Module 5

A New Nation
Essential Question
Was the establishment of political parties beneficial to the United States?

About the Painting: This painting, Carter’s In this module you will learn how the Constitution was put into effect
Tavern at the Head of Lake George (1817– and how two rival political parties developed.
1818) by Francis Guy, depicts a New York
landscape in the new nation. What You Will Learn . . .
Lesson 1: Washington’s Presidency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
The Big Idea President Washington transformed the ideas of the
Explore ONLINE! Constitution into a real government.
Lesson 2: Tackling Foreign Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
VIDEOS, including... The Big Idea Events in Europe sharply divided American public
• Lewis and Clark: Jefferson’s opinion in the late 18th century.
Bold Plan Lesson 3: Jefferson Alters the Nation’s Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
• George Washington at Age 57 The Big Idea The United States expanded its borders during Thomas
• Duel: Hamilton vs. Burr Jefferson’s administration.
• Washington’s Legacy Lesson 4: The War of 1812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
The Big Idea War broke out again between the United States and
• Thomas Jefferson Britain in 1812.
• Tecumseh: The Dream of
Confederacy
• War of 1812: Madison
Declares War

Document-Based Investigations
Graphic Organizers
Interactive Games
Image with Hotspots: Politics and Style
Difficult Decisions: To Stand Up to Pirates or Not?

196 Module 5
Timeline of Events 1788–1817 Explore ONLINE!

United States Events World Events

1788

1789 George Washington is 1789 The French Revolution begins.

elected president.

1791 Slaves revolt in Saint Domingue, now

known as Haiti.
1792 George Washington is reelected president.

1793 French king Louis XVI is

executed in the French Revolution.
1794 The Whiskey Rebellion breaks out.

1796 John Adams is elected president.

1799 Napoleon Bonaparte seizes

control of the French government.
1800 Thomas Jefferson is elected president.

1801 Act of Union, uniting Great

Britain and Ireland, goes into effect.

1803 France and the United States

sign the Louisiana Purchase.

1804 Thomas Jefferson is reelected president. 1804 Haiti declares itself independent from France.

1807 Great Britain outlaws the slave trade.

1808 James Madison is elected

president.

1812 James Madison is reelected president.

1814 The Treaty of Ghent ends the War of 1812.

1815 Napoleon is defeated at

Waterloo.
1816 James Monroe is elected president.

1817

A New Nation 197

 Lesson 1

Washington’s Presidency

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
George Washington had no desire to be president after the Consti-
President Washington trans-
tutional Convention. His dream was to settle down to a quiet life at
formed the ideas of the
his Virginia estate, Mount Vernon. The American people had other
Constitution into a real
­government. ideas, though. They wanted a strong national leader of great author-
ity as their first president. As the hero of the Revolution, Washington
Why It Matters Now was the unanimous choice in the first presidential ballot. When
The cabinet, an institution the news reached him on April 16, 1789, Washington reluctantly
Washington created, is still a key
accepted the call to duty. Two days later, he set out for New York City
element of every presidential
to take the oath of office.
administration.
Key Terms and People
“About ten o’clock I bade adieu
Judiciary Act of 1789
[farewell] to Mount Vernon, to
Alexander Hamilton
private life, and to domestic felic-
cabinet ity [happiness]; and with a mind
Bank of the United States oppressed with more anxious and
Democratic-Republicans painful sensations than I have
two-party system words to express, set out for New
protective tariff York . . . with the best disposi-
excise tax tions [intentions] to render ser-
vice to my country in obedience
to its call, but with less hope of
answering its expectations.”
—George Washington, from The Diaries of George Washington
George Washington

When Washington took office as the first president of the United

States under the Constitution, he and Congress faced a daunt-
ing task—to create an entirely new government. The momentous
decisions that these early leaders made have resounded through
­American history.

198 Module 5
The New Government Takes Shape
Washington took charge of a political system that was a bold experiment.
Never before had a nation tried to base a government on the Enlightenment
ideals of republican rule and individual rights. No one knew if a government
based on the will of the people could really work.
Although the Constitution provided a strong foundation, it was not a
detailed blueprint for governing. To create a working government, Washing-
ton and Congress had to make many practical decisions—such as how to raise
revenue and provide for defense—with no precedent, or prior example, for
American leaders to follow. Perhaps James Madison put it best: “We are in a
wilderness without a single footstep to guide us.” In every decision they made
during this first presidency, President Washington and his administration set
the precedents that shaped future government processes.
JUDICIARY ACT OF 1789 One of the first tasks Washington and Congress
tackled was the creation of a judicial system. The Constitution had authorized
Congress to set up a federal court system, headed by a Supreme Court, but it
failed to spell out the details. What type of additional courts should there be
and how many? What would happen if federal court decisions conflicted with
state laws?
The Judiciary Act of 1789 answered these critical questions, creating a
judicial structure that has remained essentially intact. This law provided for a
Supreme Court consisting of a Chief Justice and five associate justices. It also
set up 3 federal circuit courts and 13 federal district courts throughout the
country. (The numbers of justices and courts increased over time.) Section 25
of the Judiciary Act,one of the most important provisions of the law, allowed

President Washington
(far right) meets with his
first cabinet: (from left to
right) Henry Knox, Thomas
Jefferson, Edmund
Randolph (with back
turned), and Alexander
Hamilton.

A New Nation 199

 state court decisions to be appealed to a federal court when constitutional
issues were raised. This section guaranteed that federal laws remained “the
supreme Law of the Land,” as directed by Article 6 of the Constitution.
WASHINGTON SHAPES THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH At the same time that
Congress shaped the judiciary, Washington faced the task of building an
executive branch to help him make policies and carry out the laws that Con-
gress passed. In 1789 when Washington took office, the executive branch of
government consisted of two officials, the president and the vice-president.
To help these leaders govern, Congress created three executive departments:
the Department of State, to deal with foreign affairs; the Department of
War, to handle military matters; and the Department of the Treasury, to
manage finances.
To head these departments, Washington chose capable leaders he knew
and trusted. He picked Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state,
Reading Check
Analyze Motives Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury, and Henry Knox, who
Why did federal had served as Washington’s general of artillery during the Revolution, as
law have to be “the secretary of war. Finally, he chose Edmund Randolph as attorney general,
supreme Law of
the Land” in the the chief lawyer of the federal government. These department heads soon
new nation? became the president’s chief advisers, or cabinet.

Hamilton and Jefferson Debate

Both Hamilton and Jefferson were brilliant thinkers. Both men believed
that all Americans should be able to pursue the “American Dream” of
improving their lives by working hard. However, Hamilton and Jefferson
had very different political ideas. The differences between the two caused
bitter disagreements, many of which centered on Hamilton’s plan for the
economy.
HAMILTON AND JEFFERSON IN CONFLICT Political divisions in the new
nation were great. No two men embodied these differences more than Ham-
ilton and Jefferson. Hamilton believed in a strong central government led
by a prosperous, educated elite of upper-class citizens. Jefferson distrusted
a strong central government and the rich. He favored strong state and

NOW & THEN

The Cabinet Since Washington's time, the number of

The Constitution provided the president the right departments has increased to 15. In addition to
to “require the opinion, in writing, of the principal the secretaries of these 15 departments, cabinet
officer in each of the executive departments.” officers include other executive branch officials
Washington chose to seek those opinions such as the director of the Central Intelligence
in person. He met with the heads of his four Agency, the administrator of the Environmental
executive departments on a regular basis. In 1793 Protection Agency, and the vice-president. The
James Madison called this group the cabinet, a cabinet meets at the request of the president
term used in Britain for advisers to the king. and frequency varies from administration to
administration.

200 Module 5
 BIOGRAPHY

Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804)

The writer of the Declaration of Independence, Born into poverty in the British West Indies,
Thomas Jefferson began his political career at Alexander Hamilton was orphaned at age 13 and
age 26, when he was elected to Virginia’s colonial went to work as a shipping clerk. He later made
legislature. In 1779 he was elected governor of his way to New York, where he attended King’s
Virginia, and in 1785 he was appointed minister to College (now Columbia University). He joined
France. He served as secretary of state from 1790 the army during the Revolution and became an
to 1793. aide to General Washington. Intensely ambitious,
Hamilton quickly moved up in society.
A southern planter, Jefferson was also an
accomplished scholar, the architect of Monticello Although in his humble origins Hamilton was the
(his Virginia house), an inventor (of, among other opposite of Jefferson, he had little faith in the
things, a machine that made copies of letters), and common citizen and sided with the interests of
the founder of the University of Virginia in 1819. upper-class Americans. Hamilton said of Jefferson’s
Despite his elite background and his ownership of beloved common people: “Your people, sir, your
slaves, he was a strong ally of the small farmer and people is a great beast!”
average citizen.

local governments rooted in popular participation. Hamilton believed that

commerce and industry were the keys to a strong nation. Jefferson favored a
society of farmer-citizens.
Overall, Hamilton’s vision of America was that of a country much like Great
Britain, with a strong central government, commerce, and industry. His views
found more support in the North, particularly New England, whereas Jeffer-
son’s views won endorsement in the South and the West.
HAMILTON’S ECONOMIC PLAN As secretary of the treasury, Hamilton’s job
was to set the nation’s finances in order and put the nation’s economy on a
firm footing. To do this, he proposed a plan to manage the country’s debts and
a plan to establish a national banking system.
According to Hamilton’s calculations in his Report on the Public Credit, the
public debt of the United States in 1790 (most of it incurred during the Revo-
lution) was many millions of dollars. The national government was respon-
sible for about two-thirds of this debt, and individual states were responsible
for the rest. The new nation owed some of the debt to foreign governments
and some to private citizens, including soldiers who had received bonds—­
certificates that promised payment plus interest—as payment for their
­service during the war.

A New Nation 201

Contrasting Views of the Federal Government
Hamilton Jefferson
• Concentrating power in federal government • Sharing power with state and local governments; limited
national government

• Fear of mob rule • Fear of absolute power or ruler

• Republic led by a well-educated elite • Democracy of virtuous farmers and tradespeople

• Loose interpretation of the Constitution • Strict interpretation of the Constitution

• National bank constitutional (loose interpretation) • National bank unconstitutional (strict interpretation)

• Economy based on shipping and manufacturing • Economy based on farming

• Payment of national and state debts (favoring creditors) • Payment of only the national debt (favoring debtors)

• Supporters: merchants, manufacturers, landowners, • Supporters: the “plain people” (farmers, tradespeople)
investors, lawyers, clergy

Interpret Tables
1. Whose view of the federal government was a wealthy person more likely to favor? Why?
2. How do you think Jefferson differed from Hamilton in his view of people and human nature?

Hamilton proposed to pay off the foreign debt and to issue new bonds to
cover the old ones. He also proposed that the federal government assume the
debts of the states. Although this would increase the federal debt, Hamilton
reasoned that assuming state debts would give creditors—the people who
originally loaned the money—an incentive to support the new federal govern-
ment. If the government failed, these creditors would never get their money
back. However, this proposal made many people in the South furious. Some
southern states had already paid off most of their debts. Southerners resented
assumption of state debts because they thought that they would be taxed to
help pay the debts incurred by the northern states.
PLAN FOR A NATIONAL BANK Hamilton’s line of reasoning also moti-
vated his proposal for a national bank that both the federal government and
wealthy private investors would fund. Hamilton hoped to tie wealthy inves-
tors to the country’s welfare. The Bank of the United States would issue
paper money and handle tax receipts and other government funds.
Hamilton’s proposals aroused a storm of controversy. Opponents of a
national bank, including James Madison, claimed that the bank would forge
an unhealthy alliance between the government and wealthy business inter-
ests. Madison also argued that since the Constitution made no provision for
a national bank, Congress had no right to authorize it. This argument began
the debate between those who favored a “strict” interpretation of the Consti-
tution, one in which the federal government has very limited powers, and a

202 Module 5
 “loose” interpretation, which favors greater federal powers. The latter group
appealed to the so-called elastic clause of the Constitution (Article I, Sec-
tion 8, Clause 18). This clause gives Congress the authority to do whatever is
“necessary and proper” to carry out its specific enumerated powers, such as
regulating commerce. In the end, however, Hamilton convinced Washington
and a majority in Congress to accept his views, and the federal government
established the Bank of the United States.
THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA To win support for his debt plan from southern
states, Hamilton offered a suggestion: What if the nation’s capital were moved
from New York City to a new city in the South, on the banks of the Potomac
River? This idea pleased southerners, particularly Virginians such as Madison
and Jefferson, who believed that a southern site for the capital would make
the government more responsive to their interests. With this incentive, Vir-
ginians agreed to back the debt plan. In 1790 the debt bill passed Congress,
along with authorization for the construction of a new national capital in the
District of Columbia, located between Maryland and Virginia.
Pierre L’Enfant, a French engineer, drew up plans for the new capital.
George Washington later fired L’Enfant for being obstinate. Andrew Ellicott
replaced L’Enfant. Ellicott redrew L’Enfant’s plan but kept much of the grand
vision. An African American surveyor, Benjamin Banneker, assisted Ellicott
Reading Check with the surveying work. They made their plan on a grand scale, incorpo-
Analyze Issues rating boulevards, traffic circles, and monuments that were reminiscent of
Why did the new
nation need to European capitals. By 1800 the capital had been moved to its new site on the
pay off its debts? Potomac River.

Pierre L'Enfant proposed a federal capital of spacious, tree-lined boulevards,

symbolizing the freedom of the young republic.

A New Nation 203

 The First Political Parties and Rebellion
President Washington tried to remain above the arguments between Ham-
ilton and Jefferson and to encourage them to work together despite their
basic differences. These differences were so great, however, that the two
men continued to clash over government policy. Their conflict divided the
cabinet and fueled a growing division in national politics.
FEDERALISTS AND DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICANS The split in Washing-
ton's cabinet helped give rise to the country’s first political parties. The
two parties formed around one of the key issues in American history—the
power and size of the federal government in relation to state and local
governments. Those who shared Hamilton’s vision of a strong central
government called themselves Federalists. Those who supported Jefferson’s
vision of strong state governments called themselves Republicans. No
relation to today’s Republican Party, Jefferson’s Republicans—later
called Democratic-Republicans to emphasize that they favored popular
government—were in fact the ancestors of today’s Democratic Party.
The very existence of political parties worried many leaders, including
Washington, who saw parties as a danger to national unity. Despite criti-
cism, the two parties continued to develop. The two-party system was
well established by the time Washington left office.
THE WHISKEY REBELLION During Washington’s second term, an incident
occurred that reflected the tension between federal and regional interests.
In 1789 Congress had passed a protective tariff, an import tax on goods
produced in Europe. This tax, meant to encourage American production,
brought in a great deal of revenue, but Secretary Hamilton wanted more.
So he pushed through an excise tax—a tax on a product’s manufacture,
sale, or distribution—to be levied on the manufacture of whiskey.

Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

Two Political Parties

At the close of his presidency, Washington criticized the development of a two-party system within the
United States.

“It serves always to distract the public councils and enfeeble the public administration. It agitates the
community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms; kindles the animosity of one part against
another; foments [incites] occasionally riot and insurrection. It opens the door to foreign influence
and corruption. . . .”
—George Washington, from his Farewell Address, 1796

Analyze Historical Sources

Why did Washington oppose a two-party system?

204 Module 5
 Most whiskey producers were small fron-
tier farmers. Their major crop was corn. Corn
was too bulky to carry across the Appa-
lachian Mountains and then sell it in the
settled areas along the Atlantic. Therefore,
the farmers distilled the corn into whiskey,
which could be more easily sent to market on
the backs of mules.
Since whiskey was the main source of cash
for these frontier farmers, Hamilton knew
that the excise tax would make them furious.
And it did. The frontier farmers thought the
U.S. government was inflicting an unfair tax
A group of rebels taking part in the Whiskey Rebellion tar and feather
a tax collector.
burden on them. This was similar to reasons
for the Revolutionary War, when colonists
Background thought Great Britain was inflicting an unfair tax burden on them. In
In addition to 1794 farmers in western Pennsylvania refused to pay the excise tax. They
promoting American beat up federal marshals in Pittsburgh, and they even threatened to secede
goods, the Tariff Act
of 1789, as well as from the Union.
tariffs that followed, Hamilton looked upon the Whiskey Rebellion as an opportunity for the
provided the majority
of the federal
federal government to show that it could enforce the law along the west-
government’s revenue ern frontier. Accordingly, some 15,000 militiamen were called up. Accom-
until the 20th century. panied by Washington part of the way and by Hamilton all the way, the
federal troops hiked over the Alleghenies and scattered the rebels without
the loss of a single life.
Reading Check The Whiskey Rebellion was a milestone in the consolidation of federal
Contrast How did power in domestic affairs. At the same time, the new government was also
the Federalists and facing critical problems and challenges in foreign affairs—particularly in
the Democratic-
Republicans differ its relations with Europe and with Native American peoples west of the
from each other? Appalachians.

Lesson 1 Assessment
1. Organize Information In a table, list the leaders, 3. Form Opinions How would you judge President
beliefs, and goals of the country’s first political parties. Washington’s decision to put two such opposed
thinkers as Hamilton and Jefferson on his cabinet?
Think About:
Federalists Democratic-
Republicans • both men’s merits
• their philosophies
• the conflicts that developed
4. Analyze Issues How was the Whiskey Rebellion
If you had lived in that time, which party would you an opportunity for the federal government to
have favored? demonstrate its authority?
2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in 5. Develop Historical Perspective Based on your
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. knowledge of the problems the nation faced, would
you have supported Hamilton’s economic plan?
Explain why or why not.
6. Evaluate Evaluate the lasting impact of the Judiciary
Act of 1789.

A New Nation 205

 Lesson 2

Tackling Foreign Affairs

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
Gouverneur Morris, the man responsible for the final draft of the
Events in Europe sharply divided
Constitution, witnessed one of the great events of history—the
American public opinion in the
French Revolution. On July 14, 1789, a mob stormed the Bastille, the
late 18th century.
infamous Paris prison, releasing the prisoners and killing the prison
Why It Matters Now governor. Not long afterward, while walking on a Paris street, Morris
Foreign policy remains a key got a close look at revolutionary violence.
element of every presidential
administration.
“[T]he Head and Body of Mr.
Key Terms and People de Foulon are introduced in
neutrality Triumph. The Head on a Pike,
Edmond Genêt the Body dragged naked on the
Thomas Pinckney Earth. Afterwards this hor-
Little Turtle rible Exhibition is carried thro
John Jay the different Streets. His crime
sectionalism [was] to have accepted a Place
XYZ Affair
in the Ministry. This mutilated
form of an old Man of seventy
Alien and Sedition Acts
five is shewn to Bertier, his Son French revolutionaries storm the
nullification Bastille in Paris, France, on July 14,
in Law, the Intend’t. [another 1789.
official] of Paris, and after-
wards he also is put to Death and cut to Pieces, the Populace
carrying about the mangled Fragments with a Savage Joy.”
—Gouverneur Morris, from his journal

Morris was appointed minister to France in 1792. Despite his horror

at the violence around him, Morris remained at his post throughout
the bloodiest days of the Revolution. Meanwhile, at home, Ameri-
cans were divided in their views concerning the events underway in
France.

206 Module 5
U.S. Response to Events in Europe
Most Americans initially supported the French Revolution because, like the
American Revolution, it was inspired by the ideal of republican rule. Heart-
ened by the American struggle against royal tyranny, the French set out to
create a government based on the will of the people. The alliance between
France and the United States, created by the Treaty of 1778, served as an
additional bond between the two nations. Whether or not the United States
should support the French Revolution was one of the most important foreign
policy questions that the young nation faced.
REACTIONS TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION Despite the bonds between the
nations, Americans soon became divided over the Revolution. In early 1793 a
radical group called the Jacobins seized power in France. They beheaded the
French king, Louis XVI. They then launched the Reign of Terror against their
opponents, sending moderate reformers and royalists alike to the guillotine.
In an excess of revolutionary zeal, the Jacobins also declared war on other
monarchies, including Great Britain.
Because of their alliance with the United States, the French expected
American help. The American reaction tended to split along party lines.
Democratic-Republicans, such as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison,
wanted to honor the 1778 treaty and support France. Federalists, such as
Alexander Hamilton, wanted to back the British. President Washington took a
middle position. On April 22, 1793, he issued a declaration of neutrality. The
declaration stated that the United States would support neither side in the
conflict. Hamilton and Jefferson came to agree; entering a war was not in the
new nation’s interest.
Earlier in April, the French had sent a young diplomat, Edmond Genêt,
to win American support. Before following diplomatic procedure and pre-
senting his credentials to the Washington administration, Genêt began to
recruit Americans for the war against Great Britain. This violation of Ameri-
can neutrality and diplomatic protocol outraged Washington. The president
demanded that the French recall Genêt. By then, however, Genêt’s political
backers had fallen from power in Paris. Fearing for his life, the young envoy
remained in the United States and became a U.S. citizen. Although Jefferson
protested Genêt’s actions, Federalists called Jefferson a radical because he
supported France. Frustrated by these attacks and by his ongoing feud with
Hamilton, Jefferson resigned from the cabinet in 1793.
TREATY WITH SPAIN The United States wanted to secure land claims west
of the Appalachian Mountains. It also wanted to gain shipping rights on the
Mississippi River. To do this, it needed to come to an agreement with Spain,
which still held Florida and the Louisiana Territory, a vast area of land west of
the Mississippi River.
Negotiations stalled because of the turmoil in Europe. Spain, unlike Brit-
ain, signed a treaty with France. Spain then feared British retaliation and
suspected that a joint British-American action might be launched against the
Louisiana Territory. Suddenly, Spain agreed to meet with the U.S. minister

A New Nation 207

 Politics and Style

Events in France not only affected politics in the United States, they influenced styles of clothing as well.
Political differences could often be detected by observing different styles of dress and appearance.

DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICANS loose hair FEDERALISTS tended to be

favored a more informal style, pro-British, which was evident
similar to that found in France in their more formal dress.
after the French Revolution.

wig or powdered hair

to resemble a wig
neckerchief
bow tie

broad coattails
narrow coattails

“trowsers”
breeches and stockings
laces

buckles

to Great Britain, Thomas Pinckney. Spain’s concerns about a united British-

American front aided Pinckney in negotiating a treaty, which both sides
signed on October 27, 1795.
Pinckney’s Treaty of 1795, also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo,
included virtually every concession that the Americans desired. Spain gave
Reading Check up all claims to land east of the Mississippi (except Florida). Spain also recog-
Analyze Motives nized the 31st parallel as the southern boundary of the United States and the
Why did the northern boundary of Florida. Finally, Spain agreed to open the Mississippi
United States want
to maintain its River to traffic by Spanish subjects and U.S. citizens, and to allow American
neutrality? traders to use the port of New Orleans.

Native Americans Resist White Settlers

Pioneers moving west assumed that the 1783 Treaty of Paris, in which Great
Britain had ceded its land rights west of the Appalachians, gave them free
rein to settle the area. But the British still maintained forts in the Northwest
Territory—an area that included what are now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan,
and Wisconsin—in direct violation of the treaty. In addition to this continued
British presence, the settlers met fierce resistance from the original inhabitants.

208 Module 5
 Explore ONLINE!
British Forts on U.S. Land, 1783–1794
er
e Superior Riv
Lak en
ce
wr

La
St.
N Montréal
BRITISH
TERRITORY Ft. Point-au-Fer
W E L
Ft. (Canada)
Ft. Dutchman’s

ak
Mackinac Ft. Oswegatchie Point

e
Mi S
ssi

Hu
ssi VERMONT

L a ke M i ch i g a n

ro n
pp
i

rio Ft. Oswego

e Onta
70°W
TERRITORY
Lak
River

NORTHWEST OF
THE OHIO RIVER Ft. Niagara NEW YORK

Hudson River
Ft. Detroit
ie
SPANISH FALLEN TIMBERS Er
TERRITORY ke
(Louisiana)
Aug. 20, 1794
La
Maumee River
Ft. PENNSYLVANIA
Ft. Wayne Miami
r

Ft. Laurens 40°N

ive

iver Ft. Defiance

h R
sR

bas Ft. Recovery

oi

Il li n a Pittsburgh
W

ST. CLAIR’S DEFEAT Ft. Greenville

Nov. 4, 1791 ATLANTIC
Ft. Hamilton Ft. Harmar OCEAN
Ft. Finney Cincinnati
British-held fort Vincennes O hio R iv er
U.S.-held fort
St. Louis
Battle VIRGINIA

0 75 150 mi
KENTUCKY
(1792)
0 75 150 km Interpret Maps
1. Location What is one common feature of the loca-
tions of most of the British forts on this map?
2. Human-Environment Interaction Why would this
feature be of great importance to an army?

FIGHTS IN THE NORTHWEST Having been excluded from the negotiations

that led to the Treaty of Paris, Native Americans inHMH—
the Northwest Territory
High School U.S. History—201
HS_SNLESE454194_1052
never accepted the provisions of the treaty. They continued to claim their
British Forts on U.S. Land, 1783-179
tribal lands and demanded direct negotiations withArea
Vital Information the United States.
(per page): 39pThey
wide X 28p dee
also took heart from the presence of British troops, who encouraged45p
Mask Area (per page): wide x 34p dee
their
First proof 04/20/1
resistance. When white settlers moved into their territory, Native Americans
often attacked them.
To gain control over the area that would become Ohio, the federal
­government sent an army led by General Josiah Harmar. In 1790 Harmar's
troops clashed with a confederacy of Native American groups led by a chief-
tain of the Miami nation named Little Turtle. The Native Americans won
that battle. The following year, the Miami Confederacy inflicted an even
worse defeat on a federal army led by General Arthur St. Clair.
BATTLE OF FALLEN TIMBERS Finally, in 1792 Washington appointed
­General Anthony Wayne to lead federal troops against the Native Americans.
Known as “Mad Anthony” for his reckless courage, Wayne spent an entire
year drilling his men. Greatly impressed, Little Turtle urged his people to seek
peace.

A New Nation 209

 “We have beaten the enemy twice under different commanders. . . .
The Americans are now led by a chief who never sleeps. . . . We have
never been able to surprise him. . . . It would be prudent to listen to
his offers of peace.”
—Little Turtle, from a speech to his allies

The other chiefs did not agree with Little Turtle and replaced him with
a less able leader. On August 20, 1794, Wayne defeated the Miami Confed-
eracy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, near present-day Toledo, Ohio. After
the battle, Wayne’s army marched defiantly past the British Fort Miami,
only two miles away. They then built an American post nearby.
This victory ended Native American resistance in Ohio. The following
year, the Miami Confederacy signed the Treaty of Greenville, agreeing to
give up most of the land in Ohio in exchange for $20,000 worth of goods
and an annual payment of nearly $10,000. This settlement continued a
pattern in which settlers and the government paid Native Americans much
less for their land than it was worth. Meanwhile, in the Northwest Ter-
ritory, new sources of conflict were developing between Britain and the
United States.
JAY'S TREATY At the time of the Battle of Fallen Timbers, John Jay, the
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, was in London to negotiate a treaty
with Britain. One of the disputed issues was which nation would control
Reading Check territories west of the Appalachian Mountains. When news of Wayne’s vic-
Analyze Effects
How did the U.S. tory at Fallen Timbers arrived, the British agreed to evacuate their posts
government’s treaties in the Northwest Territory and a treaty was signed on November 19, 1794.
with Native Americans The treaty managed to pass the Senate, but many Americans, especially
give white settlers an
advantage over Native western settlers, were angry at its terms, which allowed the British to con-
Americans? tinue their fur trade on the American side of the U.S.-Canadian border.

Adams Provokes Criticism

The bitter political fight over Jay’s Treaty, along with the growing division
between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, convinced Washington
not to seek a third term in office. In his Farewell Address, he urged the
United States to “steer clear of permanent alliances” with other nations.
Then, in 1797 Washington retired to his home at Mount Vernon.
THE ELECTION OF 1796 In the presidential election of 1796, Americans
faced a new situation: a contest between opposing parties. The Federalists
nominated Vice-President John Adams for president and Thomas Pinck-
ney for vice-president. The Democratic-Republicans nominated Thomas
Jefferson for president and Aaron Burr for vice-president.
Adams received 71 electoral votes, while Jefferson received 68.
Because the Constitution stated that the runner-up should become
vice-president, the country found itself with a Federalist president and
a ­Democratic-Republican vice-president. What had seemed sensible
when the Constitution was written had become a problem because of the
­unexpected rise of political parties.

210 Module 5
 The election also underscored the growing danger of sectionalism—­
placing the interests of one region over those of the nation as a whole. Almost
all the electors from the southern states voted for Jefferson, while all the elec-
tors from the northern states voted for Adams.
ADAMS TRIES TO AVOID WAR Soon after taking office, President Adams
faced his first crisis: a looming war with France. The French government,
which regarded Jay’s Treaty as a violation of the French-American alliance,
refused to receive the new American ambassador. The French also began
to seize American ships bound for Britain. Adams sent a three-man del-
egation consisting of Charles Pinckney, minister to France; future Chief
Justice John Marshall; and Elbridge Gerry to Paris to negotiate a solution.
By this time, the Reign of Terror had ceased and the French govern-
John Adams ment consisted of a legislature and a five-man executive branch called the
Directory. French power and prestige were at a high point because of the
accomplishments of a young general named Napoleon Bonaparte who had
conquered most of western Europe. The Directory had little patience with the
concerns of the Americans.
The American delegation planned to meet with the French foreign minister,
Talleyrand. Instead, the Directory sent three low-level officials, whom Adams
in his report to Congress called “X, Y, and Z.” These officials demanded a
$250,000 bribe as payment for seeing Talleyrand. News of this insult, which
became known as the XYZ Affair, provoked a wave of anti-French feeling at
home. “Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute” became the slogan
of the day. The mood was so anti-French that audiences refused to listen to
French music.
In 1798 Congress created a navy department. It also authorized American
ships to seize French vessels. Twelve hundred men marched to the president’s
residence to volunteer for war. Congress authorized the creation of an army
of 50,000 troops and brought George Washington yet again out of retirement
to be “Lieutenant General and Commander in Chief of the armies raised or to
be raised.” While war was never officially declared, for the next two years an
undeclared naval war raged between France and the United States.
THE ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS The anti-French feeling continued to flour-
ish. And many Federalists believed that French agents were everywhere, plot-
ting to overthrow the government. New arrivals from foreign countries were
soon held in particular suspicion, especially because many immigrants were
active in the Democratic-Republican Party. Some of the most vocal critics of
the Adams administration were foreign-born. They included French and Brit-
ish radicals as well as recent Irish immigrants who lashed out at anyone who
was even faintly pro-British, including the Federalist Adams.
Vocabulary To counter what they saw as a growing threat against the government, the
alien belonging to or Federalists pushed through Congress in 1798 four measures that became
coming from another
country; foreign known as the Alien and Sedition Acts. Three of these measures, the Alien
Acts, raised the residence requirement for American citizenship from five
sedition rebellion years to 14 years and allowed the president to deport or jail any alien consid-
against one’s country;
treason ered undesirable.

A New Nation 211

 Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

“The Paris Monster” Analyze Historical Sources

1. How would you contrast the cartoon’s depiction of
“Cinque-tetes, or the Paris Monster,” is the title of
the American representatives with its depiction of
this political cartoon satirizing the XYZ Affair. The
the French Directory?
five members of the French Directory, or ruling
2. What other details in the cartoon show the cartoon-
executive body, are depicted as a five-headed
ist’s attitude toward the French?
monster demanding money. The three American
representatives—Elbridge Gerry, Charles Pinckney,
and John Marshall—are on the left, exclaiming
“Cease bawling, monster! We will not give you six-
pence!”

The fourth measure, the Sedition Act, set fines and jail terms for any-
one trying to hinder the operation of the government or expressing “false,
scandalous, and malicious statements” against the government. Under the
terms of this act, the federal government prosecuted and jailed a number
of Democratic-Republican editors, publishers, and politicians. Outraged
Democratic-Republicans called the laws a violation of freedom of speech
guaranteed by the First Amendment.
VIRGINIA AND KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS The two main Democratic-
Republican leaders, Jefferson and James Madison, saw the Alien and
Sedition Acts as a serious misuse of power on the part of the federal gov-
ernment. They decided to organize opposition to the Alien and Sedition
Acts by appealing to the states. Madison drew up resolutions that the Vir-
ginia legislature adopted, while Jefferson wrote resolutions that Kentucky
approved. The Kentucky Resolutions in particular asserted the principle
of nullification—that states had the right to nullify, or consider void, any
act of Congress that they deemed unconstitutional. Virginia and Kentucky
viewed the Alien and Sedition Acts as unconstitutional violations of First
Amendment citizens’ rights.

212 Module 5
 The resolutions warned of the dangers that the Alien and Sedition Acts
posed to a government of checks and balances guaranteed by the Constitution.

“Let the honest advocate of confidence [in government] read the alien
and sedition acts, and say if the Constitution has not been wise in fixing
limits to the government it created, and whether we should be wise in
destroying those limits.”
—Thomas Jefferson, from the 8th Resolution, The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

Moreover, Virginia and Kentucky claimed the right to declare null and void
federal laws going beyond powers granted by the Constitution to the federal
government.
The resolutions also called for other states to adopt similar declarations.
No other state did so, however, and the issue died out by the next presiden-
tial election. Nevertheless, the resolutions showed that the balance of power
between the states and the federal government remained a controversial
issue. In fact, the election of 1800 between Federalist John Adams and Demo-
cratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson would center on this critical debate.
THE DEATH OF WASHINGTON Throughout 1799 George Washington
remained active. He wrote letters to recruit possible generals and made plans
for the army that might be needed in a possible war against France. However,
on December 14, Washington died after catching a severe cold. Washington
was buried according to his wishes with a military funeral at Mount Vernon.
Reading Check Ironically, Washington’s death was instrumental in improving relations
Analyze Issues How with France. Napoleon Bonaparte, at this time first consul of France, hoped
did the Kentucky to lure American friendship away from the British. He ordered the French
Resolutions challenge
the authority of the armies to observe ten days of mourning for the American leader. Soon, Napo-
federal government? leon would offer even greater concessions to the Americans.

Lesson 2 Assessment
1. Organize Information List some of the disputes 3. Evaluate Should the United States have officially
mentioned in this lesson. Indicate the dispute and supported the French revolutionaries against the
each side’s arguments. British? Support your opinion with examples from the
text.
Dispute
Think About:
One Side Other Side • Federalist and Democratic-Republican attitudes
toward France and Great Britain
• the Reign of Terror
• U.S. gratitude to France for its support against Britain
Choose one dispute and defend one side’s arguments.
4. Form Opinions Do you agree with the Democratic-
2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in
Republicans that the Alien and Sedition Acts were
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
a violation of the First Amendment? Were they
necessary? Support your opinion.
5. Analyze Issues How did the presidency of John
Adams show that there continued to be a battle over
the balance of power between the states and the
federal government?

A New Nation 213

 Lesson 3

Jefferson Alters the

Nation’s Course
One American’s Story
The Big Idea
Patrick Gass was born on June 12, 1771, and died on April 2, 1870.
The United States expanded
During that time, the country grew from the original 13 colonies to
its borders during Thomas
37 states. Gass played a part in that expansion as a participant in the
Jefferson’s administration.
Lewis and Clark expedition commissioned by President Jefferson
Why It Matters Now to explore the West. Setting out from St. Louis, Missouri, in 1804, the
Part or all of 15 states now expedition traveled overland to the Pacific Ocean. Along the way,
occupy the territory Jefferson Gass kept a journal. The following passage is from his journal entry
acquired in the Louisiana
of May 14, 1805.
Purchase.
Key Terms and People
“This forenoon we passed a
Lewis and Clark
large creek on the North side
Aaron Burr and a small river on the South.
John Marshall About 4 in the afternoon we
Judiciary Act of 1801 passed another small river on
midnight judges the South side near the mouth
Marbury v. Madison of which some of the men dis-
judicial review covered a large brown bear,
Louisiana Purchase
and six of them went out to kill
it. They fired at it; but having
Sacajawea
only wounded it, it made battle
and was near seizing some of Patrick Gass
them, but they all fortunately
escaped, and at length suc-
ceeded in dispatching it.”
—Patrick Gass, from A Journal of the
Voyages and Travels of a Corps of Discovery

By charting unexplored territory, the Lewis and Clark expedition

helped lay the foundations for western expansion. It was one of the
great achievements of the Jefferson presidency.

214 Module 5
 Jefferson Wins the Presidential
Election of 1800
The presidential campaign of 1800 was a bitter struggle between Thomas
Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican, and his Federalist opponent, President
John Adams. Each party hurled wild charges at the other. To Democratic-
Republicans, Adams was a tool of the rich who wanted to turn the executive
branch into a British-style monarchy. To Federalists, Jefferson was a dan-
gerous supporter of revolutionary France and an atheist bent on destroying
organized religion.
In the balloting, Jefferson defeated Adams by eight electoral votes.
However, since Jefferson’s running mate, Aaron Burr, received the same
number of votes in the electoral college as Jefferson, the House of Repre-
sentatives was called upon to choose between the two highest vote getters.
For six feverish days, the House took one ballot after another—35 ballots
in all. Finally, Alexander Hamilton intervened. Hamilton persuaded enough
Federalists to cast blank votes to give Jefferson a majority of two votes.
Burr then became vice-president. Although Hamilton opposed Jefferson’s
philosophy of government, he regarded Jefferson as much more qualified
for the presidency than Burr was.
Reading Check The deadlock revealed a flaw in the electoral process as spelled out in the
Analyze Causes Constitution. As a result, Congress passed the Twelfth Amendment, which
Why did Congress
pass the Twelfth called for electors to cast separate ballots for president and vice-president.
Amendment? This system is still in effect today.

The Jefferson Presidency

In his inaugural address, Jefferson extended the hand of peace to his oppo-
nents. “Every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle,” he said.
“We are all [Democratic-] Republicans; we are all Federalists.” Neverthe-
less, Jefferson planned to wage a “peaceful revolution” to restore what he
saw as the republican ideals of 1776 against the strong-government poli-
cies of Federalism. Under Washington and Adams, Federalists had filled
the vast majority of government positions. Jefferson reversed this pattern
by replacing some Federalist officials with Democratic-Republican ones.
By 1803 the government bureaucracy was more evenly balanced between
Democratic-Republicans and Federalists.
SIMPLIFYING THE PRESIDENCY Jefferson believed that a simple govern-
ment best suited the needs of a republic. In a symbolic gesture, he walked to
his own inauguration instead of riding in a carriage. As president, he took
off his powdered wig and sometimes wore work clothes and frayed slippers
when receiving visitors.
In accord with his belief in decentralized power, Jefferson also tried to
shrink the government and cut costs wherever possible. He reduced the size
of the army, halted a planned expansion of the navy, and lowered expenses

A New Nation 215

 for government social functions. He also rolled back Hamilton’s economic
program by eliminating all internal taxes and reducing the influence of the
Bank of the United States. Jefferson strongly favored free trade rather than
government-controlled trade and tariffs. He believed that free trade would
benefit the United States because the raw materials and food that Americans
were producing were in short supply in Europe.
SOUTHERN DOMINANCE OF POLITICS Jefferson was the first president to
take office in the new federal capital, Washington, DC. Though in appear-
ance the city was a primitive place of dirt roads and few buildings, its loca-
tion between Virginia and Maryland reflected the growing importance of
the South in national politics. In fact, Jefferson and the two presidents who
followed him—James Madison and James Monroe—all were from Virginia.
This pattern of southern dominance underscored the declining influence
The White House during
Thomas Jefferson’s of both New England and the Federalists in national political life. Jefferson’s
presidency political moderation hastened the decline of the Federalists. Also, many
Federalists refused to participate in political campaigns because they did
not want to appeal to the common people for support. National expansion
worked against the Federalists because settlers in the new states tended to
vote for the Democratic-Republicans, who represented farmers’ interests.
JOHN MARSHALL AND THE SUPREME COURT Federalists continued to
exert great influence in the judicial branch, however. Adams had appointed
John Marshall, a staunch Federalist, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.
Marshall served on the Court for more than 30 years, handing down deci-
sions that would strengthen the power of the Supreme Court and the federal
government.
Some of Adams’s other judicial appointments proved to be less effective,
however. Just before leaving office, Adams had pushed through Congress the
Judiciary Act of 1801, which increased the number of federal judges by 16.
In an attempt to control future federal judicial decisions, Adams promptly
filled most of these positions with Federalists. These judges were known as

DIFFICULT DECISIONS
To Stand Up to Pirates or Not? In 1801 the pasha of Tripoli demanded a larger
President Thomas Jefferson had a tricky decision tribute and declared war on the United States.
to make. He was trying to simplify and reduce President Jefferson decided it would set a
the U.S. government. He had already stopped the disastrous precedent if the United States backed
planned expansion of the navy. However, then a down. He created a special “Mediterranean Fund”
foreign threat arose that challenged Jefferson’s that increased the U.S. Navy’s size. Jefferson sent
decision. navy ships to Tripoli to fight the war. Finally, in
1805 the war ended with a peace treaty favoring
the United States.
The rulers of the North African Barbary States of
Algiers, Morocco, Tunis, and Tripoli supported
the practice of piracy. These rulers demanded 1. Evaluate the pros and cons of fighting a war
payment of a tribute from European nations with Tripoli pirates and backing down and
and the United States in exchange for immunity continuing to pay the tributes.
from attack from North African pirates in the 2. Explain which choice you would have made and
Mediterranean Sea. why.

216 Module 5
 midnight judges because Adams signed their appointments late on the
last day of his administration.
Adams’s packing of the courts with Federalists angered Jefferson and
the Democratic-Republicans. Since the documents authorizing some of
the appointments had not been delivered by the time Adams left office,
Jefferson argued that these appointments were invalid.
MARBURY v. MADISON This argument led to one of the most important
Supreme Court decisions of all time: Marbury v. Madison (1803). William
Marbury was one of the midnight judges who had never received his
official papers. James Madison was Jefferson’s secretary of state, whose
duty it was to deliver the papers. The Judiciary Act of 1789 required the
Supreme Court to order that the papers be delivered, and Marbury sued
to enforce this provision. Chief Justice Marshall wrote the Court’s deci-
sion that this provision of the act was unconstitutional because the Con-
stitution did not empower the Supreme Court to issue such orders. The
Reading Check
Summarize What is
decision was later recognized as significant for affirming the principle
judicial review, and of judicial review—the ability of the Supreme Court to declare an act of
why is it important? Congress unconstitutional.

The United States Expands West

During Jefferson’s presidency, Americans continued their westward migra-
tion across the Appalachians. For instance, between 1800 and 1810 the
population of Ohio grew from 45,000 to 231,000. Most of the settlers who
arrived in Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee came through the Cumberland
Gap, a natural passage through the Appalachians near where Kentucky,
Tennessee, and Virginia meet. A generation earlier, in 1775, Daniel Boone,
one of America’s great frontier guides, had led the clearing of a road from
Virginia, through the Cumberland Gap, and into the heart of Kentucky.
When it was finished, the Wilderness Road became one of the major routes
for westward migration.

Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

Westward Migration
Although pioneer life was hard, the pioneers kept moving westward and settling. The French
government had sent Francois Michaux to study forests and agriculture in the United States. During his
travels, he witnessed much more than just agriculture, and he recorded his observations in a journal.

“The houses that they inhabit are built upon the borders of the river, . . . whence they enjoy the most
delightful prospects [views]; still, their mode of building does not correspond with the beauties of the
spot, being nothing but miserable log houses, without windows, and so small that two beds occupy the
greatest part of them.”
—F. A. Michaux, from Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains

Analyze Historical Sources

Why do you think that settlers’ homes failed to “correspond with the beauties of the spot”?

A New Nation 217

 Explore ONLINE!
Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804–1806

This dollar coin

honors Sacajawea,
a young Shoshone
woman who served
as an interpreter
and guide for the
expedition.
4 April 7, 1805
50°N 5
April 25–26, 1805 A party of 32 depart at 5
In high winds and p.m. to continue the journey.
cold, Lewis searches There is a high northwest
by land for the wind, but otherwise the
Yellowstone River. weather is fair. 3 November 3, 1804
He rejoins Clark A hard wind from the
at the junction of northwest sets in as the party
the Missouri and BRITISH makes camp.
Yellowstone rivers. TERRITORY
Traveler's December 17, 1804
Rest In -45°F weather, sentries have
Fort Clatsop Fort Mandan to be changed every half hour.
Three Forks

2 August 20, 1804

6
December 8, 1805– Sergeant Floyd dies
March 23, 1806 and is the only fatality
40°N A lack of provisions 7 July 3, 1806 of the expedition.
forces their The party divides.
departure from the Lewis takes the direct
winter camp.

R.
route to the falls of the

ppi
Missouri. Clark heads

Mississi
LOUISIANA
Miss
toward the Jefferson and
Yellowstone rivers. PURCHASE
(1803) ouri 1 May 14, 1804
August 11, 1806 R.
Lewis is accidentally shot Arkans
The party
as R St. Louis
by a member of his own . departs the
party. In pain, he rejoins camp near
Clark’s party the next St. Louis at
day. about 4 p.m.
in heavy rain.
Red R.
8 September 23, 1806
Taking a shortcut
30°N that saves about U NITED
580 miles, the party STATES
reaches St. Louis
NEW SPAIN at noon. Their total
mileage is 7,690.
New Orleans

Gu lf of M ex ic o
Journey west, 1804–1805
120°W 90°W
Journey home, 1806
Lewis’s route home
110°W
Clark’s route home
Page from N
Interpret Maps
Fort
the journal W
E 1. Movement About how many miles did
of Lewis 0 250 500 mi
and Clark S
the expedition travel on its route to the
0 250 500 km
PACIFIC OCEAN Pacific Ocean?
2. Movement On average, how many
miles per day did they travel from Fort
Clatsop to the place where the party
split up on July 3, 1806?

218 Module 5
Background THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE In 1800 Napoleon Bonaparte of France per-
Even before the suaded Spain to return the Louisiana Territory, which it had received from
Louisiana Purchase,
Jefferson had planned France in 1762. When news of the secret transfer leaked out, Americans
to explore the West. reacted with alarm. Jefferson feared that a strong French presence in the mid-
In February 1803 continent would force the United States into an alliance with Britain.
Congress approved
Jefferson’s request for Jefferson wanted to resolve the problem by buying New Orleans and west-
funds to finance an ern Florida from the French. He sent James Monroe to join American ambas-
expedition.
sador Robert Livingston in Paris. Before Monroe arrived, however, Napoleon
had abandoned his hopes for an American empire. He had failed to reconquer
France’s most important island colony, Saint Domingue (now known as Haiti).
By the time that Monroe arrived in Paris in April 1803, Napoleon had decided
to sell the entire Louisiana Territory to the United States.
Fearing that Napoleon might change his mind, Monroe and Livingston
quickly went ahead and closed the deal for $15 million without talking to Jef-
ferson first. Jefferson, though, was not certain that the purchase was con-
stitutional. As a strict constructionist, he doubted whether the Constitution
gave the government the power to acquire new territory. But, after a delay, he
submitted the treaty finalizing the purchase, and the Senate ratified it. With
the Louisiana Purchase, which included all land drained by the western tribu-
taries of the Mississippi River, the United States more than doubled in size.
LEWIS AND CLARK Jefferson was eager to explore the new territory. In 1803
he appointed Meriwether Lewis to lead the expedition he called the Corps of
Discovery from St. Louis to the Pacific coast. Jefferson ordered the corps to
collect scientific information about unknown plants and animals en route
to the Pacific and to learn as much as possible about the Native American
peoples encountered along the way. Lewis chose William Clark to be second
in command. Starting off with some 50 soldiers and woodsmen, the expedi-
Reading Check tion later became smaller but added a Native American woman, Sacajawea,
Analyze Issues Why who served as interpreter and guide. The Lewis and Clark expedition took two
was the United States
concerned about the years and four months and recorded invaluable information about the new
Louisiana Territory? territories.

Lesson 3 Assessment
1. Organize Information Make a table listing the major 3. Analyze Issues Why was Marbury v. Madison such an
accomplishments of Jefferson’s presidency and the important case?
significance of each. Think About:
Event Significance • events that led to the case
• Judge Marshall’s decision
• its effects on the future
4. Draw Conclusions How did the Louisiana Purchase and
the Lewis and Clark expedition affect the expansion of
2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in the United States?
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. 5. Analyze Events Describe the diplomacy used by
Jefferson to make the Louisiana Purchase from France.
6. Summarize How does Adams’s appointment of
Marshall exemplify how political party affiliations affect
which people are appointed to the Supreme Court?

A New Nation 219

 Lesson 4

The War of 1812

One American’s Story

The Big Idea
During the War of 1812, Samuel Wilson became a symbol for the
War broke out again between
nation. The owner of a meatpacking business in Troy, New York,
the United States and Britain in
he began supplying barrels of salted meat to the army, stamping
1812.
the barrels with the initials “U.S.,” for United States. One of Wilson’s
Why It Matters Now employees joked that the letters stood for “Uncle Sam,” Wilson’s
The War of 1812 confirmed nickname. Soon, army recruits were calling themselves “Uncle Sam’s
American independence and soldiers.” One of Wilson’s great-nephews, Lucius Wilson, spoke about
strengthened nationalism.
his famous relative in 1917.
Key Terms and People
blockade He was the old original Uncle
impressment Sam that gave the name to
embargo the United States. . . . [He]
William Henry Harrison engaged in many enterprises,
Tecumseh employed many hands [work-
war hawk ers], had extensive acquain-
Andrew Jackson tance, was jolly, genial, gener-
Treaty of Ghent
ous, and known [as] and called
‘Uncle Sam’ by everyone.”
armistice —Lucius E. Wilson, quoted in Uncle Sam:
The Man and the Legend

One of the earliest depictions of

Uncle Sam

The story took on the features of a legend. Uncle Sam came to

symbolize American values of honesty and hard work. The war dur-
ing which the phrase caught on was just around the corner for the
United States.

220 Module 5
 The War Hawks Demand War
Jefferson’s popularity soared after the Louisiana Purchase, and he won reelec-
tion in 1804. During his second term, renewed fighting between Britain and
France threatened American shipping. In 1806 Napoleon decided to exclude
British goods from Europe. In turn, Great Britain decided that the best way
of attacking Napoleon’s Europe was to blockade it, or seal up its ports and
prevent ships from entering or leaving. By 1807 Britain had seized more than
1,000 American ships and confiscated their cargoes, and France had seized
about half that number.
GRIEVANCES AGAINST BRITAIN Although both France and Britain
engaged in these acts of aggression, Americans focused their anger on the
British. One reason was the British policy of impressment, the practice of
seizing Americans at sea and “impressing,” or drafting, them into the Brit-
ish navy. Another reason was the Chesapeake incident. In June 1807 the
commander of a British warship demanded the right to board and search
the U.S. naval frigate Chesapeake for British deserters. When the U.S. cap-
tain refused, the British opened fire, killing 3 Americans and wounding 18.
Jefferson convinced Congress to declare an embargo, a ban on export-
ing products to other countries. He believed that the Embargo Act of
1807 would hurt Britain and the other European powers and force them
The British opened to honor American neutrality. The embargo hurt America more than Britain,
fire on American
sailors during
and in 1809 Congress lifted the ban on foreign trade—except with France and
the Chesapeake Britain.
incident.
TECUMSEH’S CONFEDERACY Another source of trouble appeared in 1809,
when General William Henry Harrison, the governor of the Indiana Ter-
ritory, invited several Native American chiefs to Fort Wayne, Indiana,
and persuaded them to sign away 3 million acres of tribal land to the U.S.
government.
Not all chiefs gave in. Like Little Turtle and chiefs from other groups, the
Shawnee chief Tecumseh believed that the only way for Native Americans to
protect their homeland against intruding white settlers was to form a confed-
eracy, a united Native American nation. Tecumseh believed that “The Great
Spirit gave this great land to his red children.”
Tecumseh’s younger brother, known as the Prophet, aided him. Around
1805 the Prophet had started a reform movement within the Shawnee nation
to cast off all traces of the white “civilization,” including Christianity. Both
the Prophet and Tecumseh warned that the Great Spirit was angry with all of
the nations who had abandoned their traditional practices and beliefs. The
time had come to return to those beliefs, they urged, and to implore the aid of
the Great Spirit in driving out the invaders.
More practical than his brother, Tecumseh was a brilliant strategist
and a skillful diplomat. While continuing to press Harrison to withdraw
from Native American land, Tecumseh began negotiations with the British
for assistance in what seemed like an inevitable war with the Americans.
Throughout 1810 and 1811, Tecumseh traveled throughout the Midwest and
the South, trying to win followers to his confederacy. Unfortunately, many

A New Nation 221

 nations had already accepted payment for their lands. Others were reluc-
tant to give up tribal autonomy by joining the kind of confederacy that
Tecumseh proposed.
THE WAR HAWKS In November 1811, while Tecumseh was absent, his
brother led the Shawnee in an attack on Harrison and his troops. Harrison
struck back. On the banks of the Tippecanoe River, he burned the Shaw-
nee capital known as Prophetstown to the ground. Harrison’s victory, at
what came to be known as the Battle of Tippecanoe, made him a national
hero, but his troops suffered heavy losses.
When it was discovered that the Native American confederacy was using
arms from British Canada, a group of young congressmen from the South
and the West known as the war hawks called for war against Britain.
Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina and Henry Clay of Kentucky,
the Speaker of the House of Representatives, led them. The war hawks
were less concerned with world affairs than with frontier events. They
hated the British and even hoped for a conquest of Canada. The war hawks
Reading Check rallied behind their motto: “On to Canada!” Whether or not to declare war
Analyze Issues became a divisive issue in Congress. Many Americans did not want to go
What was Jefferson’s
reasoning behind the to war, and opposed the war hawks. They preferred peace to another war
embargo of 1807? with Great Britain.

The War Brings Mixed Results

In the election of 1808, another Virginia Democratic-Republican—James
Madison—coasted to victory against a weak Federalist opponent, Charles
C. Pinckney. By the spring of 1812, President Madison had decided to go to
war against Britain. Madison believed that Britain was trying to strangle
American trade and cripple the American economy. Congress approved the
war declaration in early June.
THE WAR IN CANADA Declaring war was one thing—but fighting it was
another. The American military was unprepared for war. The British cap-
tured Detroit shortly after war was declared, and the Americans suffered
numerous setbacks, including a failed attempt to take Montreal. The fol-
lowing year, a fleet commanded by Oliver Hazard Perry defeated a British
fleet on Lake Erie, and American soldiers retook Detroit and won several
battles. Different Native American groups allied with British or U.S. forces,
depending on relationships they had developed before the war. Tecumseh,
like many Native Americans, had fought for the British with the hopes of
continuing British aid in stopping U.S. expansion. The Shawnee leader was
killed at the Battle of the Thames in 1813.
THE WAR AT SEA The war was an opportunity for the relatively young
U.S. Navy to test its ability. Badly outnumbered with only 16 ships, the
United States was aided by its three 44-gun frigates, or warships: the Presi-
dent, the United States, and the Constitution. Known for their speed and
ability to sail close to enemy vessels and open fire, these ships sailed alone.
Each scored victories against British vessels.

222 Module 5
Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

Tecumseh
This portrait of Tecumseh was made after the start of the War of 1812.
Tecumseh joined the British in their fight against the United States. He
was given the rank of brigadier general. The Shawnee leader led a large
group of Native Americans in the siege of Fort Meigs, defeating the
American forces. However, Tecumseh died fighting in the Battle of the
Thames when General William Harrison defeated his forces.

Analyze Historical Sources

Why do you think Brigadier General Tecumseh is dressed as he is in this
drawing?

However, the British navy's superior numbers were too much to overcome.
In November 1812 the British government ordered a blockade of the Chesa-
peake and Delaware bays. As the war progressed and U.S. frigates scored
more victories against British ships, the blockade was extended along the
east coast. Most American ships were bottled up in port by the end of 1813.
BRITISH BURN THE WHITE HOUSE By 1814 the British were raiding and
burning towns all along the Atlantic coast. The Redcoats brushed aside some
hastily assembled American troops and entered Washington, DC. In retalia-
tion for the U.S. victory at the Battle of York, the capital of Upper Canada, in
which U.S. forces burned the governor’s mansion and the legislative assembly
buildings, the British burned the Capitol, the White House, and other impor-
tant buildings. On August 24 Madison and other federal officials had to flee
from their own capital.
THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS At the same time, a general from Tennes-
see named Andrew Jackson was winning a series of battles that gained him
national fame. After a six-month campaign involving four battles, Jackson
defeated Native Americans of the Creek nation at the battle of Horseshoe
Bend in March 1814. The Creeks had earlier been victorious at the battle
of Fort Mims, in which all but 36 of the fort’s 553 inhabitants were killed.
Jackson’s victory at Horseshoe Bend destroyed the military power of Native
Americans in the South.
On January 8, 1815, Jackson’s troops defeated a superior British force
at the Battle of New Orleans. Hundreds of British troops died, while just a
handful of Americans lost their lives.
THE TREATY OF GHENT Ironically, Jackson’s greatest victory in New
Orleans came after the war was over. Unknown to Jackson, British and
American diplomats had already signed a peace agreement. The Treaty of
Ghent, signed on Christmas Eve 1814, declared an armistice, or end to the
fighting. Although it did not address the issues of impressment or neutral
shipping rights, Americans were eager for peace and welcomed the treaty.

A New Nation 223

 Explore ONLINE!
The War of 1812
BRITISH
TERRITORY Lake Champlain, Sept.
(Canada)
11, 1814
ke S up e ri o
La r FORT MACKINAC Montréal The U.S. gains control of
July 17, 1812 the lake, and the British
Thames, Oct. 5, 1813 YORK
The death of Tecumseh (TORONTO) retreat to Canada.
La April 27, 1813
leads to the collapse ke
of Native American

Hu
io
ntar Boston

ron
support for the British. L. O
FORT ERIE 40°N
Aug. 2–Sept. 21,
1814 Baltimore,
ie New York Sept. 12–14, 1814
Detroit Er
L.
The British fail to
FORT DEARBORN capture this city
August 15, 1812 and withdraw
from Chesapeake
Tippecanoe, Nov. 7, 1811 Delaware Bay in October.
With British support, Native Ohi o Bay
R.
Americans try to stop U.S.
westward expansion but Chesapeake
Harrison defeats them. Bay
Washington, DC,
Aug. 24–25, 1814
ATLANTIC
Put-in-Bay, Sept. 10, 1813 OCEAN
The British burn the
U.S. naval forces under
Capitol, the White
Oliver Hazard Perry gain
er

House, and other

control of Lake Erie.
Riv

important buildings. de
ka
i

oc
sipp

U.S. forces
Bl 30°N
Missis

h British forces
HORSESHOE BEND i tis
March 27, 1814 Br N
U.S. victory
E British victory
W
Pensacola Blockade
S
0 150 300 mi

New Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815 SPANISH 0 150 300 km

TERRITORY 80°W
After defeating the Native 90°W
(Florida)
Americans in Mississippi Gulf of Mexico
Territory, Andrew Jackson
moves to defend this city. Interpret Maps
The battle is fought two
weeks after the peace 1. Location Why do you think there were a number of battles on the Great
treaty was signed at Ghent Lakes?
on December 24, 1814.
2. Human-Environment Interaction Why do you think the British blockaded
the coast from Boston to Georgia?

HMH—
Within a few years, the United States and Great Britain High
were School
able to U.S. History—2016
HS_SNLESE454194_1063M
reach agreement on many of the issues left open at Ghent. In 1815 a The War of 1812
Vital Information Area (per page):
commercial treaty reopened trade between the two countries. In 1817 51p wide X 29p deep
Mask Area (per page): 68p wide x 29p9 deep
the Rush-Bagot Agreement limited the number of warships on the GreatFirst proof 04/20/16
Lakes. In 1818 a British-American commission set the northern bound-
ary of the Louisiana Territory at the 49th parallel as far west as the Rocky
Mountains. The two nations then agreed to a ten-year joint occupation of
the Oregon Territory.
Prior to the Battle of New Orleans, a group of New England Federal-
ists had held a secret meeting in Hartford, Connecticut. At this Hartford
Convention, the attendees agreed to meet with Congress to voice their
opposition to the war. However, before they could carry out their plan, the
Federalists received the news that the war had ended. The public scorn
resulting from the futile Hartford Convention caused the Federalist Party
to lose much of its political power.

224 Module 5
 Causes and Effects of the War of 1812
Causes Effects
• British impressment of American sailors • Britain and France gain respect for the
• International conflicts over commerce United States
• British military aid to Native Americans on • National pride grows
the Northwest frontier • U.S. manufacturing increases
• Native American resistance declines

Another result of the War of 1812 was that national pride grew in
America. Many Americans felt a swell of patriotism because they had
won a second major victory over the British. This victory also gave Ameri-
cans confidence in the strength of their young but growing country. This
patriotism went hand-in-hand with a new nationalism—a devotion to the
interests and culture of America. The huge increase in the nation’s size due
to the Louisiana Purchase also strengthened the feeling of nationalism.
Reading Check A new national identity had developed, and Americans looked forward
Analyze Effects to establishing their own traditions rather than emulating old European
Why did nationalism
strengthen after the ways. Britain and France had also gained respect for the United States as a
War of 1812? strong nation.

Lesson 4 Assessment
1. Organize Information In a web diagram, show the 3. Evaluate Do you think that Tecumseh’s confederacy
reasons why the war hawks wanted war with Great helped or hurt the cause of Native Americans?
Britain. Think About:
• the loss of Native American lands
• the reluctance of certain nations to join the
confederacy
• Tecumseh’s role in the War of 1812
War
4. Evaluate What was the most important achievement
of the United States in this period?
5. Analyze Events Even though it was fought after an
armistice had been signed, why was the Battle of New
Orleans an important victory for the Americans?
2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.

A New Nation 225

HISTORIC DECISIONS OF THE SUPREME COURT

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

ORIGINS OF THE CASE THE RULING

A few days before Thomas Jefferson’s inau- The Court declared that the law on which Mar-
guration, outgoing president John Adams bury based his claim was unconstitutional, and
appointed William Marbury to be a justice of therefore it refused to order Madison to give
the peace. But the commission was not deliv- Marbury his commission.
ered to Marbury. Later, Jefferson’s new secre-
tary of state, James Madison, refused to give
Marbury the commission. Marbury asked the
Supreme Court to force Madison to give him
his commission.

LEGAL REASONING
LEGAL SOURCES
Writing for the Court, Chief Justice John Marshall
decided that Marbury had a right to his commission, U.S. CONSTITUTION
and he scolded Madison at length for refusing to Article III, Section 2 (1789)
deliver it. “The judicial power shall extend
However, he then considered Marbury’s claim that, to all cases . . . arising under this
under the Judiciary Act of 1789, the Supreme Court Constitution,the laws of the United
should order Madison to deliver the commission. As States, and treaties made . . . under
Marshall pointed out, the powers of the Supreme their authority.”
Court are set by the Constitution, and Congress does Article VI, Clause 2 (1789)
not have the authority to alter them. The Judiciary “This Constitution, and the laws of the
Act attempted to do just that. United States which shall be made
Marshall reasoned that, since the Constitution is the in pursuance thereof . . . shall be the
“supreme law of the land, no law that goes against supreme law of the land; and the
the Constitution can be valid.” judges in every State shall be bound
thereby.”
“If . . . the courts are to regard the constitution, and
the constitution is superior to any ordinary act of the RELATED CASES
legislature, the constitution, and not such ordinary Fletcher v. Peck (1810)
act, must govern the case to which they both apply.” The Court ruled a state law
unconstitutional for the first time.
If an act of Congress violates
Cohens v. Virginia (1821)
the Constitution, then a judge
must uphold the Constitution The Court overturned a state court
and declare the act void. decision for the first time.
In choosing to obey the Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
Constitution, the Supreme The Court ruled that the federal
Court did declare the Judiciary Congress—not the states—had the
Act unconstitutional and power under the Constitution to
void, and so refused to grant regulate interstate commerce.
Chief Justice John Marshall
Marbury’s request.

226 Module 5
 HISTORIC DECISIONS OF THE SUPREME COURT

of judicial review. The legacy of John Marshall and

of Marbury is that judicial review has become a
cornerstone of American government. One scholar
has called it “America’s novel contribution to
political theory and the practice of constitutional
government.” As Justice Marshall recognized,
judicial review is an essential component of
William Marbury democratic government; by ensuring that
Congress exercises only those powers granted
WHY IT MATTERED by the Constitution, the courts protect the
In 1803 interest in Marbury’s commission was sovereignty of the people.
primarily about partisan politics. The fight was Perhaps more importantly, the principle of judicial
just one skirmish in the ongoing battle between review plays a vital role in our federal system of
Federalists, such as Adams, and Democratic- checks and balances. With Marbury, the judicial
Republicans, led by Jefferson and Madison, which branch secured its place as one of three coequal
had intensified in the election of 1800. branches of the federal government. The judiciary
When Jefferson won the election, Adams made has no power to make laws or to carry them
a final effort to hinder Jefferson’s promised out. However, judges have an important role in
reforms. Before leaving office, he tried to fill deciding what the law is and how it is carried out.
the government with Federalists, including the In City of Boerne v. Flores (1997), for instance,
“midnight” judges such as Marbury. Madison’s the Supreme Court declared void the Religious
refusal to deliver Marbury’s appointment was Freedom Restoration Act of 1993. Members of
part of Jefferson’s subsequent effort to rid his Congress had passed the act in an attempt to
administration of Federalists. change the way federal courts apply the First
Marshall’s opinion in Marbury might seem like a Amendment’s Free Exercise Clause. The Supreme
victory for Jefferson because it denied Marbury Court ruled that Congress does not have the
his commission. However, by scolding Madison authority to decide what the First Amendment
and extending the principle of judicial review— means—in effect, to define its own powers. The
the power of courts to decide whether or not Court, and not Congress, is the interpreter of the
specific laws are valid—the Court sent a message Constitution.
to Jefferson and to the Congress that the judiciary Through the 2007–2008 term, the Court had
had the power to affect legislation. The Marshall rendered 162 decisions striking down—in whole
Court, however, never declared another act of or in part—acts of Congress. It had also voided or
Congress unconstitutional. restricted the enforcement of state laws 1,179 times.
That the entire country has with few exceptions
HISTORICAL IMPACT obeyed these decisions, no matter how strongly
In striking down part of the Judiciary Act, an act of they disagreed, proves Americans’ faith in the
Congress, Marshall gave new force to the principle Supreme Court as the protector of the rule of law.

Critical Thinking
1. Connect to History Read encyclopedia articles about 2. Connect to Today Do Internet research to learn
another Marshall Court decision, such as Fletcher v. about a recent Supreme Court decision involving
Peck, Cohens v. Virginia, or Gibbons v. Ogden. Compare judicial review of an act of Congress. Write a case
that decision with Marbury, and consider what the summary in which you describe the law’s purpose,
two cases and opinions have in common. Write a the Court’s ruling, and the potential impact of the
paragraph explaining the major similarities between decision.
the cases.

A New Nation 227

Module 5 Assessment
Key Terms and People Jefferson Alters the Nation’s Course
For each term or person below, write a sentence 9. What were some of the accomplishments of
explaining its connection to the new United States. Jefferson’s first administration?
1. Alexander Hamilton 10. How did Jefferson’s actions reflect his phi-
losophy of government?
2. cabinet
11. How did the Louisiana Purchase change the
3. neutrality
United States?
4. Alien and Sedition Acts
12. What were the main points of the Supreme
5. John Marshall
Court’s decision in Marbury v. Madison?
6. Lewis and Clark
The War of 1812
7. Louisiana Purchase
13. Why did the war hawks call for the war with
8. embargo
Britain?
9. Tecumseh
14. What events led to the War of 1812?
10. Andrew Jackson
15. Why did President James Madison declare
Main Ideas war against Britain?
16. What did the Treaty of Ghent accomplish?
Use your notes and the information in the module
to answer the following questions. Critical Thinking
Washington’s Presidency 1. Contrast Create a chart listing some of the
1. What were the first steps taken by the controversies between the Federalists and
Washington administration in building a the Democratic-Republicans on domestic
new government? policies, foreign policies, and regional inter-
2. Why did President Washington want both ests. Whose ideas appeal to you more?
Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton
Federalists Democratic-
to be among his closest advisers? Republicans
3. How did Jefferson’s and Hamilton’s views of Domestic
government differ? policies
4. Why was the excise tax that led to the Whis- Foreign
key Rebellion a significant economic issue policies
in the early days of the new government? Regional
interests
Tackling Foreign Affairs
5. What were three major international issues 2. Hypothesize What if you had been your
at this time, and how did the United States current age in 1800? What might have been
respond to them? some of the advantages and disadvantages
6. Why did the United States want access to of growing up in this period? Write two
the Mississippi River? paragraphs describing what you like and
7. How did the expanding nation deal with dislike about the United States at that time.
Native Americans? Provide examples from the text in your
8. How did political parties affect the results answer.
of the election of 1796? 3. Draw Conclusions Why did many Ameri-
cans oppose the war hawks and the decla-
ration of war against Great Britain?

228 Module 5
Module 5 Assessment, continued
4. Compare How was the tax situation that Collaborative Learning
caused the Whiskey Rebellion similar to In a small group, read and discuss the “One
the tax situation that was one cause of the American’s Story” at the beginning of Lesson 3.
Revolutionary War? Then consider the following questions: Who do
you think are the explorers of our time? What
Engage with History
challenges do they face in their journeys of
Imagine that it is now 1814, and one of your exploration? Prepare a report and present it to
former students has written to ask your opinion the class.
about how the United States has grown as a
nation. Write a response in which you mention
events from the module that show key chal-
lenges and achievements that helped to shape
the young republic.

Focus on Writing
Imagine you are a citizen during the early years
of the United States. Select an important issue
from that time period. Write a persuasive letter
to the federal government in opposition to its
decision or policy. In your letter, clearly pres-
ent why you are opposed to the government’s
actions and present an alternate plan of action
that you feel the government should pursue.

A New Nation 229

 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

Lewis
and Clark

In 1804, Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, and the 33- plants, and animals. Not only was their mission one of
man Corps of Discovery began an 8,000-mile journey history’s greatest explorations, it also secured an American
across uncharted territory. Under orders from President claim to the Pacific coast and helped inspire millions to
Thomas Jefferson, the expedition mapped a route across migrate west.
the Louisiana Purchase to the Pacific Ocean. From St. Explore entries from Lewis’s journal and other primary
Louis, Missouri, they traveled west up the Missouri River, sources online. You can find a wealth of information, video
then across the Rocky Mountains, and to the Pacific. They clips, activities, and more through your online textbook.
met Native American peoples and cataloged geography,

229 MC1 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

 . . . the Indian woman Go online to view these and
other HISTORY® resources.
recognized the point of a high
plain to our right which she
informed us was not very
distant from the summer
retreat of her nation on a river
beyond the mountains which
runs to the west.”
— Meriwether Lewis Underway on the Missouri
Watch the video to see how the Corps of Discovery
sailed up the Missouri River to begin their
expedition.

“Lewis’s Journal, Entry 1”

Read an excerpt from Meriwether Lewis’s
journal that details Sacagawea’s assistance
during the journey.

Making Friends Upriver

Watch the video to see which Native American
peoples the Corps met and traded with as they
made their journey west.

The Shores of the Pacific

Watch the video to see how the Corps tried to
adapt to a different climate and the new peoples
that they met along the Pacific coast.

LEWIS AND CLARK 229 MC2