Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 280

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-021-05217-w

Application of Geomorphometric Approach

for the Estimation of Hydro‑sedimentological Flows
and Cation Weathering Rate: Towards Understanding
the Sustainable Land Use Policy for the Sindh Basin,
Kashmir Himalaya
Mohd Sharjeel Sofi · Kuldeep Singh Rautela · Sami Ullah Bhat ·
Irfan Rashid · Jagdish Chandra Kuniyal

Received: 17 February 2021 / Accepted: 4 June 2021 / Published online: 29 June 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Abstract Himalaya is one of the youngest and tion rate and generates morphometric parameters
greatest mountain ranges in the world and is one like drainage network, geometry, drainage texture,
of the world’s most erosion-prone regions. Reliable aerial, and relief characteristics in the Sindh River
information on the basin hydrology, physico-chem- basin of Kashmir Himalaya, to understand the ero-
ical weathering, and runoff dynamics is essential sion dynamics of the basin. The basin is dominated
to develop an appropriate policies for sustainable, by a dendritic drainage pattern with a drainage den-
socially acceptable, ecological, and economically sity of 2.60 km/sq km. The aerial parameters such
viable development of the mountainous rivers. The as elongation ratio, circulatory ratio, compactness
current study uses a numerical model and GIS tools coefficient, and rotundity factor show that the basin
to estimate run-off volume and sediment produc- is elongated in shape with a lower peak flow period,
and the basin is structurally complex with high rela-
tive relief. The estimated basin run-off volume and
M. S. Sofi · S. U. Bhat (*) sediment production rate of 11.31 (sq.km-cm/sq.km)
Department of Environmental Science, University
of Kashmir, Srinagar Pin‑190006, India and 0.002 (ha-m/100 sq.km/year), respectively, sug-
e-mail: samiullahbhat11@gmail.com gest that the Sindh basin can be categorized under
M. S. Sofi the low run-off zone and less soil erosion occurs
e-mail: Sharjeel03@rediffmail.com when compared to other Indian Himalayan rivers.
The paper aims to fill the knowledge gap concern-
K. S. Rautela · J. C. Kuniyal ing the estimation of hydro-sedimentological flows
Govind Ballabh Pant National Institute of Himalayan
Environment (NIHE), Kosi‑Katarmal Almora, in the Sindh basin. In this context, present work to
Uttarakhand Pin‑263643, India estimate run-off volume and sediment production
e-mail: kuldeeprautela007@gmail.com rate was carried out using morphometric features to
J. C. Kuniyal help the decision-makers in framing sustainable land
e-mail: jckuniyal@gmail.com use policies and practices for the region.
I. Rashid
Department of Botany, University of Kashmir,
Keywords Sediment production rate · Cation
Srinagar Pin‑190006, India weathering · Soil erosion · River management · Land
e-mail: ecoirfan@gmail.com use policy

Vol.:(0123456789)
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280 Page 2 of 11 Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 280

1 Introduction sub-surface flow, rainfall, soil permeability, and

water holding capacity influence the sediment trans-
Throughout the history of human civilization, port in the river basin (Roth et al., 1996; Roy &
rivers have played an important and prominent Lamarre, 2011). Furthermore, anthropogenic inputs
role (Sofi et al., 2020). The fluvial processes such such as change in land use and land cover (LULC)
as floods, drought, erosion, sedimentation, and (Dar et al., 2021) in the form of deforestation (Ward
transportation, having ecological and economic et al., 2009), afforestation (Keesstra et al., 2009),
importance, evoke great public interests (Piao vegetation strips, and agricultural drainage systems
et al., 2010; Yu et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2008). (Calsamiglia et al., 2018; Pan et al., 2011), land
The hydrological processes are affected by both abandonment (Casalí et al., 2010), riparian vegeta-
natural as well as anthropogenic interventions tion along with shallow landslides (Persichillo et al.,
(Bastia & Equeenuddin, 2016; Oki & Kanae, 2006; 2017) and damming (Hauer et al., 2018; Kondolf
Piao et al., 2007). Global warming may alter the et al., 2014) influence the sediment fluxes within a
rate of glacial melting (Piao et al., 2010), evapo- catchment (Dar et al., 2020a). Due to the unsuitable
transpiration (Bo et al., 2011), and rock weathering land use and management practices which are put in
(Anderson, 2005). The change in land use alters place, sedimentation and ecological degradation of
soil properties, surface flow dynamics, and the land and environment tend to increase (Quan et al.,
rate of recurrence of floods (Wang et al., 2013). 2011). Thus, continued monitoring of sediment
The problem is amplified by urbanization which fluxes over time is the key to quantify the rate of
permits less infiltration and intensifies the genera- denudation in the catchment and other related tem-
tion of rapid surface run-off and decreases the time poral dynamics (Micheletti & Lane, 2016) to under-
lag between precipitation and run-off (Jiang et al., stand the erosion dynamics and help in developing
2015). The volume and frequency of precipitation the river basins sustainably.
determine the discharge of the river (Milliman & It is thus vital to have information on the spatio-
Farnsworth, 2013) and soil erosion (Anders et al., temporal distribution pattern and dynamics of erosion
2008) and in effect determine the total sediment within the river basins to develop strategies and deter-
load (Zhang et al., 2019). This impacts the river mine priorities for monitoring and controlling the soil
functioning as sediment fluxes determine the mor- erosion (Ahmed & Srinivasa, 2015). Such conservation
phology of channels, development of deltas, water practices can be value-added by quantitative estimation
quality, geochemical cycles, and habitats sustained of morphometric parameters of a particular watershed
by the river ecosystem (Kisi & Shiri, 2012). The (Asfaw & Workineh, 2019). Recently, stream network
sediment load transported by a river gives vital morphometry has been employed as a tool to assess
information related to morphodynamics, hydrology, water, soil, and hazards in various developing nations
erosion rate, and sediment transfer dynamics opera- (Abdel-Lattif & Sherief, 2012; Youssef et al., 2011) .
tional in that basin (Bastia & Equeenuddin, 2016; Even though it is well documented that the high level of
Walling, 2009). Accelerated erosion rates due to erosion and sedimentation in the Himalayas is because
anthropogenically driven changes at a global level these mountain ranges are young, fragile, and tectoni-
are resulting in an increase of both geomorphic cally active in nature (Pandit, 2013), however, very lit-
activities and sediment fluxes in several regions of tle is known about the influence from various geologic/
the world (Turner et al., 1990). geomorphic units and landscapes (Ahmed & Srinivasa,
Geo-morphometric investigation of a basin pro- 2015). Numerous researchers have endeavoured to fill
vides reliable information about hydro-geological, the void in erosion data at various scales in Nepal and
geological, slope morphometry, surface run-off, Indian Himalayas (Dabral et al., 2008; Higaki et al.,
river discharge, sediment load dynamics, etc., 2005), but none have presented information on sedi-
which aids in efficient planning and management ment production rate (SPR), run-off volume, and chem-
of resources (Ahmed & Srinivasa, 2015). Because ical weathering rate in the Kashmir Himalayas. This
natural factors like relief, stream network density, paper aims to help fill this knowledge gap by estimating
stream-flow, terrain roughness, catchment shape, SPR, run-off volume, and chemical weathering within

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Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 280 Page 3 of 11 280

the Sindh basin of Kashmir Himalayas and is expected valley of the River Jhelum (Dada et al., 2013). The
to provide essential information for the conservation of uppermost tributaries of the river originate below
land and water resources to sustain any developmental the high peaks near Zoji La (3256 m) which are
activity for public benefits. joined by other streams originating from Amarnath
(5270 m), Kolahoi (5425 m), and Panjtarni snow-
2 Study Area fields. At Sonamarg—a famous tourist destination,
known as the ‘meadow of gold’, the water flows
The Sindh River basin is located in the valley of through a contracted river channel with deep slit
Kashmir towards the northern side of India. The caves in the adjoining rocks along the banks. Further
length of the Sindh River is 116 km and consists of downstream, the river deepens more to undertake the
about 1683 ­km2 of the basin area. The river flows in characteristics of a gorge. Eventually, these tributar-
a south-westerly direction through the greater Hima- ies join together near Sonamarg—a famous hill sta-
layan region (Rashid & Pandit, 2008) and is consid- tion to form the Sindh River, a key tributaries of the
ered as one of the most developed and largest side River Jhelum (Baba et al., 2011). The River Sindh

Fig. 1  Showing a drainage pattern, b flow direction, and c digital elevation of the Sindh watershed

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280 Page 4 of 11 Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 280

Fig. 2  The methodology

adopted for determining
morphometric parameters,
run-off, SPR, and CWR of a
watershed

receives the Wangath Nallah on its right bank a little 3 Methodology

above Dragti-Yung flowing on the northern flank of
a boldly projected ridge ending at Harawar (3449 m). The morphometric parameters of the Sindh basin are
The Sindh River takes a turn above Ganderbal before computed by using the Google base map imagery and
arriving into the extensive flood plain. After the river ArcGIS-10.2 software to analyse the digital data. The
sheds its sediment load, its channel gets plugged with drainage map and watershed boundary of the area have
debris and the main channel gets split into many been prepared from Survey of India (SoI) toposheets at
channels over a wide spread deltaic core. One of the a scale of 1:50,000 which were updated using IRS-1D
distributary discharges into the Anchar Lake, and oth- imagery. An updated drainage map was used for the
ers join the river Jhelum near Shadipora (Dar et al., analysis of drainage patterns of the study area (Fig. 1a).
2020b). About 13% of the total catchment area has a The flow direction of the watershed has been estimated
slope range of 45–90°, and the area has a very com- by using ArcHydro Tools in ArcGIS-10.2 software
plex and rugged topography with very high relief and (Fig. 1b). Digital elevation model (DEM) was generated
steep slopes (Dada et al., 2013; Dar et al., 2017). The from SRTM 90-m resolution data using Surface Tools in
whole basin is dominated by slopes and canyons with ArcGIS-10.2 software (Fig. 1c). To determine the stream
higher reaches being highly mountainous and rich in order, Strahler’s (1964) classification was followed, and
Triassic Limestone (Bhat et al., 2011). the stream length was calculated as per the law of Horton

Table 1  Drainage parameters of the Sindh watershed

Stream Stream Total stream numbers Stream length (km) Total stream length (km) Mean stream Stream
order(Lu) number length (Lsm) length
(Nu) ratio

1 4373 5657 2435.50 4378.99 0.56

2 1013 1014.26 1.00 1.80
3 209 515.68 2.47 2.46
4 45 200.52 4.46 1.81
5 13 87.72 6.75 1.51
6 3 88.18 29.39 4.36
7 1 37.13 37.13 1.26

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Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 280 Page 5 of 11 280

(1945). To evaluate the morphometry of the drainage where CWR is the chemical weathering rate (t/100sq.
basin, various parameters like stream number, stream km/year), Q estimated runoff (q.km-cm/sq.km),
length, stream order, stream length ratio, bifurcation ­icaverage average concentration of cations (meq), and k
ratio, basin area, basin length, relief ratio, elongation conversion factor.
ratio, stream frequency, drainage density, circularity ratio,
and form have been calculated using the standard meth-
ods (see Supplementary Table 1). Sediment production
rate and run-off were estimated based on Jose and Das 4 Results
(1982) method using the following equations (Fig. 2).
The Geomorphometric parameters of the water-
Run‑Off (Q) Run-off in the Sindh basin was esti- shed such as drainage parameters, drainage texture,
mated by using geomorphic, drainage, and topo- shape parameters and relief, SPR, and erosion rates
graphic parameters as per the following equation are shown in the following sections.
(Jose & Das, 1982):

Log Q = 2238.43 + 22.12 {Log (100 + Rf)} − 608.28 {Log (100 + Rc)} − 530.02{Log (100 + Cc)}

where Q is the run-off in sq.km-cm/sq.km, Rf is the 4.1 Drainage Parameters

rotundity factor, Rc is the circularity ratio, and Cc is
the compactness coefficient. Stream Order In the Sindh watershed, 5657
streams were identified and from which 4373 are
Sediment Production Rate SPR of the Sindh basin first-order streams, 1013 are second-order, 209 are
was estimated as per the following equation (Jose & third-order, 45 in fourth-order, 13 in fifth-order, 3 in
Das, 1982): sixth-order, and 1 in seventh-order.

Log SPR = 4919.80 + 48.64 Log (100 + Rf) − 1337.77 Log (100 + Rc) − 1166.64 Log (100 + Cc)

where SPR is the sediment production rate in Stream Length (­Lb), Mean Stream Length (Lsm),
ha-m/100 sq.km/year, Rf is the rotundity factor, and Stream Length Ratio As shown in Table 1,
Rc is circularity ratio, and Cc is the compactness the total stream length of the basin is 4378.99 km;
coefficient. first-order is 2435.50 km, 1014.26 km for second-
order, 515.68 km for third-order, 200.52 km for
Chemical (Cation) Weathering Rate Calculation fourth-order, 87.72 km for fifth-order, 88.18 km for
of chemical (cation) weathering rate was estimated sixth-order, and 37.13 km for seventh-order. The
by using mean cation concentration of C ­ a2+, ­Mg2+, mean stream length (Lsm) is the ratio of the total
+ +
­K , and N
­ a in meltwater discharge and the catch- stream length of order ‘u’ to the number of streams
ment (Singh & Hasnain, 1998; Singh et al., 2015). of order ‘u + 1’ (Strahler, 1964). The stream length
Calcium ion ­(Ca2+), and magnesium ion (­ Mg2+) were ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the mean length
determined by the EDTA titrimetric method (APHA, of streams of a given order (Lu) to the mean length of
2005). The concentrations of N ­ a+ and K
­ + were meas- the streams of the following lower order (Lu-1), has a
ured with the help of a flame photometer (APHA, close relationship with the surface flow and different
2005; Bhat & Pandit, 2018). Five replicates were erosional stages of the watershed (Horton, 1945). The
run for cation analysis on the calibrated instruments. variation in stream length ratio between consecutive
The standard error for ­Ca2+, ­Mg2+, ­K+, and ­Na+ were streams order is due to differences between slope and
0.75, 0.48, 0.29, and 0.30, respectively. CWR was topographic features of the watershed (Vittala et al.,
estimated by using the following equation: 2004). The stream length ratio of the Sindh basin var-
ies from 1.26 to 4.36.
CWR = k.Q.icaverage

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280 Page 6 of 11 Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 280

Bifurcation Ratio ­(Rb) The ‘Rb’ is a dimensionless shape. The shape index of Sindh basin is 6.92, and
unit and represents the number of the stream units of the form factor is 0.21. Compactness coefficient artic-
a given order to the number of streams in the subse- ulates the correlation of a basin with that of a circular
quent higher order (Strahler, 1964). Normally natural basin of the same area. ­Cc of 1 indicates that the basin
drainage systems have bifurcation ratio values rang- entirely behaves like a circular basin. The ‘Cc’ of the
ing between 3.0 and 5.0. The higher ‘Rb’ value for Sindh basin is 2.12.
river basins is the result of a difference in frequencies
between consecutive orders and designates the mature Circularity Ratio (­Rc), Elongation Ratio (­Re), and
topography (Magesh and Chandrasekar, 2014). The Rotundity Factor ­(Rf) The circularity ratio for the
value of Rb value ranged between 3.00 and 4.85 for Sindh basin is 0.22. Values of the elongation ratio
the successive orders of the Sindh River basin. are congregated into three categories, viz. circular
(> 0.9), oval (0.9–0.7), and less elongated (< 0.7). For
4.2 Drainage texture the Sindh basin, the value of elongation ratio is 0.52
which shows the basin is elongated in shape and rep-
Drainage texture aspects considered for the present resents high relief with steep slopes. The value of the
study comprises of drainage density, stream fre- rotundity factor is 3.707 for the Sindh basin.
quency, and texture ratio are described as follows:
Run‑off, Sediment Production Rate, and Cation
Drainage Density ­ (Dd), Stream frequency ­ (Sf), (Chemical) Weathering Rate Run-off of a basin
and Texture Ratio Drainage density indicates the depends on the hydrological parameters such as pre-
closeness of streams. The drainage density of the cipitation, evaporation, infiltration, and transpiration,
Sindh basin is 2.60 km/sq km which is categorized but these hydrological parameters are themselves
under high drainage density. Stream frequency or affected by the climatic conditions, lithology, struc-
drainage frequency has been related to permeability, ture, relief, and slopes. From the analysis of the data,
infiltration capacity, and relief of watersheds. A high run-off value obtained for the Sindh basin is 11.31
value of stream frequency indicates larger surface (sq.km-cm/sq.km), and the SPR is 0.002 (ha-m/100
run-off that is early peak discharge, and low stream sq.km/year). The average cation concentration in the
frequency indicates high permeability and low relief run-off volume is 27.17 g/l with a chemical (cation)
(Soni, 2017). The stream frequency of the Sindh weathering rate of the order of 0.003 (ha-m/sq.km/
basin is 3.60. Horton (1945) defined texture ratio as year).
the total number of stream segments of all orders in a
watershed to the perimeter of the watershed. It helps
to understand the relative spacing of drainage lines. 5 Discussion
The Sindh watershed shows a texture ratio of 18.28
per km. The current study was carried out with the aim to cal-
culate various morphometric parameters of the river
4.3 Shape Parameters Sindh and to estimate run-off, SPR, and chemical
weathering rate of the whole basin to understand the
The shape parameters of any basin are very important erosion dynamics of the basin. Stream order is con-
morphometric features. In terms of hydrology, the sidered as the beginning of morphometric analysis
shape of the basin determines the peak of the hydro- constructed on the hierarchical ranking of streams.
graph (i.e. the shape of the basin controls the run-off The higher number of first and second-order streams
at the outlet) and regulates erosion rate. The shape points to the existence of young topography neigh-
parameters of the Sindh basin are given below. bouring the concerned stream. The sudden decrease
observed in the later order streams indicates towards
Shape Index ­(Si), Form Factor ­(Ff), and Compact‑ the morphological variation (Mahala, 2020). Stream
ness Coefficient ­(Cc) Shape index depends on the length shows the sequential stages of stream segment
length and relief of the basin so that the run-off rate development (Castillo et al., 1988) and is a measure
and the sediment yield are influenced by the basin of the hydrological characteristics of the bedrock and

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Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 280 Page 7 of 11 280

the extent of drainage (Rai et al., 2017). The length pattern (Chavare & Shinde, 2013), and its lower
of the stream is indirectly proportional to the stream value indicates a poor drainage network (Thomas
order. It is generally found that the first-order streams et al., 2010). The stream frequency of the Sindh
have more length as compared to higher orders. As basin is 3.60 which may be attributed to the high
the order of stream increases, the length of streams slope and greater rainfall in mountainous regions
decreases; a similar pattern was observed in the Sindh (Bali et al., 2011). Texture ratio is influenced by
basin. The mean stream length (Lsm) values of the a number of factors like rainfall, vegetation den-
watershed varied between 0.56 and 37.13 km. It is sity, type of soil, infiltration capacity, geomorphic
clearly evident that the cumulative stream length is development stage, and relief (Smith, 1950). The
more in first-order streams and gradually decreases texture ratio of 18.28 per km of the Sindh basin
as the stream order increases; a similar trend was reveals that the basin is characterized by very fine
observed in Kanha River Basin, India (Rai et al., texture, high drainage density, and high relief with
2017). The values obtained for stream length ratio steep slopes (Smith, 1950). For a perfectly circu-
of the Sindh basin indicate young to mature stage lar basin, the form factor is about 0.7854. If the
of geomorphic development (Ahmed & Srinivasa, value of the form factor approaches unity, the basin
2015), and the variation in stream length ratio may be is more elongated in shape with a high peak flow
attributed to change in slope and topography (Vittala of shorter duration, whereas a low value of form
et al., 2004) and indicate towards the early stage of factor results in a lower peak flow of longer dura-
geomorphic developmental phase of the basin hav- tion. The values of form factor, rotundity factor,
ing the high potential of recurrent imminent changes and elongation ratio indicate that the Sindh basin is
(Mahala, 2020). Variation in the bifurcation ratio is more elongated in shape with lower peak flow for
affected by the variation in the watershed geometry a longer duration (Chopra et al., 2005; Rymbai &
and lithology. A high bifurcation ratio indicates early Jha, 2012).
peaks in the hydrograph which is related to the flash The estimated run-off of the Sindh basin is 11.31
flooding during storm events, and a low bifurcation (sq.km-cm/sq.km) which indicates the basin area is
ratio indicates delayed peaks in the hydrograph. The categorized by low run-off, which may be due to the
mean bifurcation ratio of 4.1 for the Sindh basin indi- reasonable geological control over the run-off pat-
cates that geology is reasonably homogeneous and tern. The sediment production rate of the basin is
there is strong structural control over the drainage 0.002 (ha-m/100 sq.km/year) which is categorized
development (Kottagoda & Abeysingha, 2017). under the low category (Rymbai & Jha, 2012). The
Drainage density is the measure of the near- high contribution of ­Ca2+ and ­Mg2+ in the cation
ness of channels within a basin (Horton, 1945). It composition depicts that most of the ion chem-
is a vital indicator of landform elements and offers istry of meltwater draining from Himalayan gla-
an arithmetic assessment of run-off potential- ciers is mainly controlled by carbonate weathering
ity and landscape dissection. If the drainage den- (Singh et al., 2013). The estimated cation (chemical)
sity is more, it indicates that subsurface material weathering rate of the basin is 0.003 (ha-m/sq.km/
has weak and impermeable regions (infiltration is year) which is high as compared to other Himalayan
very low or no infiltration), sparse vegetation, and basins owing to the geology and geomorphology of
mountainous relief, whereas low drainage density the basin. The current SPR and the chemical weath-
indicates permeable material (infiltration is pos- ering rate indicate that there is significant geologi-
sible) having a vegetation cover and low relief. cal control over these parameters. Results obtained
The high drainage density of 2.60 km/sq km in the provide clear evidence of the sensitivity of hydro-
Sindh basin is due to the presence of mountainous sedimentological flows, and cation weathering rate
terrains with sparse vegetation, weak, and imper- was also conditional to the morphometric parameter
meable subsurface material as the additional con- and terrain slope in the catchment. Thus, it is vital
tributing factors (Magesh & Chandrasekhar, 2014; to emphasize on these parameters to evolve suitable
Parveen et al., 2012). Stream frequency is governed institutional apparatus for scientific management,
by rainfall pattern, relief, resistivity, and drainage conservation, and development of land resources in
density of the basin. It is an indicator of drainage the region.

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280 Page 8 of 11 Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 280

6 Conclusion Director, Govind Ballabh Pant National Institute of Himalayan

Environment (NIHE), Kosi-Katarmal, Almora-263643, Utta-
rakhand, India, for providing facilities which together could
Morphometric parameters of a river basin are deemed make the present study possible.
as the representatives of primary geology, relief,
geomorphology, slope, climate, and hydrodynam- Author Contribution Sami Ullah Bhat and Mohd Shar-
ics. Thus, the determination of behaviour of stream jeel Sofi conceived the idea. Mohd Sharjeel Sofi and Kuldeep
networks and their interaction with each other is of Singh Rautela led the development and design of the manu-
script and writing under the joint mentorship of Sami Ullah
critical significance in watershed and hazard manage- Bhat, Irfan Rashid, and Jagdish Chandra Kuniyal. All authors
ment. The Sindh basin is dominated by a dendritic read and approved the final manuscript.
drainage pattern with 5567 streams, and the high-
est order of the stream is 7. The drainage param- Funding The National Mission on Himalayan Studies
eters indicate the drainage density of the basin is (NMHS), Government of India provided financial support for
this study under grant number NMHS/SG-2017/260.
high which represents that there is sparse vegetation
and having a region of weak and impermeable sub- Data Availability All data generated or analysed during this
surface material which leads to quick drainage. The study are included in this published article (and its supplemen-
shape parameters which are responsible for soil ero- tary information files).
sion indicate that the basin is elongated in shape with
Declarations
lower peak flow for a longer duration and the region
is characterized by high relief and steep slopes.
Competing Interests The authors declare no competing
Understanding the role of sediment production and interests.
chemical weathering rate within a drainage basin
inevitably means to understand the linkages between Disclaimer The opinions expressed herein are those of the
land use, erosion, and sediment yield within a river authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the funding
basin. Results obtained from the numerical model agency.
used in the study provide clear evidence of integrated
catchment response in terms of erosion and sediment
yield to drainage characteristics. Thus, it is vital to
emphasize on these results to evolve suitable institu- References
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