Developmental Dimensions of Learning

Chapter 4

As individuals grow, their ability to learn is shaped by their development in physical,

social, emotional, and intellectual areas. Learning is most effective when these differences are
considered. Learners understand best when material matches their developmental stage and is
presented in an engaging way. Since development varies among individuals, success across
learning areas may also differ. Focusing too much on one area, such as reading readiness, can
limit a child's chance to show strengths in other areas. Cognitive, emotional, and social growth is
influenced by prior experiences at home, in school, and in the community. Early and active
parental involvement, as well as positive communication between adults and children, plays a
vital role in creating a supportive learning environment. Awareness of developmental
differences, including disabilities, helps in building effective learning strategies.

How Children Think and Learn Understanding how children think is essential for effective
teaching. Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development outlines how children's thinking evolves
through distinct stages, each with unique characteristics and learning styles. Children think
differently than adults. Their cognitive development is a gradual process, influenced by age and
experience.

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to ~2 Years)

Infants learn through sensory experiences and movement. They explore by touching, tasting, and
moving. Key developments include object permanence and basic cause-and-effect
understanding.

2. Preoperational Stage (~2 to 6 Years)

Children begin using symbols, such as words and images, to represent objects. However, they
cannot yet apply logical thinking. Learning remains closely tied to their senses and imagination.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (~6 to 12 Years)

Children develop logical thinking about concrete situations. They can compare, classify, and
organize objects mentally. Teaching should move from hands-on examples to more general
ideas. Example: Start with what a child does to be kind (concrete), then explain the broader idea
of kindness (general).

How Adolescents Learn Adolescence is a key stage in development where students grow
intellectually, not just physically. Around age 11 or 12, they begin to think logically and
abstractly, allowing them to analyze problems, consider possibilities, and make thoughtful
decisions. This ability to think formally depends on factors like experience, intelligence,
background, and brain development (Hamachek, 1995). Adolescents often bring preconceptions
into the classroom. If these aren’t addressed, they may struggle to understand new ideas. To learn
effectively, students need a strong base of knowledge and the ability to connect and organize
ideas meaningfully.

How Adults Learn

Part of being an effective instructor involves how adults learn best. Compared to children
and teens, adults have special needs and requirements as learners. The field of adult learning was
pioneered by Malcolm Knowles as cited by Stephen Lieb (1991). He identified the following
characteristics of adult learners:

• Adults are autonomous and self-directed. They need to be free to direct themselves and teachers
must serve as facilitators. Instructors should involve them in planning and let them choose
projects based on their interests.

• Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experience and knowledge that may include
work-related activities, family responsibilities, and previous education. Instructors should
connect lessons to real-life experiences and encourage sharing.

• Adults are goal-oriented. Adults usually know what goal they want to attain. Instructors must
show participants how this class will help them attain their goals.

• Adults are relevancy-oriented. They must see a reason for learning something. Learning has to
be applicable to their work or other responsibilities to be of value to them.

• Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work.
Instructors should highlight how lessons are useful.

• Adults need to be shown respect. Instructors must acknowledge the experiences that adult
participants bring to the class. They should be treated as equals in experience and knowledge.

ADULT LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

Six factors serve as sources of motivation for adult learning. They are:
• Social relationship: to make new friends, to meet a need for associations and friendships.
• External expectations: to comply with instructions and to meet others' expectations. Social
welfare: to improve the ability to serve mankind and prepare for service to the community.
Personal advancement: to achieve a good career and secure professional advancement.
Escape/Stimulation: to relieve boredom, provide a break in the routine of home or work.
Cognitive interest: to learn for the sake of learning and to learn out of curiosity.
1. Confidence and Independence. Growth happens when learners' confidence and independence
become congruent with their actual abilities and skills. They begin to trust their abilities and take
initiative.

Example: In science class, an over-confident student learns to ask for help when needed. A shy
student starts speaking up and sharing her views in discussions.

2. Skills and Strategies. Skills and strategies represent the "know-how" aspect of learning. It helps
students perform tasks successfully. It is useful in more than one area.

Example: In a writing class, students learn to research, develop ideas, organize content, polish
grammar, and use digital tools.

3. Knowledge and Understanding. It refers to the "content" knowledge gained in particular subject
areas. It is focusing on the "know-what" aspect of learning. It includes what students are learning
about the topics; research methods; the theories, concepts.

Example: In psychology, students explore questions like “What is Freud’s ego?” or “What is
Behaviorism?” and learn research methods and theories.

4. Use of Prior and Emerging Experience. The use of prior and emerging experience involves
learners' abilities to draw on their own experience and connect it to their work.

Example: In math, students use their arithmetic knowledge as a foundation for learning algebra
concepts and problem-solving strategies.

5. Reflection is about understanding one’s learning process and thinking critically about the subject
matter.

Example: In history, students use fragmented documents to identify patterns and construct
narratives, developing insight into both content and their learning strategies.

Learning is a dynamic process deeply influenced by social interactions, interpersonal

relationships, and communication. When learners are given opportunities to engage with others
and collaborate on instructional tasks, the process of learning becomes more meaningful and
effective. Educational settings that encourage social interaction and uphold diversity help nurture
advanced levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving among students.

Lev Vygotsky’s social constructivist theory offers critical insights into how learning occurs
within a socio-cultural context. His theories, particularly the concepts of the zone of proximal
development (ZPD) and scaffolding, emphasize the importance of guided support in helping
students reach their full potential. These ideas underscore the significance of interactions
between learners and more knowledgeable individuals, such as teachers or peers, in facilitating
learning.
Moreover, the principle of situated learning supports the application of real-world, problem-
solving experiences within the classroom. This approach is especially effective in technology-
based learning environments where problem-solving is central. Cooperative learning and
participative methods, often employed in such contexts, empower students to engage actively
with content and with each other. When these strategies are integrated thoughtfully by educators,
they enhance student understanding and lead to more effective learning outcomes.

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with

others. Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow social interactions, and
respect for diversity encourage flexible thinking and social competence.

Socio-Cultural Dimensions of Learning

Chapter 5

Social and Cultural Influences on Learning

In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for

perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and
moral development, as well as self-esteem. Quality personal relationships that provide stability,
trust, and caring can increase the learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance,
and provide a positive climate for learning.

Family influences, positive inter personal support and instruction in self-motivation strategies
can tive factors that interfere with optimal learning such as nevetive beliefs about competence in
a particular subject, die prevele of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and helle
establisto perform well. Postive learning climates can also help to establish the context for
healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share
ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning community.

Culture is a broad and encompassing concept. Often, we equate culture with race or ethnic but
that is not always the case. Culture refers to characteristics of the individual/ society or of some
subgroups within the society... (it) includes values, beliefs, notions about acceptable and
unacceptable behavior and other socially constructed ideas that members of the culture are taught
are "true." (Garcia, 1994).

It is also defined as the shared products of a human group of society. Although culture is shared,
it must be learned by each new generation, through the process of social instruction.
The sociology of culture shows that our way of thinking and categorizing, our hopes and fears,
our likes and dislikes and our beliefs and habits are social creations, strongly influenced by the
time and place in which we live. Even so, culture does not dictate thoughts and behavior - it
leaves room for action.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

Lev Vygotsky's theory focuses on socio-cultural dimensions of learning and development,

emphasizing that individual cognitive processes are continuously embedded in a social and
cultural context. It is referred to as "social constructivist theory" In order to understand the
influence of Lev Vygotsky's work addressing socio-cultural dimensions of learning and
development, it is important to understand the three central concepts in his theory which have all
direct implications for the classroom. These are the concepts of the zone of proximal
development, scaffolding and the socio-cultural context of learning:

• Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky believes that learning takes place when children are
working within what he called their "zone of proximal development." This refers to an area in
which a child or adolescent would have trouble solving a problem alone, but can succeed with
help from someone more knowledgeable. One way of thinking about the zone of proximal
development is that it is an area of potential significant advances in a child or adolescent's
thinking.

• Scaffolding. For Vygotsky, scaffolding is the process of providing a child or adolescent with a
good deal of support during the time he is learning something. This support is reduced as the
learner becomes able to deal with the task independent yor his learn in his taking on increasing
responsibility for his learning. Support for a learner can take the fom of cooperative learning
among peers, guidance from adults, well-structured learning environments, or strategies for
helping students organize new material and relate it to prior knowledge.

• Socio-cultural context of knowledge. Vygotsky emphasizes the important role of culture in

influencing how individuals learn and think. His thinking has had a significant impact on
research demonstrating that cognition is "situated" - occurs in a context. We have learned from
Vygotsky's work that we need especially to understand and respond to the cultural contexts
which surround children's knowledge and which significantly affect their expectations about
their roles as learners and what Luis Moll refers to as their funds of knowledge. Vygotsky
particularly emphasizes the role of culture in mediating learning - that is in providing tools
(words, conventions, symbols, signs, etc.) through which knowledge is mediated and
communicated. This means that learning and knowledge are to a large extent culturally and
socially influenced.
THEORIES OF SITUATED LEARNING

Four Key Premises (Anderson, Reder, and Simon, 1996):

1. Learning is rooted in real-world situations and actions.

2. Knowledge gained is situation-specific and may not transfer easily to dissimilar situations.

3. Learning involves social processes encompassing thinking styles, perception, problem-

solving, and interaction.

4. Learning isn't isolated but occurs within complex social environments involving actors,
actions, and situations.

...

How Situated Learning Differs from Other Experiential Learning:

Activity-Based Learning: Students gain knowledge by engaging in tasks where learning is built
into the activity itself.

Real-World Challenges: Learning focuses on solving authentic problems learners may encounter
in everyday life.

Collaborative Learning: Understanding is developed through cooperation and interaction with

others and the environment.

Implicit Structure: The learning process unfolds naturally through experience, not through rigid
instructional design.

...

The "Way In" and "Practice" (Lave, 1997):

Lave describes two phases in situated learning:

Way In: Learners begin by observing and trying out tasks with support from an expert, easing
into the learning process. Practice: Learners improve their skills through ongoing application,
reflection, and feedback, gradually gaining expertise.
ELEMENTS OF SITUATED LEARNING

1. Content:

Situated learning emphasizes critical thinking and real-life application over memorization.
Learning is made meaningful through dialogue, problem-solving, and relevance to learners’
everyday experiences.

2. Context:

Learning occurs within real-world settings, shaped by social and cultural dynamics. Learners
actively engage with their environment, which influences how they interpret and apply
knowledge.

3. Community of Practice:

Learning is social, involving collaboration and shared meaning-making within a community of

peers and experts. This interaction helps learners gain practical and cultural knowledge.

4. Participation:

Active involvement through dialogue and problem-solving is key. Learners construct meaning by
engaging with others and reflecting on their experiences in specific contexts.

People learn best when the lessons match their stage of development. Since each person
grows and changes differently in physical, mental, emotional, and social ways, their ability to
learn is also different. Studies have found that children, teenagers, and adults do not learn or get
motivated in the same way. Because of this, teachers should use different teaching methods to
help each group learn in the best way for them. By doing this, everyone can learn according to
their own skills and needs.