Election Overview and Typology with Bangladesh Focus

Elections: Definition, Purpose, Examples, and Typology with Global and Bangladeshi
Perspectives

Introduction
Elections lie at the heart of modern representative democracy. They serve as the principal
mechanism by which citizens delegate authority, ensure governmental accountability, and
participate in governance. While the notion of elections is universal, the form, function, and
integrity of electoral processes vary widely across countries and levels of government. This
report aims to provide a comprehensive examination of elections, including their definition,
purposes, and key characteristics. The analysis will illustrate these principles with examples from
around the world, giving particular emphasis to Bangladesh. Critical attention is given to a four-
dimensional typology of elections-voting method, timing method, electoral system, and the level
of government-with valid comparative examples. Special care is taken to reference current
research, official sources, and recent developments, especially referencing the file ‘Political
Science Chapter 8.pdf,’ as well as a broad array of web-based sources.

Definition and Purpose of Elections

An election is a formal group decision-making process through which a population selects
one or more individuals to hold public office or decides a policy question1. In representative
democracies, elections are the main avenue for translating public preferences into government
action, offering citizens a sanctioned procedure to exercise their power by voting for political
leaders or policies. Elections may be held to fill roles at multiple government levels-local,
regional, and national-encompassing a wide spectrum from municipal councilors to heads of
state.
Elections fulfill several interrelated purposes. Foremost, they legitimize those who wield power
by transferring consent from the public to the government2. They serve as instruments for
representation, empowering citizens to choose delegates who reflect their values and priorities.
Through elections, the governed can hold leaders accountable, replacing those who do not meet

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expectations. Elections also channel public opinion, facilitate peaceful transitions of power, and
foster political education, awareness, and integration within a society1.
In contemporary societies, the “substance” of an election-meaningful competition, free choice,
and public participation-is as important as its “form.” Genuine elections require more than
procedure; they demand the real possibility for voters to choose between alternatives, with
credible mechanisms to prevent fraud, guarantee fairness, and protect the integrity of the
process1.

General Characteristics of Elections

Elections are characterized by a set of features that define their function and societal impact.
These include regularity, competitiveness, inclusivity, transparency, and accountability. In
democracies, elections are typically held at regular intervals (often 4-5 years), ensuring planned
and predictable opportunities for citizens to renew or withdraw their mandate. The principle of
competitiveness demands that voters have genuine choices-a real selection among candidates,
policies, or parties.
Inclusivity is ensured by extending suffrage to all eligible adults, subject to minimal restrictions,
whereas transparency covers the clarity and openness of the electoral process, from voter
registration to vote counting and result announcement. Accountability is underscored by the
periodic submission of those in power to judgment by the electorate, which is a crucial aspect of
political legitimacy and public trust.
Despite these norms, the degree to which elections embody these characteristics varies
globally. Some elections, especially in non-democratic regimes, feature the outward trappings of
electoral process but lack genuine competition, suppression of dissent, or transparent counting,
rendering them “sham elections”1.

Elections in Bangladesh: Overview

Historical and Institutional Context

Bangladesh has a vibrant, albeit at times tumultuous, electoral history. The country holds regular
national, regional, and local elections governed by the constitution and administered by the
Bangladesh Election Commission3. The Jatiya Sangsad (National Parliament) is a unicameral

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legislature consisting of 350 members: 300 are directly elected through single-member
constituency elections, and 50 seats are reserved for women and allocated via proportional
representation by those already sitting in parliament.
The evolution of the political system-from the initial parliamentarism of the 1972 Constitution,
through a period of presidentialism, and back to a parliamentary system after the 1991 Twelfth
Amendment-has shaped the structure of elections3. Historically, the political landscape has been
dominated by two large parties: the Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party
(BNP)3. However, in recent years, particularly following reforms and controversies, the
dominance of one party has become more pronounced.

Recent National Elections

The most recent parliamentary elections in Bangladesh took place on January 7, 2024, with
significant controversy. The ruling Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina, won a fourth
consecutive term amidst low voter turnout (about 41.8%, with some reports citing even lower
figures) and substantial opposition boycotts4. The process was marred by widespread allegations
of suppression, violence, and a lack of credible competition. Observers-including the United
States Department of State and the UK’s Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office-
declared the elections not free or fair, with reports of mass arrests of opposition candidates and
civil society activists4.
Notably, following this election, Bangladesh faced large-scale protests spearheaded by students,
eventually leading to the dissolution of parliament and the installation of an interim government
under Muhammad Yunus later in 2024. This tumultuous episode highlighted challenges in the
electoral system and spurred ongoing discussions about electoral reforms in the country.

Local and Regional Elections

In addition to national parliamentary elections, Bangladesh regularly conducts elections at
local and regional levels. These include city corporation, district council, and union council
(union parishad) elections. The years 2024-2029 have seen phased elections for multiple local
bodies, with the Awami League and its offshoots dominating most contests amidst sporadically
low voter turnout and continued opposition allegations of manipulation5. Local elections are

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crucial as they bring government closer to citizens, addressing community-specific needs and
providing a testing ground for new political entrants.

Electoral Challenges and Reform Initiatives

Bangladesh's current electoral system has faced criticism for alleged fraud, violence, and lack of
transparency-a situation underscored by domestic and international reports following the 2018
and 2024 general elections6. There is considerable public interest in reform, as evidenced by a
2025 Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics study showing 65% of respondents prefer local elections
before national polls under an interim government, and a majority supporting non-partisan local
elections7.
Proposals for adopting proportional representation (PR) and improving procedures for
diaspora voting (including IT-assisted postal voting and online voting) are subjects of active
debate. The Election Commission and civil society organizations continue to explore reforms
aimed at restoring confidence in electoral outcomes8.

Examples of Elections: Bangladesh and Beyond

National Elections in Bangladesh

• Parliamentary Elections: Held every five years unless dissolved earlier, electing 300 MPs
via single-member districts (first-past-the-post) and filling 50 women’s seats by proportional
representation3
• Presidential Elections: The President is elected by members of the National Parliament,
serving a primarily ceremonial role.
• Recent Example: 2024 Parliamentary Election-with Awami League dominance, contested
legitimacy, and subsequent political upheaval9

Local and Regional Elections in Bangladesh

• City Corporation Elections: e.g., Mymensingh and Comilla 2024, with clear party
dominance and some independent wins.
• Union Parishad/Sub-District Council Elections: Phased between 2024 and 2025, with
notable low turnout and continued influence of dominant national parties5

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Illustrative Examples from Other Countries

• United Kingdom (2024 General Election): Held July 4, 2024, using first-past-the-post in
650 constituencies. Marked by a Labour Party landslide despite a historically low
proportionality in terms of seat-vote ratio10
• United States: Uses first-past-the-post for most federal and state elections, with a mix of
ballot methods (paper, electronic, absentee/postal voting).
• India: Parliamentary and state elections use first-past-the-post; some local elections use a
mix of paper ballots and electronic voting machines (EVMs).
• Germany: Combines first-past-the-post with proportional representation (mixed-member
proportional) for Bundestag elections11
• Estonia: Notable for pioneering internet voting (“e-voting”) in national elections.

Typology of Elections: Four Key Dimensions

To systematically compare elections, it is helpful to classify them according to four main
dimensions: voting method, timing method, electoral system, and level of government. Each
dimension reflects critical choices with major implications for legitimacy, participation, and
outcomes.

Voting Method
This refers to the technology and means by which votes are cast and/or counted.

1. Paper Ballot

• Definition: Voters mark their choices on a physical paper which is counted manually or
scanned12.
• Prevalence: Traditional, still dominant in many countries, including Bangladesh at most
polling stations.
• Advantages: Security, transparency, easy auditability, trust among voters.
• Disadvantages: Manual errors, longer counting times, logistical complexity.

2. Electronic Voting

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• Definition: Votes cast via electronic devices such as EVMs, DREs, or internet-based
systems13.
• Example Countries: India (EVMs), Brazil (all elections e-voting), Estonia (remote e-
voting), Bangladesh (limited urban pilot projects).
• Advantages: Speed, potential accessibility, rapid reporting.
• Disadvantages: Susceptibility to technical failure, hacking, and public mistrust if
transparency is lacking.

3. Postal Voting

• Definition: Ballots distributed and returned via mail. Particularly important for absentee,
overseas, or disabled voters14.
• Example Countries: UK, US, Germany.
• Usage in Bangladesh: Limited; attempts for diaspora voting have been hampered by
logistical challenges, with reforms and technology-assisted approaches under consideration
for the future8.

Timing Method
Examines the scheduling of the election-whether regular or at short notice.

1. Fixed-Term Elections

• Definition: Held on a regular, predetermined schedule (e.g., every 4 or 5 years)15.

• Countries: Bangladesh (statutory schedule), US (presidential and congressional), UK (since
Fixed-Term Parliaments Act, though early elections still possible).
• Advantages: Predictability, planning, stability.
• Disadvantages: Reduced flexibility in resolving crises promptly.

2. Snap Elections

• Definition: Elections called unexpectedly or ahead of schedule, often by the government in

power to capitalize on favorable conditions or resolve impasses16.
• Countries: Canada, Japan, United Kingdom (before recent reforms), various parliamentary
systems.

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• Advantages: Flexibility, responsiveness to political deadlock or changing public mood.
• Disadvantages: Potential for manipulation by incumbents, voter fatigue, insufficient
preparation time.

Electoral System (How Votes Translate into Seats)

This dimension is crucial in determining the relationship between voter preferences and the
composition of government.

1. First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

• Definition: Each electoral district elects one representative; the candidate with the most
votes wins, even if not attaining the majority17.
• Countries: Bangladesh (main system for MPs), UK, US, India.
• Characteristics: Simple; tends to produce clear winners and stable governments, but often
fails to represent minority views proportionally.

2. Proportional Representation (PR)

• Definition: Seats are allocated to parties in proportion to their share of the vote18.
• Forms: Party-list, Single Transferable Vote (STV), Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP).
• Countries: Germany (MMP), Israel (open list), Netherlands (closed list), South Africa.
• Bangladesh Example: Reserved women’s seats in parliament allocated via closed-list PR,
based on party strength among elected MPs3.
• Advantages: Better reflects diversity, enables small party representation.
• Disadvantages: Can lead to coalition governments and legislative fragmentation.

3. Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP)

• Definition: Hybrid combining FPTP and PR-some representatives elected by constituency,

others from party lists to ensure overall proportionality19.
• Example Countries: Germany, New Zealand. Not used nationally in Bangladesh.

4. Single Transferable Vote (STV)

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• Definition: Voters rank candidates; votes are transferred according to preferences until all
seats are filled, promoting proportional outcomes within multi-member districts20.
• Countries: Ireland, Malta, Australia (Senate), local UK councils.

Level of Government
Elections occur at various governmental tiers, each with unique significance and implications.

1. National Elections

• Definition: Elections for central legislative assemblies (e.g., parliament, president).

• Bangladesh Example: Jatiya Sangsad elections.
• Other Examples: UK General Elections (House of Commons), US Congress and
Presidential Elections.

2. Regional Elections

• Definition: For regional legislatures, assemblies, or governorates within federal/unitary

states21.
• Bangladesh Example: Chittagong Hill Tracts regional councils.
• Other Countries: German Landtag elections, Indian State Legislative Assemblies.

3. Local Elections

• Definition: Municipal, city, or community-level offices such as mayors, councilors, and

local boards22.
• Bangladesh Example: City corporations, Union Parishads, District Councils.
• Other Countries: US city mayors and school boards, UK local councils, Indian Panchayats.

Summary Table: Election Typology with Examples

Below is a comparative table showcasing these election typologies, with specific references to
Bangladesh and selected other countries.

Typology Other Country

Bangladesh Example Description / Notes
Dimension Example

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 Voting Paper Ballot US, India Most common, trusted,
Method (Standard) (Paper/EVM combo) manually counted.

EVM pilots (urban Brazil (E-voting Speed, but security/trust

area) nationwide) challenges.

Postal (Diaspora UK, Germany For absentee/overseas

plans) (postal allowed) voters.

Timing Fixed-term (5 years US Presidential

Predictable, allows planning.
Method for MPs) (every 4 yrs)

Snap elections Flexibility, sometimes

Canada, Japan
allowed (past) manipulative.

Electoral UK (FPTP), India Simple, majoritarian, not

FPTP for MPs
System (FPTP) proportional.

PR for women’s Germany (MMP), Mix of party and individual

reserved seats NZ (MMP) ballots.

No STV used Ireland (STV), Malta Local elections may use

nationally (STV) STV elsewhere.

National (Jatiya UK Parliament, US Central government/federal

Level of Govt
Sangsad) Congress level.

Regional (Chittagong Germany (Landtag), Federal/unitary sub-national

Hill Tracts) India (State) legislatures.

Local (City Corp., US Mayor, UK Direct community

Union Parishad) Council representation.

This table demonstrates Bangladesh’s preference for paper ballots, FPTP, and fixed terms; it also
highlights similarities and divergences in global electoral practice.

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Detailed Typology Explanations and Analysis

Voting Method: Opportunities, Advances, and Challenges

Paper Ballot Voting

Bangladesh remains committed primarily to paper ballot voting at all levels, reflecting its
historical development and public trust. Election officials cite the transparency of paper trails,
ease of auditing, and relative security against digital tampering as core strengths12. However,
paper voting systems also face challenges: slow manual counting, risk of ruling-party influence
in rural areas, and logistical demands in remote districts during the monsoon season.
Global experience reflects similar trade-offs. For instance, the United States employs a mix of
hand-marked paper ballots, ballot-marking devices, and optical scanning across states, while
India’s EVM system, long celebrated for speed, recently faced growing calls for Voter Verified
Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs) to guard against suspected fraud23.

Electronic Voting
Electronic voting (e-voting) encompasses a spectrum from stand-alone EVMs to fully internet-
mediated voting. Urban Bangladesh has piloted EVMs, but public skepticism and civil society
concerns over potential hacking, software bugs, and manipulation have slowed broader
adoption13. Countries like Brazil and Estonia have taken the lead, with Brazil exclusively using
EVMs for all elections and Estonia pioneering national internet voting. Brazil emphasizes speed
and logistical efficiency, while Estonia highlights accessibility for expatriates and remote voters.
The principal advantages of e-voting are speed, reduced manual errors, and, in the case of remote
voting, increased accessibility. However, issues such as digital divides, reliability of internet
infrastructure, and the risk of cyberattacks must be carefully managed to avoid undermining
electoral integrity.

Postal Voting
Postal voting plays a modest but potentially growing role in Bangladesh. Efforts are underway to
develop IT-assisted solutions for enabling diaspora ballots, critical given the large Bangladeshi

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workforce overseas. Key barriers remain the timely delivery and return of ballots, as well as the
need for secure, scalable authentication mechanisms8.
Globally, postal voting has a long track record of contributing to higher turnout rates, as seen in
US states like Oregon and Washington. Fraud, widely cited as a risk, remains statistically rare;
procedural safeguards (signatures, tracing, drop-off options) have become standard practice in
established postal voting countries14.

Timing Method: Implications for Democratic Stability

Bangladesh’s parliamentary elections are nominally fixed-term, scheduled every five years by
law. However, the Prime Minister retains the formal power to dissolve parliament before term
expiry, opening the door to snap elections-though such occurrences are less frequent in
Bangladesh than in some parliamentary democracies.
The fixed-term approach offers valuable predictability, bolstering administrative preparedness
and ensuring fairness in campaign financing and media coverage. This stands in contrast to the
UK or Japan, where prime ministers may (or could, before reforms) dissolve the lower house to
secure snap elections under favorable political conditions, sometimes to the detriment of healthy
democratic competition24.
In crisis situations-like the 2024 political standoff in Bangladesh-fixed timelines may collide
with practical necessity. There is thus a perennial debate between stability and responsiveness,
with some scholars advocating hybrid mechanisms (allowing early dissolution only under
defined circumstances)

Electoral System: Shape of Representation

The core of an electoral system is how it translates individual votes into seats in the legislature.
Bangladesh’s continued use of FPTP for direct MP elections reflects its colonial inheritance and
a desire for stability and simplicity, but also results in disproportional outcomes-even landslide
victories with only modest vote pluralities.

• FPTP Pros: Clarity of outcome, promotes major national parties, government stability.
• FPTP Cons: Excludes minorities and small parties, “wasted” votes, incentivizes strategic
voting.

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The proportional representation system is used globally to better ensure that parties’ seat shares
reflect their actual vote shares. Bangladesh employs PR only for women’s reserved seats in
Parliament-a limited but significant adaptation. Full nationwide PR, as in Israel or South Africa,
is rare in South Asia but remains the subject of ongoing debate among reformers in
Bangladesh18.
Mixed systems like Germany’s and New Zealand’s (mixed-member proportional, MMP) attempt
to combine the local accountability of FPTP with the diversity of PR. Ireland’s use of STV offers
another pathway, especially suited to multi-member districts, and is credited with boosting both
voter choice and minority party presence20

Level of Government: Delivering Representation Closely

Effective democracy requires responsive government at multiple levels. National elections tend
to monopolize media and public attention, but local government elections often have a more
direct impact on daily life-deciding on water, health, infrastructure, and education issues.
Bangladesh maintains a multi-tiered electoral structure, with direct elections for city
corporations, union parishads (councils), upazila (sub-district) and zila (district) councils.
Notably, a majority of the electorate expresses a preference for nonpartisan and sequential (local
before national) elections in recent surveys7.
Globally, federal and large unitary states conduct regular regional elections-Indian state
assemblies, German Länder, Spanish autonomous communities-using diverse electoral systems.
Local elections worldwide highlight the importance of inclusiveness, candidate proximity, and
civic engagement.

Elections by Country: Further Comparative Examples

United Kingdom
The July 2024 general election vividly illustrates the impact of electoral design. FPTP enabled
the Labour Party to secure a supermajority in the House of Commons (411 of 650 seats, 63%)
despite garnering only 33.7% of the national vote10. This stark disproportionality fostered

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renewed debate about shifting to PR, with smaller parties and electoral reformers calling
attention to the mismatch between popular votes and parliamentary representation.
Local council elections are held annually on a rolling basis, sometimes using different voting
rules, including STV (in Scotland), reflecting the principle that local choices should drive local
outcomes. Regional assemblies, such as those in devolved Scotland and Wales, use variants of
PR or MMP.

United States
The US predominantly utilizes FPTP (called “winner-take-all”) in both congressional and state
legislative voting. For presidential elections, the Electoral College system involves a complex
aggregation of state-level results, also typically FPTP. Some municipalities, notably San
Francisco, use ranked-choice voting (an STV variant for single-winner races).
Postal and absentee ballots have become critical, especially for overseas citizens and during
emergencies, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Concerns around accessibility, ballot security,
and systemic biases help drive ongoing debates around electoral reforms, such as the expansion
of mail-in voting and the adoption of voter-verified paper audit trails for electronic ballots23.

India
India’s massive elections combine paper ballots and EVMs, with over 900 million eligible
voters. MPs are elected by FPTP, and women’s representation is promoted through reserved
constituencies rather than PR. Panchayat (village council) and urban local body elections
underpin the architecture of democratic decentralization, with considerable variance across
states.

Germany and New Zealand

Both countries exemplify the operation of MMP systems, ensuring that overall party
representation closely matches the national vote distribution, while preserving single-member
constituencies for local connection. These approaches are held up by reform advocates in
Bangladesh as models for future adaptation.

Reference to ‘Political Science Chapter 8.pdf’ and Scholarly Context

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The referenced file emphasizes that “elections are the most visible symbol of the democratic
process,” and stresses the importance of impartial rules and institutions for electoral credibility.
It draws on the need for a clear constitutional framework to prevent government interference,
reflecting Bangladesh’s and other democracies’ struggles around free and fair elections.
Academic debates, notably those raised by scholars such as Arend Lijphart, contrast
majoritarian (plurality/FPTP) and consensus (proportional) models of democracy, arguing
that electoral system design is fundamental to shaping party systems, voter participation, and
legislative inclusiveness.

Conclusion: The Significance and Future of Elections

Elections are much more than mere technical procedures; they are institutions embodying the
aspirations and struggles of societies for self-government, justice, and legitimacy. As
Bangladesh’s contemporary history demonstrates, the form and fairness of elections determine
not only who governs, but the very credibility and vibrancy of democracy itself. The global
diversity in electoral design reflects the adaptability of elections to cultural contexts,
technological change, and shifting public expectations.
Urgent debates around electoral reform, governance, and inclusion underscore that the “right”
electoral system depends on desired outcomes-stability, proportionality, minority inclusion, or
clear accountability. The fourfold typology presented here-voting method, timing, system, and
level-enables systematic comparison, guiding reformers and citizens as they struggle to perfect
the mechanisms that transform voices into power.
As technology advances and societies become more interconnected, the challenges and
opportunities for electoral innovation multiply. Bangladesh's ongoing discussions about diaspora
voting, electronic balloting, and system reforms mirror global debates about how to make
elections both credible and accessible. Monitoring these trends, learning from comparative
experiences, and ensuring institutional safeguards remain essential for safeguarding the promise
of democratic elections in the twenty-first century.

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Role of the Bangladesh Election Commission: A Broad Overview with
Contextual Examples

Constitutional Foundation and Structure

The Bangladesh Election Commission (BEC) is a constitutionally mandated body established

under Article 118 of the Constitution of Bangladesh. It is composed of a Chief Election
Commissioner (CEC) and up to four Election Commissioners, all appointed by the President
of Bangladesh. The CEC serves as the chairperson of the Commission.

• Tenure: Each commissioner serves a five-year term.

• Post-service restrictions: The CEC is barred from future government
service, ensuring neutrality. Other commissioners may be promoted to CEC but
are also barred from joining government service afterward.

This structure is designed to ensure institutional independence, shielding the Commission from
undue political influence.

Core Mandate and Responsibilities

The Commission’s primary role is to ensure free, fair, and credible elections at all levels of
government. Its responsibilities span across:

• Electoral Roll Management: Preparing, updating, and verifying voter lists.

• Election Scheduling: Announcing and managing the timeline for elections.
• Constituency Delimitation: Redrawing boundaries based on population shifts.
• Political Party Registration: Vetting and registering parties eligible to contest.
• Code of Conduct Enforcement: Regulating campaign behavior and media
usage.
• Deployment of Election Officials: Appointing returning officers, presiding
officers, and polling staff.
• Result Declaration: Counting votes and officially announcing winners.

These powers are derived from the Representation of the People Order, 1972, and reinforced
by Articles 118(4) and 126 of the Constitution.

Administrative and Enforcement Authority

The Commission is empowered to command cooperation from all executive bodies, including:

• District administrations
• Law enforcement agencies

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 • Intelligence services

It can delegate authority to its members or officers to ensure efficient execution of tasks,
especially during large-scale national elections. This decentralization is crucial for managing
logistics across Bangladesh’s 64 districts and thousands of polling centers.

Oversight, Independence, and Legal Safeguards

The BEC operates independently, answerable only to the Constitution and applicable laws. Its
autonomy is protected by:

• Removal procedures: Commissioners can only be removed through a process

similar to that of Supreme Court judges, preventing arbitrary dismissal.
• Judicial review: Its decisions can be challenged in court, but only under specific
legal grounds.

This legal framework aims to insulate the Commission from political pressure and uphold
democratic integrity.

Real-World Example: 2018 General Elections

In the 11th Parliamentary Elections (2018), the Commission oversaw voting across 300
constituencies, involving:

• Over 100 million registered voters

• Deployment of hundreds of thousands of polling officials
• Use of digital voter lists with photographs
• Enforcement of a strict Code of Conduct, including restrictions on campaign
financing and media bias

Despite logistical success, the election drew criticism from opposition parties and civil society
groups, who alleged:

• Partisan bias in candidate approvals

• Failure to curb intimidation and vote rigging
• Limited control over law enforcement, especially in rural areas

These concerns echo findings from a 2006 diagnostic study by Transparency International
Bangladesh, which highlighted systemic weaknesses such as:

• Lack of transparency in decision-making

• Inadequate voter education
• Political interference in the nomination process

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 Comparative Note

While Bangladesh’s Election Commission shares structural similarities with other countries—
such as India’s Election Commission or the UK's Electoral Commission—it faces unique
challenges due to:

• High political polarization

• Strong influence of local elites
• Limited institutional capacity in remote areas

Efforts to reform the Commission have included calls for:

• Parliamentary oversight
• Public nomination processes
• Greater transparency in funding and staffing

The Bangladesh Election Commission remains a cornerstone of democratic governance, but its
effectiveness depends on institutional integrity, public trust, and political will to uphold
electoral fairness

comparison of the election systems in Bangladesh and the United States, highlighting their
foundations, processes, and key differences.

1. Government Structure & Electoral Context

Feature Bangladesh United States

Form of Federal presidential constitutional

Parliamentary republic
Government republic

President (largely President (head of state & government)

Head of State ceremonial) elected by elected by the people via Electoral
Parliament College

Head of Prime Minister, chosen from President, directly elected through

Government majority in Parliament Electoral College

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 Feature Bangladesh United States

Unicameral – Jatiya
Bicameral – Congress (House of
Legislature Sangsad (National
Representatives & Senate)
Parliament)

2. Electoral System Type

Level Bangladesh United States

First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) in House of Representatives: FPTP

Parliamentary single-member constituencies – in single-member districts; Senate:
Elections candidate with most votes wins, statewide FPTP; Presidency:
even without majority Electoral College system

Direct in form but mediated by

Presidential Indirect – Parliament elects the
Electoral College; voters choose
Election President
electors pledged to candidates

435 House districts (population-

300 constituencies, roughly
Voting Districts based), 50 states for Senate, 538
equal population
electors for presidency

3. Voting & Participation

Aspect Bangladesh United States

Not automatic in most states; varies

Voter
Automatic upon eligibility by state (some have same-day or
Registration
automatic registration)

Voting Age 18+ 18+

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 Aspect Bangladesh United States

Tuesday in early November (not a

Voting Day Usually a public holiday
national holiday)

Often high in competitive Lower than many democracies;

Turnout
elections, but can be affected by higher in presidential years (~60–
Trends
political unrest or boycotts 66%), lower in midterms

4. Election Oversight

Feature Bangladesh United States

Independent Election Decentralized – each state runs its

Election
Commission oversees all own elections under federal
Commission
elections guidelines

Centralized control; State-managed with federal

Election
military/police may be oversight; mix of paper ballots,
Security
deployed for security machines, and audits

5. Key Strengths & Criticisms

Country Strengths Criticisms

FPTP can produce “winner without

Simple FPTP system; clear
majority”; allegations of political influence
Bangladesh constituency link; centralized
over Election Commission; boycotts can
oversight
undermine legitimacy

United Multiple checks & balances; Electoral College can elect candidate
States strong local control; Electoral without popular vote majority; voter

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 Country Strengths Criticisms

College balances state suppression concerns; complex,

influence inconsistent rules across states

System and offices

• Executive selection: Bangladesh’s prime minister emerges from the parliamentary

majority; the president is chosen by Parliament and has largely ceremonial powers. In the
U.S., the president is both head of state and government, elected separately from
Congress through the Electoral College.
• Legislature design: Bangladesh has a unicameral parliament. The U.S. splits lawmaking
between two chambers with distinct constituencies and terms, which creates more veto
points and slower lawmaking but additional checks.
• Term cycles: Bangladesh’s Parliament serves five-year terms, with general elections
typically held at once. The U.S. staggers elections: House every 2 years, Senate seats on
6-year cycles (one-third each election), and the presidency every 4 years—producing
near-constant campaigning.

Administration, districting, and security

• Election management: Bangladesh runs elections through a single national Election

Commission that sets rules, manages logistics, and certifies results. The U.S. pushes
administration down to states and counties (different ballots, machines, deadlines),
creating variation in voter experience and procedures.
• Districting and boundaries: Bangladesh constituencies are delimited by the Election
Commission. In the U.S., states draw House districts after each census; where legislatures
control the process, partisan gerrymandering is common, though several states use
independent commissions.
• Security and oversight: Bangladesh regularly deploys police and, at times,
paramilitary/army support for security and transport of materials. The U.S. relies on
civilian poll workers and local law enforcement, with post-election audits in many states;
military presence at polling places is not used.

Voting process and participation

• Voter registration and ID: Bangladesh ties the voter list to the national NID system and
uses photo-based rolls and, in many places, biometric verification. The U.S. has 50 sets
of rules: some states offer automatic or same-day registration and no-excuse mail voting;
others require advance registration and stricter ID.

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 • Ballot casting: Bangladesh predominantly uses paper ballots with manual counting at
polling centers, then aggregation up the chain. The U.S. mixes precinct scanners, ballot-
marking devices, paper absentee/mail ballots, and risk-limiting audits in some states.
• Access and turnout: Bangladesh typically declares election day a public holiday, which
supports participation; turnout can be highly sensitive to competition, boycotts, and
security conditions. U.S. turnout peaks in presidential years and falls in midterms and
locals; early/mail voting expands access but weekday voting and registration hurdles
depress participation in some places.

Parties, nominations, and representation

• Parties and candidate selection: Bangladesh’s nominations are highly party-centered,

with alliances and local patronage networks influential. The U.S. uses party primaries and
caucuses where voters, not party elites, choose nominees—opening doors to outsider
candidates but lengthening campaigns.
• Independents and minor parties: Both systems legally allow them, but First-Past-the-
Post disadvantages smaller parties. In the U.S., ballot access laws vary by state and are
often onerous; in Bangladesh, local machinery and resources are the main barriers.
• Gender and reserved representation: Bangladesh reserves 50 parliamentary seats for
women, allocated to parties proportionally to their seat share—boosting descriptive
representation. The U.S. has no reserved seats; gains in women’s representation come
through electoral competition and party recruitment.

Money, campaigns, and disputes

• Campaign finance: Bangladesh imposes spending ceilings and stricter limits on

corporate and third-party influence; enforcement capacity matters. The U.S. permits
significant independent spending via PACs and super PACs, with disclosure rules that
vary and continued debate over the role of “dark money.”
• Campaign style and media: Bangladesh relies heavily on mass rallies, local canvassing,
and television/newspapers, with social media growing fast. The U.S. features long,
media-heavy campaigns, extensive polling and microtargeting, and outsized influence of
televised debates and digital ads.
• Complaints, recounts, and courts: Bangladesh uses election tribunals and the higher
judiciary to hear petitions, and the Election Commission can order recounts or repolls. In
the U.S., disputes begin in county/state processes, move to state courts, and only rarely
involve federal courts; recounts are automatic or candidate-initiated depending on state
law, and audits are increasingly standard.

What this means in practice

• Centralized vs. decentralized trade-off: Bangladesh’s centralized model can deliver

uniform rules and faster nationwide decisions but depends heavily on the Election

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 Commission’s perceived neutrality. The U.S. model diversifies risk and allows local
tailoring but creates inconsistency and legal complexity.
• Representation vs. governability: Bangladesh’s parliamentary setup quickly converts
seat majorities into executive power, aiding governability. The U.S. separation of powers
and staggered elections increase representation of diverse preferences but often produce
divided government and gridlock.
• Access vs. integrity tools: Bangladesh leans on strong ID and centralized rolls for
integrity; the U.S. mixes ID rules, paper trails, audits, and transparency—but unevenly
across states. Each system is still working through the balance between broader access
and robust safeguards.

Major Elections in Bangladesh

Introduction

Since the restoration of parliamentary democracy in 1991, Bangladesh has held seven landmark
general elections.
Each contest has tested the resilience of its institutions, shaped party dynamics, and influenced
the limits and possibilities of popular participation.
From the return to civilian rule, through caretaker-administered polls, to recurring boycotts and
digital innovations, these elections reveal the evolving story of Bangladesh’s democratic journey.

1991

The fifth general election marked Bangladesh’s return to parliamentary rule after years of
presidential or military dominance.
The Bangladesh Nationalist Party won 140 of 300 seats, and Begum Khaleda Zia became the
country’s first female prime minister under the reinstated parliamentary system.

1996

This year saw two landmark votes.

On February 15, the sixth election was boycotted by major opposition parties, producing 49
unopposed seats and a parliament that lasted only four days.
An interim caretaker government oversaw a second poll on June 12, when the Awami League
won 146 seats—Bangladesh’s first election under a neutral caretaker administration, restoring a
measure of legitimacy.

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2001

The eighth general election on October 1 achieved Bangladesh’s first peaceful, constitutional
handover of power between rival parties.
The BNP-led Four-Party Alliance captured 193 seats, returning Begum Khaleda Zia to the
premiership and demonstrating that power could change hands without extra-constitutional
intervention.

2008

After nearly two years under a military-backed caretaker government, the December 29 vote
tested democratic resilience.
With an 86.3 percent turnout, the Awami League swept 230 seats and Sheikh Hasina became
prime minister again, signaling a decisive public rejection of non-party rule and a renewal of
civilian governance.

2014

The tenth election on January 5 was marred by the main opposition BNP’s boycott over the
abolition of the caretaker system.
Low turnout, virtually uncontested constituencies, and widespread allegations of rigging led to
international concern and deployment of the military for security—raising questions about the
vote’s credibility.

2018

On December 30, the eleventh general election delivered a third consecutive victory for the
Awami League.
But reports of pre-poll arrests of opposition figures, ballot-box stuffing, and an early declaration
of results fueled accusations of intimidation and undermined confidence in the process.

2024

The twelfth parliamentary election on January 7 repeated patterns of contest and controversy.
The BNP again boycotted, demanding a neutral caretaker government, while the ruling party
retained power amid limited observer access, military-assisted security, and renewed allegations
of vote-rigging.

Conclusion

The arc from 1991 through 2024 illustrates Bangladesh’s ongoing struggle to balance party
rivalry, institutional trust, and electoral integrity.

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Caretaker administrations once offered a way to neutralize political deadlock but were ultimately
abolished, leaving fresh debates over impartial election oversight.
Boycotts and low turnouts highlight persistent mistrust, even as digital voter lists and biometric
registration promise to enhance transparency.
Looking forward, strengthening the Election Commission, reviving consensus on neutral poll-
time arrangements, and building broader civil-society engagement will be crucial for deepening
democratic practice in Bangladesh.

Further avenues to explore

• The rise and repeal of Bangladesh’s caretaker-government system

• Evolution of the Election Commission’s mandate and independence
• Impact of digital technology and biometric voter lists on electoral integrity
• Comparative studies of caretaker models in South Asia
• Prospects for electoral reforms to bolster voter confidence

Structure and Functions of the Bangladesh Election Commission

Structure

• Constitutional basis
The Commission is established under Article 118 of the Constitution, comprising a Chief
Election Commissioner (CEC) and up to four additional Election Commissioners (ECs),
all appointed by the President of Bangladesh.
• Leadership and tenure
The Chief Election Commissioner serves as the chair when the body has more than one
member. Each Commissioner holds office for a fixed five-year term from the date they
assume their duties. A former CEC cannot join the civil service; other ECs may become
CEC but likewise cannot enter other state service upon leaving office.
• Independence safeguards
In exercising its functions, the Commission is subject only to the Constitution and
applicable laws. Its members cannot be removed except as provided in the Constitution,
ensuring insulation from political pressure.

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Flowchart.

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Functions

• Superintendence, direction and control of elections

Under Article 118(4) of the Constitution and Articles 4–5 of the Representation of the
People Order, 1972, the Commission oversees preparation of electoral rolls, delimitation
of constituencies, candidate nominations, conduct of polling, vote counting and result
certification for Presidential, Parliamentary, local and by-elections.
• Voter registration and roll maintenance
It mandates photo-verified voter lists linked to the national ID database, directs periodic
cleaning of duplicate or outdated entries, and sets deadlines for additions or objections to
the rolls.
• Regulation of campaign conduct
The Commission issues and enforces the Code of Conduct for political parties and
candidates, monitors campaign finance disclosures, and may impose penalties for
violations.
• Administrative and security coordination
Through its power under Article 126, the Commission can require any executive
authority—district administrations, police, or local government—to provide logistical
support, security arrangements, transport of ballot papers and deployment of personnel at
polling stations.
• Voter education and public outreach
It conducts nationwide awareness drives on voting procedures, including media
campaigns, school-based mock polls and mobile registration centers.

Example of Mandate in Action

In the lead-up to the January 2014 general election, the Commission invoked its authority under
Article 126 to direct all district and upazila administrations to verify and update voter lists. This
effort removed over 1.2 million duplicate and ineligible entries, deployed photo-verified rolls at
more than 250,000 polling booths, and coordinated police and auxiliary forces to secure polling
centers—demonstrating the Commission’s centralized control over both administrative and
security aspects of national elections.

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