Africa

Volume 33.1 2014

Journal
of Evangelical
Theology
1 Editorial Transforming African Christian
Theology
3 David Kirwa Tarus Social Transformation in The
Circle of Concerned African
Women Theologians
23 Fabulous Moyo and The Christian Church and
Erwin van der Meer Witchcraft Accusations in Africa
41 Georgette Short Satan and Demons in Popular
Christian Theology
57 Timothy P. Palmer African Christian Theology:
A New Paradigm
67 Philip Tachin Humanity Made in the Image of
God: Towards Ethnic Unity in
Africa
83 Book Reviews

ISSN 1026-2946
Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology
© Scott Christian University.
Consulting Editors:
Dr. Paul Bowers, Managing Editor, BookNotes for Africa
Prof. James Kombo, DVCAA, Daystar University, Nairobi
Prof. Samuel M. Ngewa,
Professor of Biblical Studies, African International University
Dr. Richard Gehman, Former Editor of AJET
Dr. Gregg Okesson, Dean of the E Stanley Jones School of World Evangelism,
Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky

Editorial Committee:
Prof. Paul Mumo Kisau, Publisher, Vice-Chancellor, Scott Christian University
Dr. Andrew G. Wildsmith, Editor, Lecturer, Scott Christian University
Dr. Benjamin Musyoka, DVC for Academic Affairs, Scott Christian University
Dr. Bernard Nzioka, Director of Quality Assurance, Scott Christian University
Dr. Jamie Viands, Dean, School of Theology, Scott Christian University

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Purpose: AJET is published twice a year by Scott Christian University, a

chartered private university in Kenya, in order to provide theological educators
and students with evangelical articles and book reviews related to Christian
ministry in Africa.

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accredited by ACTEA since 1979 and was chartered as a private university by
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the School of Theology (formerly Scott Theological College), the School of
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Palmer African Christian Theology: A New Paradigm 57!

African Christian Theology: A New Paradigm

by Timothy P. Palmer
Introduction
The last 50 years have seen a flood of material on African Christian
theology. It has generally been assumed in this literature that there are two
basic types of African Christian theology - inculturation theology and liberation
theology. This assumption goes back to the 1970s, when these two theologies
were defining themselves in relation to each other and in relation to “mission
theology.”
Even more recently the paradigm of these two types of African Christian
theology has persisted. In 1993, Emmanuel Martey defined the issue in the
1
title of his African Theology: Inculturation and Liberation. In the same decade,
the editor of Paths of African Theology assumed that inculturation and
2
liberation are the “twin foci of theological reflection in Africa.” Charles Nyamiti
believes that inculturation and liberation are the basic two types of African
theology and christology.3 In 1994, Ngindu Mushete stated that the three types
of theology in Africa are still mission theology, “African” theology and black
theology or black South African theology.4 And in the last decade Peter
Okuma is still of the opinion that Christianity in Igboland is still “Mission
Christianity,” with its focus on “the next world.”5 (Obviously Okuma has spent
too much time in European libraries.)
But the theological and ecclesiastical landscape has changed in the last
decades. The existence and nature of so-called “mission theology” in Africa is
no longer clear. Instead, the theology of the mainline churches in Africa has
moved beyond its missionary origins.
This is clear if one considers the existence of non-formal theology as well
as formal theology. Bulus Galadima has demonstrated the importance of non-
formal theology in one’s assessment of African theology.6 Non-formal theology
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1
Emmanuel Martey, African Theology: Inculturation and Liberation (Maryknoll: Orbis,
1993).
2
Rosino Gibellini, “African Theologians Wonder . . . and Make Some Proposals,” in
Paths of African Theology, ed. R. Gibellini (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1994), pp. 1-8 (6).
3
Charles Nyamiti, “Contemporary African Christologies,” in Paths of African Theology,
pp. 62-77 (64).
4
A. Ngindu Mushete, “An Overview of African Theology,” in Paths of African Theology,
pp. 9-26 (13).
5
Peter Chidi Okuma, Towards an African Theology: The Igbo Context in Nigeria
(Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2001), p. 16.
6
Bulus Galadima, “Non-Formal Theology: A Case for Lay Involvement in the
Theological Endeavour,” in TCNN Research Bulletin 29 (June 1996): 4-14.
!
58! Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 33.1 2014
occurs any time an African - or a European or an Asian - preaches or prays or
sings. Philip Jenkins and others have shown how mainline African Christianity
has in fact developed its own distinctive theology, which is both non-formal
7
and formal.
It is our contention in this essay that the old paradigm of two types of
African Christian theology is out of date. This essay argues that there are
currently at least four basic types of African Christian theology today:
inculturation theology, liberation theology, African evangelical theology and
prosperity theology.
Inculturation Theology
Inculturation theology is a form of contextualization. The context into which
the Gospel is placed in this case is usually the traditional African culture. The
non-formal inculturation of the Gospel in the African context is as old as the
African church. The preaching, praying and singing of African Christians
throughout African church history are forms of the inculturation of the Gospel.
Often these forms of inculturation are in the local African language.
But the formal inculturation of the Gospel into the African context began in
the middle of the twentieth century. “The real starting-point of African theology
came from a European Franciscan missionary in the Belgian Congo, Placide
Tempels.”8 In 1945 his Bantu Philosophy was published in French. But “the
first African who can be called an African theologian was Vincent Mulago, a
Catholic priest from the then Belgian Congo.”9 The year 1956 saw the
publication of his Ph.D. thesis in French on the “Bantu Vital Union.” In the
same year Alexis Kagame published his “The Bantu-Rwandan Philosophy” in
French. That year also saw the publication of a collection of articles under the
title Des Prêtres Noir s’Interrogent, or “The Black Priests Ask.”
Formal African inculturation theology began in Francophone Africa, but
Anglophone Africa soon followed suit. The 1960s saw a flood of materials on
African Christian theology, both in French and English (European languages!)
and by both Roman Catholics and Protestants. In 1969 the All-Africa
Conference of Churches in Abidjan said, “African Theology is ‘a theology
based on the Biblical faith of Africans, and which speaks to the African soul.’”10
In the same year, Pope Paul VI said in the Rubaga Cathedral in Kampala: “An
adaptation of the Christian life in the fields of pastoral, ritual, didactic and

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7
Philip Jenkins, The Faces of African Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2006).
8
Bénézet Bujo, African Theology in its Social Context, trans. J. O’Donohue (Nairobi:
Paulines Pub. 1992), p. 53.
9
B. Bujo, African Theology in its Social Context, p. 53.
10
Aylward Shorter, African Christian Theology-Adaptation or Incarnation? (Maryknoll:
Orbis, 1977), p. 23.
!
Palmer African Christian Theology: A New Paradigm 59!
spiritual activities is not only possible, it is even favoured by the Church. . . .
[You] may, and you must, have an African Christianity.”11
The inculturation of the Gospel was done to make the Gospel relevant to
the African situation. In 1983, Osadolor Imasogie wrote, “Christianity, for many
Africans, remains a foreign religion. . . . It is only when incarnation takes place
12
that Christianity ceases to be a foreign religion.” Even Byang Kato
13
advocated, “Contextualize without compromise.”
But the results of this inculturation exercise have been mixed. At times the
result has been pure syncretism or a return to African traditional religion.
Gabriel Setiloane said that, “we have learnt nothing new about religion from
the missionaries. . . . But we Africans are bringing something to Christianity: a
14
view of Divinity much higher, deeper, and all-pervasive.” Bolaji Idowu
concluded his book on African Traditional Religion by praising a “faithful
remnant whose loyalty to the religion of their forbears will continue
15
steadfast.”
I maintain that there is both irresponsible and responsible inculturation.
When our culture is placed above the Gospel, then we have syncretism, which
is a mixing of the incompatible elements of two or more religions. But when the
Gospel is placed above the culture, transforming the culture, then responsible
inculturation is possible. But in the end, after 50 years, what has inculturation
really produced? Tersur Aben maintains that African contextualization and
inculturation have yielded meager results. He says, “Africans contribute quite
minimally to biblical theology.”16 He concludes: “Many African theologians now
concede the failure of enculturation to yield viable African Christian
theology.”17
Furthermore, African culture is changing rapidly. African culture is
becoming more urbanized and westernized. Many of young people are far
removed from the traditional African religion. A young Birom student of mine
recently said that he doesn’t know traditional Birom religion. He grew up in a
Christian church in the urban setting of Jos. His culture is that of urban Nigeria
- iPods and iPhones, the internet, go-slows, unemployment, Muslim-Christian
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
11
A. Shorter, African Christian Theology, p. 20.
12
Osadolor Imasogie, Guidelines for Christian Theology in Africa (Achimota: Africa
Christian Press, 1983), pp. 23-24.
13
Byang Kato, Biblical Christianity in Africa (Achimota: Africa Christian Press, 1985), p.
38.
14
Gabriel Setiloane, “Where Are We in African Theology?” in African Theology en
Route, e. K. Appiah Kubi and S. Torres (Maryknoll:Orbis, 1979), pp. 59-65 (63).
15
Bolaji Idowu, African Traditional Religion: A Definition (London: SCM Press, 1973), p.
208.
16
Tersur Aben, African Christian Theology: Illusion & Reality (Bukuru: Africa Christian
Textbooks, 2008), p. 130.
17
T. Aben, African Christian Theology, p. 172.
!
60! Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 33.1 2014
tensions, corruption and survival. This culture is far removed from the
traditional African culture of ancestors and sacrifices and mediators.
Liberation theology complains that inculturation theology neglects the
pressing social issues in our society. Desmond Tutu said, “I fear that African
18
Theology has failed to produce a sufficiently sharp cutting edge.” Tutu also
19
said, “African theology will have to recover its prophetic calling.” More
harshly, Bénézet Bujo said: “The theology of inculturation, so often preached
triumphantly in African churches, is a pompous irrelevance, truly an ideological
20
superstructure at the service of the bourgeoisie.” It would be wrong to write
off inculturation theology in these terms. But it must be admitted that often
inculturation theology is simply a form of comparative theology.
Liberation Theology
Liberation theology, in contrast, is a form of contextualization that places
the Gospel in the contemporary African setting. Instead of focusing on the
traditional African culture, liberation theology is passionately concerned with
rectifying the glaring injustices in African society. Liberation theology began in
this continent in South Africa, taking the form of Black Theology.
The historical antecedents of Black Theology go back to the situation of
slavery in the Americas. “The roots of Black Theology must in fact be traced to
. . . the arrival of the first African slaves in the seventeenth [and sixteenth]
century. The subsequent history of Americans of African origin . . . is the raw
material of what we now call Black Theology.”21 But “black theology as an
academic concern can be dated from July 31, 1966 when the National
Conference of Black Churchmen issued a statement asking power and
freedom from the leaders of America [and] power and justice from Negro
citizens.” In 1969, “James Cone published Black Theology and Black Power,
which marked the formal inauguration of Black Theology.”22
In the 1970s Black Theology came to South Africa. In 1972 Essays on
Black Theology was published in Johannesburg but was banned by the
government before it reached the bookstores.23 In the 1970s Desmond Tutu
and Allan Boesak were leaders of the Black Theology school of thought.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
18
Desmond Tutu, “Black Theology and African Theology-Soulmates or Antagonists,” in
A Reader in African Christian Theology, rev. ed. (London: SPCK, 1997), pp. 36-44 (43).
19
D. Tutu, “Whither African Theology?” in Christianity in Independent Africa, ed. E.
Fashole-Luke et al. (London: Rex Collings, 1978), pp. 364-369 (369).
20
B. Bujo, African Theology in its Social Context, p. 66.
21
John Mbiti, “An African Views American Black Theology,” in Black Theology: A
Documentary History. Vol. 1: 1966-1979, ed. J. Cone and G. Wilmore (Maryknoll:
Orbis, 1993), pp. 379-84 (379-80).
22
J. Mbiti, “An African Views American Black Theology,” p. 379.
23
J. Mbiti, “An African Views American Black Theology,” p. 383.
!
Palmer African Christian Theology: A New Paradigm 61!
But John Mbiti accuses Black Theology of reductionism. He wrote, “What I
view as an excessive preoccupation with liberation may well be the chief
limitation of Black Theology. . . . Black Theology cannot and will not become
African Theology. . . . Black Theology hardly knows the situation of Christian
living in Africa, and therefore its direct relevance for Africa is either nonexistent
or only accidental. . . . African Theology is concerned with many more issues,
including all the classical theological themes, plus localized topics.”24
In the subsequent years, liberation theology moved beyond racial issues.
Socio-economic liberation has become a major concern of liberation theology.
Allan Boesak even accuses James Cone of reducing liberation theology to the
racial issue. Instead, Black Theology should focus on total liberation. “It
focuses on the dependency of the oppressed and their liberation from
dependency in all its dimensions - psychological, cultural, political,
economical, and theological.”25 For Bénézet Bujo the main problem is “the
mass poverty of Africa.” Although some church leaders have spoken out on
behalf of the poor, “it must be said that the church of Africa has been a silent
church.”26 Jean-Marc Éla supports Bujo’s call for economic liberation.27
There are other forms of liberation theology in Africa. Feminist theology is
an example. Mercy Oduyoye, for example, focuses on the unique situation of
women in Africa, including their oppression.28
Liberation theology is a theological response to the problems of poverty
and injustice in African society. Liberation theology is a cry for justice.
Liberation theology stands in the tradition of the Old Testament prophets and
of Jesus Christ himself. Unfortunately, liberation theology has often been one-
sided. Too often liberation theology focuses only on the socio-economic
liberation of the person, neglecting the need for spiritual salvation. Allan
Boesak is an example of this. For him the will of God is “liberating the
oppressed,” not the sinner. His “total liberation” includes theological liberation
but not spiritual liberation. His discussion on righteousness deals with Jesus’
“kingly justice” but not Paul’s forensic righteousness.29 Tersur Aben observes:
“Conceiving African Christian theology as simply the liberation of Africans from
their suppression under Europeans [or, Africans] has the negative effect of
reducing Christianity to mere sociopolitical religion.”30

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
24
J. Mbiti, “An African Views American Black Theology,” pp. 381-83.
25
Allan Boesak, Farewell to Innocence (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1977), p. 144.
26
B. Bujo, African Theology in its Social Context, p. 66.
27
See Jean-Marc Éla, My Faith as an African (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1985).
28
Mercy Oduyoye, “Feminist Theology in an African Perspective,” in Paths of African
Theology, pp. 166-81.
29
A. Boesak, Farewell to Innocence, pp. 142, 144, 146.
30
T. Aben, African Christian Theology, p. 39.
!
62! Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 33.1 2014
African liberation theology is a contextualization of the Gospel into the
context of injustice and poverty within Africa. It is a cry for justice in our unjust
world. We must recognize the presence of massive corruption and injustice in
many Christian countries and states on this continent. Africa desperately
needs justice. But this should not be done to the neglect of the liberation of the
individual from the guilt and effects of sin.
African Evangelicalism
Many scholarly works on African Christian theology neglect African
evangelicalism as an African Christian theology. Yet this is the dominant form
of Christianity in large parts of Africa. African evangelicalism has also
developed its own distinctive theology. Evangelicalism is a Christian theology
that takes seriously Scripture as the Word of God. Christian evangelicalism
assumes the full authority and reliability of the Bible, the divinity of Christ, the
satisfaction theory of the atonement, the need for conversion, and the
obligation to evangelize the world.
Early missionary theology in Africa was by and large evangelical. Early
missionary theology preached the necessity of faith in Jesus Christ as the only
way to heaven. But this theology tended to be individualistic and other-worldly.
Salvation was for the individual believer in heaven above. Early missionary
theology tended to neglect this present world. The kingdom of God for them
was the church. Therefore Christians should not get involved in politics since
politics was worldly. Christianity was a Sunday religion. Christianity was about
conversion of the soul, not the body.
In contrast to early European and American missionary theology, African
evangelicalism is now much more interested in this world. Contemporary
African evangelicalism has put the Gospel into the modern context of poverty,
suffering, unemployment and disease. African evangelicalism believes that
Jesus is the answer to these problems. It is thus necessary to believe in Jesus
as one’s personal Savior. Faith in Jesus will guarantee eternal life in heaven.
But faith in Jesus will also provide solutions to problems on this earth. African
evangelicalism believes in miracles today. Early missionary theology believed
in miracles in the time of Jesus but was less clear about miracles today.
African evangelicalism believes in the power of prayer and the real possibility
of miracles in our Christian life today.
Paul Gifford writes: “The popular Christianity we encountered [in Africa] ...
was not concerned with a renewed order or any ‘new Jerusalem’, but with a
job, a husband, a child, a car, an education, a visa to the West. It was about
succeeding in this realm.” He says that the missionaries taught hardship in this
life in exchange for happiness hereafter. But “the missionary legacy has
vanished with scarcely a trace, for it is terrestrial rewards that feature so

!
Palmer African Christian Theology: A New Paradigm 63!
31
prominently in African Christianity today.” Philip Jenkins calls this new
evangelicalism The Next Christendom. For Jenkins, the Anglican Communion
32
in Nigeria is a good example of current African evangelicalism. Jenkins feels
that this new evangelicalism is global, extending beyond Africa.
Pentecostalism is a big part of African evangelicalism. But the example of the
Anglican Communion in Nigeria reminds us that not all of African
evangelicalism is Pentecostal. Even though Pentecostalism has entered the
mainline churches, African evangelicalism is broader than Pentecostalism.
This African evangelical theology also believes in the reality of the spirit
world. While liberal European theology thought that spirits did not exist, early
evangelical missionary theology taught the reality of good and bad spirits in
the Bible times. But African evangelicals speak of the reality of good and evil
spirits today. African evangelicals teach the power of Jesus to defeat the evil
spirits in our present context today.
This new evangelical theology is an indigenous form of African Christian
theology. Often it is non-formal theology. It is an African contextualized
theology distinct from inculturation theology, liberation theology or missionary
theology. African evangelicalism, like liberation theology, is concerned with
societal problems in the African context. But while liberation theology looks for
structural solutions in society, African evangelicalism tends to look for
individual or personal solutions. Liberation theology wants to transform
society; African evangelicalism wants to transform individual lives.
Prosperity Theology
Prosperity Theology is a major African “Christian” theology that is usually
neglected in the academic textbooks. Often Prosperity Theology is wrongly
joined together with African evangelicalism. Since Prosperity Theology is so
dominant in Africa, it needs to be treated as a separate African Christian
theology. The context of this contextualized theology is again the modern
African context. The context is contemporary, often urban, Africa with its social
and economic problems of poverty, unemployment, school fees and
barrenness.
Prosperity Theology holds to some of the same presuppositions as African
evangelicalism. It believes in the power of prayer and the possibility of
miracles. It believes in the power of Jesus to meet the daily needs of
individuals and to overcome evil spiritual powers. But Prosperity Theology
differs significantly from African evangelicalism in that it assumes that every
Christian has a right to be prosperous. Prosperity Theology assumes that God

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
31
Paul Gifford, African Christianity: Its Public Role (Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1998), pp. 339-40.
32
See Philip Jenkins, The Next Christendom (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).
!
64! Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 33.1 2014
33
will make every Christian prosperous if the believer does the right things. It
assumes that a faithful Christian will be rich and that poverty is an indication of
lack of faith. But this is not Scripture’s teaching. Despite the general truths of
the Sinai covenant in Deuteronomy 28, righteous people sometimes suffer.
The book of Job makes this clear.
Prosperity theology is a form of what Martin Luther calls the theology of
glory. Theologians of glory focus on one’s own prosperity instead of the
prosperity of the other person. But for Luther, the theology of the cross is the
theology of the agape love that Jesus taught and exemplified. Sometimes this
agape love will result in personal suffering. The theology of the cross offers
salvation through justification by faith that manifests itself in a life of agape
34
love to one’s neighbor. Prosperity theology is a syncretistic form of
Christianity, a deviation from African evangelicalism. Usually it is a non-formal
theology, but since it is so prominent in Africa, it should be included as a
distinct type of African Christian theology.
Conclusion
Christian theology in Africa is contextual. But the African context is
diverse and always changing. The traditional African culture is not the same
as our modern African context. Inculturation theology attempts to put the
Gospel into the traditional African context. Sometimes this effort is successful;
but sometimes it results in syncretism. Liberation theology, African
evangelicalism and Prosperity theology all address issues in our modern
African context, especially the issues of survival in a difficult socio-economic
context. But their solutions differ. Liberation theology stresses social justice;
evangelicalism emphasizes the power of prayer; Prosperity Theology believes
in personal prosperity.
Christian theology in Africa should be biblical, holistic and relevant.
Theology should give an answer to our sin and guilt before God. But theology
should also be relevant to our personal and social needs. Inculturation
theology reminds us of our traditional African roots. Liberation theology
reminds us of the concern for justice. African evangelicalism reminds us of the
power of prayer and miracles. We need responsible contextual theology. But
we should guard ourselves against theologies that distort the liberating Gospel
of Jesus Christ.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
33
See Peter Young, “An Evaluation of Prosperity Teaching,” in TCNN Research
Bulletin 43 (March 2005): 4-15; Femi Adeleye, Preachers of a Different Gospel
(Bukuru: Africa Christian Textbooks, 2011).
34
See Timothy Palmer, “Martin Luther’s Theology of the Cross in the Nigerian
Context,” in TCNN Research Bulletin 48 (Sept. 2007): 4-12. See also
www.tcnn.org/publications.
!
Palmer African Christian Theology: A New Paradigm 65!
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Parratt, ed. A Reader in African Christian Theology, rev. ed. London: SPCK, 1997, pp. 36-44.
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