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Contents

02 21 36 48
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4
Early Medieval The Delhi Sultanate Vijayanagara and Bhakti & Sufi
India (750 – 1200 Bahmani Empire Movements
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57 76 89
Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Previous Year
The Mughals The Marathas Questions

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 CHAPTER - 1

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750 – 1200 AD)

INTRODUCTION that, however politically partitioned,

India saw a development of new and
rich social exercises in the fields of
• In the beginning of the 8th century, workmanship, writing and language.
India presented a pitiful sight of a family
• In certainty, some best examples of
which was divided into many parts.
century’s engineering and Indian
• In 647 A.D., with the death of king writing has a place with this period.
Harshvardhan, India was divided into In this manner, a long way from being
many small kingdoms where small 'dim' it very well might be treated as a
kings were fighting with each other to brilliant and dynamic period of Indian
establish their supremacy. history.
• This wicked political uncertainty EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA
prevailed about 50 years. After the death of Harsha, India witnessed
significant changes. Such as,
The word medieval means ‘the middle
age’. It is used in history to refer to the 1. A period of political fragmentation,
period which lies between ancient and which paved the way for feudalism.
modern period. 2. A new clan of Rajputs emerged during
• The outcome was that till the beginning this period.
of 8th Century, India was disintegrated 3. One of the prime striking features of
among the small independent kingdoms the political history of the times was
of the rulers who had different powers what is known as the tripartite struggle
and honours and whose main aim was between the Rashtrakutas, Palas, and
to display the strength of their forces Gurjara-Pratiharas.
and offensive attack.
• There was no central government and
the country was divided into many Indian Feudalism
independent states.
• This period i.e. (from 750 to 1200 A.D.) in
Indian history has been named as a time
of 'Indian Feudalism' by a couple of
Dark or Vibrant phase of Indian historians. They accepted that various
history? changes occurred in Indian culture.
• The time span between AD 750 and AD • One huge change was the developing
1200 is alluded to as an early middle force of a class of individuals who
age time of Indian History. Earlier, it are called by different names like
was treated by historians as ‘dull stage’. Samantas, Ranaks, Rautas and so on.
Existing lords regularly recognized them
• It was so because, during that time the as their subordinates or Samantas. As
entire nation was isolated into various these Samantas gained wealth and,
provincial states which were occupied they declared themselves to be maha-
in battling with one another. samanta, maha-mandaleshvara (the
• But ongoing examinations have shown great lord of a “circle” or region) etc.

2
• Their origins were altogether different. developed over it or family.

» Some were officers from the govt. who • The hereditary chiefs began to assume
many functions of the government.
were defeated Rajas and continued to
They not only assessed and collected
enjoy the revenue of limited areas.
land revenue but also assumed more
» And others were tribal leaders or local and more administrative power such as
hereditary chiefs who had carved out a the rights over lands of their followers
sphere of authority with the support of without the prior permission of the
armed helpers. rulers.
• In some time, these revenue bearing • This led to increase in the number of
lands began to be considered hereditary people who drew sustenance from the
and monopoly of a few clans or family land without working on it.

Implications

• Erosion in the authority of centralized kingship.

• Reduction in number of central troops as standing
Political implication army.
• Decline in centralized bureaucracy.
• Rise of regional kingdoms.

• Decline of long distance trade, commerce.

• Localization of trade/self-sufficient level of
economy.
Economical implication
• Decrease in the quality/quantity of coin.
• Decline of guild.
• Agriculture-based economy.

• Proliferation of castes and sub-castes took place.

• Impetus to Jajmani system. Jajmani system or
Yajman system was an economic system most
notably found in villages of India in which one caste
performed various functions for other castes and
Social implication
received grain or other goods in return. It was an
occupational division of labour involving a system
of role-relationships that enabled villages to be
mostly self-sufficient.
• Larger land ownership led to high social status.

• Growth of regional language and culture provided

Cultural implication a conducive environment for Bhakti Movement to
flourish.

3
Social Conditions

• In the beginning of the 8th century, the society was

divided into four sections: Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Shudras. But these were not strictly
bound according to their duties.
• There were Brahmins who were fighters and there
Chatur-Varna system
were Kshatriyas who used to trade for livelihood.
In the same way, many Vaishyas and Shudras were
kings.
• People used to marry within their own community
or ‘jati’. Inter community marriages were rare.

• The position of women was not appreciable. Widows

were not allowed to remarry. On the other hand,
'sati pratha’ was forcefully adhered to, according to
Status of women which widows were burnt alive in the funeral pyre
(chita) of their husbands.
• Polygamy was prevalent mostly in upper sections
of the society.

• Common people, especially central India, led a

pure and high moral life. Most of the people were
vegetarian. They neither killed any animal nor
drank alcohol. These people also didn’t eat garlic
High morality of people and onion.
• There was a section of meat eating people who were
called ‘chandals’ and were kept outside the city in
the slums. They were considered ‘untouchables’.

• People were very happy and prosperous. Rich people

were very charitable because it was considered as
a noble act.
Charitable nature of people
• They built roads, night shelters, hospitals and
buildings for public welfare. They dug wells in public
interest.

• There was an uncountable number of schools and

many universities, in which Nalanda University in
the East, Vallabhi University in the West, were the
most famous ones.
Education
• There was a Sanskrit college in Malwa (Dhar),
and there was another college in Ajmer. In these
universities and colleges, Science, Mathematics
and Astronomy were taught apart from the Vedas.

4
EMERGENCE OF against a single common enemy, thus
ultimately failing to prevent Islamic

RAJPUT AS A CLAN Invasion.

• The use of the term Rajaputra for

specific clans or as a collective term
Causes for Tripartite Struggle
for various clans emerged by the 12th between the Pratiharas, Palas
century. and Rashtrakutas are as follows:
• From the death of Harsha till the 12th 1. To acquire supremacy over Kannauj, as
century, the destiny of India was mostly a symbol of prestige.
in the hands of various Rajput dynasties.
2. To get control over the rich resources of
• They are mythologically believed either the Gangetic valley.
to be the descendants of Lord Rama
(Surya vansha) or of Lord Krishna 3. To get control over Gujarat and Malwa
(Chandra vansha) or the Hero who whose nearness to the coast was very
sprang from the sacrificial fire (Agni important for foreign trade.
vansha-Agnikula theory). 4. Lust for war booty, an important source
• The Rajputs were staunch followers of for maintaining a huge army.
Hinduism. However, they patronized 5. Desire to impress the smaller kingdoms
both Buddhism and Jainism. with the sense of their power and
• During their period, the Bhakti Cult demand respect.
started in north India.

Agnikula myth? PROMINENT

• The Agnikula myth, which refers to
certain clans emerging from the fire DYNASTIES OF THE
of a great sacrifice conducted by
sage Vasishtha on Mount Abu, is also
TIME:
a fairly late phenomenon. PALA
• The ‘Agnikula Rajputs’ included the
• The Pala dynasty ruled the regions of
Pratiharas, Chalukyas, Paramaras,
Bengal and Bihar for about 400 years,
and Chahamanas.
from the 8th century until the end of
the 11th century.

TRIPARTITE • Gopala, the first Pala king, was a

Buddhist. Pala rulers used the revenue
STRUGGLE from the new tax collection methods
to fund initiatives all across the region
• During 8th century AD, there were three that would spread Buddhism.
great power in India namely Palas in the • Ramacharita was written during his
East, the Gurjar-Pratihar in the North, reign, in which the Pala rulers were
and the Rashtrakuta in the Deccan. descended from the Solar Dynasty.
• All three struggled for supremacy and • Dharmapala (2nd Pala ruler) was the
their desire to possess Kannauj. true founder of the Pala Dynasty. He
• Consecutive fighting weakened the greatly extended the empire's borders
Rajput rulers. Also, they never united and established the Pala as a dominant

5
 power in northern and eastern India. PRATHIHARAS/ GURJARA
He revived the Nalanda university and
founded the renowned Vikramshila PRATHIHARAS
University near Bhagalpur in Bihar • Origin: According to epigraphic
attracting students from all-over India evidence, the Pratiharas were
and Tibet. descendants of Lakshamana of the solar
• Arab merchant Sulaiman called Pala race of the great epic, the Ramayana.
kingdom as Ruhma. Some scholars opine that they were a
branch of the Gurjara race. They are
• Palas had close cultural relations with
mentioned in the Aihole inscription of
Tibet. Noted scholars Santarakshita
Pulakesin II, the records of Hieun Tsang
and Dipankara introduced Vajrayana
and the Hashacharita of Bana.
Buddhism in Tibet.
• The Avanti branch of the Pratiharas
• Architecture: The great Vihara at
became famous by their success over
Somapuri in Verendri and the Vihara in
the Arab Muslims. The Gurjara Pratihara
Paharpur was built by Dharmapala.
dynasty was founded by Nagabhatta
• Trade: The Pala kings have a reputation I in the region of Malwa in the eighth
for being intelligent diplomats. In order century C.E. He belonged to a Rajput
to promote new trade routes, they clan. Later one of his successors,
established alliances with different Vatsaraja extended his rule over to a
cultures. Southeast Asia and the Middle large part of North India and made
East were important trading partners Kannauj in western Uttara Pradesh his
for the empire. capital.
• Religion: The first Pala king Gopala • Nagabhatta I: The foundation of
was a Buddhist and so were all of his Pratihara dynasty's magnitude was
descendants. The Pala rulers took a positioned by Nagabhatta I, who ruled
religiously tolerant approach, allowing between 730-756 C.E. His rule was
Hindu Brahmins to hold high official prominent because of his successful
positions in the Pala court and granting confrontation with the Arabs. He
land for Hindu temples. There is fought against King Dantidurga- the
evidence of Islam appearing in Bengal Rashtrakuta ruler as well and was
during this time. defeated.
• Vatsaraja: He ruled from C.E 775 to 805.
Vikramashila University He seemed to have consolidated his
• Dharmapala is believed to be the position and made Ujjain as his capital.
founder of Vikramashila university He was on the verge of his imperial
near Bhagalpur in Bihar. career in Western India. He succeeded
• It attracted students from all over in defeating Dharmapala in the Doab
India as well as Tibet, similar to region and vanquished Northern India
Nalanda University. At this monastery, including the Ganga Yamuna valley.
several Sanskrit texts were translated • Mihirabhoja: He was the greatest ruler,
into Tibetan. a great devotee of Vishnu adopted the
• The most celebrated name linked title of Adhivaraha. Al-Masudi who
with Vikramashila University was that visited during his period testifies his
of Atisha Dipankara who was highly power. He called Prathihara kingdom
respected in Tibet. as Al-Juzr and King Baura. Sheikh
Sulaiman also visited the court of Bhoja.
• Administration: In the Gurjara-

6
 Pratihara history, king occupied the include Viswaroopa form of Vishnu
highest position in the state and had and Marriage of Siva and Parvati from
enormous powers, kings adopted Kannauj. Rajasekhara, court poet of
big titles such as 'Parmeshwara', Mahipala, wrote Karpuramanjari and
'Maharajadhiraja', 'Parambhaterak'. Kavya mimamsa.
The appointment of the Samantas
and signing on grants and charities
were also the works of the kings. The RASHTRAKUTAS
Samantas used to give military help to
their Kings and fought for them. The • Dantidurga was the originator of the
advice of the high ranking officers was Rashtrakuta administration.
taken in matters of administration. • Initially they were subordinate to
• Social Condition: Caste system was Chalukyas of Karnataka. During
prevalent in Indian society during the eighth century, Dantidurga, a
Gurjara- Pratihara period and the Rashtrakuta boss, ousted his Chalukya
reference of all the four caste of the Vedic master.
period is found in the inscription as well. • Krishna I vanquished the Gangas and
The people of each caste were divided the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He
into different classes. The Arab writer constructed the great stone-cut solid
Ibda Khurdadab has referred seven Kailasa sanctuary at Ellora.
castes in the time of the Pratiharas.
• Amoghavarsha - I (from 815 AD- 880
There were groups such as Savakufria,
A.D.) ruled for a huge period of 64
Brahman, Kataria, Sudaria, Bandalia,
years.
and Labla, according to him. The King
was chosen from the Savakufria class, » He was follower of Jainism. Jinasena
while the Brahman class did not drink was his main preceptor.
wine and married their sons to Kataria
class daughters. » He was also patron of letters and
lierature and he himself wrote the
• Economy: Economy in Pratihara Empire famous Kannada book, Kavirajamarga.
was largely based on agriculture. The
major expenditure of government » He built the Rashtrakuta capital, the
during the Pratihara Empire was on city of Malkhed or Manyakheda (In
the royal household and the army. The Gulbarga region of Karnataka).
major source of government revenue at • Krishna III defeated Chola King
that time was the tax derived from the Parantaka I andset up pillar of victory
bulk of agricultural production. at Rameshwaram.
• Religion: This age was the age of the • Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin
progress of the Brahminical religion. and Kannada was their mother tongue.
Vaishnava, Shaiva, Sakta and Surya
were the important sects of Brahmanism
where the Brahmin enjoyed the first
class position. The kings and other rich Cultural Contributions:
persons gave donations to the temples Literature
for their expenses.
• The Rashtrakutas widely patronized
• Art & Architecture: The Gurjara- Sanskrit literature.
Pratihara rulers were great patrons
of arts, architecture and literature.
• Trivikrama composed Nalachampu
and the Kavirahasya was created by
Notable sculptures of this period
Halayudha during the rule of Krishna III.

7
 Minister who had a cabinet of ministers
and various army personnel under
him. Every minister had to undergo
military training and be prepared
for war at any moment. The Prime
minister was known as Mahamatya
or Purnamathya and the foreign
minister as Mahaskhapataladhikrita,
Commander as Dandanayaka. They all
were linked with the king and with the
government.
• Polity: In Rashtrakuta Empire, the
emperor or king was the ultimate
authority. He was expected to look
after the subjects of the empire and
uphold the current order, social justice,
and peace. The guilds or co-operatives
I m a g e 1.1: R a s h t r a k u ta dy n a s t y were formed for day-to-day matters,
who would make a decision on any
• Amogavarsha I, who was a Jain,
disagreements as per the prevalent
disparaged numerous Jain researchers.
custom, and if the issue could not be
His instructor Jinasena formed Parsva
resolved, then it was brought to the
Budaya, a history of Parsva in sections.
notice of a superior authority.
Another researcher Gunabhadra
composed the Adipurana, the • Economy: During the era of Rastrakutas,
biographies of different Jain holy the economy was mainly based on the
people. agricultural and natural produce. Ivory
and Jewellery were other major products
• Sakatayana composed the
of the empire while import included
punctuation work called Amogavritti.
Arabian horses. The Rastrakutas rulers
The incredible mathematician of this
issued gold and silver coins. Mysore
period, Viracharya was the creator of
was a good producer of wood, sandal,
Ganitasaram.
timber, and Ebony. Cuddapah, Bellary,
• The Kannada writing saw its start Kurnool and Golconda were the centre
during the time of the Rashtrakutas. for mining the diamonds. The capital
Amogavarsha's Kavirajamarga was the Manyakheta and Devagiri were known
primary wonderful work in Kannada for important diamond and jewellery
language. trading centres.
• Pampa was the best of the Kannada • Language: The Rashtrakutas
artists. His renowned work was considered themselves descendants of
Vikramasenavijaya. Ponna was Satyaki. They were of Kannada origin
another acclaimed Kannada writer and and their mother tongue was Kannada.
he composed Santipurana. Amoghavarsha I was instrumental in
• Administration: The Rashtrakutas making groundbreaking works in both
divided their kingdom into several languages, and his Kavirajamarga
provinces, and the provinces were was a valuable milestone in Kannada
further segregated into districts. The poetry.
emperors or rulers of the Rashtrakutas
were followed in hierarchy by a Chief

8
Cultural Contributions: Art and
Architecture
• The art and architecture of Rashtrakutas
were found at Ellora and Elephanta.
• At Ellora, images of Shiva in various
forms - Nataraja, Gangadhara,
Ardhanareesvara and Somaskanda are
carved.
• Other prominent cave temples at Ellora
are Indrasabha and Kotakailasa.
• At Ellora, the most remarkable temple
is the Kailasa temple. Its key features
are:

» It was developed during the rule of

Krishna I.
» It is cut out of an enormous square of I m a g e 1.2: D a n c i n g S h i va , E l l o r e C av e s
rock 200 feet in length, and 100 feet in
broadness and tallness.
» The temple comprises four sections - the
primary place of worship, the passage
door, a moderate sanctum for Nandi
and Mandapa encompassing the yard.
» It has a three-layered Sikhara or
pinnacle taking after the Sikhara of the
Mamallapuram rathas.
» In the inside of the temple there is a
pillared lobby which has sixteen square
columns.

I m a g e 1.3: A j a n ta & E l l o r a C av e s

» The statue of Goddess Durga killing

the Bison evil spirit and Ravana lifting
Mount Kailash, the homestead of Shiva,
are wonderful.
» The scenes of Ramayana were
additionally portrayed on the dividers.

9
Three Gems of Kannada Literature • The Maru-Gurjara temples have
3 classifications in their elevation,
• Pampa is called as the father of namely, the pitha, the main hall called
Kannada literature. He wrote Adi mandovara and the shikhara. Like the
Purana and Vïkramarjiva Vijaya (his jagati of the central Indian temples, the
great poetic works) in the 10th century whole Maru-Gurjara temple stands on
AD. a khara-sila.
• He lived in the court of Chalukya • The Sun temple (Modhera) is the most
Arikesari. In his poetic skill, beauty of popular among the Solanki type Maru-
description, delineation of character, Gurjara temples. The temple provides
development of rasa etc. Pampa is a clear picture of the typical Solanki
unrivalled. style temple with all its characteristic
• Ponna and Ranna were two other features.
poets who lived during the rule of
Rashtrakuta Krishna III. Ponna wrote
an epic named Shanti Purana and
Ranna wrote Ajitanatha Purano.
• Together Pampa, Ponna and Ranna
received the title ratnatraya (the three
gems).

THE SOLANKIS (942–1243 AD)

• They ruled over Gujarat with Anhilwad
(presently Patan) as their capital city.
• Mulraj: He was the founder of the
dynasty. His period marks the beginning
I m a g e 1.4: S u n t e m p l e at Modhera.
of the Gujarati Culture.
• His reign marked the start of a period
during which Gujarati Culture flowered THE CHAUHANS OF DELHI
as manifested in art, architecture,
language, and script. It is described as AND AJMER
the golden period of Gujarat’s history. • The Chauhans declared their
• Bhim I (Bhimdev): He was defeated independence in the 12th century at
by Muhammad (also called Mahmud) Ajmer and they were the feudatories of
Ghazni, who looted and destroyed the the Pratiharas.
famous Somnath temple. • They captured Ujjain from the Paramars
• Bhim II: He defeated Muhammad Ghori. of Malwa and Delhi in the early period
of the 12th century.
• Later they shifted capital to Delhi.
Maru Gurjara Architecture: • Prithviraj Chauhan was indeed the
• Māru-Gurjara architecture also called as most important ruler of this dynasty
Solankī style is the style of architecture who fought with Muhammad Ghori in
of North India Church, which originated famous battle of Tarain.
in the state of Gujarat and Rajasthan.

10
RATHORS OF KANNAUJ (1090- THE SISODIYAS OF MEWAR
1194 A.D.) • The Rajput ruler Bapa Rawat was the
• The Rathors established on the throne founder of the Guhila or the Sisodiya
of Kannauj from 1090 to 1194 A.D. dynasty and Chittor was their capital.

• Jaichand was the last prominent ruler • During the period of Rana Ratan Singh
of Rathor dynasty. of Mewar, Alauddin Khilji invaded his
territory and defeated him.
• He was killed during the battle of
Chandwar in 1194 A.D. by Muhammad • Rana Sangha and Maharana Pratap
Ghori. were the most prominent Sisodiya
rulers who gave a tough fight to the
Mughal rulers of India.
THE CHANDELAS OF
About Rajputs
BUNDELKHAND
The term "Rajput" has been used for
• They established themselves in the 9th several Hindu dynasties during the 11th
century. and 12th centuries. Although the Rajput
• Mahoba was the capital of Chandela identity did not exist at this time, these
during the period of Chandela Chief lineages were classified as aristocratic
Yasovarman. Rajput clans in the later times.
• Kalinjar was their important fort. Gurjara-Pratiharas
• The Chandellas built the most famous • Chahamanas
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in 1050 • Tomaras
A.D. and a number of beautiful temples
at Khajuraho which are most famous • Chaulukyas
for their carving and sculptures. • Paramaras
• Paramal, who was last Chandela ruler • Gahadavalas
was defeated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in • Chandelas
1203 A.D.
• Guhilas of Medapata
• Kachchhapaghatas

IMPERIAL Cholas
Vijayalaya Chola
• Vijayalaya Chola, who was presumably
a Pallava Vassal, emerged from lack
of clarity during the center of the ninth
century C.E.
• Making utilization of the chance during
I m a g e 1.5: K h a j u r a h o T e m p l e a battle among Pandyas and Pallavas,
Vijayalaya caught Thanjavur in 848 C.E.
• He constructed the town of Thanjavur
and a sanctuary for goddess
Nishumbhasudini there.

11
Sundara Chola region of the Chola Domain; it stayed
under direct Chola rule for a very long
• The Chola power recuperated during time. Rajaraja fabricated sanctuaries
Sundara Chola's rule. in his own name in every one of these
• The Chola Armed force under the order territories. He won the Maldives Islands
of the crown sovereign Aditya Karikala in the Indian Ocean and sent missions
vanquished the Pandyas and attacked to the Indonesian Srivijaya Empire.
up to Tondai Mandalam in the north. • He motivated the Shailendra monarch
• Uttama, child of the past Chola lord of Java to build a Buddhist monastery
Gandaraditya, constrained Sundara at the Chola port of Nagapattinam.
Chola to announce him beneficiary. • He built the famous Brihadeshwara
• Uttama Chola's rule was obvious for the temple at Thanjavur.
absence of any significant activities and
he was supplanted by the incomparable
Rajaraja Chola in 985 CE. Rajendra Chola
• Rajendra who was a son of Rajaraja
further consolidated Chola power.
Rajaraja Chola
• He made a Chola viceroyalty in Madurai,
• He is considered as the most powerful designating his child as the main Chola-
Chola ruler, became king in AD 985 and Pandya viceregal sovereign. Rajendra
expanded the control. next assaulted the Western Chalukyas
• Although the early Chola rulers had and their partners.
caught portions of Thondai-nadu, • Rajendra's rule was set apart by his
Kongu-nadu and Pandi-nadu, the campaign to the waterway Ganges (c.
realm had contracted to the region 1019 C.E.). The Chola armed force ran
around the Kaveri Delta in the year 985, through the realms north of Vengi and
Rajaraja quickly left on a mission of connected with the Pala ruler Mahipala
regional extension and caught Pallava and crushed him.
and Pandya domain.
• The successful Chola armed force got
• He effectively battled the Chera leaders back with the waters of the blessed
of Kerala and expanded his standard Ganges. In a progression of missions,
over pieces of current Karnataka. he walked north with regards to the
stream Ganga (Ganges).
• He brought back a portion of its
consecrated water in brilliant pots,
purged these into a tank named
Chola-ganga and embraced the title
of Gangai-konda (Capturer of the
Ganges). Nonetheless, he didn't expect
power over the Ganges locale. The
capital city was then known as the
“Gagangaikonda Cholapuram”.
• The relationship with Srivijaya
weakened to the point that Rajendra
I m a g e 1 .6: B ri h a d e s h wa r a temple
sent a maritime undertaking against
the realm to uphold affirmation of
• He caught the island of Sri Lanka as a Chola suzerainty. He sent two political

12
 missions to China. • Rajaraja's little girl Kundavai was
wedded to the Eastern Chalukya
ruler Vimaladitya. Originating from
After Rajendra this, Cholas had a last interest in the
undertakings of Vengi.
• In 1070, after three of Rajendra's children
and one grandson had succeeded him,
another line of Chalukya-Cholas was Do you know?
set up when the Eastern Chalukya ruler
Rajendra II (r. 1070-1125) ascended to the • Chola temples often became the
throne. His mother and grandmother nuclei of settlements which grew
were Chola princesses. Rajendra II around them. And these temples
accepted the title of Kulottunga (Star were not only places of worship; they
of the Administration). were the hub of economic, social and
cultural life as well.
• During his rule, Sri Lanka acquired
freedom from the Chola rule. In any case, • Many of the achievements of the
exchange prospered with Southeast Cholas were made possible through
Asia. Another Chola government office new developments in agriculture.
was shipped off China, along with 72
dealers. Exchange with Srivijaya was
dynamic as well. • Western Chalukyas anyway felt that the
Vengi realm was under their common
• The rule of Rajendra II was one of effective reach. A few wars were battled
harmony and success. The Chola and neither could guarantee authority
domain held together well until the over the other.
finish of the reign of Kulottunga III in
1216. Notwithstanding, it was not as » Cholas never figured out how to
broad as in the times of Rajaraja I and overpower the Kalyani realm and the
Rajendra I. wilderness stayed at the Tungabhadra
• As the Pandya rulers toward the south Waterway.
expanded in strength and a gathering » These wars anyway brought about a
of feudatory clan leaders forcefully great deal of slaughter and the passing
sought after force in the thirteenth of in any event one ruler (Rajadhiraja
century, the Chola Realm shrank to the Chola).
locale around Thanjavur.
• The Chola administration reached
a conclusion in 1279 when Rajaraja Organization
III kicked the bucket and the Chola • The entire domain was isolated into
domain was effortlessly assimilated 'Mandalam' (area) and these thus into
into Pandya rule. 'Valanadu' or Kottam and Nadu. Town
was the essential unit of organization.
Chola Chalukya Wars » The Cholas are most popular for their
• The History of Cholas from the period neighborhood self-government at town
of Rajaraja was tinged with a series of level.
conflicts with the Western Chalukyas. » Each town had a get together to care
• The Old Chalukya dynasty had split for the undertakings of the town. The
into two sibling dynasty of Western and overall gatherings were of three kinds:
Eastern Chalukya. » Ur: A general assembly of the village

13
 consisting of tax paying residents. Famous committees of the Mahasabha:
» Sabha or Mahasabha: It consisted of • Variyam: Executive Committee of
a gathering of the adult men in the Sabha.
Brahmana villages called ‘Brahmadeya’
and agrahara village granted to the • Tottavariyam: Garden committee.
Brahmanas and was restricted to the • Pon-Variyam: Gold committee.
Brahmans of the villages. • Eri-Variyam: Tank Committee.
» Nagaram: It was found in trading • Alunganattar: Executive Committee
centres alone. of Ur.
• The 'Uttaramerur' engraving (tenth • Nyayattar: Judicial Committee.
Century) depicts how the nearby Sabha • Udasin-Variyam: Committee of
worked. There was a nearby contact Ascetics.
between the Focal position and the
town gatherings. The Chola authorities • Samstua-Variya: Annual Committee.
had just an administrative part over • Polity and Administration: The Chola
these gatherings. rulers ruled as a sustained Monarchy.
• The Mahasabha had the restrictive The whole southern region was brought
rights over local area lands and under the control of a single governing
controlled the private terrains inside its force during the governance by the
purview. The legal advisory group of the Cholas. Emperor was the very important
Mahasabha, called the 'nattar' settled person in the administration of Chola
both common and criminal instances empire.
of question. • The massive Chola kingdom was divided
into provinces which were known as
Mandalams. For each Mandalam,
separate governors were held in charge
and they were paid salary in the form
of lands. The Mandalam were further
divided into districts called Nadus

Achievements of Cholas

Vijayalaya Cholisvara Temple, Thanjore

Brihadeeswarar Temple of Tanjore.
Architecture:
Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda
Cholapuram.

Sivakasintamani by Thiruthakkadevar
Kundalakesi.
Literature (Tamil): Ramayana by Kamban.
Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by
Sekkilar.

Sculpture (Bronze): Nataraja.

14
 which consisted of tehsils and villages. emerged as an important power ruler.
• Tankurrams were the autonomous for Kanchipuram was their capital.
town. The town autonomy and village
autonomy were similar, and both were
administered by assemblies. Important Rulers:
• Military: The Chola rulers maintained • Sirnhavishnu (560-90) is considered
a large army consisting of infantry, the first important Pallava ruler. He was
cavalry, and elephants. Rajaraja Chola follower of Vaishnavism. He is credited
I established a powerful standing with seizing the Cholas territory
army and a considerable navy. The and humiliating his other southern
navy played an important role in the neighbours including Ceylon. He
expansion of the Chola Empire. It defeated Kalabhras, Cholas to extend
includes the conquest of the Ceylon territory till Kaveri.
islands and Sri Vijaya (present day • Mahendravarman I (600-630 A.D.): He
Indonesia) and the spread of Hinduism. was a Jain follower but converted to
• Revenue: The Cholas even conducted Saivism after being influenced by Saiva
extensive land survey and graded lands saint, Tirunavukkarasar/Appar. He is
for the purpose of taxation. In addition considered a builder of cave temples,
to land tax, income was obtained from built temples for Brahma, Vishnu and
taxes on professionals and tolls on Shiva. He also promoted art and music.
trade. • Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.): He
• Economy and Trade: Chola rulers was also known as Mamalla means ‘great
brought Sri Lanka, South-East Asia and wrestler’. In Battle of Manimangalam
even China under the network of trade. near Kanchi, he defeated Pulakesin II
The barter system was prominently of western Chalukyas. He captured and
employed in trade and commerce. destroyed the capital city of Vatapi. He
Even paddy was utilized as a unit of then assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’.
exchanges of gold coins such as pon, He led a naval expedition to sri Lanka.
kasu, kalanju were used. • Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang visited
• The delta of Cauvery was once the Kanchipuram during his reign. He
heartland of the Cholas. They paid mentions Kanchi as big and beautiful
attention to irrigation and used river with one hundred Buddhist monasteries
such as Kaveri for this purpose. and ten thousand Buddhist monks.
Ghatika at Kanchi was great centre of
• Religion: The Cholas professed
learning.
Hinduism in general. Initially, Cholas
followed a version of the classical • Administration: The Pallavas had a
Hindu belief. Later Cholas displayed well-organized administrative system
a sense of toleration towards other in which their kingdom was divided
sects and religions. Ex: Rajaraja into Kottams. Each Kottam was
Chola-I patronised Buddhism and built administered by officers appointed by
the Chudamani Vihara (a Buddhist the emperor. The Pallavas king was at
monastery) in Nagapattinam. the centre of administration and was
the fountain of justice. He was assisted
by able ministers.
Pallavas: • Revenue: From the information on the
By the start of the 7th century A.D., after tax system traced from the Pallava
replacing the Kalabhras, the Pallavas inscriptions, the Land tax was the most

15
 important source of the government religion but ancestral worship was
revenue. The Brahmadeya (given to popular. The war goddess was known as
Brahmana) and Devadhana (donated Kottavai, but there existed no structural
to Gods) lands were exempted from tax. temples. Instead, images of Gods were
• Agriculture: In Pallava kingdom, it was kept in the open air, probably under a
also the responsibility of the central tree. Even the caste system was absent
government to provide irrigation in their society.
facilities to the lands. For this purpose, • Nedunjeral Adan was a prominent
a number of irrigation tanks were dug Chera king. He captured Kadambas
by the Pallava kings. During the reign of with his capital at Vanavasi (near Goa).
Mahendravarman I, the irrigation tanks Nedunjeral Adan also defeated the
at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor Yavanas. He had a good connection
were dug. with the Greeks and Romans who
• Religion: The Pallavas were orthodox came in huge numbers as traders and
Brahmanical Hindus who worshipped established large colonies in south
Shiva and Vishnu, and their patronage India. Nedunjeral Adan fought a battle
was responsible for the huge with the Karikala (father of the Chola
reformation of the medieval ages. king). In this battle, both the kings
Mahendravarman I was the 1st to be were killed. Sengutturan was another
influenced by the famous Saivite saints greatest emperor of the Chera dynasty
of the age. The Brahmin status greatly as stated in the Chera tradition. He had
enhanced during this reign. They were defeated the rulers of Chola and the
greatly patronised by the kings and they Pandya kings. During the end of the 3rd
received land and villages. This was century A.D, the Chera power declined
called Brahmadeya. The caste system and they again gained power in the 8th
became rigid. The Vaishnava and Saiva century A.D.
literature flourished during this period.
They were tolerant of Buddhism and
Jainism too, although both these faiths Chalukyas:
lost their relevance and popularity.
• The Chalukyas ruled Sounthern and
Central parts of India in between the
6th-12th century. During this time, they
Cheras: governed as three related yet individual
• The Chera kingdom occupied the dynasties.
area of a narrow strip between the • The earliest dynasty, called as the
mountains and sea of Konkan range. In "Badami Chalukyas", governed from
the history, Cheras were also called as Vatapi (modern Badami) from the
‘Keralaputras’. middle of the 6th century. The Badami
• Vajji was the capital of the Cheras. And Chalukyas started to assert their
‘bow and arrow’ was their emblem. independence at the decline of the
Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and
• The Chera dynasty was mostly divided quickly rose to prominence during the
into two phases. The Early Chera were rule of Pulakesin II.
in power between the 4th century BC
and 5th century AD and later Chera • After the death of Pulakesin II, the
(also known as the Kulasekharas) ruled Eastern Chalukyas emerged in Eastern
between the 8th and 12th century AD. Deccan with Vengi as their capital. They
ruled till the 11th century.
• Religion: The Cheras had no particular

16
• Western Chalukyas were the a good example of the Vesara style of
descendants of the Badami Chalukyas architecture. Ex: Pattadakkal Temples.
and they emerged in the late 10th These are well known for rock-cut
century and ruled from Kalyani. temples. It is a UNESCO World Heritage
• Administration: The central government site.
under the Badami Chalukyas exercised • Religion: The period was an era of the
a Paternalistic command over the revival of Hindu culture and spirituality.
village administration. Unlike the The founder of the dynasty, Pulakesin
South Indian rulers like Pallavas and I performed Asvamedha sacrifice.
Cholas who allowed a great amount of Although they were the staunch followers
autonomy to the village administration, of Hinduism, they showed good spirit of
the village autonomy was absent under tolerance towards the other religion.
the Chalukyas. The Vaishnavism, Saivism, Jainism and
• Revenue: The state income from land Shakti cults had obtained generous
was very limited, since most of the land encouragement from the kings, queens,
was rocky and barren. The revenues and the subjects. Hiuen Tsang described
from the trading activities also were the decline of the Buddhism in western
not considerable, since trade and Deccan. However, Jainism was steadily
commerce in India during this time was on the path of progress.
on a general decline. Therefore, the
Chalukyas resorted to regular invasions
and plunder of the neighbouring Vakatakas:
territories.
• In Indian peninsular, particularly in
• Architecture: The Badami Chalukya northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha,
era was an important period in the Satavahanas were succeeded by a
the development of South Indian local power known as the Vakatakas.
architecture. Their style of architecture The Vakatakas empire extended from
is known as "Chalukyan architecture" Malva in the North to the Tungabhadra
or "Karnataka Dravida architecture". in the Southern India and from the Bay
Approximately a hundred monuments of Bengal in east to the Arabian Sea in
built by them, rock cut (cave) and west.
structural, are found in the Malaprabha
• The Vakatakas were contemporary of
river basin. The building material
the Guptas in northern India.
they utilized was a reddish-golden
Sandstone retrieved locally. • Vindhyashakti I (c. 250 – 270 CE): He was
the founder of the Vakataka dynasty,
• The Chalukyan monuments represent who probably ruled from Purika.
two different phases. Cave temples
symbolize the first phase. Their cave • The Ajanta Inscriptions during the
temples are discovered in Ajanta, time of Harisena, depicts him as a
Ellora and Nasik. They are monolithic dvija and praises him for his military
architecture and excavated in sloppy achievements.
hills. They are in Brahmanical dedication • Religion: The Vakatakas, who were
and Buddhist in technique and style. Brahmin themselves (belonging to
They constructed cave temples the Vishnuvriddha gotra) were big
depicting both secular and religious champions of the Brahmanical religion
themes and also had magnificent mural and performed various Vedic sacrifices.
paintings. Vakataka kingdom became a channel
• The temples under the Chalukyas are to spread Brahminical culture to

17
 southern India. empire was set up by a King named
• Architecture: The rock-cut Buddhist Kadungon, who defeated Kalabras in
Viharas and chaityas of the Ajanta 6th century AD.
Caves were built under the patronage • Nedunjeliyan was a important Pandya
of the Vakataka king, Harisena. Out king. He defeated the combined powers
of the 28 Ajanta cave, 23 belong to of Chola, Chera, and five other minor
the Vakataka period. They are also states in a war against him at Madurai.
credited with having constructed a few • Administration: The Pandya empire was
temples in Tigwa and Nachanakuthara. known as Pandyan Mandalam which
They made a significant contribution in was further segregated into valanadu
the painting. E.g. Mahabhinishkramana and urs. The king was supported by
painting of Ajanta cave is the finest the Ariyans and the Arm chief. Special
examples of Vakataka excellence. officers were appointed to gather taxes
• Administration: Under the Vakatakas and maintain accounts.
monarchical polity was consolidated • Local Self-Government: Village
in the region. Besides, they were administration was looked after by five
also responsible for the expansion of variyams namely Aranilaya variyam,
agrarian villages and organizing the Nanaya variyam, Neemilai variyam,
administrative structure in the area. Needhi variyam, and varithandal
• Economy: Animal rearing was one of variyam.
the main occupations during Vakatakas • Occupation: Agriculture related
period. The remains of seven species activities and trade were the major
of domestic animals like cattle, goat, occupations of the people. The
sheep, pig, cat, horse and fowl have agriculturist was called as Boomiputirar.
been traced. Many slaves were employed to carry on
different tasks.
• Art and Architecture: The Pandya
Pandya: period marked a reawakening in the
• As per the traditions, the Pandya field of rock-cut temples. The Gopurams,
country stretched from the Podukottai Prakarans, Vimanas, Garbhagrihas and
district to Kanyakumari in south gateways are the special features of
and River Vaigai (Madura) in East to the Pandya temple architecture. Over
Achankovil River in Kerala (west). The 50 rock cut temples were excavated in
kingdom was ordinarily segregated into the Pandya kingdom at different places
5 principalities which were called as such as Kannakudi, Sithannavasal,
“Five Pandyas “. The early days capital Thiruparankundram, kalugumalai,
of Pandya rule is Korkai. Anaimalai, Malayadikurichi, Tiruchirapalli
etc. In the later stages of Pandyas rule,
• The capital of the pandyas was Madurai
delicately sculptured idols, portals of
and their emblem was fish.
temples or gopurams on "Vimanas"
• The initial Pandyas belonged to the were developed. E.g. Meenakshi Temple
sangam age. The Pandyan kings in Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple in
assembled literary assemblies called as Tirunelveli
‘Sangam’. A remarkable characteristic
of this time was the maintenance of a
• Religion: The Pandyan kings had
patronized Vaishnavism, Saivism,
flourishing Tamil literary academy or
and Jainism. After the invasion of
sangam at Madurai.
Kalabhras, Jainism gained a foothold
• Post Sangam period, the 1st Pandyan in the Pandyan kingdom. They had

18
 made liberal donations and gifts to the • The resulting assaults of Mahmud into
Jain monks and to their educational India were pointed toward looting the
institutions. The latter-day Pandyas after rich sanctuaries and urban communities
600 C.E. were Saivites who claimed to of northern India.
descend from Lord Shiva and Goddess
Parvati. Pandyan Nedumchadayan was
a staunch Vaishnavite.

THE MUSLIM INVASIONS INTO

INDIA
Arab Conquest of Sindh (712 AD):
• In the year 712 A.D., Muhammad bin
Qasim invaded Sindh.
• Qasim reorganized the administration
of Sindh.
• Jaziya was imposed for the first time on
Indian land.
• The people of Sindh were awarded the
status of zimmis i.e. protected subjects.
I m a g e 1.7: M a h m u d of Ghazni
• However, Muslims could not expand
their authority further into India due to • In 1024, Mahmud vanquished the
the presence of the powerful Pratihara Solanki Lord Bhimadeva I, and looted
kingdom in western India. the acclaimed sanctuary of Somnath.
• While the conquest of Sindh did not • This was his last mission in India.
lead to further conquests, it did result Mahmud died in 1030 A.D.
in the spread of Indian culture abroad. • Mahmud was not a simple looter
• Sindh was visited by many Arab and bandit of riches. He had built a
travellers. Arabs carried Indian medicine wide empire. The Ghaznavi empire
and astronomy to various regions. roughly included Persia, Trans-oxiana,
• The Indian numbers in the Arabic form Afghanistan and Punjab.
went to Europe through them. • His success of Punjab and Multan totally
changed the political circumstance in
India.
Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030 AD) • He depleted the assets of India by his
• Mahmud is said to have made seventeen repeated assaults and denied India of
raids into India. her labor.
• At that time, North India was divided • The consideration of Punjab and
into a number of Hindu states. On the Afghanistan in Ghazni's realm made
frontier of India, there existed the Hindu the ensuing Muslim victories of India
Shahi kingdom which extended from relatively simple.
the Punjab to Kabul. • He additionally belittled craftsmanship
• The beginning assaults were against and writing.
the Hindu Shahi realm.
» Firdausi was the artist laureate in the

19
 court of Mahmud. He was the creator at Tarain, Muhammad Ghori got back
of Shah Namah. to Ghazni giving up his number one
» Al-Beruni remained in Mahmud's court general Qutb-ud-din Aibak to make
and composed the acclaimed Kitab-ul- further successes in India.
Hind. • In 1193, Aibak arranged the ground for
another attack by Muhammad Ghori.
• The Ghoris began as vassals of Ghazni This intrusion was coordinated against
yet got free after the passing of the Jayachand Rathor of Kannauj.
Mahmud Ghazni. Muhammad steered Jayachandra's
• Taking preferred position of the powers in the skirmish of Chandawar.
decrease of the Ghaznavid domain, • The Skirmish of Chandawar prompted
Muizzuddin Muhammad prominently the augmentation of Turkish Domain
known as Muhammad Ghori brought into Gangetic doab, which furnished it
Ghazni under his influence. with a solid monetary base.
• Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he needed • The Clashes of Tarain and Chandawar
to overcome India. added to the foundation of Turkish
• In 1175, Muhammad Ghori caught Multan standard in India.
and involved entire of Sindh. Anywhere
around 1178, he was vanquished by the
leader of Gujrat close to Mt. Abu.
Causes of Success of Muslims
against the Rajputs
• After his destruction, he changed the
entire arrangement of activity and in 1. Political Causes: Rajput kings specially
1181, he vanquished Lahore. Chauhan and Rathor, Chalukya and
• In 1186 he assaulted Punjab, and added Chandela fought with each other. So
it and drove his attack of the Chauhan their power became weak and they
realm. could not face the enemy with unity.
2. Social and Religious Causes: People
were divided into many divisions
The Battle of Tarain (1191-1192 AD) because of the caste system and they
did not care about national interest.
• Realizing the grave circumstance, the
When Chauhan and Rathor were
Hindu rulers of north India framed an
defeated, the public was disinclined.
alliance under the order of Prithiviraj
On the other hand, Muslims were
Chauhan.
united and they fought with religious
• Prithviraj met people's high enthusiasm.
expectations, and vanquished Ghori in
3. Military causes: Indian military was full
the clash of Tarain close to Delhi in 1191
of demerits –
A.D.
a. There was no permanent army.
• In the Second Skirmish of Tarain in 1192,
Muhammad Ghori altogether directed b. The method of fighting was old.
the multitude of Prithiviraj, who was c. Elephants were their only power.
caught and killed.
d. Rajputs believed in certain ethical
• The second skirmish of Tarain was a behaviour and did not use unfair means
significant fiasco for the Rajputs. The in wars, whereas the enemies followed
primary Muslim realm was in this way all policies—right and wrong.
immovably settled in India at Ajmer.
e. The last thing is that Rajputs did not
• After his splendid triumph over Prithiviraj attack first.

20
 CHAPTER - 2

THE DELHI SULTANATE

INTRODUCTION
• The period from 1206 to 1526 has been
called the period of Delhi Sultanate.
• In this period of time, India was ruled
by a number of Turkish Sultans who
belonged to the Turkish clan. These
Sultans were also called Mamluks.
• Five dynasties ruled over Delhi during
this period. They are the Slave dynasty,
Khilji dynasty, Tughlaq dynasty, the
Sayyid dynasty and Lodi dynasty.
Except the Lodis, all other Delhi sultans
were Turkish in origin. The Lodis were
Afghans.
• Though the Sultanate made some
economic improvements in the
provinces, their most notable I m a g e 2.1: E x t e n t of D e l h i S u ata n at e
achievement was holding off Mongol
invasion and unifying Northern India in
the process.
• Sultanate ushered in a time of Indian
cultural and particularly architectural
renaissance.

» As a result of the fusion of “Indo-Muslim"

cultures, new developments occurred in
architecture, music, literature, religion
and clothing.
» It is a fact that the Urdu language was
born during this period because of the
intermingling of the local speakers of
Sanskrit and Prakrits with immigrants
speaking Persian, Turkish and Arabic
under the Muslim rulers.

• The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-

Islamic empire to have enthroned one
of the few female rulers in India, Raziya I m a g e 2.2: A b o u t Q u ta b M i n a r
Sultana.

21
THE SLAVE DYNASTY from a territory in lieu of salary. However,
the Iqta system was not hereditary. The

(MAMLUK DYNASTY) Iqta system connected the farthest

part of the Sultanate to the central
government.
• They were mostly the slaves of original
rulers. • He is credited with building the
Hauz-i- Shamsi near Mehrauli in Delhi.
Iltutmush added three more storeys
to Qutub Minar (the year given here
Qutubdin Aibak (1206-10 AD) should be 1386).
• Qutbuddin Aibak was a captive of • Mongols invaded for the first time under
Muhammad Ghori, who made him the Chengiz Khan during this time.
legislative head of his Indian belongings.
• Currency reform: He introduced silver
• After the demise of Ghori in 1206, Aibak coins (tanka) and copper coin (jital).
pronounced his autonomy and hence
established the Slave line just as the
Delhi Sultanate. Muslim writers call him
“Aibak Lakh Baksh” or giver of lakhs
because he gave liberal donations to
them.
• Aibak patronized the great scholar
Hasan Nizami.
I m a g e 2.3: C o i n s I lt u t m i s h
• He started construction of Qutub minar of

(Delhi) after the name of a famous Sufi

saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakthiyar Chahalgani System
Kaki. Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (Ajmer)
was also started during his rule. • Iltutmish established ‘Group of Forty’
(Turkan-i-Chahalgani). These were
• Aibak died spontaneously while playing Turkish nobles (amirs) who advised and
chaugan (horse polo) in 1210. assisted the Sultan in administering
• He was later succeeded by his son Aram the Sultanate.
Baksh, who was replaced by Iltutmish • After Iltutmish's death, this group
after eight months. assumed great power in its hands.
For a few years, they decided on the
selection of Sultans one after the other.
Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211- • This group was finally eliminated by
1236 AD) Balban.
• He made Delhi as capital in place of
Lahore.
• During his time, slave nobility became Iltutmish’s Role as Consolidator
very strong. Zia-Ud din Barani referred of Delhi Sultanate
them Turkan-e-Chihalgani (the corp of
• He made Delhi as the capital and a
forty loyal slaves).
major Centre of economic and cultural
• He also introduced the Iqta system in activity.
Delhi sultanate, which was a practice
• The Iltutmish annexed Sindh and
of tax farming. Under the Iqta system,
Multan into Delhi Sultanate.
an officer was given a grant of revenue

22
• He suppressed the revolts of Rajputs
and recovered Ranthambore, Jalor,
Ajmer and Gwalior.
• He received the Mansur which means
the letter of recognition, from the
Caliph by which he became the legal
sovereign ruler of India.
• His policies and love for justice earned
I m a g e 2.4: C o i n s of R a z i a S u lta n
him deep respect from the people of
Delhi.
Balban
Razia Sultan • He propagated the Iranian theory of
Divine Rights, which said that the Sultan
• The only women ruler in the history of was the representative of God on Earth.
Delhi, she ruled for three and half years
until 1240. • Balban introduced strict court discipline
and new customs such as prostration
• She had all the qualities which need to (Shizda) and kissing the Sultan’s feet
be possessed by a good monarch (as (Paibos) to show his superiority over the
told by Minhaj-us-Siraj in Tabaqat-i- nobles.
Nasiri),
• He also introduced the Nauroz which
• Still the Chihalgani (the group of forty was a Persian festival to impress the
Turkish chiefs) could not accept and nobles and people with his wealth and
digest the rule of a woman. power.
• They rebelled against Razia when she • He abolished Chihalgani/association of
appointed her favourite Yakut as the 40 nobles. He did not allow Ulemas to
superintendent of the Stables. Yakut interfere into the political affairs of the
was an Abyssinian, which raised the state. He did not allow Hindus’ entry in
jealousy of Turko-Afghan nobles. army or other institutions of authority.
• Malik Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda, • He built forts and established Afghan
supported the rebel chiefs. A long fight garrisons to guard communications
resulted between the two opponent with Bengal. He maintained pomp and
gatherings following which Yakut died dignity at his court.
and Razia turned into a detainee.
• He is acclaimed for his arrangement of
• Razia wedded Altunia and they together blood and iron- This approach inferred
attempted to take the sultanate being merciless to the adversaries,
back from Muizuddin Bahram Shah. utilization of blade, brutality and
Nonetheless, Razia and Altunia were severity and shedding blood. It
vanquished and compelled to escape. permitted utilization of a wide range
While escaping to Kaithal, they were of techniques for illegal intimidation
caught by the dacoits and killed. on foes and dispensing brutality upon
• In 1246, Balban succeeded in putting them.
Nasiruddin Mahmud, a younger son of • He set up a different military office
Iltutmish, as Sultan. - diwan-I-arz and redesigned the
military.
• The edges of Delhi were regularly

23
 looted by the Mewatis. Balban made This denoted a finish to the imposing
an extreme move against them and business model of force and racial
forestalled such burglaries. Looters were tyranny by Ilbari Turks and prompted
savagely sought after and executed. the extending of the social base of the
Balban died in 1287. decision making or ruler class.

The Title of zil-i-ilahi

• In the initial Islamic world, there was Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji (AD
no sanction for the status of the Sultan. 1290-96)
With the collapse of the Caliphate,
the Sultan began to appear in the • He went to the seat at seventy years old
sense of a powerful ruler. and administered for a very long time.

• Balban was probably the first leader • He had an appeasing arrangement

of Delhi Sultanate to explicate clear towards the aristocrats of the previous
viewpoints about kingship. He raised system and even the Mongols.
the prestige of the crown with the Subsequently, he designated Malik
help of elaborate court ceremonies. Chajju, who was Balban's nephew, as
the Legislative leader of Kara, who
• After consolidating his power, Balban revolted later.
assumed the grand title of Zil-i-Ilahi.
According to Balban, the Sultan was • One of the main occasions of his rule
God’s shadow on earth (Zil-i-Ilahi) was the intrusion of Devagiri, the capital
and the recipient of Divine Grace. This of the Yadava lord, Raja Ramachandra
was emphasised by insisting people deva, in the Deccan, by Ali Gurshasp,
to perform Sijada and Pabos. the nephew and son-in-law of the ruler,
and the Legislative leader of Kara.
• This raised the prestige of the crown
enormously. • After his effective mission, Ali Gurshasp
welcomed the Ruler to Kara to get the
• His kingship ideology was based on gigantic abundance. Jalaluddin came
Iranian theory that the king was ‘semi- to Kara in the year July 1296, where Ali
divine and was only accountable to Gurshasp killed him and broadcasted
the God. himself the Ruler with the title of
Alauddin.

THE KHILJI DYNASTY

• The Khiljis served under the Ilbari
Alauddin Khilji (AD 1296-1316)
administration of Delhi. • He was the best leader of the Khilji
• Malik Firuz was the one who found the Tradition and was the principal Muslim
Khilji Tradition who was initially the ruler to stretch out his realm straight up
Ariz-I-Mumalik named by Kaiqubad to the extraordinary South of India.
(last ruler of the Slave line) during the • He richly appropriated cash and gold
times of the decay of the Ilbari Line. among his kin, respectable and servants
He exploited the political vacuum and so that they may fail to remember the
climbed the seat of Delhi as Jalal-ud- homicide of Jalal-ud-din and back him.
din Firuz Khilji.
• He was the principal leader of Delhi
• The court of Khiljis was of multi-ethnical Sultanate who didn't request a Mansur
foundation with individuals of Persian, which means letter of inauguration
Indian, Middle Eastern and Turkish source. from the Caliph yet consiidered himself

24
 the representative of the Caliph. Reforms and Experiments of
• He concentrated all out force of the Alauddin Khilji
state in his own hands; hence, the time
frame denoted the apex of dictatorial The changes of Alauddin pointed toward
government too. improving the organization, fortifying the
military, and outfitting the hardware of
• Alauddin Khilji is said to have been land income organization, extend and
harmed by Malik Kafur, who was an improve the development and government
eunuch slave and military commander assistance of individuals.
of Alauddin khilji. Alauddin Khilji died in
January 1316.

Administrative • He was persuaded that the overall thriving of the aristocrats,

measures to curb intermarriages between honorable families, wasteful government
rebellions agent framework and drinking alcohol were the essential
explanations behind the uprisings.
• Therefore, he passed four ordinances.
» He seized the properties of the aristocrats.
» The inside framework was rearranged and all the mystery exercises
of the aristocrats were observed.
» The public offer of alcohol and medications was completely
halted.
» Social get-togethers and celebrations without the authorization
of the King were prohibited.
• Due to such harsh measures, his reign was free from rebellions.
Market Control or • According to Zia Uddin Barani, the economic regulations were
Economic Regulation primarily of military nature, i.e., to keep a large and efficient
army for keeping the Mongols in control. However, Amir Khusro
considers it a welfare measure to ensure the supply of important
commodities at reasonable rates.
• Zawabit or detailed regulations were made to fix the cost of all
commodities from food grains to horses, cattle and slaves.
• He established four separate markets in Delhi for - food grains,
costly cloths, horses, slaves and cattle.
• Two officers, Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahana- i-Mandi, controlled
the markets.
• He offered credits to the rich Multan shippers for buying fabric
from various pieces of the realm and selling it in the Sarai-Adl
(material market at an open spot inside Badaun door.)
• Horses were sold straightforwardly to the military office (Diwan-
I-Arz).
• Food grains were loaded at the stockrooms to deliver during
starvation or lack of supply.
• The Karwanis or Banjaras conveyed the grains from towns to Delhi.
To forestall storing, all dealers were enrolled with the state.
• There were spies called munhiyans, who sent reports to the King
with respect to the working of these business sectors. Violation of
regulations was severely punished.

25
Revenue/ Agrarian • Zabit regulation: Biswa was declared as the standard unit of
Reforms measurement of land for cultivation.
• Land revenue which means Kharaj was fixed at half of the produce
based on paimash i.e. measurement in the Doab (the territory
between the Ganga and Jamuna river).
• Suppression of the innate income authorities Rai, Rana, Rawat
(high level) and Khut, Muqaddam, Chaudhari (town level).
• House charge (ghari) and field charge (charai) were likewise
imposed.
• Land income was determined in kind yet requested in real money.
• Establishment of a new revenue department, Diwan-i-Mustakharaj.
Military Reforms • Direct recruitment of the soldiers by Arz-i-Mamalik.
• Like Balban, he built several forts on the North West frontier and
repaired old ones.
• Introduction of Daagh (branding the horses) and Huliya/Chehra
(descriptive rolls of soldiers) system.
Military Campaigns • The north western frontier was fortified and Ghazi Malik was
selected as the Superintendent to secure the outskirts.
• The military triumphs of Alauddin Khilji incorporate his endeavor
against Gujarat, Mewar and the Deccan.
• In 1303, Alauddin walked to vanquish Chittor. It was an amazing
state in Rajasthan. Raja Ratan Singh was crushed.
• The Rajput ladies including Rani Padmini performed jauhar. This
Padmini scene was graphically referenced in the book Padmavat
composed by Malik Mohammad Jayasi in 1540. Notwithstanding,
a similar episode has not been referenced in the contemporary
record of Amir Kushrau who was going with Allauddin in the
mission. Alauddin Khilji’s greatest accomplishment was the
conquest of Deccan and the far south.
• This region was ruled mainly by four important dynasties – i.e. the
Yadavas of Devagiri, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra, Kakatiyas of
Warangal, and the Pandyas of Madurai.
• Malik Kafur, Chief Commander of Alauddin Khilji was instrumental
in South Indian campaigns.
• He attacked and defeated Devagiri Ramachandra Deva.
• Malik Kafur defeated the following South Indian Kings.
» Kakathiyas- Prataparudra Deva.
» Hoysalas- Veera Bhallala III.
» Pandyas- Veera pandya and Sundara Pandya.
• Alauddin Khilji dealt Mongol issue with blood and iron policy.

26
Development of Arts Under • Jauna Khan succeeded his father in
1325 under the title of Muhammad bin
Court Patronage Tughlaq.
• Both Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan • He is the most questionable character
Dehlvi making the most of his support. of Middle age Indian history.
• He constructed another city called Siri. • He was the most educated researcher
• He constructed the Jamait Khana of his time. He knew both Arabic and
Masjid at the dargah of Nizam-ud Persian languages and had exhaustive
din Auliya, and Alai Darwaza close to information on way of thinking, stargazing,
Qutub Minar. rationale, math and actual science.
• He started the development of Alai • His epic tests finished in hopeless
Minar close to Qutub Minar yet couldn't disappointments since they were all a
finish it. long ways relatively revolutionary.

TUGHLAQ DYNASTY • He was lenient in strict issue. The

Sultan maintained good relations with
• The Tughlaqs were a Muslim family of foreigners and received an envoy from
Turkish origin. the Chinese ruler.
• The originator of the Tughlaq tradition • Toghan Timur (AD 1341), a Chinese
was Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. came to ask for permission to rebuild
• Ghiyasuddin established the framework the Buddhist Monasteries in Himalayan
for Tughlaqabad close to Delhi. region, which were destroyed during
the crucial expedition. The sultan gave
• They arrived at their apex point between permission and sent Ibn Batutah to the
AD 1330 and 1335 when Muhammad court of the Chinese emperor in 1347.
bin Tughlaq drove military mission.
Mohammad Bin Tuglaqh treacherously • Ibn Battutah was a traveller from
killed his father and ascended the Morocco. He came to India in 1333. He
throne. was appointed as the main Qazi of Delhi
by Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. He left an
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (AD invaluable account of Muhammad-bin-
1325-51) Tughlaq's period in his book ‘Rihla’.

I m a g e 2.5: I b n B at t u ta h

27
Reforms and Experiments of Muhammad Bin Tuglaqh (AD 1325-51)
Token Currency • There was a shortage of silver all over the world in the fourteenth
century. So, inspired by the introduction of paper token currency
in China, Sultan issued token coins. These were coins of copper
and brass which could be exchanged for fixed amounts of gold
and silver from the Delhi Sultanate.
• This was one of the unique reforms of the sultan.
• However, inability to curb forging of token currency led to failure
of this reform.
Agrarian Reforms • Tughlaq raised the land revenue in Doab and imposed many
other taxes.
• Instead of actual produce, standard yield was taken into account
based on the officially assumed prices.
• Unfortunately, rain failed and there was a disastrous famine in
the country. The taxes were collected rigorously. The peasants
revolted in the doab. Later, the Sultan took several measures.
• He created agricultural department, "Diwan-i-Kohi" under the
charge of "Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi" to bring barren (banjar) land
under cultivation.
• Model farming under the state support was made in a region of
64 square miles for which the public authority burned through
seventy lakh tankas.
• He likewise began the act of Ijarah (leasing the income to
the most elevated bidder). Sondhar (agrarian) credits were
progressed to burrow wells and to purchase seed and executes.
• Shiqdars were named and given huge amounts of cash to
actualize the plan, yet they were uncouth and the plan fizzled.
Nonetheless, the plan turned into a piece of the farming
approach of the Mughals.
• The disappointment of the plans of the King caused an
emergency in the realm.
Administrative • Transfer of Capital (1327): It appears to be that the Ruler
Reforms and expected to make Deogiri as his second capital so he may have
Decisions the ability to control south India better. Deogiri was renamed
Daulatabad. Following a few years, Muhammad Tughlaq
decided to spurn Daulatabad because he soon found out that
he could not control south India from Delhi and he couldn't
control north from Daulatabad.
• Khorasan Expedition: The Sultan had a dream of widespread
victory. He chose to win Khorasan and Iraq and built a gigantic
armed force for that reason. Nevertheless, his campaign ended
in a disappointment.
• Quarachil Expedition: This mission was moved to counter
Chinese assaults. It in like manner gives that the mission was
composed against some unshakable clans in Kumaon-Garhwal
locale with the target of bringing them under Delhi Sultanate.
This was too a failed attempt.

28
Rebellions • He abolished additional taxes called
Abwabs and collected only 4 taxes;
• The later part of Muhammad bin
Tughlaq’s reign saw a spate of rebellions » Khams- tax on spoils of war.
by various nobles and governors of » Kharaz- land tax.
various provinces.
» Zakat- charity tax.
• The rebellion of Hasan Shah formed the
establishment of Sultanate of Madurai. » Jiziya- tax paid by non-Muslim
populations to their Muslim rulers. In
• In 1336, the Vijayanagar kingdom was return for payment of the jizyah, non-
founded. Bahamani kingdom was Muslim populations were granted
established in 1347. protection of life and property and the
• The governors of Oudh, Multan and right to practice their religion.
Sindh revolted against the authority of
Muhammad bin Tughlaq. • He was the 1st Sultan to impose
irrigation tax (Haqq-i-Sharab). At the
• In Gujarat, Taghi rose in revolt against same time he dig irrigation canals and
the Sultan who spent nearly three years wells. Longest canal was around about
chasing him. 200 kilometres from Sutlej to hansi.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s health • He organized the institution of slavery
deteriorated with age and he died in into a system and employed them in
1351. Royal Karkhanas and other production
activities.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (AD 1351- • A separate department, Diwan-i-

Bandagan, was established for the
1388) welfare of the slaves.
• He was not a distinguished military
leader. • He established a charity bureau called
• He led two unsuccessful campaigns Diwan-i-Khairat for the help of poor
into Bengal against Haji Iliyas (Shams- persons, widows and orphans and
ud-din Iliyas Shah) and Sikandar Shah. through which pecuniary help was
• Rather than territorial expansion, he distributed for the marriage of poor
focused more on maintaining the status Muslim girls.
quo, but had limited success on this • A charitable hospital called Darul-
front too. Shafa was set up at Delhi where free
medicine and diet was supplied.
• About 300 new towns were worked
Reforms and Experiments of during his rule. The well-known among
Firoz Shah Tughlaq them was Firozabad close to Red
Fortress in Delhi, presently called Firoz
• He tried to make the nobles happy and Shah Kotla.
assured hereditary succession to their
properties.
• He carefully followed the exhortation of
the ulemas in running the organization.
• The iqtas and the post of officials and
soldiers were made hereditary almost.
• As he was guided by the ulemas, he was
narrow minded towards Shia Muslims
• He levied taxes according to the Islamic and Sufis.
law.
• He regarded Hindus as 2nd grade

29
 residents and forced Jizya. • Sikandar Lodi extended his empire
• In this regard, he was the forerunner of from Punjab to Bihar and made the
Sikandar Lodi and Aurangazeb. Sultanate stronger.

• Feroz Tughlaq did not contribute much • Roads were built and many irrigation
to expand the territories of the empire, facilities were developed.
which he inherited. He devoted much • He set up an efficient espionage system
of his energy to the betterment of the and introduced the system of auditing
people. the accounts.
• After his death in 1388, the Tughlaq • He relaxed restrictions on trade,
dynasty came virtually to an end. which greatly promoted the economic
Although the Tughlaqs continued to prosperity of the people.
reign till 1412, the invasion of Delhi by • He was staunch Sunni and a Muslim
Timur in 1398 may be said to mark the fanatic. He lacked religious tolerance
end of the Tughlaq empire. and levied Jiziya and Pilgrimage tax on
Hindus.
• He was a fond patron of art and letters.
SAYYIDS (AD 1414-1451) He wrote verses in Persian under the
• Before departure from Indian land, pen name of Gulrukhi meaning Rose
Timur appointed Khizr Khan as governor Faced.
of Multan region.
• He captured Delhi and founded his own Ibrahim Lodi (AD 1517-1526)
Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
• Alam Shah (1445-1451), who was weakest • Ibrahim Lodi, the arrogant eldest son of
of the Sayyid princes, handed over the Sikandar Lodi, succeeded him.
throne to Bahlol Lodi and retired. • Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of
Punjab was insulted and disaffection
between king and courtiers became
LODIS (AD 1451-1526) very common phenomenon.

Bahlol Lodi • Greatly displeased due to the arrogance

of Ibrahim, Daulat Khan Lodi invited
• The Lodis, who succeeded Sayyids, Babur to invade India.
were Afghans. Bahlol Lodi was the first • Then, in the first battle of Panipat (1526
Afghan ruler of India. AD), Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi and
• He died in the year 1489 AD and was killed him. He then became the master
succeeded by his son, Sikandar Lodi. of Delhi and Agra. This as such ended
the Sultanate and gave rise to Mughal
dynasty in India.
Sikandar Lodi (AD 1489-1517)
• Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517) was the
greatest of all the three Lodi rulers. POLITY OF THE
• Sikandar Lodi transferred the capital of
his kingdom to Agra.
TIME
• He introduced a new scale for land Sultanate Rule brought about some far
measurement known as Gaz-i- reaching changes in the political economic
Sikandari. and social conditions of India.

30
• The 'feudal', multi-centred, polity was • There were many officials who helped
replaced by a centralized state. The king the wizarat in his role, such as the
enjoyed practically unlimited powers. mushrif-i-mumalik (accountant general)
'Sultanate' was the form in which this and the mustaufi-i mumalik (auditor
power was expressed. general).
• While the rais, ranas and thakuras
failed to unite the country, Turks
succeeded in establishing an "all-India Diwan-i Arz
administration by bringing the chief
• Military department was headed by
cities and the great routes under the
ariz-i mumalik.
control of the government of Delhi.
• He was responsible for administration
of the military affairs.

ADMINISTRATION • He inspected the troops maintained by

the holders of iqta.
DURING SULTANATE • He also supervised the commissariat (a
department for the supply of food and
• The Nature of the Delhi Sultanate: In equipment) duties of the Sultan's army.
theoretical or formal way, the Delhi
• The army in total consisted of troops
Sultanate recognized the supremacy
maintained by several nobles as well
of the Islamic law known as shariah
as the standing army (hashm-i-qalb) of
and tried not to disobey open violation
the Sultan.
of Shariah. But these rulers had to
supplement it by framing secular
regulations (zawabit), so as to rule
effectively and efficiently. Diwan-I-Insha
• Central Administration: Central • Diwan-I-Insha looked after State
administrative machinery of the correspondence. It was headed by
Sultanate consists of the nobles Dahir-I-Mumalik.
controlling various offices with the • This department dealt with all the
Sultan at the helm of affairs. correspondence between the Sultan
and several other rulers, and between
the Sultan and provincial governments
Diwan-i -Wizarat and their officials.
• The Wizarat was the head of the • It issued various farmans and received
diwan-i-wizarat (Finance). He was letters from the subordinate officials.
the most important figure in central
administration of the sultanate.
• Although he was one of the four Barid-I-Mumalik
important departmental heads, • Barid-I-Mumalik was the head of State
he exercised a general supervisory news agency.
authority over other three.
• He had to keep information of all things
• Wizarat organised the revenue collection, happening in the Sultanate region.
exercised control over the expenditure,
he kept accounts, disbursed salaries and • The administrative sub divisions had
allotted revenue assignments (iqta) as per local barids who sent regular news
the order of Sultan. letters to the central office.

31
• Barids reported matters of state like Judiciary
wars, rebellions, local affairs, finances,
the state of agriculture and so on. • Sultan was the head of judiciary and
was the final court of appeal in both
• Apart from barids, another set of
civil and criminal matters.
reporters existed who were known as
munhiyan. • Next to him was the Qazi-Ul-Mumalik
(or Qazi-Ul-Quzzat), the chief judge of
the Sultanate.
Diwan-I-Risalat • Often, the offices of Sadr-Us-Sudur and
Qazi-Ul-Mumalik were held by same
• Diwan-I-Risalat was the highest person.
religious office. It was headed by Sadr-
Us-Sudur. • Chief Qazi headed the legal system and
heard appeals from the lower courts.
• He took care of ecclesiastical affairs
and appointed qazi.
• He approves several grants like waqf for Muhtasib
religious and educational institutions
and wazifa and idrar to the learned and • The muhtasib which means public
the poor. censors helped the judicial department.
• Their main work was to see that there
was no public infringement of the tenets
of Islam.

Specific departments created by Rulers for specific functions

Department Founder

Diwan-i-Mustakharaj (revenue arrears) Alauddin Khilji

Diwan-i-Kohi (Agriculture) Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq

Diwan-i-Bandagan (slaves) Feroz shah Tughlaq

Diwan-i-Khairat (Charity) Feroz shah Tughlaq

Diwan-i-Ishtiaq (pensions) Feroz shah Tughlaq

Administrative Units and corresponding heads

Administrative Units Head

Province/Sarkars Naib/Wali

Shiqs/Districts Shiqdar

Paragana/Group of Villages Chaudary and Amil

Gram/Village Muqaddam/Khut/Potwaris

32
Iqta System ECONOMY
• This institution in the early lslamic
world was in force as a form of reward • The lands were classified into three
for services to the State. This played categories:
an important role in maintaining
centralized administration. 1 Iqta Land Land assigned to Muqtis
• To consolidate, Turkish rulers made
revenue assignments (iqta), in lieu of Khalisa Land under direct
2
cash to their nobles called as umma. Land control of Sultan
• Assignees (known as muqti and wali)
collected land revenue from these area, Lands granted to
3 Inam Land
met their own expenses and paid the religious institutions
troops maintained by them and sent
the surplus (which is known as fawazil) • Three groups of rural aristocracy- khut,
to the centre. muqaddam, and chaudhuri - who
collected land revenue (kharaj) from
• The grant of iqta did not imply any right the peasants on behalf of state and
to the land and it was not hereditary deposited it with the officials of the
though the holders of Iqta started to diwan-i-wizarat.
acquire hereditary rights during the
reign of Feroz Tughluq. • Apart from land revenue (kharaj), every
cultivator had to pay house tax (ghari)
• These revenue assignments were and cattle or grazing tax (charai).
transferable, the iqta holder used to get
transferred from one region to other • The peasants paid one third of their
region every three to four years. produce as land revenue, and sometimes
even one-half of their produce.
• Therefore, iqta ought not be likened
with the fief of archaic medieval Europe, • They led miserable lives during this
which were genetic and non-adaptable. period.
• The tasks could be huge (an entire area • Nevertheless, Sultans like Muhammad
or a section). Tasks even to aristocrats bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq took
conveyed regulatory, military and efforts to enhance agricultural
income gathering obligations. Thus, production by providing irrigational
the provincial administration used to facilities and by providing ‘takkavi’
be headed by muqti or wali. He had loans.
to maintain an army consisting of • They also encouraged the farmers to
horsemen (cavalry) and foot soldiers grow superior crops like wheat in place
(infantry). of barley.
• Firoz Tughlaq encouraged the growth
of horticulture in his era.
• During the Sultanate period, the
interaction of urbanization acquired
force.
• The development of exchange and
business saw as India sent out an
enormous number of items to different
nations. Grain and textile were the
prominent items of export.

33
• Overseas trade was then under the • The Muslim aristocrats involved high
control of Multanis and Afghani workplaces and once in a while the
Muslims. Hindu aristocrats were given high
• Muslim Bohra merchants and Gujarati situation in the public authority.
Marwari merchants dominated inland • The Hindus were considered zimmis
trade inside Indian lands. or ensured individuals for which they
• Road construction and their had to pay an expense called jiziya.
maintenance favoured smooth Muhammed bin Tuglaqh was probably
transport and communication systems. the only ruler who included Hindus and
lowborn people in the nobility.
• Sarai or rest houses on the highways
were maintained for the convenience • Muhammed bin Tuglaqh also included
of the travellers. Sufis in the administration.

• Cotton material and silk industry • There was just small change happened
prospered in this period. in the structure of Hindu society during
this time period.
• Sericulture was presented for an
enormous scope. • Traditional caste system which was
basically derived from chaturvarna
• Paper industry developed and there system with the Brahmins on the
was broad utilization of paper from the top layer of society was very much
fourteenth and fifteenth hundreds of prevalent.
years.
• The subordinate position of women
• The imperial karkhanas provided the also continued and the practice of sati
products expected by the King and his was widely prevalent in India.
family.
• The isolation of women and the purdah
• The arrangement of coinage had system became so common that even
likewise evolved during the Delhi Hindu women followed it.
Sultanate. Gold coins or dinars got
famous during the rule of Alauddin
Khilji after his South Indian successes.
TECHNOLOGICAL
SOCIAL LIFE
ADVANCEMENT OF
• Society of this period was of great THE PERIOD
inequalities. This was reflected in the
Muslim society even more than in the • New techniques and crafts were
Hindu, the latter being predominantly brought by the Muslims to India like
rural where inequalities were less Saqiya, spinning wheel, pit-loom,
marked. In towns, the Muslim nobility lime mortar, true arches, dome, paper
led a life of great ostentation. and bookbinding, stirrup, horseshoe,
gunpowder, tin coating and mariner's
• During the Sultanate time period, the compass.
Muslim society was divided into various
racial and ethnic groups. • The Indians accepted all these without
hesitation or opposition.
• The Iranians, Turks, Afghans and the
Indian Muslims grew solely and there
were no intermarriages between these
gatherings.

34
CAUSES OF 3. Limitations of Iqtadari, Zamindari and
Jagirdari system led to the disintegration

DECLINE OF DELHI of Delhi Sultanate under weak sultans.

4. Invasion of Timurid created a havoc like
SULTANATE situation and became the main cause
for the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate.
1. The rulers of Delhi Sultanate came 5. There was absence of strong rulers.
to power with the help of sword and Unfortunately, after the death of
army, so there was no definite law of Sultan Firoz, no strong ruler arose and
succession. successive rule of weak kings hastened
2. Nobles were very powerful enough to the process of decline.
act as kingmakers and controlled the 6. Vast spread of empire and poor means
weak sultans. of communication also contributed to
decline.

35
 CHAPTER - 3

VIJAYANAGARA AND BAHMANI EMPIRE

INTRODUCTION
• Vijayanagar empire was set up in 1336
by Harihara and Bukka who were the
sons of Sangama.
• It had its capital on the banks of river
Tungabhadra. It stretched from Krishna
river to extreme south.
• Some scholars ascribe to the theory
of Telugu origin of Vijayanagar rulers,
Others believe that they belonged to
Karnataka.
• The former believe that the empire was
established by Harihara I and Bukka
I (the sons of Sangama) who were
employed under the Kakatiya ruler. I m a g e 3.1: V i j aya n a g a r E m p ir e

• When Warangal was taken by Ulugh

Khan (later Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq)
in 1323, they got employed under SANGAMA DYNASTY
Kampildeva of Anegundi and when
Anegondi was conquered by the Delhi
(1336-1485)
Sultan, they were deputed there to The Sangama dynasty was the first to rule
restore order but instead they founded over Vijayanagar. Short description of the
the Vijayanagar empire. various kings of the Sangama reign are as
following:
• According to one view, they were
feudatories of Hoysalas and after the
dissolution of Hoysala power in 1342,
they emerged as their successors. Harihara I (1336-1356 AD)
• The Vijayanagara period is divided • Harihara I along with Bukka I was the
into four different dynasties- Sangama, founder of the Vijayanagara kingdom.
Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu. He was also well known as Vira Harihara
• Vijayanagar empire was visited by I and Hakka. He ruled Vijayanagara
many foreign travellers such as Nicolo kingdom from 1336 AD to 1356 AD.
de Conti (Venetian), Abdur Razzak
(Persian), Ibn Batuta (Moroccan), and
Domingo Paes (Portuguese). Bukka I (1356 AD- 1377 AD)
• After Harihara I, Bukka I sat on the
throne and ruled for around 20 years.
He extended the empire by defeating
the Shambuvaraya kingdom of Arcot

36
 and the Reddis of Kondaveedu by 1360. Deva Raya II (1424-1446 AD)
• He defeated the Sultan of Madurai and
• He was a successful and popular ruler.
expanded his territory into the south
He thwarted the strikes of Ahmad
Region (all the way to Rameswaram).
Shah I of the Bahamanis, conquered
• During Bukka’s rule, the capital of the Kondaveedu in 1432 and also thrashed
empire was set up at Vijayanagara the Gajapati of Orissa. He also collected
which was more safe than the previous rich tributes from the Lanka region. He
capital Anegundi. also managed to accumulate tributes
from the ruler of Calicut.

Harihara Raya II (1377-1404 AD)

• Bukka was succeeded by Harihara Raya Praudha Raya (1485 AD)
II. The latter continued the strategy of • Mallikarjuna Raya succeeded Deva
expansion and monitored such ports as Raya II. After some time, he was
Goa, Dabhol and Chaul. He conquered replaced by Virupaksha Raya II and
the Srisailam and Addanki regions from Praudha Raya. They were weak rulers.
the Reddis of Kondaveedu. He received Praudha Raya was the last king of
the titles of Vedamarga Pravartaka and Sangama dynasty and in 1485 AD, he
Vaidikamarga Sthapanacharya. was driven out of the capital by his
skilled commander Saluva Narasimha
Deva Raya.
Virupaksha Raya (1404-1405
AD)
• He only ruled for one year and was
murdered by his sons and was replaced SALUVA DYNASTY
by king Bukka Raya II who in turn was
succeeded by king Deva Raya I. (1486-1505 AD)
• Saluva Dynasty was the second dynasty
to govern the Vijayanagar Empire. Short
Deva Raya I (1406-1422 AD) description of various Saluva dynasty
• Reign of Deva Raya I was mostly kings are as following:
engaged in battles against the Bahmani
Sultan of Gulbarga, Velamas of
Telangana and Reddis of Kondaveedu. Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya
He was able to retain the vast territories
(1485-1491 AD)
he controlled.
• He tried to enlarge his empire but faced
strong opposition from many rebelling
Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya (1422- chieftains.
1424 AD) • He occupied the western ports of
Kannada country of Mangalore,
• Ramchandra Raya succeeded Deva Honnavar, Bakanur and Bhatkal.
Raya in 1422 AD. He was replaced by However, in 1491 he lost Udayagiri to
king Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya who in turn Gajapati Kapilendra.
was succeeded by king Deva Raya II.

37
Thimma Bhupala (1491 AD) • Vira Narasimha raya was acting as the
regent of the empire after the death of
• Narasimha Deva Raya was succeeded Narasa Nayaka.
by his son Thimma Bhupala. However,
• Therefore, the Saluva dynasty came to
he was killed by his army commander
an end.
who took advantage of various political
unrest in the region. After that he
was replaced by his younger brother
Narasimha Raya II.

TULUVA DYNASTY
Narasimha Raya II (1491-1505 (1505-1570 AD)
AD)
• In Spite of being the crowned King, • Tuluva dynasty was the third dynasty
to govern Vijayanagar Empire. The
Narasimha Raya II remained a puppet
most popular king of the Vijayanagar
ruler in the hands of his commander
kingdom, Krishna Deva Raya belonged
Tuluva Narasa Nayaka till his death in
to Tuluva dynasty.
1505. He was assassinated by the son
of Narasa Nayaka, Viranarasimha Raya • Short description of the various kings of
who proclaimed himself as the new Tuluva dynasty are mentioned below:
ruler.

• Tuluva Narasa Nayaka was the commander of army in

Vijaynagar under the rule of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya.
Tuluva Narasa After the death of king Narasimha Deva Raya, he became
Nayaka (1491-1503 the de-facto ruler of the kingdom.
AD) • He successfully defended the Vijaynagar kingdom against
the Gajapatis, Bahamani sultans and the various disloyal
chieftains.
• After the death of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka, Viranarasimha
Viranarasimha Raya
Raya became the king of Vijayanagar Empire. His rule was
(1503-1509 AD)
mostly occupied with fighting against rebel warlords.
• He was the most popular ruler of Vijayanagara Empire. He
received the titles of Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana, Mooru
Krishna Deva Raya Rayara Ganda and Andhra Bhoja.
(1509-1529 AD)
• His father was Tuluva Narasa Nayaka and mother was
Nagala Devi. The empire reached its zenith under his rule.
• In 1529, Achyuta Raya succeeded Krishna Deva Raya. He was
the younger brother of king Krishna Deva Raya.
Achyuta Raya (1529-
1542 AD) • When he died, his nephew Sadashiva was made the king
who was still a child. Aliya Rama Raya, son-in-law of Krishna
Deva Raya became the regent of the king.
• He was a mere puppet ruler in the hands of his minister Aliya
Sadashiva Raya
Rama Raya. During his time, the real power was exercised by
(1542-1570)
Rama Raya.

38
Krishnadevaraya court such as Vallabhacharya and
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Madhwa saint
• When Krishnadevaraya’s came to Vyasathirtha was the Rajaguru of King
power, the condition of the empire was Krishnadevaraya.
unstable, because he had to deal with
• He received the title of ‘Andhra Bhoja’
various rebellious subordinates and
because of his patronage towards
aggression of the Gajapathis of Orissa
art and literature. He is also known
and the Muslim kingdoms in the north.
as Abhinava Bhoja. He himself
Krishnadevaraya won the Gajapati
was also a great scholar. He wrote
kingdom (present day Orissa) and
various lieterature like a Sanskrit play,
extended the Vijayanagara empire to
Jambavati Kalyana and the Telugu
that region too.
work Amuktamalyada.
• King Krishna Deva Raya defeated
• During his reign, eight prominent
the Deccan Sultans in the battle of
scholars known as ‘Astadiggajas’ were
Diwani. After that, he attacked Sultan
patronized, like – Nandi Thimmanna
of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah, in Raichur
and Allasani Peddana (Andhra-kavita-
Doab (between the Tungabhadra and
pitamaha). The imperial court had
Krishna rivers, renowned for its rich soil).
representatives of Telugu, Kannada,
He also managed to capture Bidar.
Tamil and Sanskrit poets, who made
• He aided Portuguese rulers in their huge contributions to their respective
conquest of Goa from the rulers literatures.
of Bijapur and maintained cordial
• He constructed Vijaya Mahal, Hazara
relations with them. This relationship
Ramaswamy temple and Vithal Swami
also assisted him in purchasing high-
temple at Vijayanagar.
class Arabian horses and expanding
the empire's overseas trade. During his • He also built ‘Rajagopuram’. A
rule, Portuguese travellers Domingo new city was developed, known as
Paes and Durate Barbosa visited the ‘Nagalapuram’ in memory of his queen
empire and left numerous accounts. Nagaladevi. Also a reservoir across river
Tungabhadra called Vallabhapuram
• He was a contemporary of Babur, the
and a channel called Basavanna were
Mughal emperor. So Krishnadeva Raya
built.
was the ruler of the Vijayanagar empire
in southern India during the first Battle • He repaired and restored several south
of Panipat (1526). Indian temples, therefore most of the
big towers in south Indian temples have
• Krishna Deva Raya was a Vaishnavite
the name Raya gopuram in his honour.
but shown respect for all religions. He
was a follower of Lord Venkateshwara • Krishnadeva was succeeded by
of Tirupati. Various prominent saints Acchutadeva.
of the bhakti movement visited his

Hampi:
• Hampi was founded by Harihara and Bukka in 1336.
• It was capital city of Vijayanagara Empire during 14th – 16th century CE. Hampi is
placed on the banks of Tungabhadra basin in central Karnataka, Bellary District.
• In 1565, the Battle of Talikota led to a massive destruction of its physical fabric.
• In 1856, Alexander Greenlaw took the first detailed photographs of archaeological
remains at Hampi.

39
• In 1976, Hampi was credited as a site of national importance.
• In 1986, Hampi was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO.
• Hampi Chariot: This a shrine dedicated to Garuda, the official vehicle of Lord
Vishnu. By the orders of King Krishnadevaraya, it was constructed in the 16th
century.
• The chariot is built in Dravidian style, and has carvings depicting mythical battle
scenes. Standing on two giant wheels, two elephants are seen pulling the chariot.

I m a g e 3.2: H a m p i C h a ri ot

• Vittala Temple: It was built during the reign of King Devaraya II (1422 – 1446 A.D.)
and is considered to be one of the largest and the most famous structure in Hampi.
• It is also called as Shri Vijaya Vitthala Temple. It is dedicated to Lord Vitthala, an
avatar of Lord Vishnu.
• Vittala temple is constructed in the Dravidian style of temple architecture.
• The main hall (Maha Mandapa) of the Vittala Temple is situated in the inner
courtyard of the temple complex. It comprises four smaller halls.
• The Ranga Mantapa is one of the major attractions of the Vittala Temple. The large
mantapa is famous for its 56 musical pillars. These musical pillars are also called as
SAREGAMA pillars, showing the musical notes emitted by them.

I m a g e 3.3: V i t ta l a T e m p l e

40
BATTLE OF TALIKOTA puppet ruler because the actual power
was in the hand of His minister Rama
Raya. He tried to suppress the power of
• The Battle of Talikota was fought Sultanates of Deccan by establishing
between the Sultanates of Deccan and differences amongst them.
Vijaynagar kingdom in 1565 AD. The
Vijaynagar kingdom suffered defeat in
• But the Sultanates of Deccan got a
hint of his plan and created an alliance
the battle.
against Vijayanagar kingdom. Soon,
• During Battle of Talikota, Sadasiva they invaded the kingdom and looted
Raya was the king of Vijaynagar and destroyed everything after entering
kingdom. He was considered as a the capital of Vijaynagar kingdom.

I m a g e 3.2: T h e B at t l e of T a l i kota

Consequences themselves in fighting between

themselves and fell easy prey to the
• Prominence of Viajaynagara kingdom Mughals.
in South Indian politics was ended after
The battle of Talikota.
• Nayakas of Keladi in Shimoga, the Causes of Vijaynagar’s Defeat
Kingdom of Mysore and Nayakas of
Vellore proclaimed their independence • As compared with Deccan Sultanates,
from Vijayanagar empire. Vijaynagara kingdom had lesser number
of cavalry and The Deccan sultanates
• The Deccan sultanates could not were also better in artillery warfare.
get much out of this victory because
immediately after the war they engaged • The Deccan sultanates had more

41
 advance weapons in contrast to Bijapur and Golkonda. He also quashed
Vijaynagar kingdom. the rebelling Nayakas of Tamil Nadu
• The biggest reason for Vijayanagar's region.
defeat was the betrayal of two key
commanders in Vijaynagar kingdom
known as Gilani brothers. Sriranga II (1614 AD)
• Sriranga II ruled for a short period of
time and during his period, internal
ARAVIDU DYNASTY feud amongst the rival factions started.

(1570-1650 AD)
Ramadeva (1617-1632 AD)
• It was the 4th and last Hindu dynasty
which ruled Vijayanagara Empire. It • Ramadeva ruled between 1617 AD to
was founded by Tirumala. 1632 AD.

Tirumala Deva Raya Sriranga III

• He was also the son-in-law of king • He was the last ruler of the Vijayanagar
Krishna Deva Raya. He re-established Empire and ruled the empire from 1642
the Vijaynagar kingdom in Penukonda, to 1646 AD.
Andhra Pradesh. The whole kingdom
was damaged by the Muslim rulers
after the Battle of Tallikota. Decline of the Empire
• During his rule, Tirumala Deva Raya • The rulers of the Aravidu dynasty were
faced opposition from Southern very weak and incapable.
Nayakas of Madurai and Ginjee. In 1572
AD, He retired to a religious life. • Several provincial governors became
independent rulers.
• The leaders of Bijapur and Golconda
Sriranga Deva Raya (Sriranga I) seized some regions of Vijayanagar.

• Sriranga Deva Raya ruled Vijayanagara

empire between 1572 AD to 1586 AD. He
faced frequent attacks from Deccan SOCIETY UNDER
Muslim rulers. However, he did his
best to protect the territories of the
VIJAYANAGARA
Vijayanagara kingdom and died in 1586
without an heir.
EMPIRE
Caste system
In his famous work Manucharitam, Allasani
Venkata II (1586-1614 AD) Peddana mentions the four different castes
• In 1586, Venkata II succeeded his elder that lived in the society of Vijayanagar.
brother Sriranga I and became the 1. Brahmins or Viprulu followed the
new king of Vijayanagara Empire. He traditional profession related to
renewed the power of the kingdom by teachers and priests. Sometimes, they
dealing effectively with the sultans of also performed duties of administrators

42
 and soldiers. This is confirmed with the • The condition of the widows was
help of narration of Domingo Paes. pitiable, but they could remarry.
2. Rajulu or Rachavaru was generally • The state supported widow remarriage
linked with the ruling dynasty. The rulers by not levying any tax on It.
and generals were actually Sudras, • The prevalence of Sati Pratha in the
but known as rachavaru due to their Vijayanagar Empire is proved from
position. As in the case of other regions both inscriptions and foreign accounts
of South India, the Kshatriya Varna during the period.
appears to be absent here.
3. Matikaratalu or Vaishyas were the
merchants who were busy in trade and Other Conditions
commerce activities.
• Chess: This game was promoted by the
4. Nalavajativaru or Sudras were largely
state and players were rewarded.
agriculturists, but some of them carried
on several other professions. They were • Untouchability: It existed and
not segregated, although considered numerous classes such as dombaris,
inferior. jogis, Kambalattars and maravars were
considered as untouchables.
• Slavery: It was very common and
Religion and Philosophy Nicolo de Conti says that those failed
to repay debts became the property of
• Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers the creditor.
of Shaivism and Virupaksha was their
family God. After some time they came
under the influence of Vaishnavism. But
Siva continued to be worshipped by the
Economic Conditions under
people. Vijayanagara Empire
• Vaishnavism was professed in various • The Vijayanagar kingdom was one of
forms. Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja the richest states then known to the
was highly popular. world. Different foreign travellers, who
• The Dvaita system associated with visited the empire in the 15th and 16th
Madhava was also practiced by the Centuries, have left glowing accounts
people. of its splendour and wealth.
• Epics and Puranas were famous • Agriculture: It was in a flourishing
amongst the masses, especially since situation. It was the strategy of rulers
they acted as a means of education to promote agriculture in the different
among women. areas of the empire and to boost
agricultural production by a clever
irrigation policy. Nuniz (Portuguese
traveller), speaks of the excavation of
Women
canals and construction of a dam.
• The tradition of dancing girls associated
with temples was also in vogue. Many
historian interpreted from the account
of Paes, that Devadasis held a highly
respectable place in society, and were
given land grants and maid-servants
etc.

43
Abdur Razzak, the Persian diplomat and Varahas or Pagodas (because the most
traveller, remarks: familiar symbol was Varaha, the Boar
incarnation of Vishnu).
'The tradesmen of each separate guild or
craft have their shops close to another'.
Trade was flourishing inland, coastal and
overseas trade which was an important
source of general prosperity. The
kingdom, according to Abdur Razzak,
had 300 sea ports.
Barbosa, another Portuguese traveller,
says that South India got its ships built in
the Maldives Islands. I m a g e 3.3: G o l d C o i n s D u ri n g V i j aya n a g a r
• Industries: The agricultural wealth was • Harihara I and Bukka I applied the
augmented by various industries, the Hanuman symbol in their coins.
most important of which were mining
and metallurgy, textile sectors and • Coins of Krishna Deva Raya had the
perfumery. Industries and crafts were figures of Venkatesh and Balkrishna.
regulated by guilds. • Achyuta Raya utilized Garuda while
• It was common practice for people of Tirumala maintained the original
the same trade to reside in one and the Varaha.
same quarter of the city.
• Malabar was the most valuable Standard of Living
commercial region on the West coast,
with its important port region of • Various accounts of different foreign
Cannanore. It had good commercial travellers speak of the high standards of
bonding with Burma, the Malay living of the upper and middle classes.
Archipelago and China in the East, the • The splendour of the capital city of
islands of the Indian Ocean, and Persia, Vijayanagara bears testimony to
South Africa, Arabia, Abyssinia and the wealth, which was, however, the
Portugal in the West. domination of only a section of the
• Important items such as cloth, spices, population of the kingdom.
rice, iron, saltpeter, sugar, etc. were • The prices of several articles were low
exported. The main imports comprised and the minimum necessities were
pearls, copper, coral, mercury, horses, probably not beyond the means of the
elephants, China silks and velvets. common people of the kingdom.
• Ships were utilized for coastal and • But the producers particularly
overseas trade purpose. Vijayanagara agricultural producers, apparently got
had its own ships; the art of shipbuilding inadequate prices for their produce.
was known, but we do not know if
ocean-going ships were built.
• Another main fault of the economic
system was that the common people
had to bear the brunt of taxation,
which was quite heavy and the local
Coinage authority’s sometimes adopted
• The Vijayanagar rulers issued a huge oppressive methods of collection.
number of gold coins, also known as

44
Foreign Visitors of Vijayanagara • Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537 A.D) — He was
a Portuguese merchant, who decribed
Kingdom the history of the Vijaynagara empire
• Ibn Battuta (1333-1347 A.D.) — He was from its earliest days to the closing
a Moroccan traveller, who came to years of Achyuta Deva Raya’s reign.
India during the reign of Muhammad-
bin-Tughlaq and visited Vijayanagar
during the reign of Harihar I. THE BAHMANI
• Nicolo Conti (1420-1421 A.D.) — He was
a Venetian traveller, who provided a EMPIRE
comprehensive account of the Hindu
kingdom of Vijayanagar. • The Bahmani Empire was located in the
north and functioned as a dominating
• Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 A. D.) — He competitor to the Vijaynagar Empire.
was a Persian traveller, who visited the
court of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has • It was established by an Afghan,
provided a stunning account of the Alauddin Hasan in 1347.
Vijayanagar city, while depicting the • Vijayanagar and Bahmani Empire
wealth and luxurious life of the king and clashed for the Tungabhadra doab,
the nobles of Vijayanagara kingdom. Krishna-Godavari delta and the
• Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516 A.D.) — He Marathwada country. For the first time,
was a Portuguese traveller, who had the usage of Artillery was heard in their
presented a useful narrative about battles.
the government and people of the • The Bahmani capital was Hasanabad
Vijayanagar kingdom. (Gulbarga) between 1347 and 1425
• Domingos Paes (1520-1522 A.D) — He when it was moved to Muhammadabad
was a Portuguese traveller, who came (Bidar).
to the court of Krishnadevaraya.

Key Rulers

Muhammad Shah-I • Muhammad Shah-I was the next ruler of the Bahamani
(1358-1377.A.D.) Kingdom.
• He was an intelligent general and administrator.
• He defeated Warangal ruler Kapaya Nayaks and the
Vijayanagara ruler Bukka-I.

Muhammad Shah-ll • Muhammad Shah-ll ascended the throne in 1378 A.D.

(1378-1397.A.D.) • He was a peace lover and established friendly relationships
with his neighbours.
• He also constructed many mosques, madarasas (a place of
learning) and hospitals.

Feroz Shah Bahmani • He was a great general.

(1397-1422 A.D.) • He defeated the Deva Raya I of Vijayanagara.

45
Ahmad Shah (1422- • Feroz Shah Bahmani was succeeded by Ahmad Shah
1435 A.D.) • He was an unkind and heartless leader.
• He occupied the kingdom of Warangal and changed his
capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
• Ahmad Shah died in 1435A.D.

Muhammad Shah-lll • He became the Sultan at the age of nine in 1463 A.D.
(1463-1482 A.D.) • He became the regent of the infant ruler.
• Under Muhammad Gawan’s capable leadership, the
Bahmani kingdom became very strong.
• Muhammad Gawan defeated the rulers of Orissa,
Sangameshwar, Konkan and Vijayanagar.

Mahmud Gawan • He was a Persian merchant.

• The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak because of the
guidance of Mahmud Gawan.
• At the age of 42, he joined the services of Bahmani kingdom.
• His personal qualities lead him to the position of chief
minister.

Administration » The Juma Masjid at Gulbarga,

» The Golconda Fort
• The Sultans of Bahmani empire followed
a Feudal type of administration. » The Golgumbaz at Bijapur
• The kingdom was divided into many » The Madrasas of Muhammad Gawan
provinces known as ‘Tarafs’.
• Gol Gumbaz in Bijapur is known as
• Tarafdar or Amir was the governor who the whispering gallery for the reason
controlled the Taraf. that when any individual whispers, the
lingering echo of the whisper is heard in
the opposite corner.
Contribution to Education
• The Sultans of Bahmani empire gave
great attention to education field.
• They encouraged Persian and Arabic
learning.
• Urdu also flourished during this time.

Art and Architecture

• Numerous mosques, madarasas and
libraries were built like,
I m a g e 3.4: G o l G u m b a z

46
Reasons for Decline of Bahmani dynasty (at Berarwas) was established
by Fatullah Imad-ul-Mulk. Bera state
Empire had the shortest life span as it was
1. There was a continuous war among the captured by Nizam Shahis in 1574 A.D.
Bahmani and Vijayanagar rulers. • Golconda—The Qutub Shahi dynasty
2. Successors after Muhammad Shah III was established by Auli Qutub Shah in
were Inefficient and weak. 1518. Muhammad Quli was the creator
of the city of Hyderabad. In 1687,
3. The conflict between the foreign nobles
Aurangzeb annexed Golconda.
and Bahmani rulers.
• Bidar—The Barid Shahi dynasty was
Breakup of the Bahmani originated by Ali Barid in 1518. Later,
Kingdom it was conquered by the Adil Shahis of
Bijapur.
• The State of Bijapur was established
by Yusuf Adil Shah in 1489 A.D. Ibrahim
(1534-58) was the first Bijapuri king to
substitute Persian by Hindvi (Dakhini
Urdu) as the official language of the
Bombay Ahmednagar
region. Ibrahim II (1580-1627) was
affectionately known as Jagadguru. Bidar
Ruler Muhammad Adil Shah lies buried Goa Bijapur
Hyderabad
Golkonda
in the Gol Gumbaz. In 1686, Bijapur was
captured by Aurangzeb. Vijayanagara Madras
Empire
• Ahmednagar—The founder of the Calcut
Bangalore
Decan Sultanates
Nizam Shahi dynasty was Ahmad Cochin
Tranquebar
Vijayanagara

Bahri in 1490. This was conquered by

Shahjahan in 1633.
• Berar— In 1490 A.D, the Imad Shahi I m a g e 3.5: D e c c a n S u lta n at e s

47
 CHAPTER - 4

BHAKTI & SUFI MOVEMENTS

INTRODUCTION and broad-based social participation.

• Likewise, the Sufi movement was a
socio-religious movement of fourteenth
• A significant development in the
to sixteenth century. The practitioners
cultural history of medieval India was
of this movement were unorthodox
the revolution in society brought about
Muslim saints who had a deep study of
by a group of socio-religious reformers.
vedantic philosophy and Buddhism of
• The revolution was known as the India.
Bhakti Movement. Bhakti as a religious
• They had gone through various religious
concept refers to devotional surrender
texts of India and had interaction with
to a personally conceived Supreme
great sages and seers of Indian region.
God for achieving salvation.
They saw the Indian religion from very
• The beginning of this doctrine has near and realized the inner values
been found to both the Buddhist and associated with it. Accordingly they
Brahmanical traditions of ancient India created Islamic Philosophy which at
and to different scriptures such as the last gave birth to the Sufi Movement.
Gita.

REASONS FOR
EMERGENCE OF
BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• This movement was the result of a
number of causes. The origin of the
movement lay deep into the soil of India.
There was nothing new associated with
the bhakti cult that did not already
exist in India. The various elements
of the cult could be tracked from the
Vedas onwards.
• Then, the impact of the Muslim rule put
dread in the heart of people of Hindu
religion. Followers of Hindu religion had
suffered a lot under some of the fanatic
I m a g e 4.1: M e e r a b a i muslim rulers. They needed some solace
to cure their despairing hearts.
• However, for the 1st time in South India in
between the seventh and tenth century • The bhakti movement gave them hope
period that bhakti movement grew from and inner strength to save Hinduism.
a mere religious doctrine into a famous The Sufi saints associated with socio-
movement based on religious equality religious movement also inspired the

48
 movement. Some related chords in the and provided a new orientation to
two evoked resonance. Hinduism.
• The Muslim community strongly • He preached Advaita or Non-dualism.
believed in the equality and fraternity • He established four Mathas in four
of mankind, unity of God, and full corners of the country.
surrender to God and it is a coincidence
that the various Hindu reformers and 1. Dwaraka
the mystic saints were also attempting 2. Puri
to stress these features besides others. 3. Badrinath
4. Sringeri
• Followers of him are called Smarthas.
BHAKTI MOVEMENT • His most famous philosophical work is
IN SOUTH INDIA Viveka Choodamani.

• In between the seventh and the tenth

century, Vaishnava Alvar saints and the Ramanujacharya
Saiva Nayanar saints of South India,
• In the 12th century, Ramanuja preached
was responsible to spread the doctrine
Vishishtadvaita. He was born at
of bhakti amongst several sections of
Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai.
the society regardless of caste and sex.
• According to him God is Saguna
• Some of the saints of this movement brahman.
came from the "lower" castes and some
were women. • He also encouraged prabattimarga or
path of self-surrender to God.
Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti: • He invited the downtrodden to
• The Bhakti movement which was a Vaishnavism and made Vaishnavism
part of Hinduism saw two streams popular.
which looked differently towards • He has written Sri Bhashya.
the nature of the divine (Brahman) –
Nirguna and Saguna.
• Nirguna Bhakti was the concept of Nimbarka
the Ultimate Reality (God) as formless,
• He was a younger contemporary of
without attributes or quality. Nirguna
Ramanuja.
bhakts thus believe in the eternal all-
pervading and omnipresent divine • A Telugu Brahman, Nimbarka spent
consciousness. most of his time in Vrindavan in the
vicinity of Mathura in North India.
• Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was
envisioned as with form, attributes • He believed In complete devotion to
and quality. God was manifested in Krishna and Radha.
some form.

Madhvacharya
Adi Shankaracharya • In the 13th century, Madhava from
• Shankaracharya started a Hindu Udupi propagated Dvaita (dualism) of
revivalist movement in the ninth century Jivatma and Paramatma.

49
• According to his viewpoint, the world is to ninth centuries saw the arrival of
not an illusion but a reality. new religious movements, led by the
• God, soul, matter are unique in nature. Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) and
Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) who
• He wrote Geeta Bhashya. came from various castes involving
those considered as “untouchable” such
as the Pulaiyar and the Panars.
Basavanna • Nayanars and Alvars were critical of
• His followers were known as Veerashaiva the Jains and Buddhists and advocated
or Lingayat. ardent love for Shiva or Vishnu as the
route to salvation.
• His followers worshipped shiva in Linga
form. • Nayanars and Alvars drew upon the
standards of heroism and love as
discovered in the Sangam literature
Nayanars and Alvars (the earliest example of Tamil literature,
composed during the early centuries of
• Time period between the seventh the Common Era) and combined them
with the values of bhakti.

• In the 6th to 8th century, they were a group of 63 saints (in

Tamil Nadu) who were faithfully devoted to the Hindu god
Shiva.
• There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to various caste and
backgrounds like “untouchable” workers, peasants, hunters,
potters, soldiers, Brahmanas and chiefs.
Nayanars
• The well known among them were Sambandar, Sundarar,
Appar and Manikkavasagar.
• Thirumurai (meaning holy division) is a twelve volume
compendium of songs or hymns in praise of Shiva in the
Tamil language from the 6th to the 11th century by various
poets in South India.
• Alvars were a group of 12 devotional saints in the 7th and the
12th centuries (in Tamil Nadu) who were fully devoted to the
Hindu god Shiva.
Alvars • There were 12 Alvars, who came from different backgrounds,
the well known being Periyalvar, his daughter Andal,
Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar.
• Their songs were compiled in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT of Ramanuja. After some time he

established his own sect and preached

IN NORTH INDIA his doctrines in Hindi at Banaras and

Agra.
Ramananda • He was a believer of Rama and he
was the first to employ the vernacular
• Ramananda was originally a follower medium to propagate his thoughts.

50
• Simplification of worship and liberation Mirabai
of people from the traditional caste
rules and regulations were his two • She was a great devotee of God Krishna
valuable contributions to the Bhakti and she became popular in Rajasthan
movement. for her bhajans.
• He was against the caste system and • Her Krishna was known as Giridhar
selected his disciples from all segments Nagar and her bhajans influenced
of society disregarding caste. Mahatma Gandhi.
• There were a large number of disciples
of Ramananda and they belonged
to wide ranging backgrounds. The Tulsidas
prominent disciples were: Kabir (a • He was a worshipper of Rama and
manufacturer of stoves), Raidas (a composed the famous Ramcharitmanas,
tanner by profession), Dhanna (a Jat the Avadhi version of Ramayana.
by caste, but worked as a butcher),
Peepa (a Kshatriya), and Sen (a barber
by profession). There were Brahmins
like Brahmanand, Bhavananad and BHAKTI MOVEMENT
Sukhananad and Sursari. There was
also a prostitute by the name of Ganga. IN BENGAL
Chaitanya
Vallabhacharya • Chaitanya was a popular saint and
reformer of Bengal who promoted the
• He was a Telugu brahmin and founder of Krishna cult.
Pushtimarg (way of grace). It also came
to be known as Vallabha sampradaya
• He renounced the world and turn into
an ascetic. He wandered all over the
(Vallabha Sect).
country preaching his thoughts.
• He advocated Krishna bhakti. Famous
Krishna bhakti saint-poet, Surdas (1483-
• He supported the idea of universal
brotherhood of man and criticized all
1 563) and seven other Krishna bhakti
distinctions on the basis of caste and
poets associated with ashtachhap were
religion.
supposed to have been the disciples of
Vallabha. • He believed that through devotion and
love, song and dance, a devotee could
• The sect later became famous in
experience the presence of God.
Gujarat.
• He accepted disciples from various
classes and castes and his teachings
Surdas are extensively followed in Bengal even
today.
• He was the devotee of Vallabhacharya
and he popularized Krishna cult in north
Indian region.
• He wrote Sur Sagar.
• He was contemporary to Tulsi Das and
Akbar.
• He is called the "Blind bard of Agra".

51
Gaudiya Sampradaya
BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• Gaudiya Vaishnavism (Chaitanya
Vaishnavism or Hare Krishnas) is a IN MAHARASHTRA
Vaishnava religious movement that
was founded by Sri Chaitanya in the Jnaneswar or Gyaneshwar
16th century. With this movement he (1275-1296 A.D.)
revived the culture of Krishna bhakti.
• He was the pioneer bhakti saint of
• Here, the word "Gaudiya" refers Maharashtra.
to the Gauda region (present day
West Bengal & Bangladesh) and • He taught that the only way to attain
Vaishnavism referes to "the worship God was bhakti and in bhakti there was
of Vishnu". The philosophical basis of no place for caste distinctions.
the movement is that of the Bhagavad • Jnaneswari: an extensive commentary
Gita and Bhagavata Purana, besides on the Bhagavad Gita. This was one
the other Puranic scriptures and of the most primitive works of Marathi
Upanishads. literature and served as the foundation
of bhakti, ideology in Maharashtra.
• Abhangs: These are hymns composed
Jaydev by him.

• Another prominent Vaishnavite saint

from Bengal was Jaydev, who wrote
Gita Govind.
Namadeva
• The Gita Govinda describes the • He preached the gospel of love.
relationship between Krishna and the • He opposed idol worship and priestly
gopis of Vrindavana, and in particular domination.
one gopi named Radha. It is stated that
• He started the Abhang cult in
Radha is greater than Krishna.
Maharashtra.
• The Gita Govinda is arranged into
twelve chapters which are sub-divided
into twenty-four divisions known as Ekanatha
Prabandhas. The prabandhas include
couplets grouped into eights, named • He was a devotee of the Lord Krishna
Ashtapadis. and is a prominent figure of the Warkari
• The text also explains the eight moods tradition. Warkari (one who performs
of Heroine, the Ashta Nayika, which has the Wari) is a sampradaya or a religious
been an insight for many compositions movement within the bhakti spiritual
and choreographic works in Indian tradition.
classical dances. • Ekanatha composed many lyrics and
his bhajans and kirtans are famous
even today.

Tukaram
• Another important Bhakti saint
of Maharashtra was Tukaram
(contemporary of Shivaji). He was

52
 responsible for establishing a » He included dance-drama-music form
background for Maratha nationalism. in the preaching of bhakti.
• Tukaram was a 17th-century Hindu poet » He founded the institution of satra
and sant of the Bhakti movement in which later grew into a full-fledged
Maharashtra, monasteries. His sect is called
• Tukaram was part of the egalitarian, mahapurashiya dharma.
personalized Varkari devotionalism Other Saints associated with
tradition.
Bhakti Movement
• He is well known for his devotional poetry
known as Abhanga and community- • Raidas/Ravidas most probably
oriented worship with spiritual songs belonged to the generation next to
known as kirtans. Kabir's.
• His poetry was devoted to Vitthala or • Dhanna was a 15th century Jat peasant
Vithoba. from Rajasthan.
• Others saints were Sen (a barber) and
Pipa.
BHAKTI
MOVEMENTS IN MONOTHESTIC
OTHER REGIONS MOVEMENTS IN
• Kashmir: Saiva bhakti flourished in the NORTH INDIA
14th century. Lal Ded (woman) was the
most prominent one. Guru Nanak
• Gujarat: Vallabha sect of • He is the founder of the Sikh religion
Vallabhacharya (he was major) and and a disciple of Kabir.
Narasimha Mehta (1414-1481, or
• He was born in Talwandi near Lahore.
1500-1580), became popular among
merchants and landowners. • Guru Nanak dev ji passed the message
of Universal brotherhood.
Assam: Sankaradeva (1449-
• Guru Nanak Dev Ji asked his followers
1568) to shun five evils which leads to
• Sankaradeva preached supreme illusion (maya) which eventually acts
devotion to Vishnu or his incarnation, as a roadblock towards attainment of
Krishna. salvation. The five evils are: Ego, Anger,
Greed, Attachment and Lust.
• He had to face persecution of orthodox
Brahman priests. • The three duties that a Sikh must carry
out can be summed up in three words;
• Monotheistic concepts influenced his Pray, Work, Give.
concept of bhakti which came to be
known as the eka-sarana-dharma » Nam japna: Keeping God in mind at all
('religion of seeking refuge in one'). He times.
denounced the caste system and used
» Kirt Karna: Earning an honest living.
common language.
» Vand Chhakna (Literally, sharing one's
• He brought significant innovations in earnings with others): Giving to charity
the devotional practice.
and caring for others.

53
• He denounced caste distinctions and • He regarded devotion to god as an
rituals. valuable means of salvation.
• His conception of religion was very • In Kabir’s dictum, the Educator (Guru)
practical and sternly ethical. has been given the prime position.
• One of his famous sayings was ‘Abide According to him, the teacher was the
pure amidst the impurities of the world’. incarnation of God.

• His life was devoted to forming harmony • Kabir emphasized the impermanence
between Hindus and Muslims. of all things in the world.

• His followers are known as Sikhs. • Kabir expressed his views in a vast
collection of verses known as sakhis
and pads. These are said to have
been composed by him and sung by
wandering bhajan singers.
• He is considered as the greatest of
the mystic saints and his followers are
known as Kabirpanthis.
• Bijak is the sacred book of Kabirpanthis.

Sufism
• It is mystical Islamic belief and
movement. Its aim is to establish
direct communion between God and
man through personal experience of
mystery which lies within Islam. Sufis
I m a g e 4.2: D a s gurus in Sikhism though accepted the Shariat, but they
Kabir Das did not confine their religious practice
to formal adherence.
• Among the disciples of Ramananda,
the most popular was Kabir. • They established a number of Sufi
orders or silsilah in and outside India
• He was born near Banaras and and each had their specific features.
abandoned by his parents. But, a Muslim However they had some common
couple who were weavers brought him characteristics:
up by profession.
• Kabir’s principal tenet was ‘Love for all’. » Stress the significance of traversing the
He highlighted that love was the only Sufi path as a process of establishing
important medium which could bind the direct communion with divine reality.
entire human kind in an unbreakable » Novice has to pass all the way through
bond of fraternity. a succession of "stations" or "stages"
• Kabir denounced idolatry and rituals and changing psychological conditions
and laid huge importance on the or "states" to experience God.
equality of human beings before God » Sufi route could be traversed only
and he also emphasized the essential under the strict observation of a
oneness of all the religions by depicting spiritual guide (murshid, shaikh or pir)
Hindus and Muslims ‘as pots of the who had himself successfully traversed
same clay’. it and consequently founded direct

54
 communion with God. • Varieties of sources used to reconstruct
» Disciple (murid) evolved through the the history of Sufi traditions A wide
"stages" and "states" by practicing range of texts were produced in and
spiritual exercises. E.g.: self- around Sufi khanqahs. These included:
mortification (subjugation of desire by
» Treatises or manuals dealing with Sufi
self-discipline), remembrance of God's
thought and practices – The Kashf-ul-
name for concentration.
Mahjub of Ali bin Usman Hujwiri (died c.
» Sufi sect practiced sama (musical 1071) is an example of this genre.
recital) which was aimed to induce a
» Malfuzat (literally, “uttered”;
mystical state of ecstasy. Ulema were
conversations of Sufi saints).
hostile to this practice.
» Maktubat (literally, “written” collections
» Organisation of the Sufis into different of letters) written by Sufi masters,
orders (silsilah). e.g. Qadiri, Chishti and
addressed to their disciples and
suhrawardi etc.
associates.
» Hospice (khanqah) was the centre of » Tazkiras (literally, “to mention and
the different activities of a Sufi order.
memorialise”; biographical accounts
Here, pir imparted spiritual training to
of saints) – In the 14th century Siyar-ul-
his disciples.
Auliya of Mir Khwurd Kirmani was the
» Sufism emphasised self-discipline to first Sufi tazkira written in India. It dealt
gain knowledge of God. principally with the Chishti saints.
» While orthodox Muslim followers put
emphasis on external conduct, the Sufis
• Sufism emphasized the elements of
love and devotion as valuable means
lay stress on inner purity.
of the realisation of God.
• Love of God was linked to the love of
General points related to Sufism humanity and so the Sufis believed
service to humanity was equivalent to
• It was a liberal reform movement within service to God.
Islam. • Other ideas emphasized by Sufism are
• It had its beginning in Persia and spread meditation, tolerance, good actions,
into India in the eleventh century. repentance for sins, performance
• Shaikh Ismail of Lahore, the first Sufi of prayers and pilgrimages, fasting,
saint started preaching his ideas. suppression of passions by ascetic
practices and charity.
• The most popular Indian Sufi saints of
India was Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, • These liberal and unorthodox elements
who settled in Ajmer. Hence, Ajmer is of Sufism had a great influence on
called 'Mecca of India' His disciples are medieval Bhakti Saints.
called Sufis of Chisti order. • When the Sufi movement was becoming
• Another famous Sufi saint was famous in India, about the same time
Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. His branch the Bhakti cult was gaining strength
of Sufi saints was called as the Sufis of among the Hindus.
the Suhrawardi Order.
• Nizamuddin Auliya was famous Sufi
saint was who belonged to the Chishti
order.

55
 brotherhood and religious tolerance.
Sufi Words Meaning Due to this, an environment of mutual
love and respect was formed among
Tasawwuf Sufism various sections of society.
• The Bhakti and Sufi saints preached
Shaikh/ Pir Spiritual teacher their teachings in the local language.
This led to the development of the
Murid Disciple local and vernacular languages and
corresponding literature.
Khalifa Successor • Both promoted the idea of charity and
social service.
Khanqah The hospice • Both Bhakti and Sufi saints were very
popular among people. So, their
Sama Musical recital shrine and tombs became a place of
pilgrimage visited by both Hindus and
Raksa Dance Muslims.

Fana Self-annihilation
SIGNIFICANCE OF
SIMILARITIES THE BHAKTI AND
BETWEEN Sufi MOVEMENTS
BHAKTI AND Sufi 1. Bhakti and Sufi saints were critical of
the ritualistic and superstitious aspects
MOVEMENTS of the religion. They were for shedding
the age old superstitious aspects of the
religion and attaining salvation through
• The Bhakti cult along with Sufi
salvation or pure devotion towards God.
movements showed the people that the
This helped in reforming the dogmatic
presence of God could be experienced
nature of the religion.
under the direction of a guru. Priests or
ulemas are not necessary to feel the 2. These saints were against the caste
presence of God. Therefore, numerous system and the dominance of
people began to question the authority Brahmans. Their disciples were from
and domination of their religion by diverse backgrounds. E.g. The disciples
religious authorities. of Ramananda.
• The Bhakti and the Sufi saints criticized 3. The movements also led to secularisation
the existence of rituals in the Indian of the society and promotion of Hindu-
society. Muslim unity. Saint Kabir was respected
by both Hindus as well as Muslims.
• Both Sufi and Bhakti movements
emphasised the feeling of universal

56
 CHAPTER - 5

THE MUGHALS

INTRODUCTION legacy that succeeding rulers could not

ignore.

• Ruling a large territory like Indian • Every year the Prime Minister of India
addresses the nation on Independence
subcontinent with such a diversity of
Day from the ramparts of the Red Fort,
cultures and people was very difficult
which was used to be the residence of
for any ruler to accomplish in the
the Mughal emperors.
Medieval period.
• But Mughals were completely contrast Ancestors
in their territorial expansion unlike their • The Mughals were considered as
predecessors, they created an empire descendants of two great lineages.
and achieved which was hitherto
seemed possible for only short duration » From the father’s side they were the
of time. descendants of Timur (died 1404), the
• From the mid-16th century they ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day
expanded their kingdom from Delhi Turkey.
and Agra and by the end of seventeenth » From their mother’s side they were
century they established control over successors of Genghis Khan (died 1227),
nearly all of the subcontinent. ruler of the Mongol tribes, China and
• They created structures and ideas of Central Asia.
governance and administration that
outlasted their rule, with a political
• But, the Mughals did not prefer to

I m a g e 5.1: 1 s t B at t l e of P a n i pat

57
 be called as Mongol or Mughal. This • On the other hand, the Mughals took
was because Genghis Khan’s history pride in their Timurid ancestry, because
was associated with the killings of their great ancestor had captured Delhi
innumerable people. They were also in 1398.
linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol
competitors.

I m a g e 5.2: T i m u r

Brief Timeline BABUR (AD 1526-

• The Mughal empire was founded by 1530)
Babur in 1526, by defeating the Sultan
of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodhi, in the First • Babur was related to Taimur from
Battle of Panipat. his father’s side and to Chengiz Khan
through his mother.
• The Mughal imperial structure,
however, is sometimes dated to 1600, • He occupied Lahore by defeating its
to the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar. governor, Daulat Khan Lodi.
This imperial structure lasted until 1720, • On 21 April 1526, first Battle of Panipat
until shortly after the death of the last was fought between Ibrahim Lodi and
major emperor, Aurangzeb, during Babur in which Ibrahim Lodi was killed.
whose reign the empire also achieved
• In 1527, Babur defeated Rana Sanga of
its maximum geographical extent.
Mewar in the Battle of Khanwa.
• Reduced subsequently, especially
• In 1528, Babur captured Chanderi from
during the East India Company rule
Rajput ruler Medini Rai.
in India, to the region in and around
Old Delhi, the empire was formally • In 1529, Babur defeated the Afghans
dissolved by the British Raj after the (Muhammad Lodi) in the Battle of
Indian Rebellion of 1857. Gaghra in Uttar Pradesh. Humayun
was leading the Mughal troops in the

58
 campaign. Baburi in Turki language.
• Babur died at Agra in 1530. • Babur was also a naturalist and
• Babur was also a great scholar in Arabic described the fauna and flora of India.
and Persian languages. Turki was his • Babur was very fond of building
mother tongue. gardens. Charbagh was his favourite
• He wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i- style of garden building.

I m a g e 5.3: B a b u r

HUMAYUN (AD into exile for the next fifteen years.

• Humayun got the opportunity in 1545,
1530-1540) when Sher Shah died. The successors
of Sher Shah were not strong enough
• Humayun means “fortune” but he to hold the empire together. Humayun
was the most unfortunate ruler of the marched from Kabul to Delhi in 1555
Mughal Empire. and defeated Sikandar Suri in Punjab.
Then he marched to Delhi and Agra
• Humayun was thoroughly defeated and took easy possession of Delhi and
by Sher Khan ( Sher Shah Suri) in the Agra.
Battle of Chausa in 1539 and the Battle
of Kannauj in 1540. • However, he could rule only for six
months and died when he slipped down
• Humayun lost his Kingdom and went the stairs of his palace. He died in 1556.

59
 I m a g e 5.4: H u m ay u n

• Sher Shah died in 1545 and his successors

SHER SHAH SURI ruled till 1555. In 1555 Humayun re-

(AD 1540-1545) conquered India.

• Sher Shah Suri (1486 – 1545) was the

founder of the Suri Empire in India, with
Sher Shah’s Administration
its capital in Sasaram in modern-day • The ruler was assisted by four important
Bihar. He introduced the currency of ministers: Diwan-i-Arz, Diwan-i-Wizarat,
rupee. Sher Shah who was an Afghan Diwan-i-Insha, Diwan-i-Risalat.
ruler, took control of the Mughal Empire
• Sher Shah’s empire was divided into
in 1540.
forty-seven Sarkars.
• Sher Shah was a pious Muslim and • Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief
generally tolerant towards other
Munsie (judge) were the two officers
religions. He employed Hindus in
responsible for the administration in
important offices.
each sarkar.
• He added a new city to Delhi called • Several parganas were created by
Purana Qila and built a mosque there.
dividing each sarkar. Amin (land
• He also built his own Mausoleum at revenue), Shiqdar (military officer),
Sasaram, which is considered as one of Karkuns (accountants) and Fotedar
the masterpieces of Indian architecture. (treasurer) were in charge of the
• Sher Shah patronized Malik Muhammad administration of each pargana.
Jayasi who was credited for writing the • The land revenue system was
famous Hindi work Padmavat during well organized under Sher Shah
his reign. The book depicts the love administration.
story of Raja Ratan Singh of Chittor
• Land was surveyed carefully. Entire
and his queen Padmavati. The conflict
cultivable lands were classified into
between Allauddin Khilji and Ratan Sen
three classes – good, middle and bad.
is also depicted in the same book.
• His land revenue was based on the

60
 system of Patta and Qabuliat. • Police was efficiently reorganized and
• The state took one third of the average as a result crime was effectively dealth
produce and it was allowed to be paid with under his administration.
in cash or crop. • The military was also efficiently
• He introduced new silver coins called reorganized and Sher Shah borrowed
“Dam” and they were in circulation until many ideas like the branding of horses
1835. from Alauddin Khilji.

• He had also improved the • He created a network of Sarai (halting

communications by laying important place) for efficient communication
highways. Along with construction of systems. Around the sarai market also
many roads, he extended the Grand grew.
Trunk Road from Chittagong in the • Humayun, referred to him as “Ustad-I-
the province of Bengal in northeast Badshahan”, teacher of kings.
India to Kabul in Afghanistan in the far
northwest of the country.

Sher Shah Suri

THE LION KING
OF INDIA
Died on May 22, 1545
Founded the Sur Empire in North India,
Which ruled from 1540-1556

Rupiya during his rule

Revived the city of Pataliputra as Patna
Killing a tiger with his bare hands

Extended the Grand Trunk Road

from Chittagong, now in Bangladesh,
to Kabul

Died from a gunpowder explosion

during the siege of Kalinjar fort

I m a g e 5.5: S h e r S h a h S u ri

• Bairam Khan acted as his regent during

AKBAR (AD 1556- the first five years of Akbar’s reign.

1605) • Abul Fazal wrote a three volume history

of his reign named as Akbarnama.
• Akbar succeeded the throne after his • It is believed that Akbar died on 27
father Humayun’s death. October 1605, after which his body was
• In 1556, Akbar defeated Hemu in the buried at his mausoleum in Sikandra,
second Battle of Panipat and established Agra.
strong control over Delhi. The Mughal
troops were led by Bairam khan.

61
 I m a g e 5.6: A k b a r

Policy towards Rajputs • One after another, all Rajput states

submitted to Akbar.
• The Rajput policy of Akbar was notable
which was a turning point in the history
• Rajputs served the Mughals for nearly
four generations.
of Mughals.
• Akbar married the Rajput princess who • Raja Man Singh and Raja Bhagawan
Das were given senior positions in the
was the daughter of Raja Bharamal.
administration by Akbar.
• Akbar gave complete religious freedom
to his wives, he also gave an honoured
• However, the Ranas of Mewar proved
more ferocious and continued to defy
place to their parents and relatives in
the Mughal authority despite several
the Mughal nobility.
defeats.

I m a g e 5.7: J o d h a B a i

62
 I m a g e 5.8: B at t l e of H a l d i g h at i

• Rana Pratap Singh fought with Mughal Akbar and helped in the development
army led by Man Singh in the Battle of of a composite culture.
Haldighati (1576). But he was severely • Akbar’s Rajput policy was based on
defeated by the Mughals. broad religious toleration. Akbar
• Thus, the Rajput policy effectively abolished the pilgrim tax and later the
ended the centuries old animosity jizya.
between the Mughals and the Rajputs. • The Rajput policy of Akbar proved
• Also, since the latter were assimilated beneficial to the Mughals as well as to
in the administrative structure of the the Rajputs.
empire, it affected the public policies of

I m a g e 5.9: M a h a r a n a P r ata p

63
Religious Policy of Akbar remarriage.

• Akbar was not an extreme or orthodox Land Revenue Administration:

Muslim rather he was known for his Dahsala System
tolerance towards all the religions.
• Akbar did some experiments in the land
• Various factors for his religious ideas revenue system and Raja Todar Mal
were assisted Akbar in these experiments.
» the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, The land revenue system of Akbar was
called Zaboor Bandobast.
» his early contacts with the Sufi saints,
• Dahsala system was completed in 1580.
» his association with intellectual Under this system, a uniform system of
personalities like Shaikh Mubarak and land measurement was introduced by
his two illustrious sons Abul Faizi and Todar Mal.
Abul Fazl,
• Akbar changed the land measuring unit
» his marriage with Rajput women, and introduced Gaz-i-ilahi.
» his ambition to establish an empire in • The revenue, under this system, was
Hindustan. fixed on the average yield of land
assessed based on the past ten years.
• To send a message of unity and
togetherness, Akbar forged many • The Payment of revenue was made
religious marriage alliances. generally in cash.
• The fact that Akbar married • The land was also divided into three
the Rajput princess Jodha categories: good, bad and middling. It
says a lot about his kindness. was further divided into four categories
Despite the fact that there was a lot mentioned below.
of resistance, Akbar built a temple for
Jodha in his palace.
• He held debates in ibadat khana to help Polaz Cultivated every year
people gain a better understanding of
religion. Initially, only Muslim scholars Parauti Cultivated once in two years
were permitted to attend, but later,
scholars of all faiths were permitted Cultivated once in three or
to attend. Father Monserrat was Chachar
four years
also invited by Akbar. These debates
convinced Akbar that all religions had
Cultivated once in five or
the same basic teachings. Banjar
more years
• Proclamation of Mazhar: He declared
himself the chief interpreter of Islam
• To strengthen his idea of the oneness of
all the religions, Akbar propounded the
principle of Din-i- Elahi, through which
he spread the theory of “All Religions
are same”.
• Sulh-i-kul: He proclaimed that under
his rule people of all faith should live
peacefully.
• He banned Sati and allowed widow

64
Nasaq and Zabti Systems • The mansab rank was not hereditary
which means mansab ranks could
• Nasaq: This system of land revenue not be transferred to the relatives of
assessment was widely utilized in mansab.
Akbar’s time. It consists of a rough
calculation of the amount payable • All appointments, promotions and
by the cultivator on the basis of past dismissals were directly made by the
experience. The peasant was provided emperor.
with remission in the land revenue if
crops failed due to drought, floods, etc. How Mansabdari was different from
Iqtadari?
• Zabti system: Akbar introduced a new
system known as the Dahsala or Zabti • The Mansabdari was used by Mughal
system in 1580. Under this sysytem, rulers while the Iqtadari system was
the average yield of various crops as used by the Delhi Sultans.
well as the average prices prevailing • While the Iqtadari system was in
over the last ten years was calculated. force, the whole land of the Empire
1/3rd of the average produce was the was divided into two parts -- the
state share, which was however stated other which belonged to the emperor
in cash. and one which belonged to Iqtedars.
While in Jagirdari, the whole land
belonged to the Emperor.
Mansabdari System • Jagirdar had to maintain law and
order in addition to the revenue
• Mansabdari system which was collection. While iqtadar was the
introduced by Abar became the main officer in charge of the revenue
feature of his administration. collection and distribution.
• The term mansab means position, rank • Most of the times Muqti stayed in
or status, but in this context it indicated their Iqta, while Jagirdars did not stay
the rank of mansabdar who held the in jagirs.
mansab - in the official hierarchy.
• Initially, ‘Iqta’ was a revenue-yielding
• Under the mansabdari system, a rank land for which iqtadars were paid in
was assigned to every officer. The salary -- just like ‘Jagir’. However, in its
highest rank was 5000 for the nobles later days the Iqtadari system became
and the lowest rank was 10. hereditary whereas the Mansabdari
• Mansabdars were paid in cash or system was not hereditary.
sometimes in the form of assignments • Mansabdar was made in charge of
of jagir. Mansabdars were entitled to revenue collection and law and order
collect the land revenue and all other duties -- who was paid either in cash
taxes through an authority appointed or in land. Mansabdar was used to take
by the emperor. the salary from this collected revenue
• The ranks of mansabdars were divided and transfer the remaining to the ruler.
into two – zat and sawar. Zat which fixed
the personal status of a person while
sawar rank indicated the number of Imperial Expansion
cavalrymen required to be maintained
by the mansabdar. • In his imperial expansion, Akbar
chose Malwa, a state of strategic and
• At least two horses had to be maintained economic importance commanding
by every sawar.

65
 the route through the Vindhyan Range • His palaces and forts in and around
to the plateau region of the Deccan Delhi were great masterpieces with
and containing rich agricultural land; it unmatched workmanship. Few amongst
fell to him in 1561. those are Buland darwaza, Jodha Bai’s
• Then he targeted the Rajputana region palace, Allahabad Fort, Fatehpur Sikri,
and all rajput rulers except Mewar and Agra Fort.
accepted Akbar’s sovereignty. • He also showed a great affection for
• In 1573 Akbar annexed Gujarat, an area poetry and music, his durbar was a
with many ports that dominated India’s unique amalgamation of great artists,
trade with western Asia, and then scholars, singers, and poets etc.
turned east toward Bengal. • His “Nine Jewels or Naurattans”
• Toward the end of his rule, Akbar who excelled in the fields of art and
embarked on a fresh round of conquests. knowledge, they were as following—
The Kashmir region was subjugated 1. Birbal (Mahesh Das) the court Jester.
in 1586, Sindh in 1591, and Kandahār 2. Miyan Tansen (Ramtanu Pandey) the
(Afghanistan) in 1595. court singer.
• By 1601 Khandesh, Berar, and part 3. Abul Fazl (The chronologist) who wrote
of Ahmadnagar had been added to Ain I Akbari.
Akbar’s empire.
4. Faizi (The court Poet)
5. Maharaja Man Singh (Army Consultant)
Art and Culture 6. Fakir Aziao Din (Sufi Singer)
• Besides being a valiant ruler, Akbar was 7. Mulla Do-Piyaza (depicted as Birbal's
also a great patron of art and culture. Muslim counterpart)
• He was blessed with the company of 8. Todar Mal (Finance Consultant)
poets and singers and various types of 9. Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Kkhana (Writer of
artistic people. Hindi Couplets).

I m a g e 5.10: A b d u l R a h i m

66
Literary Works During Akbar’s
Reign
JAHANGIR (AD
• Akbar started a department for
1605-1627)
translation of works: Mahabharata,
• After Akbar’s death in 1605, Prince
the Ramayana, the Atharva –Veda, the
Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir.
Bhagavad Gita and the Panchatantra
were translated from Sanskrit to the • Jahangir’s reign witnessed number
Persian language. of rebellions. Jahangi’s son Khusrau
revolted but was defeated and
• Ramayana and Singhasan Batisi
imprisoned.
were translated by Mulla Abdul Qadir
Badayuni into Persian. • Jahangir killed the fifth Sikh guru, Guru
Arjun.
• Panchatantra was translated in Persian
by Faizi. • In 1611, Jahangir married with
Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur
• Atharva Veda was translated by
Jahan.
Ibrahim Sirhindi.
• He established friendly relations
• Rajataringini was translated by Maulana
with Mewar and thus finally, all
Shah Mohammad Shahabadi.
rajput kingdoms accepted Mughal
• Abul Fazl wrote the Ain-i-Akbari and Sovereignty.
Akbar Nama.
• Mughals permanently lost Kandahar to
• Hence, the Akbar period was popularly Persians during Jahangir's rule.
known as 'the renaissance of Persian
• In 1608 AD, the East India Company
literature'.
(EIC) sent Captain William Hawkins to
the court of the Mughal king Jahangir to
obtain royal patronage. He succeeded
in getting royal permit for the Company
to set up its factories at several places

I m a g e 5.11: j a h a n g ir

67
 on the Western Indian coast. claiming the throne he eliminated his
• After that in 1615 AD, Sir Thomas Roe main rivals and imprisoned his step-
was sent by King James I of England to mother Nur Jahan. He also executed his
Jahangir’s court, with a request for more own brothers and nephews so that he
concession for the Company. Roe was could rule without having to face any
very diplomatic and thus successfully competition.
secured a royal charter providing the • He launched a prolonged campaign in the
Company freedom to trade in the entire northwest frontier to recover Kandahar
territory of Mughal. and other ancestral lands but failed.
• His Deccan policy was more or less
successful. Shah Jahan defeated the
forces of Ahmadnagar and annexed
SHAH JAHAN (AD the region.

1627-1658) • He carved four Mughal provinces in the

Deccan – Khandesh, Berar, Telangana
and Daulatabad and put them under
• The French traveller Tavernier paid the control of his son Aurangazeb.
a visit during Shah Jahan’s reign. He
described Shah Jahan as the king who • The last years of Shah Jahan’s rule were
had a Universal sense of security as shadowed by a war of succession among
well as sense of Justice. Since he was his sons – Dara Shikoh (crown prince),
a jeweller by profession, he calculated Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan), Shuja
the cost of the Peacock Throne of Shah (governor of Bengal), and Murad Baksh
Jahan around 6.5 million sterling. (governor of Malwa and Gujarat).
• Jahangir died in 1627 and Shah Jahan • Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this
ascended the throne in 1628. After struggle and forced Shah Jahan to
surrender.

I m a g e 5.12: S h a h J a h a n

68
Art and culture accomplishments were undertaken
during his reign.
• Shah Jahan was a great patron of arts. • The Red Fort, Taj Mahal and the Jama
During his reign, the Mughal Empire
Masjid in Delhi, and the Shalimar Gardens
became a rich center of arts, crafts and
of Lahore are examples of Mughal
architecture.
architecture that survive to this day.
• The emperor’s love for architecture is • In 1666 Shah Jahan died and was buried
legendary; some of the nation’s most
beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.
well-known architectural and artistic

I m a g e 5.13: M u m ta z M a h a l

I m a g e 5.14: R e d F o r t

69
AURANGAZEB (AD and place them in imperial service.
Thus, Shivaji was defeated, called to

1658-1707) Agra for reconciliation (1666), and given

an imperial rank.

• Aurangazeb was considered as one of • The plan broke down, however; Shivaji
the ablest of the Mughal kings. fled to the Deccan and died, in 1680, as
the ruler of an independent Maratha
• Under his reign, the Mughal Empire kingdom.
reached its greatest extent, although his
policies helped lead to its dissolution. • Then, to contain the spread of the
Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to
• He adopted the regnal title Alamgir invade Bijapur and Golconda in 1686-
(Persian: "Conqueror of the World"). 87.
• The Fatawa-e-Alamgiri was compiled • Aurangzez defeated Sikandar Shah of
by Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb was among Bijapur and annexed Bijapur kingdom.
the few monarchs to have fully After this, he proceeded against
established Sharia law and Islamic Golkonda and eliminated the Qutb
economics throughout the Indian Shahi dynasty.
subcontinent.
• Though he destroyed the Deccan
• Aurangzeb was called "Zinda Pir" due kingdoms, it was a political blunder.
to his simple living and high thinking.
• Destruction of Deccan Kingdoms
• When Aurangzeb died after a rule of brought Mughals and Marathas face
nearly 49 years, the Mughal empire to face which ensued confrontation
confronted with a number of challenging between these two powers.
problems. His successors failed to cope
with them which led to the collapse of • In addition, his Deccan campaigns
the empire in the mid-18th century. exhausted the Mughal treasury.

Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb Religious Policy

• In the first half of his rule, which lasted • He was a ardent Sunni Muslim and
till about 1680, Aurangzeb was a a champion of Sunni orthodoxy. This
capable Muslim monarch of a mixed prompted him to strictly enforce the
Hindu-Muslim empire. Though he Quranic laws according to which, to his
was generally disliked by many for his mind, every pious Muslim must carry on
ruthlessness and orthodox policies still Jihad i.e. holy war against Dar-ul-Harb
he was feared and respected by many i.e. the land of the non-Muslims till they
for his vigour and skill. were turned into Dar-ul-Islam i.e. land of
Islam.
• During this period he diverted his
attention towards safeguarding the • He established a separate department
northwest region from Central Asian to enforce moral codes under a officer
Turks and Persians and less so with called Muhtasib.
the Maratha chief Shivaji, who twice • Use of bhang and other drugs were
plundered the great port of Surat (1664, prohibited. Drinking was prohibited.
1670). • Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal
• Aurangzeb applied his great- court. He discontinued the practice
grandfather Akbar’s recipe for conquest: of Jharokha darshan (addressing the
defeat one’s enemies, reconcile them, public from the balcony).

70
• He discontinued the practice of Bahadur Shah (1707-1712)
inscribing the Kalima on the coins. He
also banned Nauroj festival (a Parsi • In 1707 Mu'azzam ascended the throne
New Year Day). after having killed his brothers in the
battle, under the title of Bahadur Shah.
• At first, he banned the construction of
(or even Shah Alam-I).
new Hindu temples and repair of old
temples. Then started destroying it. • He was a person of mild temper, learned
and dignified but was too old.
• The celebrated temples at Benares and
Mathura lost their charms. • Bahadur Shah released Shahuji, Son of
Shambhaji, who was the elder son of
• He re-imposed jizya and pilgrim tax.
Shivaji.
• He was an orthodox Sunni Muslim and
• Bahadur Shah failed to prevent the
was not tolerant of other Muslim sects
downfall of the empire due to his
such as Shia.
sudden death in 1712.
• Aurangzeb even punished the Sufi saints
because of their liberal religious views.
• Aurangzeb was also against of the Jahandar Shah (1712 - 1713)
Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh
Guru Teg Bahadur. • After Bahadur Shah's death, there was
a fresh war of succession among his
• Because of his religious policy, the Rajputs, four sons, Azim-us-Shah, Jahandar
the Jats of Mathura, the satnamis of Shah, Rafi-is-Shah and Jahan Shah.
Mewars, the Marathas and Sikhs turned
into the enemies of Mughal Empire. • Jahandar Shah was able to kill his brothers
and managed to ascend the throne.
• Aurangzeb made the grave mistake of
identifying his personal religion with the • But within a year, Farrukhsiyar killed
state and that had generated a feeling Jahandar Shah and ascended the
of discontent among different sections throne.
of the people which even during his
lifetime distracted his energies and
became the major cause of the decline Farrukhsiyar (1713 - 1719)
and fall of the Empire. • Farrukhsiyar was cowardly, feeble and
contemptible.

THE LATER • He owed his elevation to the throne to

two Sayyid brothers, who were the real
MUGHALS' (AD 1707- power in the state.
• His attempt to assert his own power
1858) made his reign agitated and perplexing
one, ending in another imperial tragedy.
• The Aura of mighty Mughal empire • In 1717 he granted a Farman to the
started declining after Aurangzeb's English East India Company granting
death in 1707. The successors of them duty-free trading rights for
Aurangzeb proved weak and it caused Bengal, the Farman was repudiated by
disintegration of Mughal Empire. the notable Murshid Quli Khan.
• The mughal rulers after Aurangzeb • He was deposed, blinded and brutally
are known as Later Mughals and these killed by his own Sayyid ministers (the
rulers are: King-makers).

71
Rafi-ud-Darajat and Rafi-ud- Rafi-ud-Dallah, sons of Rafi-us-Shan.
Dallah (1719) • But within a few months the Sayyid
brothers who were determined to rule
• The Sayyid brothers, 'Abdullah and through the Imperial puppets thought
Hussain Ali, raised to the throne two that Roshan Akhtar, son of Jahan Shah
less capable kings, Rafi-Ud-Darajat & could be a better docile agent of them.

I m a g e 5.15: N a d ir S h a h

Muhammad Shah (Rangeela) Sikhs became active in Punjab.

(1719 - 1748): • In 1739, Nadir Shah invaded India
and defeated Mughals in the Battle
• In 1719 Muhammad Shah (Roshan of Karnal. This was a major blow to
Akhtar) ascended the throne. Mughal Authority.
• Muhammad Shah killed Sayyid brothers • As the number of independent states or
with the help of Nizam-ul-Mulk who regions came to the horizon, the cracks
later founded the Hyderbad city in 1724. in the Mughal power started to widen.
• Because of luxurious life, lavish
expenditure on clothing and
entertainment, he was also called as Ahmad Shah (1748 - 1754)
‘Rangeela’.
• Ahmad Shah, son of Muhammad Shah,
• Among the successors of Aurangzeb, failed to hold the forces together that
Muhammad Shah’s reign lasted for had grown so enormously.
the long time, but he was not an able
administrator or ruler. During his reign, • In 1754 The emperor was deposed and
the actual breakup of the Mughal blinded by the wazir Ghazi-ud-din, a
empire took roots. grandson of deceased Nizam-ul-mulk
of the Deccan who now became the
• Jats became independent near Agra, King maker.
The Marathas established their power
again, the Ruhelas founded Ruhelkand,

72
Alamgir-II (1754 - 1759): Shah Alam-II (1759 - 1806)
• Alamgir-II ('Aziz-ud-din'), the son of • Shah Alam-II, the son and the successor
Jahandar Shah, was placed on the of Alamgir-II, moved as a wanderer from
throne by Ghazi-ud-din. place to place because of the hostility
• He adopted the same title as Aurangzeb, of the unscrupulous and ambitious
and called himself 'Alamgir-II'. wazir.

• He was a kind of 'prisoner on the • He fought against the British East India
throne' in the hand of the king maker. Company during the Battle of Buxar.
Alamgir II was put to death by Ghazi- • Afghan chief Gulam Qadir blinded
ud-din Imad-ul-mulk when he tried to Shah Alam-II, but he was saved by the
free himself from Ghazi-ud-din Imad- Maratha Sindhia.
ul-mulk. • After 1803, the year in which the British
took control of Delhi, Shah Alam II lived
under the protection of the British and
till his death in 1806, he lived as their
pensioner.

I m a g e 5.16: S h a h A l a m - II

Akbar II (1806 - 1837) & Bahadur the puppet dynasty to legitimize their
presence in India.
Shah-II (1837 - 1858)
• But in 1857, during the Sepoy uprising, it
• With British control, all that remained shot them back. The Sepoys proclaimed
for the emperors Akbar-II and Bahadur Bahadur Shah-II emperor of India in
Shah-II as an empire was their shabby order to fight British power.
residence in the Red Fort of Delhi.
• But after the mutiny at Meerut, the British
• The Great Mughal, a sign of the emerged victorious, and Bahadur Shah-
resilience of a once glorious empire, was II was accused of disruption, treason and
still officially known as the potentate. rebellion. He was condemned to exile in
• British maintained the authority of Burma. The descendants were executed,

73
 and the glorious Mughal empire was • Amil and Khakori were the special
swept away once and for all. revenue officials at Pargana level.
• Mansabdari was the feudalistic
mechanism in Mughals.
MUGHAL
ADMINISTRATION MUGHAL FOREIGN
• Mughal administration is
as Persio-arabic setup in
called
Indian
POLICY
environment. • Mughal maintained cordial relations
• The mughal empire was divided into with Safavid (Iran), Uzbek (central Asia)
Subas (Provinces) which were further and Ottoman Rulers.
subdivided into Sarkar, Pargana, and • They promoted trade and commerce
Gram. by friendly relation with neighbouring
• The central government of Akbar countries.
was based on the structure that had • By maintaining Kabul, Kandahar,
developed since the Delhi Sultanate, Ghazni border, they also secured the
but by formulating comprehensive defence of the country.
regulations for their operation, the
functions of different departments were • Their foreign policy was on the basis of
carefully reorganized. equality.

» Wazir was made responsible for all

finances and management of the jagir
and inam lands, headed the revenue
DOWNFALL OF THE
department. MUGHALS: CAUSES
» Mir Bakshi: the head of the military
was called the Mir Bakshi and was • Various causes which led to the
chosen from among the court's leading disintegration and the final collapse of
nobles. Mir Bakshi was in charge the Mughal Empire are:
of collecting intelligence, and also
made recommendations for military » Religious causes- The religious and
appointments and promotions to the Deccan policies of Aurangazeb.
emperor. » Weak successors- The weak successors
» The imperial household, including the of Aurangzeb and demoralization and
harems, was under the charge of Mir subsequent weakening of the Mughal
Saman and oversaw the running of the army.
court and royal bodyguards. » Fnancial difficulties- The financial
» The judiciary was a distinct institution difficulties due to continuous wars.
led by a chief Qazi, who was also » Group Rivalry at the Court- The
responsible for religious beliefs and weakness of the Later Mughals led to
practice. treachery, treason and group politics at
the Mughal court.
• Sometimes a dignitary superior to the
wazir and other ministers was also » Failure of mansabdari system- The first
appointed called the Wakil. He acted of the scholars who pointed out that the
as the deputy to the sultanate (naib). collapse of the Jagirdari or Mansabdari

74
 scheme was largely responsible for Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
the Empire's downfall was Dr. Satish
Chandra. • The Empire, in name, however, remained
on until 1857. The British even wiped out
» The neglect of the sea powers like its name after the rebellion of 1857 and
Portuguese, British by the Mughals.
assumed de jure as well as India's de
» Foreign invasions- The Mughal state facto sovereignty.
was surprised by the invasions of Nadir

75
 CHAPTER - 6

THE MARATHAS

INTRODUCTION when Peshwa BajiRao II was defeated

by British East India Company.
• In the 17th century, the Marathas rose
• The Marathas were the Marathi-
to the prominence under the leadership
speaking warrior group from the
of Chhatrapati Shivaji, who revolted
Western Deccan Plateau region
against the Adil Shahi dynasty, and
(present-day Maharashtra). They rose
carved out a kingdom with Raigad as
to the prominence by establishing a
his capital.
Hindavi Swarajya (meaning "self-rule of
Hindu/Indian people"). • His father, Shahaji had earlier
conquered Thanjavur which Shivaji's
• The Maratha Confederacy or the
step-brother, Venkoji Rao or Ekoji
Maratha Empire was a force in the
inherited and the Kingdom was known
18th century which dominated a large
as Thanjavur Maratha kingdom.
portion of the Indian subcontinent.
• The Marathas were credited to a large
• With the crowning of Shivaji as the
extent for ending Mughal rule over most
Chhatrapati, the empire officially
of the Indian subcontinent.
existed from 1674 and ended in 1818

I m a g e 6.1: M a r at h a E m p ir e

76
 I m a g e 6.2: R i s e of M a r at h a s

THE RISE Mughal power.

• The most important challenge to the • The Maratha Empire produced a number
declining of Mughal empire came from of brilliant statesmen and commanders
the Maratha empire, which was the needed for this task. Instead of this, the
most powerful among the other states. Maratha Sardars lacked unity, and they
Not surprisingly, it alone possessed the lacked the outlook and program, which
strength to fill the political vacuum were necessary for founding an all India
created by the disintegration of the empire.

I m a g e 6.3: J i j a b a i B h o s s l e

77
• The Marathas had important positions & Kshatriya Kulavatamsa. He died in
in the military and administrative 1680.
systems of Bijapur and Ahmednagar. • After Shivaji’s death, Shivaji's two sons,
• Marathas had no large, well-established firsly Shambhaji and after Rajaram,
states; however, local authority was ruled for short period and fought with
exercised in some areas by a number of the Mughal army. In 1699, Rajaram’s
powerful Maratha families, namely, the death, one of his queens, Tarabai,
Mores, the Ghatages, the Nimbalkars, started to rule in the name of her infant
etc. son Shivaji II.
• The Maratha emperor, Shahji Bhonsle,
consolidated the Maratha kingdom
with his son, Shivaji. Shahji worked in
Ahmednagar as the kingmaker and
defied the Mughals.
• Shahji attempted to create a semi-
independent principality in Bangalore,
taking advantage of the unsettled
circumstances, as Mir Jumla, the leading
noble of Golconda, attempted to carve
out such a principality on the coast of
Coromandal. Later, Shivaji attempted
to carve out a large principality around
Poona.

SHIVAJI
I m a g e 6.4: S h i va j i ' s p o r t r a i t (1680 s ) in the
• Shivaji (1627-1680) was a Maratha king B ri t i s h L ibr a r y
of the Bhosle clan who is considered to
• The later Maratha Empire was
be the founder of the Maratha Empire
Confederacy of 5 big chiefs.
with his mother Jijabai who was his
prominent Guru. » Peshwa of Poona
• Shivaji led a resistance to free the » Gaekwad of Baroda
Marathi people from the Sultanate of
Bijapur and establish Hindavi Swarajya
» Bhonsle of Nagpur
(self-rule of Hindu/Marathi people). » Holkar of Indore
• Shivaji created an independent » Sindhia/Shinde of Gwalior
Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its
capital and successfully fought against
the Mughals to defend his kingdom.
• Shivaji was crowned as Chhatrapati SHIVAJI AND THE
(sovereign) of the new Maratha kingdom
in 1674. The state Shivaji founded was MUGHALS
a Maratha kingdom comprising about
4.1% of the subcontinent but spread • In 1657, the Mughal destroyed Bijapur and
over large tracts. saved Shivaji from Bijapur’s retaliation.
• He adopted the titles of Chhatrapati Shivaji first started negotiations with

78
 Aurangzeb and asked him for the grant trapped and Panhala fell under the rule
of all the Bijapuri territories under his of the forces of Bijapuri.
possession and other areas like the port • In the war against Shivaji, Adil Shah
of Dabhol in the Konkan region. Later took no further interest, and soon came
Shivaji betrayed and changed his side. to a secret understanding with him.
• Shivaji resumed-his conquest at the Shivaji was released by this agreement
expense of Bijapur. He invaded the to negotiate with the Mughals. In 1660,
Konkan, the coastal strip between the Poona was occupied by Shaista Khan,
Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, making it his headquarters. Then he
and seized the northern part. sent detachments to take possession of
• The ruler of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan Shivaji's Konkan.
along with 10,000 force. Afzal Khan was • The Mughals secured their control over
instructed to capture or kill Shivaji by northern Konkan, despite harassing
any possible means. attacks by Shivaji and the courage of
• In 1659, Afzal Khan invited Shivaji for a Maratha defenders.
personal interview, promising him to get • Shivaji invaded the camp one night in
pardoned from the Bijapuri kingdom. 1663 and assaulted Shaista Khan while
Shivaji realised the trap and he went he's in his harem (in Poona). His son
with full preparation, and murdered and one of his captains were killed and
Afzal Khan. Shivaji captured Afzal Khan was wounded. This bold assault
Khan’s property, including artillery and by Shivaji brought Khan to shame. In
equipment. rage, Aurangzeb moved Shaista Khan to
• Shivaji soon became a legendary figure. Bengal, and at the time of the transfer,
Shivaji became household name and even refused to meet him.
he was credited with magical powers. • In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat and
People from around the region flocked looted it, which was considered as the
to him to join the Maratha army, and premier Mughal port.
even Afghan mercenaries who earlier
served the Bijapur Kingdom, joined his
army.
TREATY OF
• Aurangzeb was anxious because of
the rising of the Maratha power near PURANDAR
to the Mughal frontiers. Poona and
adjacent areas, which had been parts • After Shaista Khan’s failure, Aurangzeb
of the Ahmednagar kingdom had been deputed Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Amber
transferred to Bijapur by the treaty of to deal with Shivaji. Mirza Raja Jai Singh
1636. However, these areas were now was one of the most trusted advisers of
again claimed by the Mughals. Aurangzeb.
• Aurangzeb instructed Shaista Khan, the • Unlike Shaista Khan, Jai Singh did
new Mughal governor of the Deccan not make a mistake to underestimate
(he was also related to Aurangzeb), the Marathas rather he made careful
to attack Shivaji's dominions and the military and diplomatic preparations.
ruler of Bijapur, Adil Shah was asked to • Mirza Raja Jai Singh planned to strike
cooperate Mughal Governor. at the heart of Shivaji's territories i.e.
• Adil Shah sent Sidi Jauhar, who fort Purandar where Shivaji’s family
invested Shivaji in Panhala in Western and his treasure was lodged.
Maharshtra. Shivaji fled, getting • In 1665, Jai Singh besieged Purandar,

79
 striking out all Maratha attempts to thought that if Aurangzeb and Shivaji
relieve it. With the fall of the fort, and could be reconciled, then Aurangzeb
no relief likely from anywhere, Shivaji could be persuaded to give greater
was forced to start negotiations with resources for the further invasion of
Mirza Raja Jai Singh. Bijapur. But Shivaji’s meeting with
• The outcome of the negotiations were: Aurangzeb also proved futile.
• When Shivaji and Aurangzeb met,
» Before the negotiations Shivaji held 35 Aurangzeb kept him in the category
forts, he surrendered 23 to the Mughals. of 5,000 mansabdar which Shivaji felt
» Shivaji allowed to retain remaining 12 humiliation because of lower Mansab
forts on condition of service and loyalty rank. Further, Aurangzeb did not find
to the Mughal empire. time to meet Shivaji during his birthday
celebration. Therefore, infuriated by
» Territory worth of 4 lakhs of huns a
this treatment Shivaji walked off angrily
year in the Bijapuri Konkan, which was
and refused to accept imperial service.
already in possession of Shivaji, was
allowed to retain by him. • As Shivaji had agreed to meet Aurangzeb
on Jai Singh's assurances, Aurangzeb
» Bijapur territory worth of 5 lakhs of huns
wrote to Jai Singh for advice. In return,
a year in the uplands (Balaghat), which
Jai Singh strongly argued for a lenient
Shivaji had conquered, was also granted
treatment for Shivaji. However, in 1666,
to him. In return for these, Shivaji was
before any decision could be taken,
compelled to pay forty lakhs huns in
Shivaji escaped from the detention.
installments to the Mughals empire.
» Shivaji was not interested in serving in
the personal service of Mughals. He
asked for an excuse from the personal ADMINISTRATION
service. Thus, a mansab of 5,000 was
granted to his minor son, Sambhaji.
UNDER SHIVAJI
» In return of this, Shivaji promised • Maratha Empire under Shivaji extended
Mughals to join personally in their from Maharashtra upto Carnatic and
campaign in the Deccan region. Tamil Nadu.
• Later, Jai Singh cleverly threw a bone • Shivaji’s empire was divided into two
of contention between the Bijapuri ruler parts: mulk-i-qadim (old territory) or
and Shivaji. But its success depended on swaraj (own kingdom), and an undefined
Mughal support to Shivaji carving out a tract of land legally part of the mughal
Bijapur territory worth the amount he kingdom which paid Chauth but was
had surrendered to the Mughal empire. not subject to Shivaji’s administration.
• The alliance with Shivaji was considered • For strengthening of the administration,
by Jai Singh from the starting point Shivaji abolished the Jagir system
of the conquest of Bijapur to the and started giving salary in cash to
entire Deccan. The Mughal-Maratha his officers. Even though he abolished
expedition against Bijapur failed, Jagirdari system but gave land grants
however. Also unsuccessful was Shivaji, for schools and temples.
who had been deputed to capture Fort • Under Shivaji’s rule, hereditary
Panhala. occupation of post was not permitted.
• After this, Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to • Shivaji did not encourage the Zamindari
meet with Aurangzeb at Agra. Jai Singh system.

80
Ashta Pradhan three provinces were divided into a
number of prants (group of districts).
• Ashta Pradhan system was the main
feature of his administration. Eight
prominent officials were called as Ashta Judicial System
Pradhan Mandal. They were-
• The judiciary was based upon the
» Peshwa: The Prime minister of the king. ancient Hindu laws. While in the
» Amatya or Majumdar: Finance Minister. villages, the Panchayats settled the
disputes between various parties.
» Waq-i-Nawis: Home Minister.
» Dabir or Sumant: Work of the foreign
department. Military
» Sachiv: The official correspondence.
• The army consisted of nearly 30000
» Pandit Rao: He was a religious officer. to 40000 cavalry and they were given
» Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati: The army fixed salaries. In 1659 Shivaji set up the
affairs. Maratha navy. Kanhoji Angre (1669-
1729) was considered as the most
» Nyayadhish: The chief justice.
famous Maratha admiral.
• All the above mentioned ministers,
except the Pandit Rao and the
Nyayadish, had to serve in a battles or Taxation System: Chauth and
war whenever necessary. Sardeshmukhi
• Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were
Other Aspects the two most important taxes in the
Maratha administration.
• To carry out departmental duties, each • Chauth literally means 1/4 of the total
minister was assisted by a staff of eight revenue and it was an annual tax.
clerks: Chauth was a kind of military payment
» Diwan – secretary in return of protection in the event of
invasion of a third power.
» Mujumdar – auditor and accountant
• But Jadunath Sarkar did not agree with
» Fadnis – deputy auditor this system. He was of the view that
» Sabnis or Daftardar – office in-charge the payment of Chauth merely saved
a place from the unwelcome presence
» Karkhanis – commissary
of the Maratha soldiers; it did not
» Chitins – correspondence clerk impose on Shivaji any corresponding
» Potnis – cashier obligation to guard the region from
foreign invasion or internal disorder.
» Jamdar – treasurer
• The Sardeshmukhi was an additional
• There were total 18 departments which levy of ten percent and it was based
were looked after by the ministers under on the legal fiction that Shivaji was
the guidance of the king. the hereditary Sardeshmukh (chief
• The Swaraj territory consisted of three headman) or the head of all Deshmukhs.
provinces was directly controlled by • Sardeshmukhi was collected from those
Shivaji and kept under viceroy. These Mughal areas over which Maratha
considered having hereditary rights.

81
SHAHUJI BHONSLE The Maratha Confederacy (1674-1818):
• It was a coalition of powerful Hindu
(1708–1749) warriors from southern India that
overthrew the Mughal Empire in
• He was the grandson of Shivaji, also northern India. Satara, Bijapur, was
known as Chattrapati Shahu. He the capital.
was Prisoner in hands of Aurangzeb • By the close of Sahu’s reign, these few
since 1689 and was released in 1707 powerful Maratha Kingdoms were in
(Aurangzeb’s death) by Bahadur Shah I. complete control of their territories.
• Why did the Civil war break out between • Of these chiefs, the most important
Shahu and his aunt Tarabai? were the Gaikwads (Gaekwars), the
Sindhias, and the Holkars. Also, there
» Both wanted supremacy over the
were branches of the Bhonsle family
Maratha kingdom.
that relocated to Kolhapur and
» After 1700, Tarabai had carried out an Nagpur, while the main line remained
anti-Mughal struggle at Kolhapur in in the Deccan heartland, at Satara.
the name of her son Shivaji II after the
• In the 1730s, the Confederacy
death of her husband Rajaram.
conquered Mysore as their technology
• As what happened in the Mughal increased, and they gained more
Empire like the rise of nobles in the resources in this annexation.
Mughal politics, the same thing started • In 1738-39 they also captured
in Maratha empire. Maratha Sardar Afghanistan and Baluchistan from the
started to take sides by bargaining; they Persian Empire, adding more regions
increased their power and influence to their empire.
even conspired against them with
Mughal viceroys
• This conflict aroused a new system
of Maratha government which
BALAJI
evolved under the leadership of Balaji
Vishwanath, the Peshwa of Shahu.
VISHWANATH (1713-
• This period is marked as the beginning 1720)
of the period of Peshwa domination
in Maratha history during which the • Balaji Vishwanath, a Brahmin, started
Maratha power was transformed into his career as a petty revenue official
an Empire. and then rose steadily as an official.
He had helped Shahu to suppress his
• Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan) - the office
enemies and adversaries.
of chief minister among the Maratha
people. The Peshwa, originally headed • Balaji Vishwanath excelled in diplomacy
the advisory council of the Raja Shivaji. and won over many of the big Maratha
Sardars. In 1713 – Shahu made Balaji as
• After Sivaji’s death, the council broke
Peshwa or Mukhya Pradhan.
up and the office lost its primacy, but
it was revived when Sivaji’s grandson • He consolidated his and Shahu’s hold
Shahu appointed Balaji Visvanāth Bhat, over most of Maratha sardars and
a Chitpavan Brahman, as Peshwa in Maharashtra except region of Kolhapur
1714. Balaji ‘s son Baji Rao I secured the (Rajaram’s descendent ruled there).
hereditary succession to the Peshwaship. • He had increased Maratha power by

82
 taking advantage of internal conflicts Under the Convention of Durai Sarai
of Mughal officials. He Induced Zulfiqar (January 1738), Baji Rao I compelled
Khan to pay Chauth and Sardeshmukhi the Nizam to surrender the whole of
of Deccan. Agreement with Shahu in Malwa, complete sovereignty over the
later years. Allowed them to collect territory between the Chambal and the
Sardeshmukhi and Chauth in 6 Narmada rivers and to pay 50 lakh as a
provinces of Deccan. war indemnity.
• In return Shahu agreed to place a body • Baji Rao I conquered Bundelkhand,
of 15000 cavalry troops at emperor Malwa, Gujarat and Bassein and
service and annual tribute of 10 lakh reached upto Gujarat in 1737.
rupees. Helped the Sayyid brothers in • With the fall of Bassein, it marked the
overthrowing Farrukh Siyar. end of Portuguese rule in the Northern
Konkan region.
• He also severely throttled the power of
Peshwa BAJI Rao I the Siddis of Janjira (Raigad district of
(1720-40) Maharashtra).
• He made Poona as headquarter of his
• After Balaji Vishwanath’s death, his activities and it soon came to be known
eldest son Baji Rao I, a young man of as the seat of the Peshwas.
hardly 20, was appointed as the Peshwa • However his policy of northward
by Shahu. expansion, landed the Marathas into
• He devised the policy of northward the ruinous third battle of Panipat.
expansion of the Marathas, so that “the • During this period, Ranoji scindia
Maratha flag shall fly from Krishna to founded the dynasty of Scindia in Malwa
Attock”. and made Ujjain as his headquarters.
• Baji Rao I, after settling issues at home, • Malhar Rao Holker was also given a
finally defeated the Nizam near Bhopal. part of Malwa, who founded the Holker

I m a g e 6.5: P e s h wa B a j i R a o – I

83
 house of Indore. • This arrangement proved beneficial
• The Gaikwars established their base for Alivardi Khan as his territories were
in the Gujarat with headquarters at freed from Raghugi’s forces.
Baroda. • On December 15, 1749 Shahu died
• Two other kingdoms of Kolhapur were childless. But Shahu had nominated
ruled by the junior branch of Shivaji’s Rama Raja, a grandson of Tarabai, as
family and Bhonsle’s of Nagpur claimed his successor.
close kinship ties with the Maratha king
Shahu.
• Baji Rao I founded the Maratha empire THIRD BATTLE OF
through his conquest, but he failed to
consolidate it through administrative PANIPAT (1761)
organisation.
• On January 14 1761, the Third Battle
of Panipat was fought between the

Peshwa BALAJI Marathas and Afghan army of Ahmad

Shah Durrani (also known as Ahmad

BAJI Rao OR NANA Shah Abdali). The Afghan Army was

supported by three Indian allies—
SAHIB (1740-61) Afghans of the Doab region, Shuja-ud-
Daula (the Nawab of Awadh) and the
Rohilla (Najib-ud-Daulah).
• At the very young age of 40, Baji Rao I died
and was succeeded by his son Balaji Baji • The Maratha army was led by Sadashiv
Rao (popularly called Nana Saheb) who, Rao Bhau who was third in authority
throughout his Peshwaship, remained after the Chhatrapati (Maratha King)
dependent on the advice and guidance and the Peshwa (Maratha Prime
of his cousin Sadashiv Rao Bhau. Minister).
• One of the earliest achievements • The forces led by Ahmad Shah Durrani
of Nana Saheb was better financial came out victorious after destroying
management of the Maratha empire several Maratha flanks.
by careful supervision of all financial • At Panipat, the two rival armies fought
transactions. face to face, for more than two months.
• He was keenly interested in the Alongside, there were skirmishes and
expansion of Maratha Empire in north minor battles. The afghan cavalry
India and he discussed the matter with dominated the environs of the Marathas
Sindhia and Holker and in April 1742 camp and cut off its communication as
marched northward to consolidate the also food supply.
Maratha authority in Bundelkhand. • Vishwas Rao was shot dead. Soon after
• In 1743, he marched towards the north this, Sadashiv Rao Bhau also lost his
to help Alivardi Khan (in Bengal) whose life. Great leaders like Jankoji Sindhia,
territories had been attacked by Raghuji Tukoji Sindhia and Ibrahim khan Gardi
Bhonsle. also died in the battle field. Mahadaji
Sindhia also succumbed to his injuries.
• He reached Murshidabad and met
Alivardi khan who agreed to pay Shahu • Because of kindness and hospitality
the Chauth for Bengal region and of Surajmal, about 50,000 men and
twenty two lakhs to Peshwa in return for women were saved.
this expedition.

84
 Jats didn’t fight on the Maratha side.

Aftermath
• Abdali’s attempts to conclude peace
with the Peshwa and Suraj mal became
unsuccessful, and in the ensuing years
he even failed to crush the Sikhs in the
Punjab.
• There was a revival of Maratha power
I m a g e 6.6: A h m a d S h a h D u rr a n i and S a da s h i v in north India under Peshwa Madhava
R ao B h au Rao I (1761-72).
• Najeeb-ud-daula (1770) administered
Reasons for the defeat of the Delhi as Abdali’s agent after Panipat.
Marathas But after his death, Marathas restored
the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II to
• Numerically the Afghans had the capital of his ancestors (1772).
considerable upper hand. • In 1788 Mahadji Sindhia occupied Delhi,
• Nearly 60,000 Afghans and their Indian and from his successor Daulat Rao
allies were actually present in the Sindhia the English annexed Delhi in
battlefield which were supported by 1803.
another 80,000 soldiers, SadashivRao • In south, the Marathas were able to
had only 45,000 troops in the battlefield defeat the Nizam and Haider ali.
and 15,000 Pindaris as the backup.
• Peshwa balaji baji Rao could not bear
• The Afghans had better training the awful catastrophe happened at
and discipline, and they were better Panipat. In June 1761, he died that is six
organized. months after the battle.
• Abdali had superiority in artillery, he • In the words of kashiraj pandit, who
employed “the most efficient mobile witnessed the third battle of Panipat
artillery known in that age”. (1761), “it was very doomsday for the
• Abdali was a far greater military leader Maratha people”.
and strategist than SadashivRao.
• The defeat became virtually
unavoidable after Sadashiv Rao Peshwa MADHAVA
postponed the battle for 2 and a half
months. Rao I (1761-72)
• From the political point of view,
Marathas failed to seek the help • After Balaji Baji Rao, his younger son
of Rajputs and Jats due to bad Madhava Rao became the Peshwa.
treatment given by Marathas to these • Since Balaji Baji Rao was only 17 years
principalities. Marathas also failed to old, the eldest surviving member of the
eliminate the threat of Najib-ud-Daula Peshwa family, his uncle Raghunatha
and Shuja-ud-Daula. Rao, became his regent and de facto
• On the other hand, half of the Abdali’s army state ruler.
was composed of troops provided by his • Severe differences broke out between
Indian allies, the valiant Rajput’s and the the Peshwa and his uncle during this

85
 period, culminating in war between two exacting money from the leading rajput
in 1762, in which the army of the Peshwa princes; but the premature death of
was defeated. Madhava Rao in November 1772 placed
• In 1765, Raghunatha Rao demanded the the Maratha dominion in a deep crisis.
partition of the Maratha state between • After Madhava Rao’s death the
himself and the Peshwa. Peshwaship was passed from few hands
• Haider Ali of Mysore ravaged the within short period of time. These were
Maratha territories in Karnataka; but Narayana Rao (1772-74), Madhava
the first Anglo-Mysore war involved Rao Narayan (1774-95), and Baji Rao II
Haider Ali in a greater crisis. (1796-1818). And during this period, the
prestige and fortune of Maratha empire
• During this period the Marathas tried to and pehswaship declined rapidly.
restore their lost position in north India.
• The last Peshwa surrendered to the English
• In January 1771, Mahadji Sindhia after Third Anglo-Maratha War and the
occupied Delhi and succeeded in Peshwaship was abolished in 1818.

I m a g e 6.7: N a n a P h a d n av i s

MAHADJI SINDHIA Emperor’s Deputy (Natb-i-Munaib) on

the condition that Mahadji would act
on behalf of the Peshwa.
• Amongst the most important Maratha
rulers in the North.
• But he spent his energies in intriguing
against Nana Phadnis.
• Organized a powerful army with French
officers’ help and brought Emperor
• He was a bitter enemy of Holkar of
Indore. He died in 1794. He and Nana
Shah Alam under his control in 1784.
Phadnis, who died in 1800, were the last
• From Shah Alam, he secured the of the great soldiers and statesmen.
appointment of the Peshwa as the

86
 • Challenge to British supremacy in India
BAJI Rao II (1796- i.e. Marathas were overpowered in 2nd

1818) and 3rd Anglo Maratha wars through

clever diplomacy.

• Baji Rao II, who was son of Raghunath • House of Peshwas was extinguished
Rao succeeded Sawai Madhav Rao. while other Maratha states remained
as subsidiary states.

IMPORTANT TERMS AND THEIR MEANING

Swarajya Shivaji’s Kingdom/Self rule

Raj Vyavahar Kosh Sanskrit dictionary compiled at the instance of Shivaji

The levy on the neighbouring territories which was ¼ of the land

Chautai/Chauth
revenue.

Bakhar Shivaji’s Biography by Sabhasad written in 1677

Mirasis Resident owner cultivator

Watandars Local landed elements

Ashtapradhan Council of eight ministers

Chitnis Secretary

Mauza Lowest unit of the country

Tarfs Second lowest unit of the country

Prants Provinces

Equivalent to chaudhuris (village headman) of North India and

Deshmukh
desais of Gujarat.

Kamavisdar Subedar of small provinces under the Peshwas

Mamlatdar Subedar of bigger provinces under the Peshwas

Watan Hereditary land holdings

Mirasdars Petty zamindars

Moksha Mahal Land grants

1/10 of produce taken by Shivaji being Sardeshmukh, head of

Sardeshmukhi
Deshmukhs.

87
CAUSES FOR THE especially in their enemy camps. There
was lack of far-sighted statesmanship

DOWNFALL OF or effective strategy or diplomacy. They

failed to forge the alliances with forces
Maratha EMPIRE around them rather they created their
own enemies.
• Military Losses: The Marathas lost » Marathas always dreamed of ruling
huge number of men and money in the from the power centre of North.
third battle of Panipat. Marathas lost Because of this policy, various rulers
their most able leaders in the battle. in Northern India developed suspicion
The Maratha kingdom was shaken from about Marathas. Because of this
its foundation. Soon, Marathas drawn suspicion, various rulers decided to stay
into wars with the British to retain away from the battle. Marathas also
their dominions. This too drained their interfered in internal affairs of Rajput
coffers. and levied huge fines and tributes upon
Rajputana states.
• Political structure: Another reason
for the downfall of the Marathas was » In the case of Awadh, they claimed
its own administrative structure. The large territory and money. Further they
Marathas were divided into various levied heavy fines on rulers and also
principalities and power was shared angered the Sikh rulers.
among these various power centres like
Bhonsle, Holker, Scindia and others.
• Military expansion minus consolidation:
Though Marathas annexed large
• Weak Revenue System territories within a short period of time,
they failed to consolidate it because of
» Marathas depended on the Chauth greediness.
and Sardeshmukhi and on exploits
from plunder and loot. Inefficiency in • No progressivism: The Maratha
revenue administration resulted into administration structure was borrowed
weak financial system. from its predecessors. Feudal levies, for
instance, persisted with the land-grant
» Though the Marathas kept on
system. As a consequence, Marathas
conquering new territories and very
finally lost to the British, who were
less attention was given for their
politically and militarily more advanced.
administration. Marathas were mainly
focussed on exploitation of these • In 1802, Peshwa Baji Rao II signed
territories through imposition of the Treaty of Bassein and accepted
taxation system. This caused simmering subsidiary alliance. With the imposition
discontent among the peasant and of subsidiary alliance, Maratha empire
rulers of these territories. started declining. By the end of 1818, the
Maratha power was finally crumbled
• Weak Diplomacy and the great Maratha leaders
submitted and accepted the suzerainty
» Marathas took no interest to find of the East India Company.
out what was happening elsewhere

88
PREVIOUS
YEAR
QUESTIONS
1. The initial design and construction of (c) Bahlol Khan Lodi-Sikandar Shah-
which massive temple took place during Ibrahim Lodi
the reign of Suryavarman II? [2006] (d) Bahlol Khan Lodi-Ibrahim Lodi-
(a) Sri Mariamman Temple Sikandar Shah
(b) Angkor Vat Temple
(c) Batu Caves Temple 6. Bhakta Tukaram was a contemporary
(d) Kamakhya Temple of which Mughal emperor? [2006]
(a) Babar (b) Akbar

2. When Raja Wodeyar founded the (c) Jahangir (d) Aurangzeb

kingdom of Mysore,who was the ruler of
the Vijayanagar Empire? [2006] 7. In Indian history, who was Abdul Hamid
(a) Sadasiva (b) Tirumala Lahori? [2006]
(c) Ranga II (d) Venkata II (a) An important military commander
during Akbar reign.

3. In the year 1613, where was the English East (b) An official historian of the reign of
India Company given permission to set Shahjahan.
up a factory (trading post)? [2006] (c) An important noble and confidant
(a) Bangalore (b) Madras of Aurangzeb.

(c) Masulipattam (d) Surat (d) A chronicler and poet during the
reign of Muhammad Shah.

4. Assertion (A): Muhammad bin

Tughlaq issued a new gold coin which 8. Where is the famous Vijaya Vittala
was called Dinar by Ibn Batutah. temple having its 56 carved pillars
emitting musical notes located? [2007]
Reason (R): Muhammad bin Tughlaq
wanted to issue token currency in gold (a) Belur
coins to promote trade with West Asian (b) Bhadrachalam
and North African countries. [2006] (c) Hampi
(a) Both A are R are true but R is the (d) Srirangam
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a
correct explanation of A 9. During the time of which Mughal Emperor
did the English East India Company
(c) A is true but R is false establish its first factory in India? [2008]
(d) A is false but R is true (a) Akbar
(b) Jahangir
5. Which one of the following is the correct (c) Shahjahan
chronological order of the Afghan rulers
to the throne of Delhi? [2006] (d) Aurangzeb
(a) Sikandar Shah-Ibrahim Lodi-Bahlol
Khan Lodi 10. Where is the famous Virupaksha
(b) Sikandar Shah-Bahlol Khan Lodi- temple located? [2009]
Ibrahim Lodi (a) Bhadrachalam

90
 (b) Chidambaram 3. Recitation of holy songs to arouse
(c) Hampi a state of ecstasy in their audience.
Select the correct answer using the
(d) Srikalahasti codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
11. With whose permission did the English (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
set up their first factory in Surat? [2009]
(a) Akbar (b) Jahangir
15. Consider the following Bhakti Saints:
(c) Shahjahan (d) Aurangzeb [2013]
1. Dadu Dayal
12. Among the following, who was not a 2. Guru Nanak
proponent of Bhakti cult ? [2010]
3. Tyagaraja
(a) Nagarjuna
Who among the above was/were
(b) Tukaram preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell
(c) Tyagaraja and Babur took over?
(d) Vallabhacharya (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
13. With reference to Dhrupad, one of the
major traditions of India that has been 16. With reference to the history of
kept alive for centuries, which of the philosophical thought in India, consider
following statements are correct? [2012] the following statements regarding
1. Dhrupad originated and developed Sankhya school: [2013]
in the Rajput kingdoms during the 1. Sankhya does not accept the theory
Mughal period. of rebirth or transmigration of soul.
2. Dhrupad is primarily a devotional 2. Sankhya holds that it is the self-
and spiritual music. knowledge that leads to liberation
3. Dhrupad Alap uses Sanskrit syllables and not any exterior influence or
from Mantras. agent.
Select the correct answer using the Which of the statements given above
codes given below: is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None of the above is correct 17. Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri was
[2014]

14. With reference to the religious history (a) the mosque for the use of Royal
of medieval India, the Sufi mystics were Family
known to pursue which of the following (b) Akbar’s private prayer chamber
practices? [2012] (c) the hall in which Akbar held
1. Meditation and control of breath discussions with scholars of various
2. Severe ascetic exercises in a lonely religions
place (d) the room in which the nobles

91
 belonging to different religions on the south bank of a tributary to river
gathered to discuss religious affairs Krishna and undertook to rule his new
kingdom as the agent of a deity to whom
all the land south of the river Krishna
18. In medieval India, the designations was supposed to belong? [2015]
‘Mahattara’ and ‘Pattakila’ were used
(a) Amoghavarsha I
for [2014]
(b) Ballala II
(a) military officers
(c) Harihara I
(b) village headmen
(d) Prataparudra II
(c) specialists in Vedic rituals
(d) chiefs of craft guilds
22. Banjaras during the medieval period
of Indian history were generally [2016]
19. Consider the following pairs: [2015]
(a) agriculturists (b) warriors
Medieval Indian State: Present Region
(c) weavers (d) traders
1. Champaka : Central India
2. Durgara : Jammu
23. What is/are common to the two
3. Kuluta : Malabar historical places known as Ajanta and
Which of the above pairs is / are Mahabalipuram? [2016]
correctly matched? 1. Both were built in the same period.
(a) 1 and 2 2. Both belong to the same religious
(b) 2 only denomination.
(c) 1 and 3 3. Both have rock-cut monuments.
(d) 1 and 3 Only Select the correct answer using the
code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only
20. Consider the following: [2015]
(b) 3 only
The arrival of Babur into India led to the
(c) 1 and 3 only
1. introduction of gunpowder in the
subcontinent (d) None of the statements given above
is correct
2. introduction of the arch and dome
in the region's architecture
3. establishment of Timurid dynasty in 24. With reference to the economic
the region history of medieval India, the term
Araghatta’ refers to [2016]
Select the correct answer using the
code given below. (a) bonded labour
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) land grants made to military officers
(b) 3 only (c) waterwheel used in the irrigation of
land
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) waste land converted to cultivated
(d) 1, 2 and 3
land

21. Who of the following founded a new city

25. With reference to the cultural history

92
 of India, the memorizing of chronicles, is/are correct?
dynastic histories and Epic tales was the (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
profession of who of the following? [2016]
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) Shramana (b) Parivraaj
(c) Agrahaarika (d) Maagadha
29. Which one of the following foreign
travellers elaborately discussed about
26. Consider the following pairs: [2016] diamonds and diamond mines of
Famous place Region India? (2018)

1. Bodhgaya Baghelkhand (a) Francois Bernier

2. Khajuraho Bundelkhand (b) Jean-Baptiste Tavernier

3. Shirdi Vidarbha (c) Jean de Thevenot

4. Nasik (Nashik) Malwa (d) Abbe Barthelemy Carre

5. Tirupati Rayalaseema
Which of the pairs given above are 30. Consider the following statements: (2019)
correctly matched? 1. In the revenue administration of
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2, 3, 4 and 5 Delhi Sultanate, the in-charge of
revenue collection was known as
(c) 2 and 5 only (d) 1, 3, 4 and 5 ‘Amil’.
2. The Iqta system of Sultans of
27. With reference to the cultural history of Delhi was an ancient indigenous
medieval India, consider the following institution.
statements : [2016] 3. The office of ‘Mir Bakshi’ came into
1. Siddhas (Sittars) of Tamil region existence during the reign of Khilji
were monotheistic and condemned Sultans of Delhi.
idolatry. Which of the statements given above is/
2. Lingayats of Kannada region are correct?
questioned the theory of rebirth and (a) 1 only
rejected the caste hierarchy.
(b) 1 and 2 only
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct? (c) 3 only

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

31. Consider the following statements: (2019)

28. Regarding the taxation system of 1. Saint Nimbarka was a contemporary

Krishna Deva, the ruler of Vijayanagar, of Akbar.
consider the following statements: [2016] 2. Saint Kabir was greatly influenced
1. The tax rate on land was fixed by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
depending on the quality of the Which of the statements given above is/
land. are correct?
2. Private owners of workshops paid (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
an industries tax. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Which of the statements given above

93
32. With reference to Mian Tansen, which (a) 2-1-4-3 (b) 3-1-4-2
one of the following statements is (c) 2-4-1-3 (d) 3-4-1-2
not correct? (2019)
(a) Tansen was the title given to him by
Emperor Akbar. 34. Which of the following phrases
defines the nature of the Hundi'
(b) Tansen composed Dhrupada on generally referred to in the sources of
Hindu gods and goddesses. the post-Harsha period (2020)
(c) Tansen composed songs on his (a) An advisory issued by the king to his
patrons. subordinates
(d) Tansen invented many Ragas. (b) A diary to be maintained for daily
accounts
33. Consider the following events in (c) A bill of exchange
the history of India: (2020) (d) An order from the feudal lord to his
1. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja subordinates
2. Establishment of Pallava power Answers
under Mahendravarman-I
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8.
3. Establishment of Chola power by
(c) 9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (d)
Purantaka
15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (b)19. (b) 20. (b) 21.
4. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala (c) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (c)25. (d) 26. (c) 27.
What is the correct chronological order (c) 28. (c) 29.(b) 30.(a) 31.(d) 32.(a) 33.(c)
of the above events, starting from the 34 (c)
earliest time?

94
Major Periods in Medieval Indian History

c.1200-1300 Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (1206).

Establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336); establishment of the

c.1300-1400
Bahmani kingdom (1347); Sultanates in Jaunpur, Kashmir and Madura.

Establishment of the Gajapati kingdom of Orissa (1435); Establishment

c.1400-1500 of the Sultanates of Gujarat and Malwa; Emergence of the Sultanates
of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Berar (1490).

Conquest of Goa by the Portuguese (1510); Collapse of the Bahmani

c.1500-1520
kingdom, emergence of the Sultanate of Golconda (1518).

Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi, the Delhi Sultan, at Panipat, becomes the
c. 1526
first Mughal emperor.

c. 1530-40 First phase of Humayun’s reign.

c. 1540-55 Humayun defeated by Sher Shah, in exile at the Safavid court.

c. 1555-56 Humayun regains lost territories.

c. 1556-1605 Reign of Akbar.

c. 1605-27 Reign of Jahangir.

1628-58 Reign of Shah Jahan.

c. 1658-1707 Reign of Aurangzeb.

c. 1739 Nadir Shah invades India and sacks Delhi.

Ahmad Shah Abdali defeats the Marathas in the third battle of Pani-
c. 1761
pat.

c. 1765 The diwani of Bengal transferred to the East India Company.

Last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II, deposed by the British and exiled
c. 1857
to Rangoon (present day Yangon, Myanmar).

All dates are approximate. It is difficult to date developments precisely. Thus, the earliest dates for specific
developments have been given. Eg. The date of Kanishka’s accession is not certain.

95
 REFERENCES
References Image 2.3:
https://knowindia.gov.in/ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/
Coin_of_Iltutmish.jpg

https://platformhistory.com
Image 2.4:
www.mapsofindia.com https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/
Coin_of_Razia_Sultana.jpg

https://www.britannica.com
Image 3.1:
https://www.historydiscussion.net/ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/
South_India_in_AD_1400.jpg

Medieval India NCERT by Satish Chandra

Image 3.4:
Medieval India NCERT by Romila Tapar https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/
Gol_Gumbaz_-6%2C_Bijapur%2C_Karnataka.jpg

scribd.com
Image 4.1:
A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India by Pearson https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/
Meerabai_%28crop%29.jpg

Image References: Image 4.2:

Image 1.1: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrakuta_
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/
dynasty#/media/File:Indian_Rashtrakuta_Empire_map.
Sikh_Gurus_with_Bhai_Bala_and_Bhai_Mardana.jpg
svg

Image 1.4: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khajuraho_ Image 5.5:

Group_of_Monuments#/media/File:Khajuraho_Group_ h t t p s : // u p l o a d . w i k i m e d i a . o r g / w i k i p e d i a /
of_Monuments_4.jpg commons/2/27/%22_Tomb_of_Sher_Shah_Suri_%22.
jpg
Image 1.5:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple,_ Image 5.7:
Thanjavur#/media/File:Le_temple_de_Brihadishwara_
(Tanjore,_Inde)_(14354574611).jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariam-uz-Zamani#/
media/File:Mariam's_Tomb,_Sikandra,_Agra.JPG

Image 2.1:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/
Image 5.16:
Conquests_of_Ravi_Varma_Kulasekhara.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/
Bahadur_Shah_Zafar.jpg

Image 2.2:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/ Image 6.1:
Qutab_Minar_mausoleum.jpg, https://en.wikipedia.org/ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/
wiki/Qutb_Minar#/media/File:Plaque_at_Qutub_Minar.jpg Maratha_Empire.png

96
Image 6.4
h t t p s : //e n . w i k i p e d i a .o rg /w i k i /S h i v a j i # /m e d i a /
File:Shivaji_British_Museum.jpg

Image 6.6
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Panipat#/
media/File:Portrait_of_Ahmad_Shah_Durrani.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Panipat#/
media/File:SadashivRao_bhau.jpg

97
 AUTHOR'S NOTE
This book tries to exhaustively cover the complete syllabus of UPSC CSE Preliminary
& Mains examination in an integrated approach for “Medieval Indian History”. The
purpose is to enable the learners to correctly approach and solve the questions asked
and thereby achieve top ranks in UPSC CSE Examination.

Despite being exhaustive, we have tried to be as precise and accurate as we can to

supplement your smart study. The aim is to ensure that learners develop a knack of
identifying important subjects and topics from newspapers and magazines thereby
saving their precious time that usually gets wasted in reading the irrelevant stuff. We
have tried to link current issues with the static portion of the syllabus (wherever possible)
so as to develop a better understanding and have a better grasp over the subject.

All this will not only prepare learners for the examination but also give a better
understanding of events happening around us in the society, polity, economy, global
affairs and prepare them for the challenges that they will have to tackle after clearing
the examination.

However, there is always scope for further improvement. It may so happen that learners
might have some suggestions about further improving the quality of the book. Such
suggestions would not only help us in assisting better but also the future learners to
do well. Any such suggestions would be welcome and can be communicated at
upscnotessuggestions@unacademy.com

Deepak Singh, Mayur Kale, Himanshu Parashar, Amit Kumar have contributed to the
creation of the content in the book. With their profound experience in the field of UPSC
and in the field, they were responsible for selection of topics, content creation and editing
of the content in the notes.

We wish you all the success in your efforts towards UPSC CSE Examination.

Team UNACADEMY

UPSC | Medieval Indian History

98
UPSC | Medieval Indian History