as well as carefully
and logically arranged. Thus, the composition becomes a regular paragraphs and the
author does not come out of a stated objective.

2). In a paragraph to note the contents organization.

Organization in the paragraph contents are processing materials, organize,

develop and menyusunya in a logical structure. Content of a good organization
should pay attention to cohesion and coherence. Cohesion can be seen through the
preparation or logical relationships sentence. Relationship existing thoughts in
paragraphs into a coherent, complete and compact. This cohesion can be built
through conjunctions, pronouns and keywords (word repetition overlooked).
Coherence visible if one sentence with the alin clearly shows the relationship
reciprocal logical and clearly discuss the main ideas.

3). Diction / Word Options In paragraph description

diction an essay more interesting. In Big Indonesian Dictionary (2003: 264), the
diction is the right choice of words and harmony (in its use) to express the idea in
order to obtain certain effects (as expected). n order for businesses to leverage
interesting storytelling techniques through the choice of the word good diction must
(1) choosing the right words to express an idea or thing diamatkan, (2) an author
should have the ability to accurately distinguish nuances of meaning in accordance
with the idea of wanting submitted and the ability to find a form appropriate to the
situation and the value of a sense of readers, (3) the appropriate choice of words adan
appropriate only possible if he controls a large number of vocabulary (vocabulary).

4). Impressionism
Paragraph description of impressionism shows two things. Firstly the objects depicted.
The object described it comes daari experience, completion, imagination, and so on. In
paragraph description of painting an object must attract attention, so it really can be seen,
heard, read and perceived by the reader. Second, the existence of the details of the objects
depicted. These details may be characteristics or details of an object. Objects are
described dai details will show an interesting paragraph description. Thus a description
essay can meet its existence as a typical paragraph description. Thus, it is clear that
something (an object) that want to be depicted must have considered salient details about
the object. Details of the object can also distinguish between objects described by other
objects. Thus paragraph descriptions will look attractive. In this study, assessment
paragraph description using the above elements as a descriptor which later developed into
the indicator. With these indicators, the ability to wrKinds of Paragraph Description

In general, the paragraph description divided into two kinds, namely:

1) Paragraph spatial description is a paragraph that describes the room or venue for
an event. Its portraying be seen from the various terms that are clearly defined space in
the thoughts and feelings of the reader.
Example: Pitch black night in the Brantas river upstream. Caught. Intermittently bustle
that no desultory it becomes one with bells and whistles that awfull and discouraging,
sign jungle king fell to the ground forever. Crowded in jungle warfare and apparently
it will not stop. Nothing mercy, which fall lived fall, no one will pick it up. Occasional
light of the weather wilderness, such as fire attacked. But the reality in the blink of an
eye the loss of light that dared invedinghimself into the middle of the war, destroyed
by enemy the durations "black king".
2) Paragraph objective description is a paragraph that describes something or
someone to reveal his identity as it is so that the reader can imagine the situation. So
that an object can evoke imagination to the reader, the writer must be described from
various viewpoints. The more detailed the writing, the more clearly illustrated in the
shadow of the reader.
 If the object is a person described it, the details can be made to the physical aspect and
the spiritual aspect. Spiritual aspects include feelings, character, talent, their role in the
field of employment, etc.
Example: In the corner near the door sat a man. His name Paijo. She was wearing
shorts and a T-shirt that has been torn, depicting the squalor and poverty of everyday
suffered. In broad chest and contains, solid arm veins can be seen how the full weight
of their daily work. Face the murky water, deflated cheeks and eyes were sunken states
that it has taken the road of life is full of obstacles and thorns.

Characteristics Paragraph Description

1. To describe or portray something
2. The portrayal is made very clear by engaging the senses
3. Make the reader or listener to feel alone or experience
4. Development Patterns
5. The spatial development pattern that paragraph development patterns based space
and time
6. The pattern of development or objective viewpoint is a pattern of development
that is based on a paragraph and a writer in a position to see something

Steps Writing Paragraphs Description

1. . determine the theme

2. set a goal of writing
3. collect materials
4. make the outline
5. develop the outline
6. revising the essay.

The first step is to determine the theme. At first this activities performed if will write
an comosition is determine theme. This means that it must be determined what
discussed in writing. The theme is the central idea that would be submitted in
writing.ite a paragraph description of the data can be measured.
 CHAPTER XIII

NARRATIVE

A. Basic competences

After learning this chapter , the student are expected to achieve the following
competencies.

1. Understand about narrative

2. Know types of narrative

B. Material

Definition of Narrative

A narrative is some kind of retelling, often in words (though it is possible to mime a

story), of something that happened (a story). The narrative is not the story itself but rather
the telling of the story -- which is why it is so often used in phrases such as "written
narrative," "oral narrative," etc. While a story just is a sequence of events, a narrative
recounts those events, perhaps leaving some occurrences out because they are from some
perspective insignificant, and perhaps emphasizing others. In a series of events, a car
crash takes a split second. A narrative account, however, might be almost entirely about
the crash itself and the few seconds leading up to it. Narratives thus shape history (the
series of events, the story of what happened).

Definition of Narrative Techniques

Narratives are works that provide an account of connected events. A synonym for
'narrative' is 'story'. There are many types of literature that are considered narratives,
including novels, dramas, fables, folk tales, short stories, poetry, etc. In addition to
literature, narratives are found in cinema, music, and theatre. Narrative literary techniques
 are also known as literary devices. Narrative techniques provide deeper meaning for the
reader and help the reader to use imagination to visualize situations. First, it is important
to understand that literary elements in narratives include setting, plot, theme, characters,
style/structure, perspective/voice, etc., since literary techniques are best understood in the
context of one of these elements. Literary techniques include metaphors, similes,
personification, imagery, hyperbole, alliteration, backstory, flashback, flash-forward,
foreshadowing, and narrative perspective/point of view.

Types of Narrative Techniques

There are many literary techniques, but for this lesson, we will examine literary
techniques relevant to style, plot, and narrative perspective/point of view.

Common techniques relevant to style, or the language chosen to tell a story, include
metaphors, similes, personification, imagery, hyperbole, and alliteration.

Common techniques relevant to plot, which is the sequence of events that make up a
narrative, include backstory, flashback, flash-forward, and foreshadowing.

Common techniques relevant to narrative perspective, or who is telling the story,

include first person, second person, third person, and third-person omniscient.

Examples of Narrative Techniques in Style

The style a writer uses is seen in the diction/language used. Figurative language is a
common element in narrative writing.

Metaphors and similes are expressions used to compare two things in an effort to
help the reader have a better understanding of what the writer is attempting to convey.
The difference between a simile and a metaphor is the simile uses the words 'like', 'as', or
'than' in the comparison, while the metaphor does not utilize these words. Consider the
metaphor, It's raining men. This, obviously, does not mean it is literally raining men,
since that is impossible. It simply means there are a lot of men present. Here you can see
an example of a simile, It was raining like cats and dogs. Again, this does not literally
mean cats and dogs are coming from the sky; that is impossible. This is an expression that
helps the reader understand that the rain is very powerful and forceful.

Imagery creates visuals for the reader that appeals to our senses and usually involves
figurative language: The bar was a dark, gloomy eyesore. This statement appeals to our
senses to help us visualize and feel the negative aspects of this location.

Personification is seen when an inanimate object is given human or animal-like (living)

qualities, like, The stars danced in the sky. We know stars cannot dance. This statement is
an attempt to help the reader have a better picture of how the stars appeared to move in a
dancing fashion.

Hyperbole is an over-exaggeration to make a point. You might have heard someone say,
My purse weighs a ton. We know this is not to be meant in the literal sense, but it is
meant to help the reader understand the excessive weight of the purse.

Alliteration is seen when the writer uses the same letters together in a sentence. Here is a
classic example: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. Some writers use
alliteration to help readers remember phrases or concepts, while some writers simply use
this technique because it is 'catchy' and appealing to readers.
Examples of Narrative Techniques in Plot

When we think of the common techniques relevant to plots, we think of a certain

sequence of events. To present the events, writers use backstory, flashback, flash-
forward, and foreshadowing.

Backstory is used when the author feels it is important for the reader to know
something that has happened prior to the actual events described in the narrative. For
example, in the story of Cinderella, we learn that Cinderella's father has lost his wife and
married another woman who has two other daughters. This is important for us to
understand why Cinderella is treated so differently from the other daughters. We don't
actually experience this event in the story. Instead, the narrator gives us this 'backstory'
just before the actual first event that we do experience.